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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

IRVINE 

Gift  of 
THE  HONNOLD  LIBRARY 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/centurybookoffacOOruofiala 


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ALv^mX  /}?^fUi^u^w    -\/io 


THE 


Century  Book  of  Facts 


A    LIBRARY    OF    READY    REFERENCE 

EMBRACING 

HISTORY,   BIOGRAPHY,  GOVERNMENT,  LAW,  LANGUAGE,   LITERATURE, 

INVENTION,    SCIENCE,    DOMESTIC    ECONOMY,    INDUSTRY, 

FINANCE,  ART,   RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  HYGIENE, 

AND   USEFUL   MISCELLANY. 


COLLATED   AND   EDITED 

BY 

HENRY    W.    RUOFF,   M.A.,   PH.D., 

Sometime  Professor  in  Pennsylvania  State  College ; 
Author  of  "  The  Origin  of  the  Family,"   "  Home  and  State,"  etc. 


AUTHENTIC,    COMPREHENSIVE,    UP-TO-DATE. 


The    King-Richardson    Company, 

SPRINGFIELD,    1VIA.SS. 
Chicago.  Indianapolis.  Sax  Francisco.  Toronto. 

ieoi. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1900, 

BY  THE  KING-RICHARDSON  COMPANY, 

In  the  office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Parliament  of  Canada,  in  the  year  1900, 

BY  THE  KING-RICHARDSON  COMPANY, 

At  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 


ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  volume  is  designed  to  meet  the  popular  demand  for  a  book  of 
reliable  and  authentic  information  touching  our  every  day 
pursuits  and  requirements.  It  belongs  to  a  class  of  publications  of  a 
cyclopedic  character  that  are  not  only  a  very  great  desideratum  but 
an  unquestioned  necessity  in  an  age  like  the  present, — marked,  as  it 
is,  by  a  constantly  expanding  spirit  of  invention,  progress,  innovation, 
general  enlightenment,  and  humane  achievement,  the  record  of  which 
is  found  in  a  wide  and  diverse  literature. 

It  has  been  truly  said,  "Of  the  making  of  books,  there  is  no  end"; 
nor  is  it  desirable  that  there  should  be.  The  thing  that  is  desirable 
is,  that  the  books  we  are  compelled  to  own  should  be  the  best  of  their 
class — rich  repositories  to  which  we  can  repair  with  entire  confidence 
for  new  knowledge,  or  the  refreshing  of  that  which  may  have  lapsed 
through  sonie  trick  of  memory.  This  is  especially  true,  not  only  as  a 
matter  of  economy  in  time  and  energy,  but  because  of  the  utter  futility 
of  any  effort  on  our  part  to  keep  abreast  of  the  knowledge-  of  the 
times,  and  the  practical  issues  that  concern  us,  in  any  other  way. 
When  it  is  remembered  that  the  yearly  output  of  books  exceeds  30,000 
volumes,  and  that  the  reading  capacity  of  the  average  man  is  not 
more  than  3,500  in  a  lifetime,  even  though  he  devote  the  whole  of  his 
working  hours  to  the  task  of  reading,  the  necessity  and  wisdom  of 
properly  and  judiciously  epitomizing  that  knowledge  which  is  of  most 
avail  in  making  us  into  better  citizens  and  more  intelligent  beings,  is 
only  emphasized. 

The  present  work  is  confined  exclusively  to  those  departments  of 
knowledge  with  which  we  are  most  practically  and  vitally  concerned. 
Its  mission  is  to  convey  useful  and  general  information  to  all  classes 
of  readers,  and  incidentally  to  add  something  to  every  one's  store  of 
general  culture.  It  is  the  result  of  a  large  expenditure  of  labor, 
painstaking  care,  judicious  discrimination,  and  wide  research.  The 
material  included  has  been  drawn  from  numerous  sources  and 
authorities,  and  great  care  exercised  in  its  collation  so  as  to  exclude 
everything  of  doubtful  authenticity.  Obviously  the  grouping  of  related 
facts  into  Books  will  be  found  advantageous  for  quick  reference,  as 
well  as  in  giving  a  comprehensive  view  of  certain  fields  of  knowledge. 
The  topics  in  the  various  Books  are  not  meant  to  follow  any  specific 
order,  but  have  been  permitted  to  fall  in  line  in  such  fashion  as  seems 
most  likely  to  sustain  their  interest  for  the  general  reader.  This 
seeming  disorder  is,  however,  fully  met  by  a  complete  index,  both 
direct  and  indirect,  at  the  end  of  the  volume. 

The  points  that  have  been  steadily  kept  in  view  are,  conciseness, 
authenticity,  comprehensiveness,  range,  and  utility  ;  and  in  these 
respects  it  is  believed  that  this  volume  occupies  a  niche  peculiarly 
its  own. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Preface  ..............  5 

Index 65] 

BOOK  I. 
Government  and  Law. 
Government  of  the  United  States  —  Porto  Rico  —  Cuba  —  Philippines  —  Hawaii  — 
Guam  —  Declaration  of  Independence  —  Mechlenberg  Declaration  —  Constitution 
of  the  United  States  —  Government  of  the  States  and  Territories  —  Copyright 
Law — Patent  Office  Procedure  —  Naturalization  Laws  —  Passport  Regulations  — 
Civil  Service  —  U.  S.  Customs  Duties  —  War  Revenue  Taxes  —  British  Customs 
Tariff  —  Labor  Legislation  —  Pension  Laws  —  Jurisdiction  of  Justices  of  the 
Peace — The  Law  of 'Finding — U.S.  Customs  Regulations  as  to  Baggage  —  Laws 
of  Suffrage  —  State  and  Territorial  Statistics — Federal  Bankruptcy  Act  —  Law 
of  Trade-Marks  —  Interstate  Commerce  Law  —  Business  Law  and  Forms  — 
Interest  Laws  and  Statutes  of  Limitation  —  Law  of  Inns  and  Innkeepers  —  Law 
of  the  Road  —  Landlord  and  Tenant  —  Exemption  Laws  —  Marriage  and  Divorce 
Laws  —  Rights  of  Married  Women  —  Government  of  the  British  Empire  — 
Canada  —  Argentine  Republic  —  Austria-Hungary  —  Belgium  —  Brazil  —  Chile 

—  China  —  France  —  German  Empire  —  Greece  —  Italy  —  Japan  —  Mexico  — 
Netherlands  —  Russia  —  Spain  —  Turkey  —  Statistics  of  the  Countries  of  the 
World  —  Heads  of  the  Governments  of  the  World  —  Divisions  of  Africa  —  Trial 
by  Jury  —  Draco's  Laws  —  Laws  of  Subscription  —  Chinese  Emigration  Laws  — 
Postal  Laws — Indebtedness  of  Nations — Parliamentary  Law — Prohibitory  Laws         1C 

BOOK  II. 
Language  and  Literature. 
Literature — Languages — English  Language — Capital  Letters — Punctuation  —  Proof 
Reading  —  Familiar  Allusions  —  Foreign  Wordd  and  Phrases  —  Great  Men's 
Works  —  Authors  of  Famous  Poems  —  Celebrated  Characters  in  Literature  — 
Literary  Pseudonyms  —  First  Newspapers — Nibelungen  Lied  — Forty  Immortals 
of  the  French  Academy  —  The  World's  Best  Books  —  Abbreviations  in  General 
Use  —  Christian  Names  —  Alphabets  —  Early  Literature  —  Chinese  Literature — 
Greek  Literature  —  Hebrew  Literature  —  Roman  Literature  —  Sanscrit  Literature 

—  Arabic  Literature  —  Persian  Literature  —  Italian  Literature  —  Spanish  Liter- 
ature —  Portuguese  Literature  —  French  Literature  —  German  Literature  — 
Scandinavian  Literature  —  Russian  Literature  —  Polish  Literature  —  English 
Literature  —  American  Literature  —  Hungarian  Literature  —  Volaptik  —  Lan- 
guages of  the  World — History  of  Writing  —  French  Academy  —  Troubadours  — 
The  Iliad  —  The  iEneid  —  Gesta  Romanorum  —  Norse  Sagas  —  Miracle  Plays 

—  Romance  of  the  Rose  — Classic  and  Romantic  Literature  —  Goethe's  Faust  — 
Dante  —  Latin  Language  —  Surnames  —  Poet  Laureate  —  Renaissance  —  History 

of  the  Theater — Misuse  of  Words 120 

BOOK  III. 
History  and  Biography. 
Chronological  Eras  —  Divisions  of  Time  —  Old  English  Holidays  —  Legal  Holidays  — 
Standard  Time  —  Perpetual  Calendar  —  Anniversaries — First  Day  of  the  Year — 
General  Church  Councils  —  Origin  of  Months  and  Days  of  the  Week  —  Diction- 
ary of  Mythology  and  Folklore  —  Outlines  of  Universal  History  —  Calendar  of 
American  Battles  —  Dictionary  of  Biography  —  Admission  of  States  into  the 
Union  —  Organization  of  the  Territories  —  Derivations  of  Names  of  States  and 
Territories  —  Rulers  of  France  from  the  Revolution  —  Kings  and  Queens  of 
England  —  Presidents  of  the  U.  S.  —  Vice-Presidents  of  the  U.  S.  —  Justices  of 
tin  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  —  Cabinet  Officers  —  Speakers  of  the  U.  S.  House  of 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 


Representatives  —  Famous  Naval  Battles  —  Decisive  Battles  of  Hisfory  —  Indian 
'Mutiny —  Abyssinian  War  —  American  Civil  War  —  Russo-Turkish  War  —  Zulu 
"War  —  Franco-German  War  —  Spanish -American  War  —  Dictionary  of  History       196 

BOOK  IV. 

Science,  Invention,  Discovery. 
The  Earth's  Surface  —  Telephone  —  Electric  Light  —  Geysers  —  Volcanoes  —  Elec- 
tricity —  Phonograph  —  Climate  —  Zoology  —  Ethnology  —  Air  —  Chemistry  — 
Printing  —  Ocean  Cables  —  Circulation  of  Blood  —  Astronomy  —  Anatomy  — 
Acoustics  —  Algebra  —  Assaying  —  Compass  —  Solar  System  —  Specific  Gravity 
— Earthquakes  —  Electroplating  —  Evolution  —  Etching  —  Railroads  —  Glacial 
Period — Gunpowder — Iron — Lace-Making  —  Matches  —  Artillery  —  Microscope 

—  Mesmerism  —  Magnet  —  Embalming  —  Engraving  —  Ether  —  Fire  —  Ento- 
mology —  Geology —  Geometry —  Geography — Glass — Typewriters — Interesting 
Origins  —  Water — G  ravitation — Medicine — Physics — Shipbuilding — Spectacles 
— Stenography — Sugar  —  Telescope  — Weaving — Wire — Nebular  Hypothesis  — 
Paper  —  Nails  —  Aurora  Borealis  —  Common  Names  of  Chemical  Substances — 
Copernican  System  —  Thermometry  —  Hypnotism  —  Photogravure  —  Metric 
System  —  Ptolemaic  System  —  Mirage  —  Coin  —  Day  and  Night  —  Meteors  — 
Comets  —  Agricultural  Machinery  —  Spinning  Wheel  —  Stars  —  Velocity  —  Tel- 
egraph —  Steam  Engines —  Steel  —  Stereotyping  —  Weights  and  Measures  — 
Zodiac  —  Violin —  Type-Setting  Machines — Vaccination — Light — Envelopes  — 
Photography  —  Pianoforte. 300 

BOOK  V. 
Hygiene,  Domestic  Economy,  Dietetics. 
Pure  Air  —  Food  —  Diet  of  Brain-Workers  —  Classification  of  Food  —  Analysis  of 
Food  —  Digestibility  of  Food  —  Nutritiousness  of  Food —  Chemical  Composition 
of  the  Human  Body  —  Cleanliness  —  Exercise  —  Human  Pulse  —  Respiration  — 
Baths  —  Corpulency  —  Medicinal  Food  —  Spring  Fever  —  Breakfast  —  Dinner  — 
Supper  and  Tea  —  Small  Points  on  Table  Etiquette  —  Wines  and  Liquors  — 
Effects  of  Excessive  Eating  —  Insufficient  Nutrition  —  Diet  of  Infancy — Diet  of 
Childhood  and  Youth  —  Diet,  of  Middle  Life  —  Diet  of  Advanced  Life — Gym- 
nastics and  Physical  Development  —  Medicines,  with  Doses  —  Disinfectants  — 
Sleeplessness — Drugs  —  Choice  of  Articles  of  Food  —  Seasonable  Food  —  House- 
keeper's Time -Table  —  Terms  used  in  French  Cookery  —  French  -  English 
Dishes  (translated)  —  Housekeeper's  Measures  and  Weights  —  Beds  and  Bed- 
ding —  Stimulants  and  Narcotics — Coffee — Tea —  Chocolate  —  Cheese  —  Carpets 

—  Care  of  the  Eyes  —  Care  of  the  Teeth —  Care  of  the  Hair  —  Spectacles — Anti- 
dotes for  Poisons  —  Cosmetics  —  Earthenware —  Cancer  —  House  Furnishing  — 
House  Decoration  —  Value  of  Woods  —  Medical  Dictionary 366 

BOOK  VI. 
Finance,  Industry,  Transportation. 

Early  Forms  of  Currency  —  Metallic  Coins  —  Coins  of  Great  Britain  —  American 
Coinage  —  Banks — U.  S.  National  Banking  System  —  Savings  Banks — Statistics 
of  Money  in  the  United  States  —  Value  of  Foreign  Coins — Monetary  Statistics  — 
Statistics  of  Savings  Banks — Product  of  Gold  and  Silver  in  the  U.  S.  —  World's 
Production  of  Gold  and  Silver — Wildcat  Banks — Clearing  House  —  Freedman's 
Bank  —  Revenue  of  the  U.  S.  Government  —  Indebtedness  of  Nations — Credit 
Mobilier — Mississippi  Scheme  —  Trade  Unions  —  Boycotting  —  Gold  Exports  — 
South  Sea  Bubble — Wealth  of  Principal  Nations  —  Trusts  —  Strikes  —  Mining 
and  Milling  Terms  —  Foreign  Trade  of  the  U.S.  —  South  America  Trade  — 
Wheat  Crop  of  the  World  —  Animal,  Vegetable,  and  Mineral  Products  of  the 
World  —  Railroads  —  Wages  and  Cost  of  Living  —  Insurance  —  Public  Debt  of 
the  U.  S.  —  Telegraph  Rates  —  Transatlantic  Steamers  —  Submarine  Cables  — 
Production  of  Coal — Wool  —  Tobacco  —  Tea  and  Coffee  —  Canals — Occupations 
in  the  United  States  —  Dictionary  of  Business  and  Law  Terms.  -         .         .       444 


8  CONTENTS. 

BOOK  VII. 
Religion,  Education,  Fine  Arts.  pack 

European  Cathedrals  —  Translations  of  the  Bible  —  Catacombs  —  Inquisition — Apoc- 
rypha—  Celibacy  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  —  English  Universities — Adam 
and  Eve  —  Celebrated  Paintings  —  Buddhism — -Garden  of  Eden  —  Millennium — 
Confucianism  —  Diet  of  Worms —  Benedictines  —  Architecture  —  Alexandrian 
Library — Juggernaut — Councils  of  Nice  —  Islam  —  Mormons  —  Mount  Ararat — 
Obelisks  —  Kissing  the  Book  —  Tower  of  Pisa  —  French  Renaissance  —  Foreign 
Libraries  —  Church  of  England  —  Christian  Association  —  Education  of  the 
Blind  —  Gnosticism  —  Compulsory  Education  —  Illiteracy  of  Various  Nations  — 
Gardens  of  Babylon — Oneida  Community  —  Hades  —  Pagodas  —  Oracles  — 
Shakers  —  Pantheon  at  Rome: — Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  U.  S.  — Foreign 
Universities  —  Animal  Worship  —  Holy  Grail  —  Pyramids  —  Septuagint  —  Taj  - 
Mahal  —  Roman    Baths  —  Religious    Statistics  —  Sunday   School    Statistics  — 

Religious  Denominations  in  the  U.  S Scriptural   Measures  —  Theosophy  — 

Tower  of  Babel  —  Shintuism  —  Sunday  —  Public  Schools  —  Sanhedrim  —  Scho- 
lastics —  Parsees  —  Koran  —  Sinai — Vulgate — Smithsonian  Institution — Jesuits 

—  Qualification  for  the  Practice  of  Medicine  —  Practice  of  Law  —  Unitarians  — 
Windsor  Castle  —  Roman  Catholic  Church  —  The  Reformation  — ■  Christianity  — 
Leading  American  Universities  —  Music  —  Salvation  Army  —  Military  and 
Naval  Academies  —  Royal  Academy  —  Sculpture  —  Schools  of  Art  —  Educational 
Philanthropies  —  Musical  and  Art  Terms.  .         .' 49G 

BOOK  VIII. 

Miscellaneous  Facts  and  Figures. 

Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  —  Center  of  Population  —  Civil  War 

Statistics  —  Diplomatic  Service  —  Rare  Coins  and  their  Values  — Great  Financial 

Panics — Giants  and  Dwarfs — Mason  and  Dixon's  Line  —  Alloys  —  World's  Fairs 

— Velocities  of  Bodies — Mixing  Colors  —  Value  of  Metals  —  Modes  of  Execution 

—  Great  Fires,  Floods,  and  Inundations  —  Waterfalls  —  Wars  of  the  U.  S. — 
Sizes  of  Papers  and  Books  —  Language  of  Flowers  —  Weights  and  Measures  — 
Variations  in  Time  —  Library  of  Congress  —  Alcoholic  Liquors  —  Notable 
Bridges  —  American  Indian  —  Largest  Cities  of  the  World — Expectation  of  Life 

—  Defective  Classes  —  Height  of  Noted  Buildings  and  Monuments  —  Holidays  — 
Executive  Civil  List — World's  Seven  Wonders  —  Divorces  in  Different  Countries 
— The  Brain  —  Weights  of  Produce  —  Population  of  the  United  States  —  Public 
Lands  —  Language  of  Gems  —  Indian  Folklore  —  Bell  Time  on  Shipboard  — 
Highest  Mountains — Chinese  Wall — Bartholdi's  Statue  of  Liberty  —  Population 
of  Great  Britain  —  Caste  among  the  Hindoos  —  Harbors  —  Bunker  Hill  Monu- 
ment—  Alien  Landholders  in  the  U.  S Government  Salary  List — Vegetable 

Origins  —  Slavery  —  Mardi-Gras  —  Mound-Builders  —  Blue  Stockings  —  Latin 
Union  —  Facts  About  the  Earth  —  The  Sacred  Number  —  Molly  Maguires  — 
U.S.  Recruiting  Requirements  —  Army  Pay  Table  —  Navy  Pay  Table  —  Navies 
of  the  World  —  Armed  Strength  of  Europe  —  The  Stage  —  State  Flowers  — 
Modern  Explosives  —  Longest  Rivers  in,  the  World — Famous  Blue  Laws  —  Aver- 
age Rainfall  in  U.  S.  —  Tables  of  Distances —  Historic  Minor  Political  Parties  — 
Losses  in  Recent  Wars  —  Exports  of  Various  Countries  —  About  Ships  —  Tariff 
Rates  of  Different  Countries  —  Postage  Stamps  —  White  House  Weddings  — 
Fabian  Policy  —  Royal  Incomes  —  Famous  Diamonds  —  Oceans,  Seas,  Bays,  and 
Lakes  —  Single  Tax  —  National  Nicknames  —  Dying  Sayings  of  Famous  People 
— Woman  Suffrage  —  Mottoes  of  the%  States  —  Gotham  —  Ships  of  the  U.  S.  Navy 

—  Remarkable  Caves  —  Number  of  Pensioners  in  the  U.  S.  —  Great  Eastern  — 
Yellowstone  Park  —  The  Golden  Fleece  —  Strasburg  Clock  —  Patents  Issued  — 
Nihilism  —  Tammany— Rainbow  — Associated  Press  —  Distances  Between  Euro- 
pean Cities — Grocer's  Table  —  Pilgrim  Fathers  and  Mothers — Nautical  Vocabulary       578 


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Book  I. 


Government  and  Law. 


Government  and  Law. 


UNITED   STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

Constitution    and    Government. — A 

Congress  representing  the  thirteen  original 
colonies  declared  their  independence  of  Great 
Britain  July  4,  1776,  and  thereafter  each 
colony  was  known  as  a  State.  As  a  result  of 
the  war  with  Great  Britain,  the  latter  acknowl- 
edged the  independence  of  the  United  States 
November  30,  1782,  and  September  3,  1783, 
a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded  at 
Paris.  The  government  of  the  United  States 
continued  under  the  Congress  provided  by  the 
Articles  of  Confederation  until  March  4, 1789, 
when  a  constitution,  which  had  been  adopted 
by  representatives  of  the  different  States  Sep- 
tember 17,  1787,  went  into  effect.  March  4, 
1789,  then,  is  the  date  of  the  inception  of 
the  present  constitutional  government  of  the 
American  Union. 

Ten  amendments  were  added  to  the  original 
Constitution  December  15,  1791  ;  the  eleventh 
amendment,  January  8,  1798 ;  the  twelfth 
amendment,  September  25,  1804 ;  the  thir- 
teenth amendment,  December  18,  1865 ;  the 
fourteenth  amendment,  July  28,  1868 ;  and 
the  fifteenth  amendment,  March  30,  1870. 
Amendments  proposed  by  the  Congress  must 
be  adopted  by  three  fourths  of  the  States, 
acting  through  their  legislatures. 

In  the  table  of  States  hereafter  given,  the 
date  of  the  adoption  of  the  original  Constitu- 
tion by  each  is  stated,  and  also  the  dates  of 
the  admission  of  States  subsequent  to  that 
time,  there  having  been  thirty-two  States 
admitted  since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, the  whole  number  of  States  now  being 
forty-five. 

By  the  Constitution,  the  government  of  the 
nation  is  intrusted  to  three  separate  depart- 
ments, the  Executive,  the  Legislative,  and  the 
Judicial.  The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a 
President,  who  holds  his  office  during  the  term 
of  four  years,  and  is  elected,  together  with  a 
Vice-President  chosen  for  the  same  term,  in 
the  mode  prescribed  as  follows  :  "  Each  State 
shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legisla- 
ture thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  electors, 
equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and 
representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be 
entitled  in  the  Congress ;  but  no  senator  or 
representative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of 
trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
appointed  an  elector."  The  practice  is  that 
in  every  State  the  electors  allotted  to  the  State 
are  chosen  by  direct  vote  of  the  citizens  on  a 
general  ticket,  on  the  system  known  in  France 


as  scrutin  de  liste.  The  Constitution  enacts 
that  "  the  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States  ' ' ;  and 
further,  that  "no  person  except  a  natural- 
born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States 
at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitu- 
tion, shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ; 
neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that 
office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a 
resident  within  the  United  States." 

Executive. — The  President  is  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of  the 
militia  in  the  service  of  the  Union.  The  Vice- 
President  is  ex  officio  President  of  the  Senate  ; 
and,  in  case  of  the  death  or  resignation  of  the 
President,  he  becomes  the  President  for  the 
remainder  of  the  term.  The  elections  for 
President  and  Vice-President  are  at  present 
held  in  all  the  States  on  the  Tuesday  next  after 
the  first  Monday  in  November,  every  four 
years  ;  and,  on  the  4th  of  March  following,  the 
new  President-elect  assumes  office. 

By  a  law  approved  January  19, 1886,  in  case 
of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability  of 
both  the  President  and  Vice-President,  the 
Secretary  of  State,  and  after  him,  in  the  order 
of  the  establishment  of  their  departments, 
other  members  of  the  Cabinet,  shall  act  as 
President  until  the  disability  of  the  President 
is  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 
On  the  death  of  a  Vice-President  the  duties  of 
the  office  fall  to  the  President  pro  tempore  of 
the  Senate,  who  receives  the  salary  of  the 
Vice-President.  The  party  in  the  majority 
usually  elects  a  President  pro  tempore  at  the 
beginning  of  each  term  of  Congress,  or  reor- 
ganization of  the  Senate,  wTho  acts  as  Presi- 
dent of  the  Senate  whenever  the  Vice-President 
is  absent. 

The  administrative  business  of  the  Govern- 
ment is  conducted  by  eight  chief  officers,  or 
heads  of  Departments,  denominated  "  Secre- 
taries," who  constitute  what  is  popularly 
known  as  the  "Cabinet,"  although  there  is 
no  legal  or  constitutional  provision  for  that 
designation.  The  Secretaries  are  chosen  by 
the  President,  and  commissioned  by  him  after 
confirmation  by  the  Senate.  Each  Secretary 
presides  over  his  particular  department,  and 
acts  under  the  immediate  authority  of  the 
President.  Each  Secretary  receives  an  annual 
salary  of  $8,000,  and  holds  office  during  the 
pleasure  of  the  President.     The  Departments, 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


11 


in  the  chronological  order  of  their  establish- 
ment, and  the  duties,  are  as  follows  : 

Secretary  of  State. — The  Department  of  State 
is  charged  with  all  duties  appertaining  to  .cor- 
respondence with  public  ministers,  American 
consuls,  and  representatives  of  foreign  powers 
accredited  to  the  United  States,  and  with 
negotiations  of  whatever  character  relating  to 
the  foreign  affairs  of  the  nation.  The  Secre- 
tary is  accorded  first  rank  among  the  members 
of  the  President's  Cabinet.  He  is  the  custo- 
dian of  treaties  made  with  foreign  states,  and 
of  the  laws  of  the  United  States.  He  grants 
and  issues  passports,  and  exequaturs  to  foreign 
consuls  in  the  United  States  are  issued  under 
his  supervision. 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury. —  The  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  is  charged  with  the  management 
of  the  national  finances,  and  prepares  plans 
for  the  improvement  of  the  revenue  and  the 
support  of  public  credit.  He  controls  the 
plans  for  public  buildings ;  the  coinage  and 
printing  of  money ;  the  collection  of  com- 
mercial statistics ;  the  administration  of  the 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  Life-Saving,  Light- 
House,  Revenue-Cutter,  Steamboat- Inspection, 
and  Marine  Hospital  branches  of  public  ser- 
vice, and  annually  submits  to  Congress  esti- 
mates of  probable  revenues  and  disbursements 
of  the  Government. 

Secretary  of  War. —  The  Secretary  of  War 
performs  all  duties  relating  to  the  military 
service ;  he  has  supervision  of  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point,  of 
the  national  cemeteries,  and  of  all  matters  re- 
lating to  river  and  harbor  improvements,  the 
prevention  of  obstruction  to  navigation,  and 
the  establishment  of  harbor  lines. 

The  military  bureaus  of  the  War  Depart- 
ment constitute  a  part  of  the  military  estab- 
lishment, and  have  officers  of  the  regular  army 
at  their  head,  while  the  Secretary  and  his  im- 
mediate assistants  are  civilians  as  a  rule. 

Department  of  Justice. —  The  Attorney-Gen- 
eral represents  the  United  States  in  matters 
involving  legal  questions,  and  gives  advice  and 
opinion,  when  so  required  by  the  President  or 
by  the  heads  of  the  Executive  Departments, 
on  questions  of  law  arising  in  the  administra- 
tion of  their  respective  offices ;  he  exercises  a 
general  superintendence  and  direction  over 
United  States  attorneys  and  marshals  in  all 
judicial  districts  in  the  States  and  Territories, 
and  provides  special  counsel  for  the  United 
States  whenever  required  by  any  department 
of  the  Government. 

Postmaster-General. —  The  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral has  the  direction  and  management  of  the 
general  postal  business  of  the  Government : 
he  appoints  officers  and  employees  of  the  De- 


partment, except  the  four  Assistant  Post- 
masters-General, who  are  appointed  by  the 
President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate  ;  appoints  all  postmasters  whose 
compensation  does  not  exceed  $1,000 ;  makes 
postal  treaties  with  foreign  governments,  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Presi- 
dent, and  directs  the  management  of  the  do- 
mestic and  foreign  mail  service. 

Secretary  of  the  Navy. —  The  Secretary  of 
the  Navy  has  the  general  superintendence  of 
construction,  manning,  armament,  equipment, 
and  employment  of  vessels  of  war.  The  Sec- 
retary, Assistant  Secretary,  and  the  attaches 
of  what  is  known  as  the  Secretary's  office  are 
civilians,  while  the  heads  of  all  bureaus  are 
navy  officers. 

Secretary  of  the  Interior. —  The  duties  of  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  are  varied ;  he  is 
charged  with  the  supervision  of  the  public 
business  relating  to  patents,  pensions,  public 
lands,  and  surveys,  Indians,  education,  rail- 
roads, the  geological  survey,  the  census,  In- 
.dian  reservations,  the  Territories,  the  various 
public  parks,  and  certain  hospitals  and  elee- 
mosynary institutions  in  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia. 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. —  The  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  is  charged  with  the  supervision  of 
all  public  business  relatiug  to  the  agricultural 
industry,  and  he  exercises  advisory  supervision 
over  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  deriv- 
ing support  from  the  National  Treasury ;  he 
also  has  control  of  the  quarantine  stations  for 
imported  cattle,  and  of  interstate  quarantine 
when  rendered  necessary  by  contagious  cattle 
diseases. 

Legislative. — The  whole  legislative  power 
is  vested  by  the  Constitution  in  a  Congress, 
consisting  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Represen- 
tatives. The  Senate  consists  of  two  members 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  State  Legisla- 
tures for  six  years.  Senators  must  be  not  less 
than  thirty  years  of  age ;  must  have  been 
citizens  of  the  United  States  for  nine  years ; 
and  be  residents  in  the  States  for  which  they 
are  chosen.  Besides  its  legislative  functions, 
the  Senate  is  intrusted  with  the  power  of  rati- 
fying or  rejecting  all  treaties  made  by  the 
President  with  foreign  powers,  a  two-thirds 
majority  of  senators  present  being  required 
for  ratification.  The  Senate  is  also  invested 
with  the  power  of  confirming  or  rejecting  all 
appointments  to  office  made  by  the  President, 
and  its  members  constitute  a  High  Court  of 
Impeachment.  The  judgment  in  the  latter 
case  extends  only  to  removal  from  office  and 
disqualification.  The  House  of  Representa- 
tives has  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

The  House  of  Representatives  is  composed 


12 


LIBRARY  OF  READY  REFERENCE. 


of  members  elected  every  second  year  by  the 
vote  of  citizens  who,  according  to  the  laws  of 
their  respective  States,  are  qualified  to  vote. 
In  general  such  voters  are  all  male  citizens 
over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  Neither  race 
nor  color  affects  the  right  of  citizens.  The 
franchise  is  not  absolutely  universal ;  residence 
for  at  least  one  year  in  most  States  (in  Rhode 
Island  and  Kentucky  two  years,  in  Michigan 
and  Maine  three  months)  is  necessary,  in 
some  States  the  payment  of  taxes,  in  others 
registration.  On  the  other  hand,  many  of 
the  Western  States  admit  to  the  franchise 
unnaturalized  persons  who  have  formally  de- 
clared their  intention  to  become  citizens.  Un- 
taxed Indians  are  excluded  from  the  franchise, 
in  most  States  convicts,  in  some  States  duel- 
ists and  fraudulent  voters ;  in  Massachusetts 
voters  are  required  to  be  able  to  read  Eng- 
lish, and  in  Mississippi  and  South  Carolina 
there  are  also  educational  restrictions.  Colo- 
rado, Idaho,  Utah,  and  Wyoming  admit  wo- 
men to  the  franchise  on  equal  terms  with  men. 
The  number  of  members  to  which  each  State 
is  entitled  is  determined  by  the  census  taken 
every  ten  years.  By  the  Apportionment  Act 
consequent  on  the  census  of  1890,  the  number 
of  representatives  was  357,  distributed  as  fol- 
lows :  — - 


Alabama 

9 

Nevada  . 

1 

Arkansas 

6 

New  Hampshire   . 

2 

California 

7 

New  Jersey    . 

8 

Colorado 

2 

New  York 

34 

Connecticut  . 

4 

North  Carolina     . 

9 

Delaware 

1 

North  Dakota 

1 

Florida  . 

2 

Ohio 

21 

Georgia  . 

11 

Oregon   . 

2 

Idaho 

•  1 

Pennsylvania 

30 

Illinois    . 

22 

Rhode  Island 

2 

Indiana  . 

13 

South  Carolina     . 

7 

Iowa 

11 

South  Dakota 

2 

Kansas    . 

8 

Tennessee 

10 

Kentucky 

11 

Texas 

13 

Louisiana 

6 

Utah 

1 

Maine 

4 

Vermont 

2 

Maryland 

6 

Virginia 

10 

Massachusetts 

13 

Washington  . 

2 

Michigan 

12 

West  Virginia 

4 

Minnesota 

7 

Wisconsin 

10 

Mississippi     . 
Missouri 

15 

Wyoming 

1 

Montana 

1 

Total     . 

357 

Nebraska 

6 

On  the  basis  of  the  last  census  there  is  one 
representative  to  every  173,900  inhabitants. 
The  popular  vote  for  President  in  1896  was 
about  14,000,000,  or  nearly  one  in  five  of  the 
entire  population.  In  1890  there  were  in  the 
United  States  16,940,311  males  of  voting  age — 
21  years  and  over,  including  unnaturalized 
foreigners. 

The  next  apportionment  will  be  based  upon 
the  Federal  census  of  1900,  the  results  of  which 
census  will  be  reported  to  the  Congress  assem- 
bling the  first  Monday  in  December  of  that 
year,  the  Congress  passing  an  apportionment 
act  providing  the  requisite  number  of  repre- 


sentatives from  each  State,  and  notifying  the 
respective  States  of  this  action.  Each  State 
will  then  rearrange  its  congressional  districts 
for  the  next  election,  which  will  take  place 
in  November,  1902,  and  the  apportionment 
then  established  in  accordance  with  the  next 
enumeration  will  hold  for  ten  years.  The 
apportionment  at  the  various  censuses  has 
been  as  follows  : — 


Cknsus 

Apportion- 

Whole 

ment 

Nu'ber 

Under 

of  Rep- 

Year 

Populat'n 

Year 

Ratio 

resent- 
atives 

Constitution 





1789 

30,000 

65 

First  Census 

1790 

3,929,214 

1793 

33,000 

105 

Second  Census 

1800 

5,308,483 

1803 

33,000 

141 

Third  Census 

1810 

7,239,881 

1813 

35,000 

181 

Fourth  Census 

1820 

9,633,822 

1823 

40,000 

213 

Fifth  Census 

1830 

12,866,020 

1833 

47,700 

240 

Sixth  Census 

1840 

17,069,453 

1843 

70,680 

223 

Seventh  Census 

1850 

23,191,876    1853 

93,423 

233 

Eighth  Census 

1863 

31,443,321     1868 

127,381 

243 

Ninth  Census 

1870 

38,558,371  ;  1873 

131,425 

293 

Tenth  Census 

1880 

50,155,783  1  1883 

151,911 

325 

Eleve'th  Census 

1890 

62,622,250    1893 

173,901 

356 

According  to  the  terms  of  the  Constitution, 
representatives  must  not  be  less  than  twenty 
five  years  of  age,  must  have  been  citizens  oi 
the  United  States  for  seven  years,  and  be  resi- 
dents in  the  States  from  which  they  are  chosen. 
In  addition  to  the  representatives  from  the 
States,  the  House  admits  a  "delegate"  from 
each  organized  Territory,  who  has  the  right 
to  speak  on  any  subject  and  to  make  motions, 
but  not  to  vote.  The  delegates  are  elected  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  representatives. 

Each  of  the  two  houses  of  Congress  is  made 
by  the  Constitution  the  "judge  of  the  elec- 
tions, returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own 
members"  ;  and  each  of  the  houses  may,  with 
the  concurrence  of  two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States  has  the 
power  to  propose  alterations  in  the  Constitu- 
tion, by  the  5th  article  of  the  same.  The 
article  orders  that  the  Congress,  whenever  two 
thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary, 
shall  propose  amendments  to  the  Constitution, 
or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of 
two  thirds  of  all  the  States,  shall  call  a  con- 
vention for  proposing  the  amendments,  which 
in  either  case  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  as  part  of  the  Constitution  when 
ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of 
the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three 
fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  other  mode  of 
ratification  may  be  proposed  by  Congress. 

Slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  whole 
of  the  United  States  by  the  Thirteenth  Amend- 
ment of  the  Constitution,  adopted  Dec.  18, 
1865.  The  vast  change  in  the  political  and 
social  organization  of   the    Republic  made  by 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


13 


this  new  fundamental  law  was  completed  by 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  Amendments  of 
the  Constitution,  adopted  in  1868  and  1870, 
which  gave  to  the  former  slaves  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  citizenship. 

Under  an  act  of  Congress  approved  Jan.  20, 
1874,  the  salary  of  a  senator,  representative, 
or  delegate  in  Congress  is  $5,000  per  annum 
with  traveling  expenses  calculated  at  the  rate 
of  twenty  cents  per  mile,  by  the  most  direct 
route  of  usual  travel,  and  similar  return,  once 
for  each  session  of  Congress.  There  is  also 
an  annual  allowance  of  $125  for  stationery, 
etc.,  for  each  member.  The  salary  of  the 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives  is, 
under  the  same  Act  of  Congress,  $8,000  per 
annum. 

No  senator  or  representative  can,  during  the 
time  for  which  he  is  elected,  be  appointed  to 
any  civil  office  under  authority  of  the  United 
States  which  shall  have  been  created  or  the 
emoluments  of  which  shall  have  been  increased 
during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any 
office  under  the  United  States  can  be  a  member 
of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in 
office.  No  religious  test  is  required  as  a  quali- 
fication to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States. 

The  period  usually  termed  "a  Congress" 
in  legislative  language  continues  for  two  years  ; 
as,  for  example,  from  noon,  March  4,  1899, 
until  March  4,  1901,  at  which  latter  time  the 
term  of  the  representatives  to  the  Fifty-sixth 
Congress  expires,  and  the  term  of  the  new 
House  of  Representatives  commences ;  but  a 
new  Congress  does  not  assemble,  unless  called 
together  by  the  President  in  special  session, 
until  the  first  Monday  in  December  following, 
and  the  organization  of  the  House,  that  is,  the 
election  of  the  Speaker  and  other  officers,  takes 
place  on  the  first  assembling,  whether  in  special 
session  after  the  4th  of  March  of  every  second 
year,  as  stated,  or  on  the  first  Monday  in  De- 
cember after  its  term  begins.  While  the 
sessions  of  the  Senate  are  held  contemporane- 
ously with  those  of  the  House,  its  organization 
may  continue  from  Congress  to  Congress. 

There  are  usually  two  sessions  of  each  Con- 
gress— the  first  or  long  session,  which  may  hold 
until  adjourned  by  resolution  of  the  two  Houses, 
and  the  short  session,  which  is  the  closing  one, 
and  which  expires  on  the  4th  of  March  every 
second  year,  the  new  Congress  beginning  its 
term  the  same  day. 

Neither  house  of  Congress  can  adjourn  for 
more  than  three  days  at  any  one  time  without 
the  joint  action  of  both.  In  case  of  a  disagree- 
ment of  the  two  houses  as  to  adjournment,  the 
President  has  the  right  to  prorogue  the 
Congress. 


The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  as 
before  stated,  is  President  of  the  Senate,  but 
he  has  no  vote  unless  there  is  a  tie.  The 
Senate  has  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeach  - 
ments,  and  it  acts  upon  the  nominations  for 
appointment  by  the  President ;  it  also  acts 
upon  treaties  submitted  to  it  by  the  adminis- 
tration. The  Senate  may  be  called  in  extra 
session  for  these  purposes  by  the  President 
without  the  Congress  being  called  together. 

All  bills  for  raising  revenue  must  originate 
in  the  House  of  Representatives,  but  the  Senate 
may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  to 
such  bills,  as  on  all  other  bills. 

Judiciary. — The  judicial  system,  like  the 
executive  and  legislative  systems,  is  dual.  The 
Federal  Government  maintains  courts  for  the 
trial  of  civil  causes  arising  out  of  the  admiralty, 
patent,  banking,  and  other  laws  of  the  United 
States ;  of  certain  causes  between  citizens  of 
different  States ;  and  of  crimes  against  the 
United  States.  These  crimes  are  few  in  num- 
ber, and  the  criminal  jurisdiction  of  United 
States  courts  is  comparatively  insignificant, 
extending  only  to  piracy,  murder  on  the  high 
seas,  offenses  against  the  postal  and  revenue 
laws,  and  the  like.  Almost  all  offenses  against 
the  person  and  against  property  are  dealt  with 
by  the  State  courts  ;  also  all  civil  causes  where 
the  parties  are  residents  of  the  same  State,  and 
matters  of  probate,  divorce,  and  bankruptcy. 

In  the  separate  States  the  lowest  courts  are 
those  held  by  Justices  of  the  Peace,  or,  in 
towns  and  cities,  by  Police  Judges.  In  the 
counties  courts  of  record  are  held,  some  by 
local  county  officers,  others  by  District  or 
Circuit  Judges,  who  go  from  county  to  county. 
In  these  courts  there  are  usually  the  grand  and 
petty  jury.  The  highest  court  in  each  State 
is  the  Supreme  Court,  or  Court  of  Final  Ap- 
peal, with  a  Chief  Justice  and  Associate 
Judges.  These  judges  are  usually  elected  by 
the  people,  but  sometimes  appointed  by  the 
Governor,  with  or  without  the  Senate  or  Coun- 
cil; they  usually  hold  office  for  terms  of  years, 
but  sometimes  practically  for  life  or  during 
good  behavior.  Their  salaries  vary  from  $2,500 
to  $7,500. 

Of  the  Federal  Courts  the  lowest  are  those 
of  the  districts,  of  which  there  are  about  sixty, 
each  State  forming  one  or  more  districts. 
These  courts  may  try  any  case  of  crime  against 
the  United  States  not  punishable  with  death. 
Above  these  are  nine  Circuit  Courts,  each  with 
a  Circuit  Judge,  with  or  without  the  local  Dis- 
trict Judge  ;  but  one  or  two  District  Judges 
may  by  themselves  hold  a  Circuit  Court.  The 
Circuit  Court  Judges  appoint  commissioners, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  arrest,  examine,  and  com- 
mit   persons    accused   of    crime    against  the 


14 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


United  States,  and  to  assist  the  Circuit  and 
District  Judges  in  taking  evidence  for  the  trial 
of  such  persons.  These  duties  may,  however, 
be  performed  by  a  judge  or  magistrate  of 
either  a  State  or  the  Federal  Government. 
Each  of  the  nine  Justices  of  the  Supreme 
Court  must  hold  a  Court  in  one  of  the  nine 
circuits  at  least  once  every  two  years,  and  with 
each  may  be  associated  the  Circuit  or  District 
Judge.  The  Supreme  Court  consists  of  a 
Chief  Justice  and  eight  Associate  Judges,  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  with  the  consent  of 
the  Senate.  It  deals  with  appeals  from  in- 
ferior courts,  and  has  original  jurisdiction  in 
cases  affecting  foreign  ministers  and  consuls, 
and  those  in  which  a  State  is  a  party. 

Other  courts  with  criminal  jurisdiction  are 
the  Court  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
those  of  the  Territories.  There  is  also  at 
Washington  a  Court  of  Claims. 

States  and  Territories.  —  The  Union 
comprises  thirteen  original  States,  seven  States 
which  were  admitted  without  having  been 
organized  as  Territories  dependent  on  the 
Union,  and  twenty-five  States  which  had  been 
Territories.  Each  State  has  its  own  constitu- 
tion, which  must  be  republican  in  form,  and 
each  constitution  derives  its  authority,  not 
from  Congress,  but  from  the  population  of  the 
State.  In  the  case  of  the  original  States  the 
colonial  charters  were  adopted,  with  more  or 
less  modification,  as  State  constitutions ;  the 
other  States,  before  entering  the  Union,  had 
constitutions  already  made.  Admission  of 
States  into  the  Union  is  granted  by  special 
Acts  of  Congress,  either  (1)  in  the  form  of 
"enabling  Acts,"  pi'oviding  for  the  drafting 
and  ratification  of  a  State  constitution  by  the 
people,  in  which  case  the  Territory  becomes  a 
State  as  soon  as  the  conditions  are  fulfilled, 
or  (2)  accepting  a  constitution  already  framed 
and  at  once  granting  admission. 

Each  State  is  provided  with  a  Legislature  of 
two  Houses,  a  Governor,  and  other  executive 
officials,  and  a  judicial  system.  Both  Houses 
of  the  Legislature  are  elective,  but  the  Sena- 
tors (having  larger  electoral  districts)  are  less 
numerous  than  the  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  while  in  some  States  their 
terms  are  longer  and,  in  a  few,  the  Senate  is 
only  partially  renewed  at  each  election.  Mem- 
bers of  both  Houses  are  paid  at  the  same  rate, 
which  varies  from  $150  to  $1,500  per  session, 
or  from  $1  to  $8  per  day  during  session.  The 
duties  of  the  two  Houses  are  similar,  but  in 
many  States  money  bills  must  be  introduced 
first  in  the  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  has  to  sit  as  a  court  for  the  trial  of 
officials  impeached  by  the  other  House,  and, 
besides,  has  often  the  power  to  confirm  or  re- 


ject appointments  made  by  the  Governor.  In 
most  of  the  States  the  sessions  are  biennial, 
the  Governor  having  power  to  summon  in 
extraordinary  session,  but  not  to  dissolve  or 
adjourn.  State  Legislatures  are  competent  to 
deal  with  all  matters  not  reserved  for  the 
Federal  Government  by  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion, or  falling  within  restrictions  imposed  by 
the  State  constitutions.  Among  their  powers 
are  the  determinations  of  the  qualifications  for 
the  right  of  suffrage,  and  the  control  of  all 
elections  to  public  office,  including  elections  of 
members  of  Congress  and  electors  of  President 
and  Vice-President ;  the  criminal  law,  both  in 
its  enactment  and  in  its  execution,  with  unim- 
portant exceptions,  and  the  administration  of 
prisons :  the  civil  law,  including  all  matters 
pertaining  to  the  possession  and  transfer  of, 
and  succession  to,  property ;  marriage  and 
divorce,  and  all  other  civil  relations  ;  the  char- 
tering and  control  of  all  manufacturing,  trad- 
ing, transportation,  and  other  corporations, 
subject  only  to  the  right  of  Congress  to  regu- 
late commerce  passing  from  one  State  to 
another;  the  regulation  of  labor ;  education ; 
charities ;  licensing,  including  regulation  of 
the  liquor  traffic  ;  fisheries  and  game  laws. 
The  revenues  of  the  States  are  derived  chiefly 
from  a  direct  tax  upon  property,  in  some  cases 
both  real  and  personal,  in  others  on  land  and 
buildings  only.  The  prohibition  upon  Con- 
gress to  levy  direct  taxes  save  in  proportion  to 
population,  contained  in  the  National  Consti- 
tution, leaves  this  source  of  revenue  to  the 
States  exclusively. 

The  Governor  is  chosen  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people  over  the  whole  State.  His  term  of 
office  varies  from  one  year  (in  2  States),  to  four 
years  (in  19  States),  and  his  salary  from  $1,500 
to  $10,000.  His  duty  is  to  see  to  the  faithful 
administration  of  the  law,  and  he  has  com- 
mand of  the  military  forces  of  the  State.  His 
power  of  appointment  to  State  offices  i»  usually 
unimportant.  He  may  recommend  measures 
but  does  not  present  bills  to  the  Legislature. 
In  some  States  he  presents  estimates.  In  all 
the  States  except  Delaware,  North  Carolina, 
Ohio,  and  Rhode  Island,  the  Governor  has  the 
power  to  veto  bills,  but  where  this  power  ex- 
ists the  Legislature,  by  a  two  thirds  vote,  may 
override  the  veto. 

The  officers  by  whom  the  administration  of 
State  affairs  is  carried  on  — the  Secretaries, 
Treasurers,  and  Auditors,  and  in  some  of  the 
States  members  of  boards  or  commissions  — 
are  usually  chosen  by  the  people  at  the  general 
State  elections  for  terms  similar  to  those  for 
which  Governors  themselves  hold  office.  In 
some  States  commissioners  are  appointed  by 
the  Governor. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


15 


Including  Hawaii,  there  are  now  six  Terri- 
tories, and  when  the  status  of  Porto  Rico  is 
established  there  will  probably  be  seven  Terri- 
tories. Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Oklahoma 
have  local  Legislatures,  the  form  of  which  has 
been  prescribed  by  the  Federal  Government ; 
they  have  powers  similar  to  those  of  the  States, 
but  any  of  their  acts  may  be  modified  or  an- 
nulled by  Federal  statutes. 

The  Governor  of  each  of  the  Territories, 
except  the  Indian  Territory,  is  appointed  for 
four  years  by  the  President,  to  whom  annual 
reports  are  submitted.  These  Governors  have 
the  power  of  veto  over  the  acts  of  Territorial 
Legislatures.  The  President  appoints  the  Ter- 
ritorial Secretaries  and  other  officials,  together 
with  Territorial  judges. 

Alaska  and  the  Indian  Territory  have  no 
power  of  self-government,  the  former  being 
governed  like  a  British  crown  colony,  by  a 
Governor  who  is  not  assisted  by  a  Legislature. 
In  the  Indian  Territory  the  native  tribes  are 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  Department  of 
the  Interior,  but  the  civilized  tribes,  with  the 
support  of  the  National  Government,  maintain 
local  governments  of  their  own,  with  elective 
Legislatures  and  executive  officers,  whose 
functions  are  strictly  limited  to  the  persons 
and  personal  property  of  their  own  citizens; 
that  is,  the  Indians. 

The  District  of  Columbia  presents  an  anom- 
alous status.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Federal 
Government.  It  is  coextensive  with  and  is 
practically  the  City  of  Washington,  and  em- 
braces an  area  of  69£  square  miles.  The  Dis- 
trict has  no  municipal  legislative  body,  and  its 
citizens  have  no  right  to  vote,  either  in  national 
or  municipal  affairs.  Under  an  act  of  1878 
its  municipal  government  is  administered  by 
three  commissioners,  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent. They  constitute  a  non-partisan  board, 
one  being  selected  from  each  of  the  leading 
political  parties,  and  the  third  being  assigned 
to  duty  as  a  commissioner  from  the  Engineer 
Corps  of  the  army.  All  legislation  relative 
to  the  District  of  Columbia  is  by  the  Congress. 

All  the  legislatures,  State  and  Territorial, 
have  biennial  sessions,  except  Georgia,  Mas- 
sachusetts, New  Jersey.  New  York,  Rhode 
Island,  and  South  Carolina,  which  have  an- 
nual' sessions,  beginning  in  January  of  each 
year,  with  the  exception  of  Georgia,  whose 
Legislature  meets  in  October.  Nearly  all  the 
present  biennial  sessions  began  in  January, 
1899.  The  States  whose  Legislatures  meet  in 
January,  1900,  are  Iowa,  Kentucky,  Maryland, 
Mississippi,  and  Ohio.  Alabama's  next  bien- 
nial session  begins  in  November,  1900,  Lou- 
isiana's in  May,  1900,  and  Vermont's  in 
October,  1900. 


HAWAII. 

Constitution  and  Government. — The 

Hawaiian  or  Sandwich  Islands,  discovered  by 
Captain .  Cook  in  1778,  formed  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  nineteenth  century  an  in- 
dependent kingdom,  whose  integrity  was  recog- 
nized by  Great  Britain,  France,  the  United 
States,  and  other  governments.  In  1893,  how- 
ever, the  reigning  Queen,  Liliuokalani,  was 
deposed,  and  a  provisional  government  formed  ; 
in  1894  a  Republic  was  proclaimed,  with  a 
Legislature  of  two  Houses  and  a  President ; 
and  in  accordance  with  a  resolution  of  Congress 
of  July  7,  1898,  the  islands  were  on  August 
12,  1898,  formally  annexed  to  the  United 
States.  Five  commissioners  were  appointed  to 
recommend  such  legislation  concerning  the  is- 
lands as  they  should  deem  necessary  and  proper, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  December  the  report 
of  the  Commission  with  its  legislative  pro- 
posals was  transmitted  to  Congress.  The 
principal  Bill,  providing  for  the  erection  of  the 
islands  into  a  Territory,  to  be  styled  the  Ter- 
ritory of  Hawaii,  was  enacted  by  the  first 
session  of  the  Fifty-sixth  Congress,  and  was 
approved  by  the  President,  April  30,  1900.  All 
whites,  including  Portuguese,  all  persons  of 
African  descent,  and  all  descendants  of 
Hawaiian  race,  either  on  the  paternal  or  the 
maternal  side,  who  were  citizens  of  Hawaii 
immediately  prior  to  the  transfer  of  the 
sovereignty  to  the  United  States,  are  declared 
citizens  of  the  United  States.  Prior  to  the  trans- 
fer all  Hawaiians  of  full  age  who  could  speak, 
read,  and  write  either  Hawaiian  or  English,  had 
the  right  to  vote.  The  number  of  registered 
electors  on  September  3,  1897,  was  2,687. 

Area  and  Population.  — The  total  area 
of  the  islands  is  6,640  square  miles :  namely, 
Hawaii,  4,210  ;  Maui,  760  ;  Oahu,  600  ;  Kauai, 
590;  Molokai,  270;  Lanai.  150;  Niihau,  97; 
Kahoolawe,  63  square  miles.  In  1896  the  pop- 
ulation numbered  109,020  (72,517  males  and 
36,503  females).  Of  the  total,  31,019  were  na- 
tives, 8,485  half-castes,  21,616  Chinese,  24,407 
Japanese,  15,191  Portuguese,  3,086  Americans, 
2,250  British,  1,432  Germans,  378  Norwegians, 
101  French,  455  Polynesians,  and  600  other 
foreigners.  The  population  comprised  7 J 570 
persons  engaged  in  agriculture,  2,100  in  fishing 
and  navigation,  2,265  in  the  industries,  2,031 
in  trade  and  transport,  2,580  in  liberal  pro- 
fessions, 34,498  laborers,  4,310  of  various  occu- 
pations, and  53,726  without  regular  occupa- 
tion. The  native  population  (closely  allied  to 
the  Maories  of  New  Zealand)  is  rapidly  de- 
creasing,while  the  foreign  element  is  increasing. 

Commerce,  Shipping,  and  Com- 
munications. —  The  islands  are  to  a  great 
extent  mountainous  and  volcanic,  but  the  soil 


16 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


is  highly  fertile  and  productive.  Sugar  and 
rice  are  the  staple  industries,  while  coffee, 
hides,  bananas,  and  wool  are  also  exported. 

Steamers  connect  the  islands  with  the 
American  continent,  Australasia,  and  China. 
In  1897  there  were  62  registered  vessels  be- 
longing to  the  islands,  of  34,066  tons;  of 
these,  21  of  28,510  tons  were  built  in  England. 
There  are  about  100  miles  of  railway  in  the 
islands  of  Hawaii,  Maui,  and  Oahu.  There 
are  telegraphs  in  the  islands  of  Maui,  Hawaii, 
between  Hawaii  and  Oahu,  and  round  the  lat- 
ter island ;  total  length ,  250  miles ;  nearly 
every  family  in  Honolulu  has  its  telephone. 
In  1897  the  total  number  of  letters,  etc.,  trans- 
mitted and  received  by  the  Post  Office  was 
5,079,872  ;  there  were  73  post  offices.  Postal 
savings  banks,  1897 :  depositors,  10,620 ; 
amount,  $953,981.  Honolulu  is  lighted  by 
electricity,  and  has  lines  of  tramways.  The 
various  islands  will  shortly  be  connected  by 
telegraphic  cable. 

PORTO  RICO. 

Area,  Population,  Etc.  —  The  island 
of  Porto  Rico  (added  to  the  United  States  by 
Spain  in  accordance  with  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
signed  Dec.  10,  1898,  and  ratified  by  the 
Senate  Feb.  6, 1899,  and  by  the  Queen  Regent 
of  Spain  March  17),  according  to  a  recent  re- 
port of  the  British  consul  (Foreign  Office, 
Annual  Series,  No.  1,917,  1897),  has  an  extent 
of  about  3,668  square  miles  —  35  miles  broad 
and  95  miles  long.  The  population,  according 
to  an  enumeration  made  in  1900,  was  953,243. 

Government. — An  act  providing  for  a 
civil  government  for  Porto  Rico  was  passed 
by  the  Fifty-sixth  Congress,  and  received  the 
assent  of  the  President,  April  12,  1900. 
Under  this  act  a  civil  government  was 
established,  which  went  into  effect  May  1, 
1900. 

Geographical  Formation. — The  island 
is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  a  moun- 
tain range,  dividing  the  island  into  two 
unequal  portions,  by  far  the  longest  slope 
being  on  the  north,  so  that  the  rivers  on  that 
coast  are  much  the  longer.  From  this  chain 
several  branches  diverge  toward  the  north 
coast,  giving  it  a  rugged  appearance.  The 
most  of  the  population  is  situated  on  the  low- 
lands at  the  sea  front  of  the  hills.  For  lack 
of  roads,  the  interior  is  accessible  only  by 
mule  trails  or  saddle  paths,  and  it  is  covered 
with  vast  forests. 

Rivers  and  brooks  are  numerous,  forty-seven 
very  considerable  rivers  having  been  enumer- 
ated. They  are  short  and  rapid,  especially  on 
the  Caribbean  slopes,  which  are  steep  and 
abrupt.     The  mountains   intercept  the  north- 


east trade  winds  blowing  from  the  Atlantic 
and  wring  their  moisture  from  them,  so  that 
the  rainfall  of  the  north  section  is  very  copious. 
South  of  the  mountains  severe  droughts  occur 
and  agriculture  demands  irrigation,  but  such 
work  is  unsystematically  carried  on. 

The  northeast  coast  is  broken  and  forbid- 
ding ;  that  of  the  south  safer.  The  chief  port 
on  the  north  coast  is  the  capital,  San  Juan. 
On  the  west  is  the  important  harbor  of  Maya- 
guez.  On  the  south  side  are  Guanica,  Ponce, 
and  Guayama.  The  island  of  Vieques,  which 
lies  off  the  east  coast  of  Porto  Rico,  is  21 
miles  long  and  6  miles  wide. 

Climate.  —  The  climate  is  hot,  but  much 
alleviated  by  the  prevailing  northeast  winds. 
A  temperature  as  high  as  117°  Fahrenheit  has 
been  recorded,  but  it  seldom  exceeds  97°  Fah- 
renheit in  the  shade  during  the  hottest  hours. 
At  night  it  sinks  to  68  or  69°.  The  rainj 
season  lasts  from  August  to  December,  and  the 
rainfall  is  at  times  so  copious  north  of  the 
mountains  as  to  inundate  cultivated  fields  and 
produce  swamps.  The  mean  annual  average 
rainfall  is  64£  inches.  The  prevailing  diseases 
are  yellow  fever,  elephantiasis,  tetanus,  marsh 
fever,  and  dysentery. 

Productions.  —  Porto  Rico  is  unusually 
fertile,  and  its  dominant  industries  are  agri- 
culture and  lumbering.  In  elevated  regions 
the  vegetation  of  the  temperate  zone  is  not 
unknown.  There  are  more  than  500  varieties 
of  trees  found  in  the  forests,  and  the  plains 
are  full  of  palm,  orange,  and  other  trees.  The 
principal  crops  are  sugar,  coffee,  tobacco,  cot- 
ton, and  maize,  but  bananas,  rice,  pineapples, 
and  many  other  fruits  are  important  products. 

The  principal  minerals  found  in  Porto  Rico 
are  gold,  carbonates,  and  sulphides  of  copper 
and  magnetic  oxide  of  iron  in  large  quantities. 
Lignite  is  found  at  Utuado  and  Moca,  and  also 
yellow  amber.  A  large  variety  of  marbles, 
limestones,  and  other  building  stones  are  de- 
posited on  the  island,  but  these  resources  are 
very  undeveloped.  There  are  salt  works  at 
Guanica  and  Salinac  on  the  south  coast,  and  at 
Cape  Rojo  on  the  west,  and  these  constitute  the 
principal  mineral  industry  in  Porto  Rico. 

Inter-Communication.  —  Railways  are 
in  their  infancy,  and  cart  roads  are  deficient. 
There  are  137  miles  of  railway,  with  170  miles 
under  construction,  and  470  miles  of  telegraph 
lines.  These  connect  the  capital  with  the 
principal  ports  south  and  west.  Submarine 
cables  run  from  San  Juan  to  St.  Thomas  and 
Jamaica. 

Cities. — The  capital  of  Porto  Rico  is  San 
Juan  Bautista,  founded  by  Ponce  de  Leon. 
It  is  situated  on  the  small  island  of  Morro, 
now  connected  with  the  mainland  by  the  San 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


17 


Antonio  Bridge.  The  district  of  its  name  con- 
tains 27,000  inhabitants.  On  the  western  end 
of  the  island  Ponce  de  Leon  built  the  Govern- 
or's palace,  inclosed  within  the  Santa  Catalina 
fortifications,  where  also  are  the  cathedral, 
town  house,  and  theater.  This  portion  of  the 
city  is  now  called  Pueblo  Viejo.  It  is  an 
Episcopal  see  subordinate  to  the  Archbishop 
of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  The  city  is  strongly 
fortified  for  the  defense  of  the  entrance  to  the 
outer  harbor.  The  interior  harbor  is  land- 
locked, capacious,  and  safe,  and  is  being 
dredged  to  a  uniform  depth  of  twenty-nine 
feet.  The  houses  are  of  stone,  usually  one 
story  high,  and  have  roof  gardens,  from  which 
fine  marine  views  may  be  enjoyed.  Almost 
every  house  has  a  garden  in  its  patio  or  court. 
Besides  the  capital,  San  Juan,  there  are 
some  sixty  or  seventy  towns  and  villages  of 
considerable  size  in  the  island.  Of  these  the 
most  important  are  Ponce  and  Arecibo,  each 
with  a  larger  population  than  San  Juan  (that 
of  Ponce  being  about  35,000  or  40,000,  while 
that  of  San  Juan  is  estimated  at  25,000)  ; 
Mayaguez  (also  larger  than  the  capital)  and 
Aguadilla,  on  the  west  coast ;  Farjardo  and  Hu- 
macao,  on  the  east  coast :  Guanica  and  Aroyo, 
on  the  south,  and  Pepino  and  Cayey,  in  the 
interior. 

Commerce. — The  foreign  trade  of  Porto 
Rico  in  1896  amounted  to  $36,624,120,  the 
imports  being  valued  at  $18,945,793,  and  the 
exports  at  $17,295,535.  The  largest  trade 
was  done  with  Spain,  being  $11,259,702,  and 
the  next  largest  with  the  United  States,  $6,- 
526,029.  In  the  year  1897  the  imports  from 
the  United  States  were  $1,988,888,  and  the 
exports  to  the  United  States  $2,181,024.  The 
imports  from  the  United  States  included  petro- 
leum, ironware,  dried  and  salted  meats,  tex- 
tiles, and  dairy  products.  Rice  was  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  import  from  the  rest  of  the 
world. 

The  largest  article  of  export  from  Porto 
Rico  is  coffee,  which  is  over  63  per  cent,  of  the 
whole.  The  next  largest  is  sugar,  28  per  cent. 
The  other  exports  in  order  of  amount  are  to- 
bacco, honey,  molasses,  cattle,  timber,  and  hides. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

These  islands,  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States  by  the  treaty  signed  by  the  Peace  Com- 
missioners, Dec.  10,  1898,  and  ratified  by  the 
Senate,  Feb.  6,  1899,  and  by  the  Queen  Re- 
gent of  Spain  March  17,  extend  almost  due 
north  and  south  from  Formosa  to  Borneo  and 
the  Moluccas,  embracing  an  extent  of  16°  of 
latitude  and  9  of  longitude.  They  are  about 
2,000  in  number ;  the  two  largest  are  Luzon 
(area  40,024   square   miles)    and   Mindanao ; 


I  and  the  total  area,  including  the  Sulu  Islands, 
is  about  115,300  square  miles.     The  popula- 
I  tion   is   estimated  at   about  8,000,000.     The 
I  capital  of  the  Philippines,  Manila,  has  154,062 
i  inhabitants  (1887);     other  towns  are  Laoag, 
30,642;  Lipa,  43,408;  Banang,  35,598;  Ba- 
tangas,  35,587.     There  are  about  25,000  Euro- 
peans in  the  islands  and  about  100,000  Chi- 
1  nese,  in  whose  hands  are  the  principal  indus- 
tries.    The  native  inhabitants  are  mostly  of 
I  the  Malayan  race,  but  there  are  some  tribes  of 
Negritos.     The   group   is    divided   into  three 
governments  :    Luzon,  the  Yisayas,  and  Min- 
danao with  the  Sulu  Islands  ;  but  in  many  of 
the   islands   the   natives   have   hitherto   been 
practically  independent. 

Financial  and  Industrial  Condi- 
tions.— Silver  is  the  basis  of  the  currency  in 
the  Philippine  Islands.  There  is  no  gold  in 
general  circulation,  and  has  been  none  for 
more  than  twenty  years.  The  Mexican  dollar 
of  a  date  previous  to  1877  is  current  in  the 
islands,  and  it  is  practically  the  only  money  in 
general  circulation.  The  Spanish  Govern- 
ment, in  the  summer  of  1897,  coined  $6,000,- 
000  of  silver  in  a  local  currency,  which  was 
sent  to  the  islands.  These  dollars  are  lighter 
in  weight  than  the  Mexican  dollar,  but  the 
scarcity  of  money  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
caused  them  to  be  quickly  absorbed.  There 
is  a  local  note-issuing  bank,  called  the  Banco 
Espariol  Filipino,  which  has  in  circulation 
notes  based  on  silver,  of  which  there  was  out- 
standing on  Sept.  30.  1898,  approximately 
$2,500,000.  0 

It  is  estimated  there  are  in  circulation  $10,- 
000,000  of  subsidiary  coins,  the  10-cent,  20- 
cent,  and  50-cent  pieces,  which  have  been  re- 
coined  from  Mexican  dollars  by  the  Spanish 
Government.  The  estimate  of  the  Mexican 
dollars  now  in  circulation,  as  given  by  one  of 
the  best-informed  bankers  in  the  islands,  is 
from  $20,000,000  to  $25,000,000.  This,  with 
the  $2,500,000  of  notes  of  the  Banco  Espaiiol 
Filipino  now  in  circulation,  constitutes  the 
currency  of  the  islands.  This  would  make  a 
total  of  from  $40,000,000  to  $45,000,000, 
speaking  roughly,  for  the  entire  islands,  or, 
approximately,  $5  per  capita  for  the  total  pop- 
ulation of  the  islands.  It  must  not  be  over- 
looked that  these  figures  are  given  on  a  silver 
basis,  and  that,  therefore,  in  figuring  on  our 
own  standard  all  of  these  figures  must  be  cut 
in  two.  On  a  gold  basis,  the  currency  of  the 
islands  is,  therefore,  from  $20,000,000  to  $22,- 
500,000,  or  $2.50  per  capita,  figuring  on  the 
total  population  of  the  islands. 

Three  banking  institutions  do  the  banking 
business  of  the  Philippine  Islands  aside  from 
that   done   by   the   large  commercial  houses. 


18 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


which  buy  and  sell  exchange,  and  to  a  limited 
extent  carry  on  the  business  which  legitimate- 
ly belongs  to  banking  institutions.  Of  the 
three  banks,  the  two  most  important  are 
branch  concerns,  the  third  being  a  local  insti- 
tution controlled  by  Spaniards  and  natives. 

There  are  about  25,000  Europeans  resi- 
dent in  the  islands  (the  total  population  is 
nearly  8,000,000),  of  course,  not  counting  the 
troops.  Some  12,000  are  established  in  the 
capital,  Manila,  the  center  of  the  colonial  gov- 
ernment. English,  Spanish,  and  German 
houses  are  engaged  in  trade,  advancing  money 
to  the  natives  on  their  crops.  Such  business 
methods  involve  risks  and  necessitate  large 
capital  in  the  beginning,  but  the  profits  are 
immense.  The  land  is  fertile  and  productive, 
and  lacks  only  intelligent  cultivation.  Abaca 
(manila  hemp)  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of 
wealth  of  the  country.  Sugar  cane  does  not 
give  as  satisfactory  returns,  owing  largely  to 
the  ignorance  of  planters.  The  average 
production  is  178,000,000  kilograms  (175,- 
186.96  tons),  while  that  of  Cuba  is  equal  to 
720,000,000  kilograms.  The  sugar  goes 
almost  entirely  to  Japan,  England,  and  the 
United  States.  It  is  of  poor  quality  and  very 
cheap.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is  one  of 
the  most  important  industries,  although  it  is 
capable  of  much  greater  development.  The 
native  coffee,  although  not  equal  to  the  mocha 
or  bourbon  varieties,  has  a  fine  aroma.  It 
goes  chiefly  to  Spain.  Cocoa  trees  grow  in 
abundance,  and  the  oil  is  used  for  lighting 
houses  and  streets.  The  indigo  is  famous  for 
its  superior  qualities.  The  inhabitants  are 
apathetic  to  a  degree  that  is  noticeable  even  in 
these  countries,  where  every  one  is  averse  to 
exertion.  The  women  have  long  and  slender 
fingers,  remarkably  fine  and  sensitive,  and 
well  adapted  to  their  work.  The  hats  and 
cigarette-holders  they  make  and  the  articles 
they  embroider  are  models  of  delicacy.  Cot- 
ton spinning  and  work  in  bamboo  are  among 
the  chief  industries. 

The  fiber  which  gets  its  common  name  from 
the  city  of  Manila  is  perennial  and  requires 
little  cultivation  ;  in  fact,  it  does  very  well 
without  any.  It  reaches  the  proportions  of  a 
tree,  but  its  soft  stem  is  cut  with  a  knife, 
though  several  inches  in  diameter,  and  the 
decortication  of  the  fiber  is  rather  a  matter  of 
time  and  patience  than  of  skill  or  hard  work. 
About  a  million  bales  are  exported  annually, 
nearly  all  of  it  going  to  England  or  coming  to 
this  country,  and  our  importation  of  the  fiber 
has  been  increasing. 

The  sugar  culture  has  remained  in  its  prime- 
val condition  because  the  supply  of  labor  was 
so  great  that  there  was  no  incentive  to  econo- 


mize labor,  and  there  was  no  United  States  at 
hand,  as  in  the  case  of  Cuba,  to  invest  money 
in  plantations  and  develop  the  business  in  ac- 
cordance with  modern  ideas.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  culture  of  the  cane  can  be  im- 
mensely extended,  and  the  methods  of  produc- 
tion would  be  modernized  very  rapidly  if  capital 
were  directed  toward  the  islands  and  there 
were  a  greater  degree  of  confidence  in  their 
future. 

The  tobacco  is  as  well  known  in  Europe  and 
Asia  as  the  tobacco  of  Cuba  is  in  this  country  ; 
it  is  extensively  cultivated  and  its  manufacture 
is  the  staple  business  of  the  capital  city. 

Commerce. — In  1891  the  Philippines' 
exports  to  Spain  amounted  to  $ 22, 479,000 
(818,095,595  in  United  States  currency).     In 

1891  the  Philippines'  imports  from  Spain 
amounted  to  $17,126,000  ($13,786,430). 

The  total  exports  from  the  Philippines  in 

1892  consisted  of  95,016  tons  of  hemp  ;  3,951,- 
060  piculs  (553,148,400  pounds)  of  sugar; 
21,223  piculs  (2,971,220  pounds)  of  coffee; 
61,459  piculs  (8,604,260  pounds)  of  sampan- 
wood  ;  5,570  piculs  (779,800  pounds)  of  indigo  ; 
254,428  quintals  (56,091,197  pounds)  of  to- 
bacco leaf;  137,059,000  cigars.  The  total 
exports  in  1892  were  of  the  value  of  $33,479,- 
000  ($23,803,569).  Total  value  of  imports, 
in  1892,  were  of  the  value  of  $27,000,000 
($19,197,000). 

The  imports  into  the  Philippines  from  the 
United  States  in  1897  were  but  $94,597,  the 
principal  item  being  mineral  oils.  The  exports 
to  the  United  States  were  $4,383,740,  the 
largest  items  being  hemp,  $2,701,651,  and 
cane  sugar,  $1,199,202. 

Climate. — Mr.  Hilder,  Assistant  Secretary 
of  the  National  Geographical  Society,  who 
spent  nine  months  in  the  islands,  says  in  the 
Forum  that  there  is  considerable  variety  in 
the  climate,  and  that  for  the  tropics  it  is  not 
excessively  hot.  On  the  western  side  of  Luzon 
the  hot  season  is  from  March  till  June,  May 
being  the  hottest  month,  when  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  80°  to  100°.  The  mean  tem- 
perature for  the  month  is  84°,  2°  above  the 
summer  temperature  of  New  Orleans  and  9° 
above  the  hottest  month  in  Washington. 
From  October  to  March  is  a  cool,  dry  season. 
The  northern  islands  are  subject  to  terrific 
storms,  which  never  pass  south  of  9°  north 
latitude. 

Railways  and  Shipping. — In  a  report 
published  in  Special  Consular  Reports,  High- 
ways of  Commerce,  Consul  Elliott,  of  Manila, 
says  that  there  is  but  one  railway  in  the 
islands — from  Manila  to  Dagupin — a  distance 
of  123  miles.  It  is  single  track  and  well  built, 
steel  rails  being   used  its  entire  length,  the 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


19 


bridges  being  of  stone  or  iron,  and  the  station 
buildings  substantial.  English  engines  are 
used,  which  make  45  miles  per  hour.  The 
Government  assisted  in  the  construction  of  the 
road  by  making  valuable  concessions  of  land 
with  right  of  way  its  entire  length  and  by 
guaranteeing  8  per  cent,  per  year  upon  the 
stock  of  the  road  for  a  period  of  ninety-nine 
years,  when  it  is  to  become  State  property. 
So  far,  adds  the  Consul,  the  road  has  paid 
more  than  10  per  cent,  per  annum  to  share- 
holders. 

Mr.  Elliott  also  states  that  the  Compania 
Transatlantica  (Manila-Liverpool)  maintains 
a  monthly  service  to  Europe  ;  that  there  are 
four  lines  of  steamers  to  Hong  Kong,  and  many 
local  lines  plying  between  Manila  and  the 
provinces,  the  largest  having  twenty-eight 
steamers  of  25,000  tonnage. 

GUAM  (LADROXES). 

The  Island  of  Guam  or  Guahan,  the  largest 
in  the  Marianne  or  Ladrone  Archipelago,  was 
ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United  States  in  1898, 
and  will  probably  be  used  as  a  coaling  station 
for  the  United  States  navy.  The.  island  is 
about  32  miles  long  and  100  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  has  a  population  of  about  9,000, 
of  whom  about  6,000  are  in  Agaila,  the  capital. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  immigrants  or  the 
descendants  of  immigrants  from  the  Philip- 
pines, the  original  race  of  the  Marianne  Islands 
having  become  extinct.  The  recognized  lan- 
guage is  Spanish,  but  English  is  also  spoken. 
On  the  island  there  are  18  schools,  and  nine 
tenths  of  the  islanders  can  read  and  write. 
The  island  is  thickly  wooded,  well  watered, 
and  fertile,  and  possesses  a  roadstead. 

CUBA. 

Government. — Cuba  after  having  been 
continuously  in  the  possession  of  Spain  from 
its  discovei-y,  was  by  the  peace  preliminaries 
and  by  the  definite  treaty  signed  by  the  Peace 
Commissioners  at  Paris,  December  10, 1898,  and 
ratified  by  the  Senate  February  6, 1899,  and  by 
the  Queen  Regent  of  Spain  March  17,  1899,  re- 
linquished by  Spain,  and  thus  has  the  position 
of  an  independent  state.  The  direct  armed 
interposition  of  the  United  States  in  the 
struggle  against  Spanish  domination  has,  how- 
ever, brought  the  island  into  close  association 
with  the  United  States  Government,  and 
though  Congress  has  affirmed  Cuban  independ- 
ence, the  island  is  now  held  in  military 
occupation  by  the  United  States  forces.  So 
long  as  the  occupation  lasts  the  United  States 
Government  assumes  and  discharges  the  result- 
ing obligations  with  respect  to  the  protection 
of  life  and  property,  and  a  military  Governor 
General  has  been  appointed,  who  will  control 


all  branches  of  the  administration,  civil  and 
military  ;  while  in  Havana  and  each  of  the  six 
provinces  military  governors  have  been  or  are 
being  appointed,  who  will  receive  instructions 
from  the  Governor  General. 

Area  and  Population. — The  area  of 
Cuba  is  about  45,872  square  miles.  Ten  per 
cent,  of  the  area  is  cultivated,  7  per  cent,  is  unre- 
claimed, and  4  per  cent,  is  under  forests.  There 
are  large  tracts  of  country  still  unexplored. 
The  population  of  the  island  in  1894  was 
given  as  1,631,696,  of  which  65  per  cent,  was 
white,  the  remainder  being  negro.  The 
capital,  Havana,  has  200,000  inhabitants ; 
Matanzas  (1892),  27,000;  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
71,307;  Cienfuegos  (1892),  27,430;  Puerto 
Principe,  46,641  ;  Holguin,  34,767 ;  Sancti 
Spiritu,  32,608;  Cardenas  (1892),  23,680. 
Education  was  made  obligatory  in  1880. 
There  are  843  public  schools  in  the  island, 
and  Havana  has  a  university. 

Consul  Hyatt,  of  Santiago  do  Cuba,  in  a 
report  dated  January  8,  1897,  and  printed  in 
Consular  Reports  No.  197  (February,  1897), 
p.  262,  says  that  the  area  of  Cuba  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
length  being  775  miles  and  the  width  varying 
from  30  to  160  miles.  The  productive  soil, 
mineral  wealth,  and  climatic  conditions  of  the 
island  entitle  it  to  rank  among  the  foremost 
communities  of  the  world.  The  soil  is  a 
marvel  of  richness,  and  fertilizers  are  seldom 
used,  unless  in  the  case  of  tobacco,  even 
though  the  same  crops  be  grown  on  the  same 
land  for  a  hundred  years,  as  has  happened  in 
some  of  the  old  sugar  cane  fields.  The  moun- 
tains are  of  coral  formation ,  while  the  lowlands 
of  eastern  Cuba  at  least  seem  to  be  composed 
largely  of  fossils  of  sea  matter  from  prehistoric 
times  and  are  extremely  rich  in  lime  and 
phosphate,  which  accounts  for  their  apparent 
inexhaustibleness. 

Although  founded  and  settled  more  than 
fifty  years  before  the  United  States,  Cuba  has 
still  13,000,000  acres  of  primeval  forests  ;  ma- 
hogany, cedar,  logwood,  redwood,  ebony, 
lignum-vitae,  and  caiguaran  (which  is  more 
durable  in  the  ground  than  iron  or  steel )  are 
among  the  woods. 

If  all  the  land  suitable  to  the  growth  of 
sugar  cane  were  devoted  to  that  industry,  it  is 
estimated  that  Cuba  might  supply  the  entire 
Western  Hemisphere  with  sugar.  The  island 
has  already  produced  in  a  single  year  for  ex- 
port 1,000,000  tons,  and  its  capabilities  have 
only  been  in  the  experimental  stage.  The 
adaptability  of  the  soil  for  tobacco  culture  has 
long  been  known.  Cuba  tajies  great  pride  in 
the  quality  of  her  coffee,  and  until  the  war  the 
plantations  were  flourishing. 


20 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


The  land  is  not  suitable  to  the  cultivation 
of  cereals,  and  probably  no  flouring  mill  exists 
on  the  island. 

Finances. — The  estimated  revenue  for 
1897-98  was  24,755,760  pesos  (a  peso  equals 
$0,965),  of  which  11,890,000  was  from  cus- 
toms ;  ordinary  expenditure,  26,119,124  pesos, 
of  which  12,602,216  pesos  was  for  the  debt, 
5,896,741  pesos  for  the  Ministry  of  War,  and 
4,036,088  pesos  for  the  Ministry  of  the  Inte- 
rior. The  extraordinary  revenue  was  esti- 
mated at  over  80,000,000  pesos.  The  debt 
was  in  1896  put  at  about  £70,220,000,  of  which 
£10,000,000,  was  due  to  the  Spanish  treasury. 

The  interest  on  the  debt  is  estimated  to  im- 
pose a  burden  of  $9.75  per  inhabitant. 

Minerals. — According  to  Consul  Hyatt, 
Cuba  is  capable  of  taking  high  rank  in  min- 
eral wealth.  Gold  and  silver  have  not  been 
found  in  paying  quantities.  Copper  was 
mined  at  Cobre  by  the  natives  before  Colum- 
bus discovered  the  island,  and  there  is  strong 
proof  that  native  copper  was  carried  across  to 
Florida  and  used  by  the  Florida  Indians  hun- 
dreds of  years  ago.  From  1828  to  1840  an 
average  of  from  $2,000,000  to  $3,000,000 
worth  of  copper  ore  was  shipped  annually  to 
the  United  States  from  these  mines. 

The  iron  mines  of  Cuba,  all  of  which  are 
located  near  Santiago,  overshadow  in  impor- 
tance all  other  industries  on  the  eastern  end  of 
the  island,  constituting  the  only  industry  that 
has  made  any  pretense  of  withstanding  the 
shock  of  the  present  insurrection.  The  Jura- 
gua  and  Daiquiri  iron  companies  (American), 
with  a  combined  capital  of  over  $5,000,000, 
now  operate  mines  in  this  vicinity  and  employ 
from  800  to  1400  men,  shipping  to  the  United 
States  from  30,000  to  50,000  tons  of  iron  ore 
per  month,  the  largest  portion  of  which  is  used 
at  Bethlehem,  Steelton,  and  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
and  Sparrows  Point,  Md.  The  ore  of  these 
mines  is  among  the  richest  in  the  world,  yield- 
ing from  62  to  67  per  cent,  of  pure  iron,  and 
is  very  free  from  sulphur  and  phosphorus. 
There  are  numerous  undeveloped  mines  of 
equal  value  in  this  region. 

In  the  Sierra  Maestra  range,  on  the  southern 
coast  of  Cuba,  from  Santiago  west  to  Manza- 
nillo,  within  a  distance  of  about  100  miles, 
are  found  numerous  deposits  of  manganese,  an 
ore  indispensable  in  the  manufacture  of  steel. 
As  nearly  all  the  manganese  used  in  the  United 
States  comes  from  the  Black  Sea  regions  of 
Europe  and  a  smaller  quantity  from  the  north7 
em  part  of  South  America,  it  is  but  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  the  products  of  these  near-by 
mines  will  be  in  great  demand  when  the  con- 
ditions are  such  that  they  can  be  operated  in 
safety. 


In  the  district  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  at  the 
end  of  1891,  the  total  number  of  mining  titles 
issued  was  296,  with  an  extent  of  13,727  hec- 
tares. Of  the  mines  reported  and  claimed, 
138  were  iron,  88  manganese,  and  53  copper. 

Commerce  and  Industry.—  Railroads 
and  other  highways,  improved  machinery,  and 
more  modern  methods  of  doing  business  are 
among  the  wants  of  Cuba ;  and  with  the  on- 
ward march  of  civilization  these  will  doubtless 
be  hers  in  the  near  future.  Cuba,  like  other 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  countries,  is  not 
given  to  manufacturing ;  her  people  would 
rather  sell  the  products  of  the  soil  and  mines 
and  buy  manufactured  goods.  The  possibili- 
ties of  the  island  are  great,  while  the  probabili- 
ties remain  an  unsolved  problem. 

The  number  of  landed  estates  on  the  island 
in  1891  was  estimated  at  90,960,  of  the  value 
of  220,000,000  pesos,  and  rental  of  17,000,000 
pesos.  The  live  stock  consisted  of  584,725 
horses  and  mules,  2,485,766  cattle,  78,494 
sheep,  and  570,194  pigs.  The  chief  produce 
is  sugar  and  tobacco.  The  quantity  of  sugar 
produced  in  the  year  1894-95  was  1,004,264 
tons;  1895-96,  225,221  tons;  1896-97,212,- 
051  tons.  The  insurrection  and  incendiarism 
in  the  island  ruined  the  prospects  of  sugar 
cultivation  in  1896.  The  tobacco  crop  on  an 
average  is  estimated  at  560,000  bales  (1  bale 
=  110  lbs.),  338,000  bales  being  exported  and 
the  remainder  used  in  cigar  and  cigarette 
manufacture  in  Havana.  In  1896  the  cigars 
exported  numbered  185,914,000.  Tobacco 
leaf  exported  in  1895,  30,466,000  lbs.  ;  in 
1896,  16,823,000  lbs.  The  decrease  in  cigar 
exports  and  decrease  in  leaf  exports  is  due  to 
decree  of  May  12,  1896,  forbidding  tobacco- 
leaf  exports  except  to  Spain.  Cigarettes  ex- 
ported in  1895,  48,163,846  packets.  Nearly 
all  the  tobacco  and  nearly  half  of  the  cigars 
go  to  the  United  States.  About  80,000  of  the 
inhabitants  are  ordinarily  engaged  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  tobacco.  Mahogany  and  other 
timbers  are  exported,  as  are  also  honey,  wax, 
and  fruits.  The  chief  imports  are  rice,  jerked 
beef,  and  flour.  The  Spanish  official  returns 
state  the  value  of  the  imports  from  Cuba  into 
Spain  for  1896  to  be  21,898,215  Spanish 
pesetas  ($4,216,355.49),  and  the  exports  from 
Spain  to  Cuba  134,461,675  pesetas  ($25,951,- 
003.27).  In  1897  the  imports  of  the  United 
States  from  Cuba  amounted  to  $405,326,637, 
and  the  exports  from  the  United  States  to 
Cuba  $100,456,712. 

Railways. — According  to  a  report  pub- 
lished in  Special  Consular  Reports,  "High- 
ways of  Commerce,"  there  are  ten  railway 
companies  in  Cuba,  the  most  important  being 
the  Ferrocarriles   Unidos ;    upward   of    1000 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


21 


miles  of  main  line  belong  to  these  companies, 
and  there  are,  besides,  private  branch  lines  to 
all  the  important  sugar  estates.  The  Ferro- 
carriles  Unidos  has  four  lines,  connecting  Ha- 
vana with  Matanzas,  Batabano,  Union,  and 
Guanajay.  The  roads  pass  through  the  most 
populous  part  of  the  country  and  connect  Ha- 
vana with  other  lines. 

The  Western  Railway  was  begun  some  forty 
years  ago,  and  in  1891,  when  it  was  acquired 
by  an  English  company,  had  reached  Puerto  de 
Golpe,  96  miles  from  Havana  and  10  miles 
from  Pinar  del  Rio,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  that  name  and  the  center  of  the  tobacco- 
growing  district.  The  line  has  been  completed 
to  Pinar  del  Rio,  and  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  old  part,  many  of  the  bridges  hav- 
ing been  replaced  by  new  steel  ones,  the  rails 
renewed,  modern  cars  put  on,  etc. 

The  other  companies  are :  Ferrocarriles 
Cardenas-Jacaro,  the  main  line  of  which  joins 
the  towns  of  Cardenas  and  Santa  Clara ;  Fer- 
rocarril  de  Matanzas,  having  lines  between 
Matanzas  and  Murga,  and  also  between  Matan- 
zas and  Guareiras ;  Ferrocarril  de  Sagua  la 
Grande,  running  between  Concha  and  Cruces  ; 
Ferrocarril  Cienfuegos-Santa  Clara,  connecting 
those  towns  ;  Ferrocarriles  Unidos  de  Caibarien, 
from  Caibarien  to  Placetas ;  Ferrocarril  de 
Puerto  Principe-Nuevitas ;  Ferrocarril  de 
Guantanamo. 

The  Marianao  Railway  also  belongs  to  an 
English  company,  with  headquarters  in  Lon- 
don. The  original  line,  belonging  to  Cubans, 
was  opened  in  1863,  but  liquidated  and  was 
transferred  to  the  present  owners.  The  line, 
only  8£  miles  in  length,  runs  from  Havana  to 
Marianao,  with  a  branch  line  to  a  small  vil- 
lage on  the  coast.  During  1894,  over  750,000 
passengers  were  carried,  this  being  the  chief 
source  of  revenue.  The  carriages  are  of  the 
American  type,  and  are  fitted,  as  well  as  the 
locomotives,  with  the  Westinghouse  automatic 
brake ;  the  rails  are  of  steel,  weighing  60 
pounds  per  yard. 

Ports,  Interior  Transportation,  Etc. 
— In  1895  the  port  of  Havana  was  visited  by 
1179  vessels,  of  1,681,325  tons;  in  1897,  231 
vessels,  of  309,758  tons,  visited  Cienfuegos. 
There  are  54  ports  in  Cuba,  of  which  15  are 
open  to  commerce.     There  are  19  lighthouses. 

Cables. — There  are  four  cable  lines  con- 
nected with  Cuba.  The  International  Ocean 
Telegraph  Company  has  a  cable  from  Havana 
to  Florida ;  the  Cuban  Submarine  Company 
has  a  cable  connecting  Havana  with  Santiago 
de  Cuba  and  Cienfuegos  ;  the  West  India  and 
Panama  Company  has  a  cable  connecting  Ha-  I 
vana  with  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Porto 
Rico,  the  Lesser  Antilles,  and  the  Isthmus  of  j 


Panama ;  the  Compagnie  Frangaise  de  Cables 
Sous-Marins  has  a  line  connecting  Havana 
with  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Haiti,  Santo  Domingo, 
Venezuela,  and  Brazil. 

The  only  three  towns  in  Cuba  having  cable 
connections  are  Havana,  Cienfuegos,  and  San- 
tiago de  Cuba. 

Telegraphs,  Telephones,  Etc. — The 
telegraph  and  telephone  systems  in  Cuba  be- 
long to  the  Government,  but  the  latter  is 
farmed  out  for  a  limited  number  of  years  to  a 
company  called  the  Red  Telefonica  de  la  Ha- 
bana.  Nearly  all  the  public  and  private  build- 
ings in  the  city  and  suburbs  are  connected  by 
telephone. 

DECLARATION   OF  INDEPEND- 
ENCE. 

In    Congress    July   Jf,,    1776.      The    unanimous 

Declaration  of  the    Thirteen  United  States  of 

America. 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  be- 
comes necessary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the 
political  bands  which  have  connected  them 
with  another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers 
of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to 
which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God 
entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions 
of  mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare 
the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident,  that 
all  men  are  created  equal,  that  they  are  en- 
dowed, by  their  Creator,  with  certain  unalien- 
able rights,  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to  secure 
these  rights,  governments  are  instituted  among 
men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  con- 
sent of  the  governed,  that  whenever  any  form  of 
government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends, 
it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abol- 
ish it,  and  to  institute  new  government,  laying 
its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organiz- 
ing its  powers  in  such  form  as  to  them  shall 
seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  hap- 
piness. Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that 
governments  long  established  should  not  be 
changed  for  light  and  transient  causes ;  and 
accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown  that 
mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer  where 
evils  are  sufferable,  than  to  right  themselves 
by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  ac- 
customed. But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses 
and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same 
object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under 
absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is  their 
duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to 
provide  new  guards  for  their  future  security. 
Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these 
colonies  ;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity  which 
constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems 


22 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


of  government.  The  history  of  the  present 
King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of  repeated 
injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct 
object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny 
over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be 
submitted  to  a  candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most 
wholesome  and  necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws 
of  immediate  and  pressing  importance,  unless 
suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent 
shoidd  be  obtained  ;  and  when  so  suspended, 
he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the 
accommodation  of  large  districts  of  people,  un- 
less these  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of 
representation  in  the  legislature — a  right  ines- 
timable to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants 
only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at 
places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and  distant 
from  the  depositoiy  of  their  public  records,  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  com- 
pliance with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  re- 
peatedly, for  opposing  with  manly  firmness  his 
invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such 
dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be  elected ; 
whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of 
annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at 
large,  for  their  exercise,  the  state  remaining, 
in  the  meantime,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of 
invasion  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population 
of  these  states ;  for  that  purpose  obstructing 
the  laws  for  naturalization  of  foreigners,  re- 
fusing to  pass  others  to  encourage  their  migra- 
tion hither,  and  raising  conditions  of  new  ap- 
propriations of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of 
justice,  by  refusing  his  assent  to  laws  establish- 
ing judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will 
alone  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the 
amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices, 
and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers,  to  harass 
our  people,  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace, 
standing  armies,  without  the  consent  of  our 
legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  in- 
dependent of,  and  superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us 
to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  constitution, 
and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws  ;  giving  his 
assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation, — 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops 
among  us  : 


For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from 
punishment  from  any  murders  which  they 
should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these 
states : 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of 
the  world : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  con- 
sent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the 
benefits  of  trial  by  jury  : 

For  transporting  us  beyond  the  seas  to  be 
tried  for  pretended  offenses  : 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English 
laws  in  a  neighboring  province,  establishing 
therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarg- 
ing its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once  an 
example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the 
same  absolute  rule  into  these  colonies  : 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing 
our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering,  funda- 
mentally, the  powers  of  our  governments  : 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures  and 
declaring  themselves  invested  with  power  to 
legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  de- 
claring us  out  of  his  protection,  and  waging 
war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our 
coasts,  burnt  our  towns,  and  destroyed  the 
lives  of  our  people. 

He  is,  at  this  time,  transporting  large  armies 
of  foreign  mercenaries,  to  complete  the  works 
of  death,  desolation  and  tyranny,  already  be- 
gun with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and  perfidy 
scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages, 
and  totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized 
nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken 
captive  on  the  high  seas,  to  bear  arms  against 
their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of 
their  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  themselves 
by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  among 
us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabi- 
tants of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian 
savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an 
undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes, 
and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have 
petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most  humble 
terms ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  an- 
swered only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince 
whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act 
which  may  define  a  tyrant  is  unfit  to  be  the 
ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  attentions  to 
our  British  brethren.  We  have  warned  them, 
from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legis- 
lature to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction 
over  us.     We  have  reminded  them  of  the  cir- 


GOVERNMENT  AND    LAW. 


23 


cumstances  of  our  emigration  and  settlement 
here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 
and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured  them 
by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred  to  disavow 
these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  in- 
terrupt our  connections  and  correspondence. 
They  too  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice 
and  of  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore, 
acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our 
separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the 
rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in  peace 
friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  General  Congress 
assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of 
the  world  for  the  rectitude  of  our  intentions, 
do,  in  the  name,  and  by  authority  of  the  good 
people  of  these  Colonies,  solemnly  publish  and 
declare,  That  these  United  Colonies  are,  and 
of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent 
States;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  alle- 
giance to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  politi- 
cal connection  between  them  and  the  State  of 
Great  Britain,  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dis- 
solved ;  and  that  as  free  and  independent  States, 
they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude 
peace,  contract  alliances,  establish  commerce, 
and  to  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  inde- 
pendent States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the 
support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  re- 
liance on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence, 
we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives, 
our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

John  Hancock. 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 

Josiah  Bartlett, 
William  Whipple, 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS   BAY. 

Samuel  Adams, 
John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine, 
Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE  ISLAM). 

Stephen  Hopkins. 
William  Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Roger  Sherman, 
Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams, 
Oliver  Wclcott. 

NEW  YORK. 

William  Floyd, 
Philip  Livingston, 
Francis  Lewis, 
Lewis  Morris. 

NEW   JERSEY. 

Richard  Stockton, 
John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson, 
John  Hart, 
Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Robert  Morris, 
Benjamin  Rush, 
Benjamin  Franklin, 
John  Morton, 
George  Clymer, 


James  Smith, 
George  Taylor, 
James  Wilson, 
George  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 

Caesar  Rodney, 
George  Read.' 
Thomas  M'Kean. 

MARYLAND. 

Samuel  Chase, 
William  Paco, 
Thomas  Stone, 
Charles   Carroll,    of    Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 

George  Wythe, 
Richard  Henry  Lee, 
Thomas  Jefferson, 
Benjamin  Harrison, 
Thomas  Nelson,  Jr., 
Francis  Lightfoot  Lee. 
Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH   CAROLINA. 

William  Hooper, 
Joseph  Hewes, 
John  Penn. 

SOUTH   CAROLINA. 

Edward  Rutledge, 
Thomas  Heyward,  Jr., 
Thomas  Lvnch,  Jr., 
Arthur  Middleton. 


Button  Gwinnett, 
Lyman  Hall, 
George  Walton. 


IN  CONGRESS,         \ 
Ordered.  January  18,  1777.  f 

That  an  authenticated  copy  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  with  the  names  of  the  members  of  Con- 
gress subscribing  the  same,  be  sent  to  each  of  the 
United  States,  and  that  they  be  desired  to  have  the 
same  put  on  record. 
Bv  order  of  Congress. 

JOHN  HANCOCK,  President. 
Attest,  Chas.  Thomson,  Secy. 
A  true  copy. 

John  Hancock,  Presidt. 

THE  MECKLENBURG  DECLARA- 
TION. 

Some  thirteen  months  previous  to  the  sign- 
ing of  the  great  Declaration  of  Independence 
there  was  drawn  up  a  document  in  Mecklen- 
burg County,  N.  C,  that  was  almost  a  model 
in  wording  and  sentiment  of  the  great  charter 
of  American  liberty.  There  are  different  ac- 
counts of  the  matter,  but  the  most  reliable  is 
this : — 

At  a  public  meeting  of  the  residents  of 
Mecklenburg  County,  in  the  State  of  North 
Carolina,  held  at  Charlotte  on  the  20th  day  of 
May,  1775,  it  was 

•  <  Resolved,  That  whenever  directly  or  indi- 
rectly abetted,  or  in  any  way,  form,  or  manner 
countenanced,  the  unchartered  and  dangerous 
invasion  of  our  rights,  as  claimed  by  Great 
Britain,  is  an  enemy  of  our  country — to 
America — and  to  the  inherent  and  inalienable 
rights  of  man. 

' '  Resolved,  That  we,  the  citizens  of  Meck- 
lenburg County,  do  hereby  dissolve  the  politi- 
cal bonds  which  have  connected  us  to  the 
mother-country,  and  hereby  absolve  ourselves 
from  all  allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and 
abjure  all  political  connection,  contract  or 
association  with  that  nation,  which  has  wan- 
tonly trampled  on  our  rights  and  liberties  and 
inhumanly  shed  the  blood  of  American  pa- 
triots at  Lexington. 

' '  Resolved,  That  we  do  hereby  declare  our- 
selves a  free  and  independent  people  :  are  and 
of  right  ought  to  be  a  sovereign  and  self-gov- 
erning association,  under  the  control  of  no 
power  other  than  that  of  our  God  and  the  gen- 
eral government  of  the  Congress.  To  the 
maintenance  of  which  independence  we  sol- 
emnly pledge  to  each  other  our  mutual  co- 
operation, our  lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our 
sacred  honor." 

Two  other  resolutions  in  the  same  docu- 
ment, regarding  administration  of  the  law  and 
regulating  the  militia,  having  no  present  value, 
are  omitted. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE   UNITED 
STATES  OF  AMERICA. 

(Went  into  operation  first  Wednesday  in  March,  1789.) 

Preamble. — "We,  the  people  of  the  United 

States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union, 


24 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity, 
provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the 
general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of 
liberty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain 
and  establish  this  Constitution  for  the  United 
States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  I.  1 .  All  legislative  powers  here- 
in granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives. 

Section  II.  1.  The  House  of  Represent- 
atives shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several 
States; 'and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall 
have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of 
the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legis- 
lature. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who 
shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elect- 
ed, be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he 
shall  be  chosen. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be 
apportioned  among  the  several  States  which 
may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according 
to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be  de- 
termined by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of 
free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  service 
for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not 
taxed,  three  fifths  of  all  other  persons.  The 
actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 
years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of 
the  United  States,  and  within  every  subse- 
quent term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as 
they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Rep- 
resentatives shall  not  exceed  one  for  every 
thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at 
least  one  Representative ;  and  until  such 
enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three  ; 
Massachusetts,  eight ;  Rhode  Island  and  Provi- 
dence Plantations,  one ;  Connecticut,  five ; 
New  York,  six ;  New  Jersey,  four ;  Pennsyl- 
vania, eight ;  Delaware,  one  ;  Maryland,  six  ; 
Virginia,  ten  ;  North  Carolina,  five ;  South 
Carolina,  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  represen- 
tation from  any  State,  the  executive  authority 
thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

5 .  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose 
their  speaker  and  other  officers  ;  and  shall  have 
the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Section  III.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Senators  from 
each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof. 


for  six  years  ;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one 
vote. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assem- 
bled in  consequence  of  the  first  election,  they 
shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three 
classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first 
class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the 
second  year,  of  the  second  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class 
at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one 
third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year;  and  if 
vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise, 
during  the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any 
State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  tempo-- 
rary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of 
the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  va- 
cancies. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty  years, 
and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  President  of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have 
no  vote  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  offi- 
cers, and  also  a  President  pro  tempore,  in  the 
absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall 
exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to 
try  all  impeachments.  When  sitting  for  that 
purpose,  they  shall  all  be  on  oath  or  affirma- 
tion. When  the  President  of  the  United 
States  is  tried,  the  chief-justice  shall  preside  : 
and  no  person  shall  be  convicted  without  the 
concurrence  of  two  thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

7.  Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall 
not  extend  further  than  to  removal  from  office, 
and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any 
office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit  under  the 
United  States  ;  but  the  party  convicted  shall 
nevertheless  be  liable  and  subject  to  indict- 
ment, trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  ac- 
cording to  law. 

Section  IV.  1.  The  times,  places  and 
manner  of  holding  elections  for  Senators  and 
Representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
State  by  the  Legislature  thereof ;  but  the  Con- 
gress may  at  any  time  by  law  make  or  alter 
such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  place  of 
choosing  Senators. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once 
in  every  year ;  and  such  meeting  shall  be  on 
the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Section  V.  1 .  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge 
of  the  election,  returns,  and  qualifications  of 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


25 


its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall 
constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business ;  but  a 
smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day, 
and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  absent  members,  in  such  manner  and 
under  such  penalties  as  each  House  may  pro- 
vide. 

2.  Each  House  may  determine  the  rule  of 
its  proceedings,  punish  its  members  for  disor- 
derly behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of 
two  thirds,  expel  a  member. 

3.  Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its 
proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  publish  the 
same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy ;  and  the  yeas  and 
nays  of  the  members  of  either  House  on  any 
question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of 
those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

1.  Neither  House,  during  the  session  of 
Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor 
to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two 
houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Section  VI.  1.  The  Senators  and  Repre- 
sentatives shall  receive  a  compensation  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and 
paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States. 
They  shall,  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony, 
and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from 
arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  sessions 
of  their  respective  houses,  and  in  going  to  and 
returning  from  the  same  ;  and  for  any  speech 
or  debate  in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be 
questioned  in  any  other  place. 

'2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall, 
during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be 
appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority 
of  the  United  States  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have 
been  increased  during  such  time  ;  and  no  per- 
son holding  any  office  under  the  United  States 
shall  be  a  member  of  either  House  during  his 
continuance  in  office. 

Section  VII.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  rev- 
enue shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the 
House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate 
shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  if  he 
approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall 
return  it,  with  his  objections,  to  that  House  in 
which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter 
the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and 
proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  recon- 
sideration two  thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree 
to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with 
the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by  which 
it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered ;  and  if  ap- 


proved by  two  thirds  of  that  House  it  shall 
become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes 
of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas 
and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting 
for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the 
journal  of  each  House  respectively.  If  any 
bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President 
within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it 
shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall 
be  a  law  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed 
it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjournment, 
prevent  its  return  ;  in  which  case  it  shall  not 
be  a  law. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which 
the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a 
question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States  ;  and  before 
the  same  shall  take  effect  shall  be  approved  by 
him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  re- 
passed by  two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  the 
House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the 
rules  and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of 
a  bill. 

Section  VIII.  1.  The  Congress  shall  have 
power : 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts, 
and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for 
the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States  ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and 
excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States. 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States. 

3. "To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  na- 
tions, and  among  the  several  States,  and  with 
the  Indian  tribes. 

4.  To  establish  an  uniform  rule  of  natural- 
ization and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject  of 
bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  there- 
of, and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the  standard 
of  weights  and  measures. 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  coun- 
terfeiting the  securities  and  current  coin  of  the 
United  States. 

7.  To  establish  post  offices  and  post  roads. 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and 
useful  arts  by  securing  for  limited  times  to 
authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  rights  to 
their  respective  writings  and  discoveries. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the 
Supreme  Court. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felo- 
nies committed  on  the  high  seas,  and  offenses 
against  the  law  of  nations. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque 
and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning  cap- 
tures on  land  and  water. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  ap- 


26 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


propriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be  for  a 
longer  term  than  two  years. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and 
regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia 
to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress  in- 
surrections, and  repel  invasions. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and 
disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing 
such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the 
States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  offi- 
cers, and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by 
Congress. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all 
cases  whatsoever  over  such  district  (not  ex- 
ceeding ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession 
of  particular  States  and  the  acceptance  of 
Congress,  become  the  seat  of  Government  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the 
Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines, 
arsenals,  dry  docks,  and  other  needful 
buildings. 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  neces- 
sary and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the 
foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer 
thereof. 

Section  IX.  1.  The  migration  or  impor- 
tation of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit  shall 
not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the 
year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight, 
but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  im- 
portation, not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each 
person. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus 
shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when  in  cases  of 
rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  re- 
quire it. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law 
shall  be  passed. 

4.  No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be 
laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census  or 
enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be  taken. 

5.  No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles 
exported  from  any  State. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regu- 
lation of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the  ports  of 
one  State  over  those  of  another,  nor  shall  ves- 
sels bound  to  or  from  one  State  be  obliged  to 
enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  Treas- 
ury but  in  consequence  of  appropriations  made 
by  law  ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 


of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public 
money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by 
the  United  States.  And  no  person  holding 
any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of 
any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any 
kind  whatever  from  any  king,  prince,  or  for- 
eign state. 

Section  X.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into 
any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation,  grant 
letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  coin  money, 
emit  bills  of  credit,  make  anything  but  gold 
and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts, 
pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law, 
or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts, 
or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
the  Congress,  lay  any  impost  or  duties  on  im- 
ports or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely 
necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws, 
and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts, 
laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports,  shall 
be  for  the  use  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United 
States ;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to 
the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of 
Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep  troops 
or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State, 
or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  un- 
less actually  invaded,  or  in  such  imminent 
danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Section  I.  1.  The  Executive  power  shall 
be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United  States 
of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during 
the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the 
Vice-President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be 
elected  as  follows : 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner 
as  the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct,  a  num- 
ber of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of 
Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the 
State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress  ;  but  no 
Senator  or  Representative  or  person  holding 
an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United 
States  shall  be  appointed  an  elector. 

3.  [The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respec- 
tive States  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two  persons, 
of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabi- 
tant of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And 
they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted 
for,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each,  which 
list  they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit, 
sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in 
the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


27 


resentatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  Presi- 
dent, if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the 
whole  number  of  electors  appointed,  and  if 
there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  major- 
ity, and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then 
the  House  of  Representatiyes  shall  immediately 
choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  President ; 
and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  House 
shall  in  like  manner  choose  the  President.  But 
in  choosing  the  President,  the  vote  shall  be 
taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each 
State  having  one  vote.  A  quorum,  for  this 
purpose,  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members 
from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  person  having  the  greatest  nvimber 
of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-Presi- 
dent. But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more 
who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose 
from  them  by  ballot  the  Vice-President.]* 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of 
choosing  the  electors  and  the  day  on  which 
they  shall  give  their  votes,  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen, 
or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eli- 
gible to  the  office  of  President ;  neither  shall 
any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall 
not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty-five 
years  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  with- 
in the  United  States. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President 
from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation,  or 
inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of 
the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the 
Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law 
provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death,  resig- 
nation, or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and 
Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall 
then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer  shall 
act  accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed 
or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  re- 
ceive for  his  services  a  compensation,  which 
shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  dur- 
ing the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been 
elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that 
period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his 
office  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or  affir- 
mation : — 

"  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will 

•This  clause  is  superseded  bv  Article  XII.,  Amend- 
ments. 


faithfully  execute  the  office  of  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my 
ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States." 

Section  II.  1.  The  President  shall  be 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States  when  called  into  the  actual  ser- 
vice of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the 
opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  officer  in 
each  of  the  executive  departments  upon  any 
subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective 
offices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  re- 
prieves and  pardons  for  offenses  against  the 
United  States  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make 
treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators 
present  concur  ;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by 
and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate 
shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme 
Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United 
States  whose  appointments-  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be 
established  by  law ;  but  the  Congress  may  by 
law  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  offi- 
cers as  they  think  proper  in  the  President 
alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of 
departments. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up 
all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during  the  re- 
cess of  the  Senate  by  granting  commissions, 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  ses- 
sion. 

Section  III.  He  shall  from  time  to  time 
give  to  the  Congress  information  of  the  state 
of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consid- 
eration such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  neces- 
sary and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  convene  both  Houses,  or  either  of 
them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between 
them  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment, 
he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 
think  proper ;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors 
and  other  public  ministers  ;  he  shall  take  care 
that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall 
commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Section  IV.  The  President,  Vice-Presi- 
dent, and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment 
for  and  conviction  of  treason,  bribery,  or  other 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Section  I .  The  j  udicial  power  of  the  United 
States  shall  be  vested  in  one  Supreme  Court, 
and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress 
may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish. 
The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior 


28 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good  be- 
havior, and  shall  at  stated  times  receive  for 
their  services  a  compensation  which  shall  not 
be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 

Section  II.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall 
extend  to  all  cases  in  law  and  equity  arising 
under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be 
made,  under  their  authority ;  to  all  cases  af- 
fecting ambassadors,  other  public  ministers, 
and  consuls ;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction ;  to  controversies  to 
which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party ;  to 
controversies  between  two  or  more  States,  be- 
tween a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State, 
between  citizens  of  different  States,  between 
citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under 
grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State, 
or  the  citizens  thereof,  and  foreign  States, 
citizens,  or  subjects. 

2.  In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls,  and  those  in 
which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other 
cases  before  mentioned  the  Supreme  Court 
shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction  both  as  to  law 
and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such 
regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of 
impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury,  and  such  trial 
shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes 
shall  have  been  committed ;  but  when  not 
committed  within  any  State  the  trial  shall  be 
at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress  may  by 
law  have  directed. 

Section  III.  1.  Treason  against  the  United 
States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war  against 
them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be 
convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of 
two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  con- 
fession in  open  court. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare 
the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no  attainder 
of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood  or 
forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person 
attained. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Section  I.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be 
given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts,  records, 
and  judicial  preceedings  of  every  other  State. 
And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  pre- 
scribe the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records 
and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect 
thereof. 

Section  II.  1 .  The  citizens  of  each  State 
shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and  immuni- 
ties of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 


2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  trea- 
son, felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall  flee  from 
justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall  on 
demand  of  the  Executive  authority  of  the  State 
from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  re- 
moved to  the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the 
crime. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one 
State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping  into 
another  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  ser- 
vice or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on 
claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or 
labor  may  be  due. 

Section  III.  1.  New  States  may  be  ad- 
mitted by  the  Congress  into  this  Union  ;  but  no 
new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within 
the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State,  nor  any 
State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or 
more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the 
consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  con- 
cerned, as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dis- 
pose of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and  regula- 
tions respecting  the  territory  or  other  property 
belonging  to  the  United  States  ;  and  nothing 
in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to 
prejudice  any  claims  of  the  United  States,  or 
of  any  particular  State. 

Section  IV.  The  United  States  shall  guar- 
antee to  every  State  in  this  Union  a  republican 
form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
them  against  invasion,  and,  on  application  of 
the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the 
Legislature  cannot  be  convened),  against  do- 
mestic violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two  thirds  of  both 
Houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose 
amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the 
application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds  of 
the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for 
proposing  amendments,  which,  in  either  case, 
shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a£ 
part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the 
Legislatures  of  three  fourths  of  the  several 
States,  or  by  conventions  in  three  fourths 
thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ratifi- 
cation may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  ;  pro- 
vided that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  eight  shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first 
and  fourth  clauses  in  the  Ninth  Section  of  the 
First  Article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its 
consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage 
in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

1.  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements 
entered  into  before  the  adoption  of  this  Con- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


29 


stitution  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United 
States  under  this  Constitution  as  under  the 
Confederation . 

2.  This  Constitution  and  the  laws  of  the 
United  States  which  shall  be  made  in  pursuance 
thereof  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall 
be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land, 
and  the  judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound 
thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws 
of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before 
mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the  several 
State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judi- 
cial officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  af- 
firmation to  support  this  Constitution  ;  but  no 
religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  quali- 
fication to  any  office  or  public  trust  under  the 
United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 
The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine 
States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment 
of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  rati- 
fying the  same. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an 
establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the 
free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging  the  free- 
dom of  speech  or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of 
the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  peti- 
tion the  Government  for  a  redress  of  griev- 
ances. 

ARTICLE  II. 

A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to 
the  security  of  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the 
people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  in- 
fringed. 

ARTICLE  III. 

No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quar- 
tered in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the 
owner,  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to 
be  prescribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their 
persons,  houses,  papers,  and  effects,  against 
unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not 
be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue  but 
upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  af- 
firmation, and  particularly  describing  the  place 
to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be 
seized. 

ARTICLE  V. 

No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  cap- 
ital or  other  infamous  crime   unless  on  a  pre- 


sentment or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  excepl 
in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or 
in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service,  in  time 
of  war  or  public  danger  ;  nor  shall  any  person 
be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice  put 
in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  s-hall  be  com- 
pelled in  any  criminal  case  to  be  a  witness 
against  himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty, 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law  ;  nor 
shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use 
without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused 
shall  enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public 
trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  dis- 
trict wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  com- 
mitted, which  district  shall  have  been  previously 
ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the 
nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation  ;  to  be  con- 
fronted with  the  witnesses  against  him  ;  to  have 
compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in 
his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in 
controversy  shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the 
right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and 
no  fact  tried  by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re- 
examined in  any  court  of  the  United  States 
than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  common 
law. 

ARTICLE  Vni. 

Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  ex- 
cessive fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  and  unusual 
punishments  inflicted. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  cer- 
tain rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or 
disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United 
States  by  the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by 
it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  re- 
spectively, or  to  the  people. 

ARTICLE  XL 

The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall 
not  be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law 
or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against 
one  of  the  United  States,  by  citizens  of  another 
State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
State. 

ARTICLE    XII. 

The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  President  and 
Vice-President,  one  of  whom  at  least  shall  not 
be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  them- 
selves ;  they  shall    name  in  their  ballots  the 


30 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct 
ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President ; 
and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  President,  and  of  all  persons 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  num- 
ber of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall 
sign  and  certify,  and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the 
seat  of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  di- 
rected to  the  President  of  the  Senate ;  the 
President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall 
then  be  counted  ;  the  person  having  the  great- 
est number  of  votes  for  President  shall  be 
the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed; 
and  if  no  person  have  such  majority,  then  from 
the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers,  not 
exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for 
as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  Presi- 
dent. But  in  choosing  the  President,  the  votes 
shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation 
from  each  State  having  one  vote ;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or 
members  from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a 
majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary 
to  a  choice.  And  if  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives shall  not  choose  a  President,  whenever 
the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  upon  them, 
before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following, 
then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President.  The  person  hav- 
ing the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice- 
President  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such 
number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
electors  appointed,  and  if  no  person  have  a 
majority,  then  from  the  two  highest  numbers 
on  the  list  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice- 
President  ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall 
consist  of  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of 
Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number 
shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But  no  person 
constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  Presi- 
dent shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

1 .  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the 
party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall  ex- 
ist within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  sub- 
ject to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this 
article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

1.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the 
United  States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction 


thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State 
shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  ;  nor  shall  any  State 
deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property 
without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protec- 
tion of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  according  to  their 
respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  num- 
ber of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians 
not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any 
election  for  the  choice  of  electors  for  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Re- 
presentatives in  Congress,  the  executive  and 
judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members  of 
the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the 
male  members  of  such  State,  being  of  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  par- 
ticipation in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis 
of  representation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the 
proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male  citi- 
zens shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male 
citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in  such  State. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Represen- 
tative in  Congress,  or  elector  of  President  and 
Vice-President,  or  holding  any  office,  civil  or 
military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under 
any  State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an 
oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as  an  officer 
of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any 
State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial 
officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged 
in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  same, 
or  given  aid  and  comfort  to  the  enemies  there- 
of. But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote  of  two 
thirds  of  each  House,  remove  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the 
United  States,  authorized  by  law,  including 
debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and 
bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrec- 
tion and  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned. 
But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State 
shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  in- 
curred in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion 
against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for 
the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave  ;  but  all 
such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be 
held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
by  appropriate  legislation  the  provisions  of  this 
article. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

1.  The  right  of  the  citizens  of  the  United 
States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


31 


by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  ac- 
count of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
the  provision  of  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

Ratification  of  the  Constitution. 

The  Constitution  was  ratified  by  the  thir- 
teen original  States  in  the  following  order : 

Delaware,  December  7,  1787,  unanimously. 

Pennsylvania,  December  12,  1787,  vote  46 
to  23. 

New  Jersey,  December  18,  1787,  unani- 
mously. 

Georgia,  January  2,  1788,  unanimously. 

Connecticut,  January  9, 1788,  vote  128  to  40. 

Massachusetts,  February  6,  1788,  vote  187 
to  168. 

Maryland,  April  28,  1788,  vote  63  to  12. 

South  Carolina,  May  23, 1788,  vote  149  to  73. 

New  Hampshire,  June  21,  1788,  vote  57 
to  46. 

Virginia,  June  25,  1788,  vote  89  to  79. 

New  York,  July  26,  1788,  vote  30  to  28. 

North  Carolina,  November  21,  1789,  vote 
193  to  75. 

Rhode  Island,  May  29,  1790,  vote  34  to  32. 

Ratification  of  the  Amendments. 

I.  to  X.  inclusive  were  declared  in  force  De- 
cember 15,  1791. 

XI.  was  declared  in  force  January  8,  1798. 

XII.,  regulating  elections,  was  ratified  by 
all  the  States  except  Connecticut,  Delaware, 
Massachusetts,  and  New  Hampshire,  which 
rejected  it.  It  was  declared  in  force  Septem- 
ber 28,  1804. 

XIII.  The  emancipation  amendment  was  rat- 
ified by  31  of  the  36  States  ;  rejected  by  Dela- 
ware and  Kentucky,  not  acted  on  by  Texas; 
conditionally  ratified  by  Alabama  and  Missis- 
sippi-    Proclaimed  December  18,  1865. 

XIV.  Reconstruction  amendment  was  rati- 
fied by  23  Northern  States  ;  rejected  by  Dela- 
ware, Kentucky,  Maryland,  and  10  Southern 
States,  and  not  acted  on  by  California.  The 
10  Southern  States  subsequently  ratified  under 
pressure.     Proclaimed  July  28,  1886. 

XV.  Negro  citizenship  amendment  was  not 
acted  on  by  Tennessee,  rejected  by  California, 
Delaware,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  New  Jersey, 
and  Oregon ;  ratified  by  the  remaining  30 
States.  New  York  rescinded  its  ratification 
January  5,  1870.     Proclaimed  March  30, 1870. 

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32 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


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dollar,  and  for  a  certified  copy  of  any  record 
of  assignment  one  dollar. 

9.  A  copy  of  the  record  (or  duplicate  certif- 
icate) of  any  copyright  entry  will  be  furnished, 
under  seal,  at  the  rate  of  fifty  cents  each. 

10.  In  the  case  of  books  published  in  more 
than  one  volume,  or  of  periodicals  published 
in  numbers,  or  of  engravings,  photographs,  or 
other  articles  published  with  variations,  a 
copyright  is  to  be  entered  for  each  volume  or 
part  of  a  book,  or  number  of  a  periodical,  or 
variety,  as  to  style,  title,  or  inscription,  of 
any  other  article.  But  a  book  published  seri- 
ally in  a  periodical,  under  the  same  general 
title,  requires  only  one  entry.  To  complete  the 
copyright  on  such  a  work,  two  copies  of  each 
serial  part,  as  well  as  of  the  complete  work  (if 
published  separately),  must  be  deposited. 

11.  To  secure  a  copyright  for  a  painting, 
statue,  or  model  or  design  intended  to  be  per- 


fected as  a  work  of  the  fine  arts,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent infringement  by  copying,  engraving,  or 
vending  such  design,  a  definite  description 
must  accompany  the  application  for  copyright, 
and  a  photograph  of  the  same,  at  least  as  large 
as  "  cabinet  size,"  should  be  mailed  to  the 
Librarian  of  Congress  not  later  than  the  day 
of  publication  of  the  work  or  design. 

12.  Copyrights  cannot  be  granted  upon 
trade-marks,  nor  upon  mere  names  of  com- 
panies or  articles,  nor  upon  prints  or  labels  in- 
tended to  be  used  with  any  article  of  manu- 
facture. If  protection  for  such  names  or 
labels  is  desired,  application  must  be  made  to 
the  Patent  office,  where  they  are  registered  at 
a  fee  of  $6  for  labels  and  $25  for  trade-marks. 

13.  These  provisions  apply  to  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  British  Empire,  France,  Bel- 
gium, Switzerland. 

14 .  Every  applicant  for  a  copyright  should 
state  distinctly  the  full  name  and  residence  of 
the  claimant,  and  whether  the  right  is  claimed 
as  author,  designer,  or  proprietor.  No  affi- 
davit or  formal  application  is  required. 

PATENT  OFFICE  PROCEDURE. 

Patents  are  issued  in  the  name  of  the  United 
States,  and  under  seal  of  the  Patent  Office,  to 
any  person  who  has  invented  or  discovered  any 
new  and  useful  art,  machine,  manufacture,  or 
composition  of  matter  or  any  new  and  useful 
improvement  thereof,  not  known  or  used  by 
others  in  this  country  before  his  invention  or 
discovery  thereof  and  not  patented  or  described 
in  any  printed  publication  in  this  or  any  for- 
eign country,  before  his  invention  or  discovery 
thereof  or  more  than  two  years  prior  to  his 
application,  and  not  in  public  use  or  on  sale  in 
the  United  States  for  more  than  two  years 
prior  to  his  application,  unless  the  same  is 
proved  to  have  been  abandoned  ;  and  by  any 
person  who,  by  his  own  industry,  genius, 
efforts,  and  expense,  has  invented  and  pro- 
duced any  new  and  original  design  for  a  man- 
ufacture, bust,  statue,  alto-relievo,  or  bas-re- 
lief ;  any  new  and  original  design  for  the 
printing  of  woolen,  silk,  cotton,  or  other 
fabrics;  any  new  and  original  impression, 
ornament,  pattern,  print,  or  picture  to  be 
printed,  painted,  cast,  or  otherwise  placed  on 
or  worked  into  any  article  of  manufacture  ;  or 
any  new,  useful,  and  original  shape  or  config- 
uration of  any  article  of  manufacture,  the  same 
not  having  been  known  nor  used  by  others 
before  his  invention  or  production  thereof,  nor 
patented  nor  described  in  any  printed  publica- 
tion, upon  payment  of  the  fees  required  bylaw 
and  other  due  proceedings  had. 

Every  patent  contains  a  grant  to  the  paten- 
tee, his  heirs  or  assigns,  for  the  term  of  seven- 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


83 


teen  years,  of  the  exclusive  right  to  make,  use, 
and  vend  the  invention  or  discovery  through- 
out the  United  States  and  the  Territories,  re- 
ferring to  the  specification  for  the  particulars 
thereof. 

If  it  appear  that  the  inventor,  at  the  time  of 
making  his-  application,  believed  himself  to  be 
the  first  inventor  or  discoverer,  a  patent  will 
not  be  refused  on  account  of  the  invention  or 
discovery,  or  any  part  thereof,  having  been 
known  or  used  in  any  foreign  country  before 
his  invention  or  discovery  thereof ,  if  it  had  not 
been  before  patented  or  described  in  any 
printed  publication. 

Joint  inventors  are  entitled  to  a  joint  pat- 
ent ;  neither  can  claim  one  separately.  Inde- 
pendent inventors  of  distinct  and  independent 
improvements  in  the  same  machine  cannot 
obtain  a  joint  patent  for  their  separate  inven- 
tions ;  nor  does  the  fact  that  one  furnishes  the 
capital  and  another  makes  the  invention  entitle 
them  to  make  application  as  joint  inventors ; 
but  in  such  case  they  may  become  joint 
patentees. 

No  person  otherwise  entitled  thereto  will  be 
debarred  from  receiving  a  patent  for  his  inven- 
tion or  discovery,  by  reason  of  its  having  been 
first  patented  or  caused  to  be  patented  by  the 
inventor  or  his  legal  representatives  or  assigns 
in  a  foreign  country,  unless  the  application  for 
said  foreign  patent  was  filed  more  than  seven 
months  prior  to  the  filing  of  the  application  in 
this  country,  in  which  case  no  patent  shall  be 
granted  in  this  country. 

Applications. —  Applications  for  a  patent 
must  be  made  in  writing  to  the  Commissioner 
of  Patents.  The  applicant  must  also  file  in 
the  Patent  Office  a  written  description  of  the 
same,  and  of  the  manner  and  process  of  mak- 
ing, constructing,  compounding,  and  using  it, 
in  such  full,  clear,  concise,  and  exact  terms  as 
to  enable  any  person  skilled  in  the  art  or 
science  to  which  it  appertains,  or  with  which 
it  is  most  nearly  connected,  to  make,  construct, 
compound,  and  use  the  same  ;  and  in  case  of 
a  machine,  he  must  explain  the  principle 
thereof,  and  the  best  mode  in  which  he  has 
contemplated  applying  that  principle,  so  as  to 
distinguish  it  from  other  inventions,  and  partic- 
ularly point  out  and  distinctly  claim  the  part, 
improvement,  or  combination  which  he  claims 
as  his  invention  or  discovery.  The  specifica- 
tion and  claim  must  be  signed  by  the  inventor 
and  attested  by  two  witnesses. 

When  the  nature  of  the  case  admits  of  draw- 
ings, the  applicant  must  furnish  a  drawing  of 
the  required  size,  signed  by  the  inventor  or  his 
attorney  in  fact,  and  attested  by  two  witnesses. 
In  all  cases  which  admit  of  representation  by 
model,  the  applicant,  if  required  by  the  Patent 


Office,  shall  furnish  a  model  of  convenient  size 
to  exhibit  advantageously  the  several  parts  of 
his  invention  or  discovery. 

The  applicant  shall  make  oath  that  he  verily 
believes  himself  to  be  the  original  and  first  in 
ventor  or  discoverer  of  the  art,  machine,  manu- 
facture, composition,  or  improvement  for  which 
he  solicits  a  patent ;  that  he  does  not  know 
and  does  not  believe  that  the  same  was  ever 
before  known  or  used,  and  shall  state  of  what 
country  he  is  a  citizen  and  where  he  resides. 
In  every  original  application  the  applicant  must 
distinctly  state  under  oath  that  the  invention 
has  not  been  patented  to  himself  or  to  others 
with  his  knowledge  or  consent  in  this  or  any 
foreign  country  for  more  than  two  years  prior 
to  his  application,  or  on  an  application  for  a  pat- 
ent filed  in  any  foreign  country  by  himself  or  his 
legal  representatives  or  assigns  more  than  seven 
months  prior  to  his  application .  If  any  applica- 
tion for  patent  has  been  filed  in  any  foreign  coun- 
try by  the  applicant  in  this  countryor  by  his  legal 
representatives  or  assigns,  prior  to  his  applica- 
tion in  this  country,  he  shall  state  the  country  or 
countries  in  which  such  application  has  been 
filed,  giving  the  date  of  such  application,  and 
shall  also  state  that  no  application  has  been  filed 
in  any  other  country  or  countries  than  those 
mentioned  ;  that  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge 
and  belief  the  invention  has  not  been  in  public 
use  or  on  sale  in  the  United  States  nor  described 
in  any  printed  publication  or  patent  in  this  or 
any  foreign  country  for  more  than  two  years 
prior  to  his  application  in  this  country.  Such 
oath  may  be  made  before  any  person  within 
the  United  States  authorized  by  law  to  ad- 
minister oaths,  or,  when  the  applicant  resides 
in  a  foreign  country,  before  any  minister, 
charge  d'affaires,  consul,  or  commercial  agent 
holding  commission  under  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  or  before  any  notary  public 
of  the  foreign  country  in  which  the  applicant 
may  be,  provided  such  notary  is  authorized  by 
the  laws  of  his  country  to  administer  oaths. 

On  the  filing  of  such  application  and  the 
payment  of  the  fees  required  by  law,  if,  on 
examination,  it  appears  that  the  applicant  is 
justly  entitled  to  a  patent  under  the  law,  and 
that  the  same  is  sufficiently  useful  and  impor- 
tant, the  Commissioner  will  issue  a  patent 
therefor. 

Every  patent,  or  any  interest  therein,  shall 
be  assignable  in  law  by  an  instrument  in  writ- 
ing ;  and  the  patentee  or  his  assigns  or  legal 
representatives  may,  in  like  manner,  grant  and 
convey  an  exclusive  right  under  his  patent  to 
the  whole  or  any  specified  part  of  the  United 
States. 

Reissues.  A  reissue  is  granted  to  the 
original  patentee,  his  legal  representatives,  or 


34 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  assignees  of  the  entire  interest,  when,  by 
reason  of  a  defective  or  insufficient  specifica- 
tion, or  by  reason  of  the  patentee  claiming  as 
his  invention  or  discovery  more  than  he  had  a 
right  to  claim  as  new,  the  original  patent  is  in- 
operative or  invalid,  provided  the  error  has 
arisen  from  inadvertence,  accident,  or  mistake, 
and  without  any  fraudulent  or  deceptive  inten- 
tion. Reissue  applications  must  be  made  and 
the  specifications  sworn  to  by  the  inventors,  if 
they  be  living. 

Caveats.  A  caveat,  under  the  patent  law, 
is  a  notice  given  to  the  office,  of  the  caveator's 
claim  as  inventor,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
grant  of  a  patent  to  another  for  the  same  al- 
leged invention  upon  an  application  filed  dur- 
ing the  life  of  a  caveat  without  notice  to  the 
caveator. 

Any  citizen  of  the  United  States  who  has 
made  a  new  invention  or  discovery,  and  de- 
sires further  time  to  mature  the  same,  may,  on 
a  payment  of  a  fee  of  ten  dollars,  file  in  the 
Patent  Office  a  caveat  setting  forth  the  object 
and  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
invention,  and  praying  protection  of  his  right 
until  he  shall  have  matured  his  invention. 
Such  caveat  shall  be  filed  in  the  confidential 
archives  of  the  office  and  preserved  in  secrecy, 
and  shall  be  operative  for  the  term  of  one  year 
from  the  filing  thereof.  The  caveat  may  be 
renewed,  on  request  in  writing,  by  the  pay- 
ment of  a  second  fee  of  ten  dollars,  and  it  will 
continue  in  force  for  one  year  from  the  pay- 
ment of  such  second  fee. 

The  caveat  must  comprise  a  specification, 
oath,  and,  when  the  nature  of  the  case  admits 
of  it,  a  drawing,  and,  like  the  application, 
must  be  limited  to  a  single  invention  or  im- 
provement. 

Fees. — Fees  must  be  paid  in  advance,  and 
are  as  follows  :  On  filing  each  original  appli- 
cation for  a  patent,  $15.  On  issuing  each 
original  patent,  $20.  In  design  cases :  For 
three  years  and  six  months,  $10  ;  for  seven 
years,  $15  ;  for  fourteen  years,  $30.  On  filing 
each  caveat,  $10.  On  every  application  for  the 
reissue  of  a  patent,  $30.  On  filing  each  dis- 
claimer, $10.  For  certified  copies  of  patents 
and  other  papers  in  manuscript,  ten  cents  per 
hundred  words  ;  for  certified  copies  of  printed 
patents,  eighty  cents.  For  uncertified  printed 
copies  of  specifications  and  drawings  of  patents, 
for  single  copies,  or  any  number  of  unclas- 
sified copies,  five  cents  each  ;  for  copies  by  sub- 
classes, three  cents  each  ;  by  classes,  two  cents 
each,  and  for  the  entire  set  of  patents  issued, 
in  one  order,  one  cent  each.  For  recording 
every  assignment,  agreement,  power  of  attor- 
ney, or  other  paper,  of  three  hundred  words  or 
under,  $1 ;    of  over  three  hundred  and  under 


one  thousand  words,  $2  ;  of  over  one  thousand 
words  $3.  For  copies  of  drawings,  the  reason- 
able cost  of  making  them.  The  Patent  Office 
is  prepared  to  furnish  positive  blue-print  pho- 
tographic copies  of  any  drawing,  foreign  or 
domestic,  in  the  possession  of  the  office,  in 
sizes  and  at  rates  as  follows  :  Large  size,  10x15 
inches,  twenty-five  cents;  medium  size,  7x11 
inches,  fifteen  cents  ;  small  size,  5x8  inches, 
five  cents.  An  order  for  small  sized  copies  can 
be  filled  only  when  it  relates  to  the  drawings 
of  an  application  for  patent. 

The  total  number  of  applications  filed  at  the 
Patent  Office  in  sixty-one  years,  1837-97,  was 
1,040,035;  number  of  caveats  filed,  107,415; 
number  of  original  patents,  including  designs 
issued,  601,268.  Receipts  to  December  31, 
1896,  $34,309,331.06  ;  expenditures,  $29,293,- 
672.32;  net  surplus,  $5,015,658.74.  The 
largest  number  of  patents  granted  for  an  arti- 
cle prior  to  January,  1895,  has  been  for  car- 
riages and  wagons,  20,000,  and  for  stoves  and 
furnaces,  18,000.  The  next  largest  has  been 
for  harvesters,  10,000  ;  lamps  and  gas  fittings, 
10,000;  boots  and  shoes,  10,000,  and  packing 
and  storing  vessels,  10,000  approximately. 

NATURALIZATION  LAWS. 

The  conditions  under  and  the  manner  in 
which  an  alien  may  be  admitted  to  become  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  are  prescribed  by 
Sections  2,  165-74  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of 
the  United  States. 

Declaration  of  Intentions. — The  alien  must 
declare  upon  oath  before  a  circuit  or  district 
court  of  the  United  States  or  a  district  or 
supreme  court  of  the  Territories,  or  a  court  of 
record  of  any  of  the  States  having  common 
law  jurisdiction  and  a  seal  and  clerk,  two 
years  at  least  prior  to  his  admission,  that  it  is, 
bona  fide,  his  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of 
the  United  States,  and  to  renounce  forever 
all  allegiance  and  fidelity  to  any  foreign  prince 
or  State,  and  particularly  to  the  one  of  which 
he  may  be  at  the  time  a  citizen  or  subject. 

Oath  on  Application  for  Admission. — He  must 
at  the  time  of  his  application  to  be  admitted 
declare  on  oath,  before  some  one  of  the 
courts  above  specified,  "that  he  will  sup- 
port the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  that  he  absolutely  and  entirely  re- 
nounces and  abjures  all  allegiance  and  fidelity 
to  every  foreign  prince,  potentate,  State,  or 
sovereignty,  and  particularly  by  name,  to  the 
prince,  potentate,  State,  or  sovereignty  of 
which  he  was  before  a  citizen  or  subject," 
which  proceedings  must  be  recorded  by  the 
clerk  of  the  court. 

Conditions  for  Citizenship. — If  it  shall  ap- 
pear to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  to  which 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


35 


the  alien  has  applied  that  he  has  made  a 
declaration  to  become  a  citizen  two  years 
before  applying  for  final  papers,  and  has  re- 
sided continuously  within  the  United  States 
for  at  least  five  years,  and  within  the  State  or 
Territory  where  such  court  is  at  the  time  held 
one  year  at  least ;  and  that  during  that  time 
"  he  has  behaved  as  a  man  of  good  moral 
character,  attached  to  the  principles  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  well 
disposed  to  the  good  order  and  happiness  of 
the  same,"  he  will  be  admitted  to  citizenship. 

Titles  of  Nobility. — If  the  applicant  has 
borne  any  hereditary  title  or  order  of  nobility 
he  must  make  an  express  renunciation  of  the 
same  at  the  time  of  his  application. 

Soldiers. — Any  alien  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years  and  upward  who  has  been  in  the 
armies  of  the  United  States,  and  has  been 
honorably  discharged  therefrom,  may  become 
a  citizen  on  his  petition,  without  any  previous 
declaration  of  intention,  provided  that  he  has 
resided  in  the  United  States  at  least  one  year 
previous  to  his  application,  and  is  of  good 
moral  character.  (It  is  judicially  decided 
that  residence  of  one  year  in  a  particular  State 
is  not  requisite.) 

Minors. — Any  alien  under  the  age  of 
twenty-one  years  who  has  resided  in  the 
United  States  three  years  next  preceding  his 
arriving  at  that  age,  and  who  has  continued  to 
reside  therein  to  the  time  he  may  make  appli- 
cation to  be  admitted  a  citizen  thereof,  may, 
after  he  arrives  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  years, 
and  after  he  has  resided  five  years  within  the 
United  States,  including  the  three  years  of  his 
minority,  be  admitted  a  citizen  ;  but  he  must 
make  a  declaration  on  oath  and  prove  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  court  that  for  two  years 
next  preceding  it  has  been  his  bona  fide  inten- 
tion to  become  a  citizen. 

Children  of  Naturalized  Citizens. — The  chil- 
dren of  persons  who  have  been  duly  natural- 
ized, being  under  the  age  of  twenty-one  years 
at  the  time  of  the  naturalization  of  their 
parents,  shall,  if  dwelling  in  the  United  States, 
be  considered  as  citizens  thereof. 

Citizens'  Children  Who  Are  Born  Abroad. — 
The  children  of  persons  who  now  are  or 
have  been  citizens  of  the  United  States,  are, 
though  born  out  of  the  limits  and  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  United  States,  considered  as  citizens 
thereof. 

Chinese. — The  naturalization  of  Chinamen 
is  expressly  prohibited  bv  Section  14,  Chapter 
126,  Laws" of  1882. 

Protection  Abroad  to  Naturalized  Citizens. — 
Section  2,000  of  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States  declares  that  ' '  all  naturalized 
citizens  of  the  United  States  while  in  foreign 


countries  are  entitled  to  and  shall  receive  from 
this  Government  the  same  protection  of  per- 
sons and  property  which  is  accorded  to  native- 
born  citizens." 

The  Right  of  Suffrage — The  right  to  vote 
comes  from  the  State,  and  is  a  State  gift. 
Naturalization  is  a  Federal  right  and  is  a  gift 
of  the  Union,  not  of  any  one  State.  In  nearly 
one-half  of  the  Union  aliens  (who  have  de- 
clared intentions)  vote  and  have  the  right  to 
vote  equally  with  naturalized  or  native-born 
citizens.  In  the  other  half  only  actual  citizens 
may  vote.  (See  Table  of  Qualifications  for 
Voting  in  each  State,  on  another  page.)  The 
Federal  naturalization  laws  apply  to  the  whole 
Union  alike,  and  provide  that  no  alien  may  be 
naturalized  until  after  five  years'  residence. 
Even  after  five  years'  residence  and  due  nat- 
uralization he  is  not  entitled  to  vote  unless  the 
laws  of  the  State  confer  the  privilege  upon 
him,  and  he  may  vote  in  several  States  six 
months  after  landing,  if  he  has  declared  his 
intention,  under  the  United  States  law,  to  be- 
come a  citizen. 

PASSPORT  REGULATIONS. 

Rules  governing  the  granting  and  issuing  of 
passports  in  the  United  States  : 

By  Whom  Issued. — No  one  but  the  Secre- 
tary of  State  may  grant  and  issue  passports  in 
the  United  States. — Revised  Statutes,  sees. 
4075,  4078. 

A  citizen  of  the  United  States  desiring  to 
procure  a  passport  while  he  is  temporarily 
abroad  should  apply  to  the  diplomatic  repre- 
sentative of  the  United  States  in  the  country 
where  he  happens  to  be ;  or,  in  the  absence  of 
a  diplomatic  representative,  to  the  consul 
general  of  the  United  States ;  or,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  both,  to  the  consul  of  the  United 
States.  The  necessary  statement  may  be  made 
before  the  nearest  consular  officer  of  the  United 
States. 

To  Citizens  Only. — The  law  forbids  the 
granting  of  a  passport  to  any  person   who    is 

not  a  citizen  of  the  United  States Revised 

Statutes,  sec.  4076. 

A  person  who  has  only  made  the  declaration 
of  intention  to  become  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  cannot  receive  a  passport. 

Applications. — A  citizen  of  the  United 
States  in  this  country  in  order  to  procure  a 
passport  must  make  a  written  application,  in 
the  form  of  an  affidavit,  to  the  Secretary  of 
State. 

The  affidavit  must  be  attested  by  an  officer 
authorized  to  administer  oaths,  and  if  he  has 
an  official  seal  it  must  be  affixed.  If  he  has  no 
seal,  his  official  character  must  be  authenti- 
cated by  certificate  of  the  proper  legal  officer 


36 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


If  the  applicant  signs  by  mark,  two  attesting 
witnesses  to  his  signature  are  required. 

The  applicant  is  required  to  state  the  date 
and  place  of  his  birth,  his  occupation,  and  the 
place  of  his  permanent  residence,  and  to  declare 
that  he  goes  abroad  for  temporary  sojourn  and 
intends  to  return  to  the  United  States  with 
the  purpose  of  residing  and  performing  the 
duties  of  citizenship  therein. 

The  applicant  must  take  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance to  the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

The  application  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
description  of  the  person  applying,  and  should 
state  the  following  particulars,  viz. :  Age,  — 
years ;  stature,  —  feet  —  inches  (English 
measure)  ;  forehead,  — ;  eyes,  — ;  nose,  — ; 
mouth,  —  ;  chin,  — ;  hair,  — ;  complexion, 
— ;  face,  — 

The  application  must  be  accompanied  by  a 
certificate  from  at  least  one  credible  witness 
that  the  applicant  is  the  person  he  represents 
himself  to  be,  and  that  the  facts  stated  in  the 
affidavit  are  true  to  the  best  of  the  witness's 
knowledge  and  belief. 

Native  Citizens. — An  application  con- 
taining the  information  indicated  by  rule  3 
will  be  sufficient  evidence  in  the  case  of  native 
citizens. 

A  Person  Born  Abroad  Whose  Father 
Was  a  Native  of  the  United  States. —  In 
addition  to  the  statements  required  by  rule  3, 
his  application  must  show  that  his  father  was 
born  in  the  United  States,  has  resided  therein, 
and  was  a  citizen  at  the  time  of  the  applicant's 
birth.  The  Department  may  require  that  this 
affidavit  be  supported  by  that  of  one  other 
citizen  acquainted  with  the  facts. 

Naturalized   Citizens In   addition    to 

the  statements  required  by  rule  3,  a  naturalized 
citizen  must  transmit  his  certificate  of  natural- 
ization, or  a  duly  certified  copy  of  the  court 
record  thereof,  with  his  application.  It  will  be 
returned  to  him  after  inspection.  He  must 
state  in  his  affidavit  when  and  from  what  port 
he  emigrated  to  this  country,  what  ship  he 
sailed  in,  where  he  has  lived  since  his  arrival 
in  the  United  States,  when  and  before  what 
court  he  was  naturalized,  and  that  he  is  the 
identical  person  described  in  the  certificate  of 
naturalization.  The  signature  to  the  applica- 
tion should  conform  in  orthography  to  the  ap- 
plicant's name  as  written  in  the  naturalization 
paper,  which  the  Department  follows. 

The  Wife  or  Widow  of  a  Naturalized 
Citizen. — In  addition  to  the  statements  re- 
quired by  rule  3,  she  must  transmit  for  in- 
spection her  husband's  naturalization  certifi- 
cate, must  state  that  she  is  the  wife  or  widow 
of  the  person  described  therein,  and  must  set 
forth  the  facts  of  his  emigration,  naturaliza- 


tion, and  residence,  as  required  in  the  rule 
governing  the  application  of  a  naturalized 
citizen. 

The  Child  of  a  Naturalized  Citizen 
Claiming  Citizenship  Through  the  Nat- 
uralization of  the  Father In  addition 

to  the  statements  required  by  rule  3,  the  ap- 
plicant must  state  that  he  or  she  is  the  son  or 
daughter,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  person 
described  in  the  naturalization  certificate, 
which  must  be  submitted  for  inspection,  and 
must  set  forth  the  facts  of  his  emigration, 
naturalization,  and  residence,  as  required  in 
the  rule  governing  the  application  of  a  natural- 
ized citizen. 

Expiration    of    Passport A   passport 

expires  two  years  from  the  date  of  its  issuance. 
A  new  one  will  be  issued  upon  a  new  applica- 
tion, and  if  the  applicant  be  a  naturalized 
citizen,  the  old  passport  will  be  accepted  in 
lieu  of  a  naturalized  certificate,  if  the  applica- 
tion upon  which  it  was  issued  is  found  to  con- 
tain sufficient  information  as  to  the  emigration, 
residence,  and  naturalization  of  the  applicant. 

Wife,  Children,  and  Servants. — When 
an  applicant  is  accompanied  by  his  wife,  minor 
children,  or  servant,  being  an  American  citi- 
zen, it  will  be  sufficient  to  state  the  fact,  giv- 
ing the  respective  ages  of  the  children  and  the 
citizenship  of  the  servant,  when  one  passport 
will  suffice  for  all.  For  any  other  person  in  the 
party  a  separate  passport  will  be  required.  A 
woman's  passport  may  include  her  minor  chil- 
dren and  servant  under  the  above-named  con- 
ditions. 

Professional  Titles.  —  They  will  not  be 
inserted  in  passports. 

Fee.  — By  act  of  Congress  approved  March 
23,  1888,  a  fee  of  one  dollar  is  required  to  be 
collected  for  every  citizen's  passport.  That 
amount  in  currency  or  postal  money  order 
should  accompany  each  application.  Orders 
should  be  payable  to  the  Disbursing  Clerk  of 
the  Department  of  State.  Drafts  or  checks 
will  not  be  received. 

Blank    Forms    of    Application They 

will  be  furnished  by  the  Department  to  persons 
who  desire  to  apply  for  passports,  upon  their 
stating  whether  they  are  native  or  naturalized 
citizens  or  claim  through  the  naturalization  of 
husband  or  father.  Forms  are  not  furnished, 
except  as  samples,  to  those  who  make  a  busi- 
ness of  procuring  passports. 

Address.  —  Communications  should  be 
addressed  to  the  Department  of  State,  Pass- 
port Division,  and  each  communication  should 
give  the  post  office  address  of  the  person  to 
whom  the  answer  is  to  be  directed. 

Rejection  of  Application.  —  The  Secre- 
tary of  State  may  refuse  to  issue  a  passport  to 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


37 


anyone  who,  he  has  reason  to  believe,  desires 
it  for  an  unlawful  or  improper  purpose,  or  who 
is  unable  or  unwilling  to  comply  with  the 
rules. 

UNITED  STATES  CIVIL  SERVICE. 

The  purpose  of  the  Civil  Service  act,  as  de- 
clared in  its  title,  is  "to  regulate  and  improve 
the  Civil  Service  of  the  United  States."  It 
provides  for  the  appointment  of  three  Com- 
missioners, a  chief  Examiner,  a  Secretary,  and 
other  employees,  and  makes  it  the  duty  of  the 
Commissioners  to  aid  the  President  as  he  may 
request  in  preparing  suitable  rules  for  carrying 
the  act  into  effect ;  to  make  regulations  to 
govern  all  examinations  held  under  the  pro- 
visions of  the  act,  and  to  make  investigations 
and  report'  upon  all  matters  touching  the  en- 
forcement and  effect  of  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions. The  address  of  the  Commission  is 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Extent  of  the  Service.  —  The  number 
of  persons  regularly  employed  in  the  Execu- 
tive Civil  Service  of  the  United  States  is  about 
179,000,  of  whom  80,334  are  classified  subject 
to  competitive  examination  or  registration  un- 
der the  Civil  Service  act  and  rules.  The  total 
number  of  persons  in  the  classified  Civil  Ser- 
vice (by  which  is  meant  all  that  part  of  the 
Executive  Civil  Service  embraced  within  the 
provisions  of  the  Civil  Service  act  and  rules) 
is  83,817.  Of  this  number  78,728  are  classi- 
fied by  reason  of  designation,  duties  performed, 
or  compensation,  and  of  these  3,483  are  re- 
quired merely  to  pass  a  non -competitive  exam- 
ination or  are  excepted  from  examination (2, 240 
of  the  latter  class  being  Indians)  ;  5,063  are 
classified  under  regulations  of  the  Navy  De- 
partment, approved  by  the  Commission  and 
sanctioned  by  the  President,  and  26  are  classi- 
fied whose  appointments  are  made  by  the 
President  solely.  The  classified  Civil  Service 
does  not  include  persons  whose  appointments 
are  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  Senate,  or 
mere  laborers  or  workmen. 

Divisions  of  the  Service. — The  rules 
require  that  all  that  part  of  the  Executive 
Civil  Service  of  the  United  States  which  has 
been  or  may  hereafter  be  classified  under  the 
Civil  Service  act  shall  be  arranged  in  branches 
as  follows :  The  Departmental  Service,  the 
Customs  Service,  the  Postal  Service,  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Service,  and  the  Internal 
Revenue  Service. 

The  Departmental  Service  includes  all  offi- 
cers and  employees  who  on  the  one  hand  are  not 
appointed  subject  to  the  consent  of  the  Senate, 
and  on  the  other  hand  are  above  the  grade  of 
laborer,  and  who  are  serving  in  or  on  detail 
from    the    Departments,    Commissions,    and 


Offices  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  Rail- 
way Mail  Service,  the  Indian  Service,  the 
Pension  Agencies,  the  Steamboat  Inspection 
Service,  the  Marine  Hospital  Service,  the 
Light-House  Service,  the  Life-Saving  Service, 
the  Revenue  Cutter  Service,  the  Mints  and 
Assay  offices,  the  Sub- Treasuries,  the  Engi- 
neer Department  at  large,  the  Ordnance  De- 
partment at  large,  the  Land  Office  Service,  and 
the  force  employed  under  Custodians  of  Pub- 
lic Buildings,  and  in  the  U.  S.  Penitentiary  at 
Leavenworth,  Kan.  In  addition  to  these  are 
included  all  other  employees  (except  laborers 
and  persons  whose  appointments  are  subject  to 
the  consent  of  the  Senate)  whose  duties  are 
clerical  or  medical,  or  who  serve  as  watchmen, 
messengers,  draughtsmen,  engineers,  firemen, 
computers,  or  as  superintendents  of  consti'uc- 
tion,  superintendents  of  repairs,  or  foremen 
under  the  Supervising  Architect  of  the  Treas- 
ury, or  who  are  in  any  branch  of  the  Treasury 
Department  not  enumerated  above.  .  The 
Customs  Service  includes  all  officers  and  em- 
ployees between  the  extremes  before  mentioned 
who  are  serving  in  any  customs  district.  The 
Postal  Service  includes  all  similar  officers  and 
employees  at  free  delivery  post  offices.  The 
Government  Printing  Service  and  the  Internal 
Revenue  Service  cover  all  like  positions  in  the 
branches  indicated  by  their  designations. 

Applications. — Persons  seeking  to  be  ex- 
amined must  file  an  application  blank.  The 
blank  for  the  Departmental  Service  at  Wash- 
ington, Railway  Mail  Service,  the  Indian 
School  Service,  and  the  Government  Printing 
Service  should  be  requested  directly  of  the 
Civil  Service  Commission  at  Washington. 
The  blank  for  the  Customs,  Postal,  or  Internal 
Revenue  Service  must  be  requested  in  writing 
of  the  Civil  Service  Board  of  Examiners  at  the 
office  where  service  is  sought.  These  papers 
should  be  returned  to  the  officers  from  whom 
they  emanated. 

Applicants  for  examination  must  be  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  proper 
age.  No  person  using  intoxicating  liquors  to 
excess  may  be  appointed.  No  discrimination 
is  made  on  account  of  sex,  color,  or  political  or 
religious  opinions.  The  limitations  of  age 
vary  with  the  different  services,  but  do  not 
apply  to  any  person  honorably  discharged  from 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United 
States  by  reason  of  disability  resulting  from 
wounds  or  sickness  incurred  in  the  line  of  duty. 

Examinations. — The  applicants  to  enter 
the  services  designated  are  examined  as  to 
their  relative  capacity  and  fitness.  For  ordi- 
nary clerical  places  in  the  Departmental,  Cus- 
toms, and  Internal  Revenue  Services  the  ex- 
amination is  confined  to  orthography,  penman- 


38 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


ship,  copying,  letter  writing,  and  simple  arith- 
metic. Patent  examiners  are  examined  in 
physics  and  technics,  mathematics,  chemistry, 
and  mechanical  drawing.  Meat  inspectors 
are  examined  in  letter  writing,  veterinary 
anatomy  and  physiology,  veterinary  pathology, 
and  meat  inspection.  One  of  the  tests  for  post 
office  and  railway  mail  clerks  is  an  exercise  in 
reading  manuscript  addresses.  Specimen  sets 
of  questions  will  be  furnished  by  the  Commis- 
sion upon  request.  Examinations  are  held 
twice  a  year  in  every  State  and  Territory  at 
fixed  times  and  places.  All  examinations  re- 
late as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  duties  to  be 
performed,  and,  whenever  practicable,  include 
experience  and  practical  tests.  No  applicant 
is  admitted  to  an  examination  in  any  one  of 
the  different  recognized  trades,  such  as  those 
in  the  Government  Printing  Office,  unless  he 
has  had  five  years'  experience  in  his  trade,  one 
year  of  which  must  have  been  as  a  journey- 
man. .  This  information  is  obtained  by  per- 
sonal questions  relating  to  the  applicant's  ex- 
perience at  his  trade  and  the  certificates  of 
persons  who  have  employed  him.  No  one  is 
certified  for  appointment  whose  standing  in 
any  examination  is  less  than  70  per  centum  of 
complete  proficiency,  except  applicants  whose 
claims  for  military  or  naval  preference  under 
Section  1,754  R.  S.  have  been  admitted. 
These  need  obtain  but  65.  The  law  also  pre- 
scribes competitive  examinations  for  promo- 
tion in  the  service.  A  certificate  is  given  to 
each  person  examined,  stating  whether  he 
passed  or  failed  to  pass.  For  positions  in  the 
classified  service  where  technical  qualifications 
are  needed  special  examinations  are  held.  In 
the  Departmental  Service  they  are  held  for  the 
State  Department,  the  Pension,  Patent,  and 
Signal  Offices,  Geological  and  Coast  Surveys, 
Engineer  Department  at  large,  Ordnance  De- 
partment at  large,  etc.  For  places  which  do 
not  require  technical  qualifications  the  number 
of  applicants  is  usually  excessive,  and  only 
those  who  attain  high  grades  have  a  good 
chance  for  appointment. 

Excepted  Places. — A  number  of  posi- 
tions are  excepted  from  examination  or  are 
subject  only  to  non-competitive  examination. 
In  the  former  class  are  included  the  following 
positions  :  Private  secretaries  and  confidential 
clerks  (not  exceeding  two)  to  the  President  or 
to  the  head  of  each  of  the  eight  Executive  De- 
partments ;  attorneys  or  assistant  attorneys 
whose  main  duties  are  connected  with  the 
management  of  cases  in  court ;  one  assistant 
postmaster,  or  chief  assistant  to  the  post- 
master, of  whatever  designation,  at  each  post 
office,  and  one  cashier  for  each  first-class  post 
office  when  employed  under  the  roster  title  of 


cashier  only ;  Indians  employed  in  the  India: 
Service  at  large,  except  those  employed  a; 
superintendents,  teachers,  teachers  of  indus 
tries,  kindergartners,  and  physicians.  In  th. 
latter  class  are  included  the  following  em 
ployees  in  the  Customs  and  Internal  Revenue 
Services  :  One  cashier  in  each  customs  district 
one  chief  or  principal  deputy  or  assistant  col  - 
lector  in  such  district,  and  one  principal 
deputy  collector  at  each  sub-port  or  station  ; 
one  employee  in  each  Internal  Revenue  district 
who  shall  act  as  cashier  or  chief  deputy  or 
assistant  collector,  as  may  be  determined  by 
the  Treasury  Department ;  one  deputy  col- 
lector in  each  Internal  Revenue  district  where 
the  number  of  employees  in  the  office  of  the 
collector  exceeds  four,  and  one  deputy  collector 
in  each  stamp  (or  branch)  office. 

Appointments. — Upon  the  occurrence  of  a 
vacancy,  the  appointment  to  fill  it,  if  not  made 
by  promotion,  reduction,  transfer,  or  reinstate- 
ment (for  all  of  which  provision  is  made  by 
the  Civil  Service  rules),  must  be  made  by  selec- 
tion from  the  eligibles  of  highest  grade  on 
the  appropriate  register.  In  the  Executive 
Departments  at  Washington  and  in  the  Gov- 
ernment Printing  Office  appointments  are  ap- 
portioned among  the  States  and  Territories  on 
the  basis  of  population.  Every  appointment 
is  made  for  a  probationary  period  of  six  months. 
Whenever  there  are  no  names  of  eligibles  upon 
a  register  for  any  position  in  which  a  vacancy 
exists,  and  the  public  interest  requires  that  it 
be  filled  before  eligibles  can  be  provided  by  the 
Commission,  such  vacancy  may,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Commission,  be  filled  by  ap- 
pointment without  examination  and  certifica- 
tion until  an  eligible  can  be  provided  by  the 
Commission.  The  number  of  women  apply- 
ing for  clerical  places  is  greatly  in  excess  of 
the  calls  of  appointing  officers.  The  positions 
to  which  the  largest  nunbers  of  them  are  ap- 
pointed are  those  of  assistant  microscopist  in 
the  branch  offices  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  In- 
dustry at  the  various  stockyards  throughout 
the  country,  and  teachers,  matrons,  seam- 
stresses, etc.,  in  the  Indian  Service.  A  few  re- 
ceive appointments  as  stenographers  and  type- 
writers in  the  Departmental  Service,  and  a  few 
are  appointed  to  technical  and  professional 
places. 

Preference  Claimants. —  Persons  who 
served  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the 
United  States,  and  were  discharged  by  reason 
of  disabilities  resulting  from  wounds  or  sick- 
ness incurred  in  the  line  of  duty,  are,  under 
the  Civil  Service  rules,  given  certain  prefer- 
ences. They  are  released  from  all  maximum 
age  limitations,  are  eligible  for  appointment 
at  a  grade  of  65,  while  all  others  are  obliged 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


39 


to  obtain  a  grade  of  «70,  and  are  certified  to 
appointing  officers  before  all  others.  Subject 
to  the  other  conditions  of  the  rules,  any  person 
who  served  in  the  military  or  naval  service  of 
the  United  States  in  the  war  of  the  rebellion, 
and  was  honorably  discharged  therefrom,  or 
the  widow  of  any  such  person,  or  any  army 
nurse  of  said  war,  may  be  reinstated  without 
regard  to  the  length  of  time  he  or  she  has  been 
separated  from  the  service. 

Provisions  Concerning  Political 
Discrimination,  Assessments,  Etc. — 
The  Civil  Service  rules  provide  that  no  person 
in  the  Executive  Civil  Service  shall  dismiss,  or 
cause  to  be  dismissed,  or  make  any  attempt  to 
procure  the  dismissal  of  or  in  any  manner 
change  the  official  rank  or  compensation  of 
any  other  person  therein,  because  of  his  polit- 
ical or  religious  opinions  or  affiliations;  that 
no  removal  shall  be  made  from  any  position 
subject  to  competitive  examination  except  for 
just  cause  and  upon  written  charges  filed 
with  the  head  of  the  department  or  other  ap- 
pointing officer,  and  of  which  the  accused 
shall  have  full  notice  and  an  opportunity  to 
make  defense  ;  and  that  no  person  in  the  Ex- 
ecutive Civil  Service  shall  use  his  official  au- 
thority or  official  influence  for  the  purpose  of 
interfering  with  an  election  or  controlling  the 
result  thereof.  Such  rules  also  provide  that 
any  person  in  the  Executive  Civil  Service  who  j 
shall  willfully  violate  any  provision  of  the 
Civil  Service  act  or  rules  shall  be  dismissed 
from  office. 

The  Civil  Service  act  contains  provisions  for- 
bidding any  person  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States  from  levying  upon  or  collecting  from  | 
persons  in  the  Executive  Civil  Service  contri-  I 
butions  to  be  devoted  to  political  objects,  the  j 
collection  of  such  contributions  by  any  person 
in  any  public  building  of  the  United  States,  or 
discrimination    against   persons   who    do    not  j 
make   such  contributions   or   render   political 
service.     A  violation  of  any  of  the  provisions 
concerning  political  assessments,  or  their  col- 
lection   in    a   public    building   of   the  United  | 


States,  is  declared  to  be  a  misdemeanor,  pun- 
ishable by  a  fine  not  exceeding  five  thousand 
dollars,  or  by  imprisonment  for  a  term  not  ex- 
ceeding three  years,  or  by  such  fine  and  im- 
prisonment both  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 
The  act  also  declares  that  when  rules  to  carry 
its  provisions  into  effect  shall  have  been  pro- 
mulgated, "  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  officers 
of  the  United  States  in  the  departments  and 
offices  to  which  any  such  rules  may  relate,  to 
aid,  in  all  proper  ways,  in  carrying  said  rules, 
and  any  modifications  thereof,  into  effect." 

Political  Activity  of  Officials. — An 
executive  order  of  July  14,  1896,  which  is 
still  in  force,  warns  office-holders  that,  while 
individual  interest  and  activity  in  political 
affairs  are  by  no  means  condemned,  they  must 
bear  in  mind  that  their  time  and  labor  are  due 
to  the  Government,  and  that  they  should  scru- 
pulously avoid,  in  their  political  action  as  well 
as  in  the  discharge  of  their  official  duty,  offend- 
ing, by  obtrusive  partisanship,  their  neighbors 
who  have  relations  with  them  as  public 
officials. 

The  Unclassified  Executive  Civil 
Service.  —  The  portion  of  the  Executive 
Civil  Service  which  is  not  classified  embraces 
the  following  :  All  officers  nominated  by  the 
President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  in- 
cluding members  of  the  Cabinet,  assistant  sec- 
retaries, certain  chiefs  of  bureaus,  etc.,  in  the 
Executive  Departments  at  Washington,  col- 
lectors, naval  officers,  surveyors,  and  ap- 
praisers in  the  Customs  Service,  collectors  in 
the  Internal  Revenue  Service,  and  first,  second, 
and  third  class  postmasters.  Other  unclassi- 
fied positions  are  fourth  class  postmasters,  the 
employees  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  em- 
ployees of  the  Library  of  Congress,  clerks  in 
post  offices  not  having  free  delivery,  mere 
laborers  and  workmen,  certain  positions  hav- 
ing a  compensation  of  less  than  $300  a  year, 
and  the  Consular  Service.  Examinations  for 
positions  in  the  service  last  named  are  non- 
competitive, and  conducted  by  a  board  of  the 
Department  of  State. 


UNITED  STATES  CUSTOMS  DUTIES. 

A  TABLE  OF  LEADING  ARTICLES  IMPORTED,  GIVING  RATE  AT  ENTRY  BY  THE 

TARIFF  ACT  OF  1897. 
N.  e.  s.  indicates  "  when  not  elsewhere  specified." 


Articles. 


Tariff  Rate. 


Articles. 


Blankets. 


Alcohol,  amylic,  or  fusel  oil V*c.  4?  lb. 

Animals  for  breeding  purposes Free. 

Barley,  bushel  of  48  lbs 30  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Beads,  glass 35  " 

Beef,  mutton,  and  pork 2c.  ^9>lb. 

Beer,  ale,  not  in  bottles 20c.  ^  gal. 

Beer,  porter,  and  ale,  in  bottles 40c.       " 

Bindings,  cotton 45  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Bindings,  flax 45  " 

Bindings,  wool 5Co.  ^  lb.    and    Brushes 

60  p.  c.  ad  val.      Butter,  and  substitutes  for 


Blankets,  value  40c.  to  50c 

Bonnets,  silk 

Books,  charts,  maps 

Books  over  20  years   old,    for   public 

libraries 

Bronze,  manufactures  of 


Tariff  Rate. 

22c.  ^  lb.  and 
30  p.  c.  ad  val. 

33c.  $Mb.  and  35 
p.  c.  ad  val.  (a) 

60  p.  c.  ad  val. 

26          " 

Free. 

45  p.  c.  ad -val. 

40 

6c.  :p  lb. 

40 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Articles. 


Buttons,  sleeve  and  collar,  gilt. 

Canvas  for  sails 

Caps,  fur  and  leather 

Carpets,  treble  ingrain 


Carpets,  two-ply 


Carpets,  tapestry  Brussels 

Carpets,  "Wilton,  Axminster,  velvet. 


Cattle  (over  one  year  old). 

Cheese,  all  kinds 

Cigars  and  cigarettes 


Clocks,  n.  e.  s 

Clothing,  ready-made,  cotton,  n.  e.  s. . . 
Clothing,  ready-made,  linen,  silk,  and 

woolen 

Coal,  anthracite 

Coal,  bituminous 

Coffee 

Confectionery,  all  sugar 


Copper,  manufactures  of 

Cotton  gloves 

Cotton  handkerchiefs,  hemmed 

Cotton  handkerchiefs,  hemstitched . 
Cotton  hosiery 


Cotton  shirts  and  drawers . 


Catton  plushes,  unbleached. 


Cotton  webbing 

Cotton  curtains 

Cutlery,  more  than ! 


per  doz 

Cutlery,  razors,  over  $3  per  doz. 
Cutlery,  table  knives 


Cutlery,  table  knives,  over  $4  P"  doz. . . 

Diamonds  (uncut,  free),  cut  and  set 

Diamonds,  cut,  but  not  set 

Drugs  (crude,  free),  not  crude 


Dyewoods,  crude 

Dyewoods,  extracts  of 

Earthenware,  common 

Earthenware,  porcelain,  plain 

Earthenware,  porcelain,  etc.,  decorated 

Eggs 

Engravings 

Extracts,  meat 

Fertilizers,  guanos,  manures 

Firearms 

Fish,  American  fisheries 

Fish,  smoked,  dried 

Flannels 


Flannels,  value  40c.  to  50c. 


Flax,  manufactures  of ,  m  e.  s 

Flowers,  artificial 

Fruits,  preserved  in  their  own  juice. 


Fruits,  apples 

Fruits,  oranges,  lemons,  n.  e.  s 

Fur,  manufactures  of 

Furniture,  wood 

Glassware,  plain  and  cut 

Glass,  polished  plate,  not  over  16x24. 

Class,  silvered,  not  over  16x24 

Glass  bottles,  over  1  pint 

Gloves,  men's,  ladies',  children's 

Glucose 

Glue,  value  not  over  7c.  per  lb 

Gold,  manufactures  of,  not  jewelry. . 
Hair  of  hogs,  curled  for  mattresses  . 

Hair,  manufactures,  n.  c.  s 

Hair,  human  unmanufactured 


Tariff  Kate. 


50  p.  c.  ad  val. 
45  " 

36  " 

22c.  »  sq.  yd.  & 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
18c.  psq.yd.  & 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
28c.  p  sq.  yd.  & 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
60c.  psq.yd.  & 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
27%  p.  c.  ad  val. 
6c.  p  lb. 
$4.50  p  lb.  and 

25  p.  c.  ad  val. 
40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
50  " 

60  "  (fc) 

Free. 

67c.  $>  ton. 

Free. 

50  p.  c.  ad  val. 

(if  more   than 

15c.  ^  lb.). 
45  p.  c.  ad  val. 
50  " 

45  " 

55  " 

50c.  to  $2  »  doz. 

pairs  and  15  p. 

c.  ad  val. 
60c.  to  82.25  & 

doz.  pairs  &  15 

p.  c.  to  50  p.  c. 

ad  val. 
9c.  ;p  sq.  yd.  & 

25  p.  c.  ad  val. 
45  p.  c.  ad  val. 
50 
20c.  $■  piece  & 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 
$1.75  ^  doz.  & 

20  p.  c.  ad  val. 
16c.  each  and  15 

p.  c.  ad  val. 
45  p.  c.  ad  val. 
60  " 

10  " 

V4c.  »  lb.  and  10 

p.  c.  ad  val. 
Free. 
%c.p>lb. 
25  p.  c.  ad  val. 
55  " 

60  p.  c.  ad  val. 
5c.  p>  doz. 
25  p.  c.  ad  val. 
35c.  $>  lb. 
Free. 

(P) 
Free. 
%c.  i?  lb. 
22c.  ^   lb.   and 

30  p.  c.  ad  val. 
33c.  p   lb.   and 

35  p.  c.  ad  val. 
45  p.  c.  ad  val. 
50  " 

lc.  ^  lb.  and  &5 

p.  c.  ad  val. 
25c.  %?  bu. 
lc.  p  lb. 
50  p.  c.  ad  val. 
35 

60  " 

8c.  »  sq.  foot, 
lie.       " 
lc.  p  lb. 

* 

lHc.  pib. 
Mb.  |>li..  (a) 
45  p.  c.  ad  val. 
10 
35 

20    p.     c;    not 
drawn,  free. 


Articles.  j     Tariff  Rate. 

Hams  and  bacon 5c.  p  lb. 

Hay $4  #  ton. 

Hemp  cordage 2c.  p  lb. 

Hides,  raw,  dried,  salted,   pickled 15  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Honey 20c.  B  gal. 

Hoops,  iron  or  steel,  baling 5- 10c.  ^  lb. 

Hops 12c,  ^  lb. 

Horn,  manufactures  of J30  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Horses,  mules $30  $?  head,  (h ) 

India  rubber,  manufactures  of 30  p.  c.  ad  val. 

India  rubber,  vulcanized |35  " 

Instruments,  metal 45  " 

Iron,  manufactures  of  n.  e.  s 45  " 

Iron  screws,  %  inch  or  less  in  length. . .  12c.  $"  lb. 

Iron,  tinned  plates l%c.  p  lb. 

Ivory,  manufactures  of,  n.  e.  s 38  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Jewelry 60  " 

Knit  goods,  wool,  value  not  over  30c.  $> 

lb 38l/2c.  p»  lb. 

Knit  goods,  woolen  apparel,  30  to  40c. 

» lb 38y2c .  ^  lb . 

Knit  goods,  woolen  apparel,  over  4i)c. 

p  lb 44c.  p  lb.  (c) 

Knit  goods,  silk 60  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Lard 2c.  p  lb. 

Lead,  pigs,  bars \2V*c.  " 

Lead,  type  metal 'l%c.  " 

Leather  manufactures,  n.  e.  s 35  p.  c.  ad  \sA. 

Linen  manufactures,  n.  e.  s 45  " 

Linen,  wearing  apparel 60  " 

Macaroni IV2C.  »  lb. 

Malt,  barley 45c.  ^  bu. 

Matches,  friction,  boxed 8c.  p  gross. 

Matting,  cocoa  and  rattan J6c.  $>  sq.  yard. 

Meerschaum  pipes 60  p.  c .  ad  val. 

Milk,  fresh 2c.  p  gal. 

Milk,  condensed ;2c.  p  lb. 

Molasses,  n.  e.  s 40D  to  56°,  3c.  i> 

I  gal.    («) 

Muffs,  fur !35  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Musical  instruments [45  " 

Nails,  cut 6-lOc.  » lb. 

Nails,  horseshoe 2V4c.      " 

Newspapers,  periodicals Free. 

Oilcloth,  value  over  25c 8  to  20c.  p   sq. 

yd.       (j). 

Oil,  olive j50c.    $?   gal.,  in 

I  bottles,  etc. 

Oil,  olive,  n.  e.  s J40c.  p  gal. 

Oil,  whale  and  seal,  foreign,  n.  e.  s 8c  $>  gal. 

Onions 40c.  p  bu. 

Opium  liquid  preparations 40  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Opium,  crude  and  unadulterated $1  P1  lb. 

Paintings  and  marble  statuary ;20  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Paper  manufactures,  n.  e.  s |35  " 

Paper  stock,  crude iFree. 

Pepper,  cayenne,  unground j2%c.  p  lb. 

Perfumery^  alcoholic 60c.  $*  lb-   anfl 

45  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Photograph  albums 35  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Photograph  slides 25  " 

Pickles 40  " 

Pins,  metallic 35  " 

Pipes  of  clay,  common,  40c.  p  gross 15c.  B  gross. 

Poultry,  dressed ;5c.  p  lb. 

Potatoes 1 25c.  p  bu. 

Pulp  wood,  for  paper -makers  110c.      $?      lb., 

mechanically 
ground.    (/) 

Quicksilver 7c.  p  lb. 

Quinine,  sulphate,  and  salts Free. 

Railroad  ties,  cedar 20  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Rugs,  Oriental 10c.  $>  sq.  f .  and 

I  40  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Salmon,  dried  or  smoked s/tc.  %>  lb. 

Salmon,  prepared  or  preserved 30  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Salt 12c.  ^  lb.,  pack- 

I  ages;  8c.  p  lb., 
j  bulk. 

Sauces,  n.  e.  s 40  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Sausages,  bologna Free. 

Sausages,  all  others 25  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Sealskin  sacques |36  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Silk,  raw |Free. 

Silk,  spunin  skeins [35  p. c.  ad  val.(d) 

Silk  laces,  wearing  apparel 60  " 

Skins,  uncured,  raw Free. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


41 


Akticles. 


Skins,  tanned  and  dressed  

Slates,  manufactures  of .  n.  e.  s 

Smokers'  articles,  ex.  clay  pipes 

Soap,  castile 

Soap,  toilet,  perfumed 

Spirits,  except  bay  rum 

Straw  manufactures,  n.  e.  s 

Sugars,  not  above  16  Dutch  standard.. . 

Sugars,  above  16  Dutch  standard 

Tea 

Tin,  ore  or  metal 

Tin  plates 

Tobacco,  cigar  wrappers,  not  stemmed 

Tobacco,  if  stemmed  

Tobacco,  all  other  leaf,  stemmed 

Tobacco,  unmanufactured,    not  stem- 
med  

Umbrellas,  silk  or  alpaca 

Vegetables,  natural,  n.  e.  s 

Vegetables,  prepared  or  preserved 

Velvets,  silk,  75  p.  c.  or  more  silk 

Watches  and  parts  of 

"Wheat,  bushel  of  60  lb 

Willow  for  basket-makers 

Willow  manufactures,  n.  e.  s 

Wines,  champagne,  in  %  pt.  bottles  or 

less 

Wines,  champagne,  in  bottles,  %  pt.  to 

1  ]>t 

Wines,  champagne,  in  bottles,  1  pt.  to 

1  qt 

Wines,  still,  in  casks  containing  more 

than  14  p.  c.  absolute  alcohol 


Tariff  Rate. 


20  p.  c.  ad  val. 
20  " 

60  " 

li/4c.  Tp  lb. 
15  p.  c.  ad  val. 
$2.25  prf.  gal. 
130  p.  c.  ad  val. 
95-100c.  ^  lb. 
95-100c.    " 
Free. 

|lV2c.  ^lb. 

31.85  " 
$2.50  " 
50c.       " 

35c.      " 

50  p.  c.  ad  val. 

25 

40  " 

§1.50  ^  lb.  and 

|  15  p.  c.  ad  val. 

40  p.  c.  ad  val. 

m 

120  " 

140  " 

32  ^  doz. 
34       " 
38       " 
50c.  &  gal. 


Abticles. 


Tariff  Rate. 


Woods,  cabinet  sawed 31  to  32  fM.  ft. 

Wool,  first  class |llc.  ^lb. 

Wool,  second  class 12c.    " 

Wool,  third  class,  n.  e.  s.,  above  13c.  ^1 

lb 7c.  #>  lb.    (c) 

Wool  or  worsted  yarns,  value  not  over  27>£c.  ^  lb.  and 

30c.  ^  lb 40  p.  c.  ad  val. 

Wool  or  worsted  yarns,  value  30  to  40c  38^0.  ^  lb.  &  40 

p  lb ■  p.  c.  ad  val.  (/) 

Wool  or  worsted  yarns,  value  over  40c.  38%c.  p  lb.  and 

^lb '■  40  p.  cad  val. 

Woolen  or  worsted  clothing 44c.   ^  lb.   and 

I  60  p.  c.  ad  val. 
Woolen  manufactures,  n.  e.  s 33c.  ^  lb. 

*TheDingley  Tariff  increases  rates  on  women's  and 
children's  gloves  uniformly  75c.  per  dozen  pairs;  on 
men's  gloves  the  rates  are  the  same  as  the  Wilson  rates, 
(a)  Valued  at  more  than  50c.  per  lb.,  33c.  per  lb.  and  40 
per  cent,  ad  val.  (6)  Specific  duties  ranging  from  31-50 
to  36  on  each  article  and  35  per  cent,  aa  val.  (c)  On 
goods  above  40c.  and  not  above  70c.  per  lb. ;  duty  on 
goods  above  70c.  per  lb.,  44c.  per  lb.  and  55  per  cent,  ad 
val.  (<i)  Value  $1  per  lb.  20c.  per  lb.  and  15  per  cent,  ad 
val.,  with  increasing  duty  of  10c.  per.  lb.  for  each  50c. 
additional  value  up  to  32*.50;  all  over  32.50  per  lb.,  60c. 
per  lb.  and  15  per  cent,  ad  val.  (e)  Wool  valued  at 
12c.  per  lb.  or  less,  4c.  per  lb. ;  above  12c.  duty  is  7c.  per 
lb.  (/)  Two  prices  only  in  Dingley  bill,  30c.  and  less, 
and  above  30c.  (g)  If  not  over  10c.  per  lb.  (h)  If  valued 
at  3150 ;  if  more,  25  per  cent,  ad  val.  (i)  Above  56°,  6c. 
per  gal.  (J)  And  15  to  20  per  cent,  ad  val.  (k)  On  wool- 
en an  additional  duty  of  lie.  per  lb.  (0  Chemical  wood 
pulp,  l-6c.  per  lb. 


WAR   REVENUE    TAXES. 
Taxes  Imposed  by  Congress  Under  Revenue  Act  Approved  June  13,  1898. 

TAX  ON  FERMENTED  LIQUORS  — TOOK  EFFECT  FROM  DATE  OF  ACT. 

Beer,  lager  beer,  ale,  porter,  and  other  similar  fermented  liquor,  per  barrel  of  31  gallons 32 

(7>i  per  cent,  discount  on  all  sales  of  stamps.) 
ANNUAL  SPECIAL  TAXES  — TOOK  EFFECT  JULY  1,  1898. 

Bankers  using  a  capital  (including  surplus)  not  exceeding  §25,000 350 

For  every  additional  31,000  in  excess  of  $25,000 2 

Brokers  (except  those  paying  tax  as  bankers) 50 

Pawnbrokers 20 

Commercial  brokers 20 

Custom-house  brokers 10 

Proprietors  of  theaters,  museums,  and  concert  halls  in  cities  of  more  than  25,000  population,  as  shown  by 

last  preceding  United  States  census 100 

Proprietors  of  circuses 100 

Proprietors  of  other  public  exhibitions  or  shows  for  money 10 

Proprietors  of  bowling  alleys  and  billiard  rooms,  for  each  alley  or  table 5 

TOBACCO,  CIGARS,  CIGARETTES,  AND  SNUFF. 

Tobacco  and  snuff,  manufactured 12  cents  per  pound 

Cigars  and  cigarettes : 

Cigars  weighing  more  than  3  pounds  per  1,000 , $3.60  per  M 

Cigars  weighing  not  more  than  3  pounds  per  1,000 1.00  per  M 

Cigarettes  weighing  more  than  3  pounds  per  1,000 3.60  per  M 

Cigarettes  weighing  not  more  than  3  pounds  per  1,000 1.50  per  M 

Dealers  in  leaf  tobacco  and  manufacturers  of  tobacco: 

When  annual  sales  do  not  exceed  50,000  pounds 36 

When  annual  sales  exceed  50,000  and  do  not  exceed  100,000  pounds 12 

When  annual  sales  exceed  100,000  pounds 24 

Dealers  in  tobacco  whose  annual  sales  exceed  50,000  pounds 12 

Manufacturers  of  cigars: 

When  annual  sales  do  not  exceed  100,000  ciga.c        6 

Wrhen  annual  sales  exceed  100,000  and  do  not  excee_  36C.0O0  cigars 12 

When  annual  sales  exceed  200,000  cigars - 24 

STAMP  TAXES  — TOOK  EFFECT  JULY  1,  1898. 
Bonds,  debentures,  or  certificates  of  stock  and  indebtedness  issued  after  July  1, 1898,  on  each  $100  of 

face  value 5  cents 

Certificates  of  stock,  original  issues  of,  on  organization  or  reorganization,  on  each  $100  of  face  value  or 

fraction  thereof , 5  cents 

Sale  or  agreement  to  sell  stock  in  any  association,  company,  or  corporation,  on  each  3100  of  face  value 

or  fraction  thoreof 2  cents 

Sale  or  agreement  to  sell  any  products  of  merchandise,  at  any  exchange,  board  of  trade,  or  similar  place : 

For  each  $100  in  value , 1  cent 

For  each  additional  $100  or  fraction  thereof 1  cent 

Bank  check,  draft,  or  certificate  of  deposit  not  drawing  interest,  or  money  order  at  sight 2  cents 

Bill  of  exchange  (inland),  draft,  certificate  of  deposit  drawing  interest,  or  money  order  other  than  at  sight  or 
on  demand,  or  promissorv  note  (except  bank  notes),  and  original  domestic  money  orders  issued  by 
the  United  States  after  July  1, 1898: 

For  a  sum  not  exceeding"$100 2  cents 

For  each  additional  $100  or  fraction  thereof 2  cents 


42  THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 

Bill  of  exchange  (foreign)  or  letter  of  credit  (including  orders  by  telegraph,  or  otherwise,  for  the  payment  of 
money  issued  by  express  or  other  companies,  or  any  person),  drawn  in,  but  payable  out  of,  the  United  States : 
If  drawn  singly  or  otherwise  than  in  a  set  of  three  or  more  — 

Not  exceeding  §100 4  cents 

For  each  additional  $100  or  part  thereof 4  cents 

If  drawn  in  sets  of  two  or  more  — 

For  every  bill  of  each  set  not  exceeding  $100 2  cents 

For  each  additional  $100  or  part  thereof 2  cents 

Bill  of  lading  or  receipt  (other  than  charter  party)  for  merchandise  for  export 10  cents 

Bill  of  lading,  manifest,  or  receipt,  and  each  duplicate  thereof,  express  and  freight 1  cent 

Telephone  messages  costing  15  cents  or  over each    1  cent 

Bonds  of  indemnity 50  cents 

Certificates  of  profit  and  transfers  thereof,  on  each  $100  or  part  of 2  cents 

Certificates  issued  by  port  warden  or  surveyor 25  cents 

Certificates,  all  other,  required  by  law,  not  elsewhere  specified 10  cents 

Charter  contracts  or  agreements,  or  renewals  or  transfers  of  : 

For  vessels  not  exceeding  300  tons £.'! 

For  vessels  exceeding  300  and  not  exceeding  600  tons 5 

For  vessels  exceeding  600  tons 10 

Broker's  note  or  memorandum  of  sale 10  cents 

Conveyance  deed  or  instrument  or  writing  transferring  realty : 

When  value  exceeds  $100  and  does  not  exceed  $500 50  cents 

For  each  additional  $500  or  fraction  thereof 50  cents 

Telegraphic  despatch 1  cent 

Custom-house  entry  of  merchandise : 

Not  exceeding  $100  in  value 25  cents 

Exceeding  $100  and  not  exceeding  $500 50  cents 

Exceeding  $500 si 

Entry  for  withdrawal  of  merchandise  from  customs  bonded  warehouse 50  cents 

Life  insurance  policies  (except  any  fraternal  beneficiary  society  or  order,  or  farmers'  purely  local  co- 
operative company  or  association,  or  employees'  relief  associations  operated  on  the  lodge'systeni  or 
local  co-operation  plan,  organized  and  conducted  solely  by  the  members  thereof  for  the  exclusive 
benefit  of  its'  members  and  not  for  profit) : 

For  each  $100  or  fractional  part  of R  cents 

On  policies  issued  on  weekly-pa vment  plan 40  per  cent,  on  amount  of  first  weekly  premium 

Insurance  policies  (marine,  inland,  fire),  except  purely  co-operative  or  mutual,  on  each  dollar  of  the 

amount  of  premium V2  of  1  cent 

Insurance  policies  (casualty,  fidelity,  and  guarantee),  on  each  dollar  of  amount  of  premium y2  of  1  cent 

Lease,  agreement,  or  contract  for  rent : 

Not  exceeding  one  year 25  cents 

Exceeding  one  year  and  not  exceeding  three  years 50  cents 

Exceeding  three  years $1 

Manifest  for  entry  or  clearance  of  vessel  for  foreign  port : 

When  registered  tonnage  does  not  exceed  300  tons 1 

When  registered  tonnage  exceeds  300  tons  and  does  not  exceed  600  tons 3 

When  registered  tonnage  exceeds  600  tons 5 

Mortgage  or  pledge  of  lands,  estate,  or  property,  real  or  personal,  or  assignment,  transfer,  or  renewal  of : 

Exceeding:  $1,000  and  not  exceeding  $1,500 25  cents 

On  each  $500,  or  fractional  part  of,  m  excess  of  $1,500 25  cents 

Passage  tickets  from  the  United  States  to  foreign  parts : 

Costing  not  over  $30 $1 

Costing  more  than  $30  and  not  over  $60 3 

Costing  more  than  $60 5 

Power  of  attorney  or  proxy  for  voting  at  any  election  of  officers  of  any  incorporated  company  or  asso- 
ciation, except  religious,  charitable,  or  literary,  or  public  cemeteries ." 10  cents 

Power  of  attorney,  other 25  cents 

Protests  of  notes,  etc 25  cents 

Warehouse  receipts 25  cents 

Medicinal  proprietary  articles  and  preparations  (on  every  packet,  box,  bottle,  pot,  phial,  or  other  in- 
closure) : 

On  retail  value  not  exceeding  5  cents '  j  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  5  cents  and  not  exceeding  10  cents '4  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  10  cents  and  not  exceeding:  15  cents %  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  15  cents  and  not  exceeding  25  cents %  of  1  cent 

Each  additional  25  cents  of  retail  price  or  fractional  part  thereof %  of  1  cent 

Perfumery,  cosmetics,  and  other  similar  articles  (on  every  packet,  box,  bottle,  etc.) : 

On  retail  value  not  exceeding  5  cents %  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  5  cents  and  not  exceeding  10  cents tt  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  10  cents  and  not  exceeding  15  cents %  of  1  cent 

Exceeding  15  cents  and  not  exceeding  25  cents %  of  1  cent 

Each  additional  25  cents  or  part  thereof %  of  1  cent 

Sparkling  or  other  wines,  bottled : 

Each  bottle  containing  1  pint  or  less 1  cent 

Each  bottle  containing:  more  than  1  pint 2  cents 

Chewing  gum,  or  substitutes : 

On  each  jar,  box,  or  other  package,  if  not  more  than  $1  retail  value 4  cents 

On  each  additional  $1  or  part  thereof 4  cents 

EXCISE  TAXES. 

Corporation,  company,  person,  or  firm  refining  petroleum  or  sugar,  or  owning  or  controlling 
any  pipe  line  for  transporting  oil  or  other  products  where  gross  annual  receipts  exceed 
$250,000  —  on  gross  amount  cf  receipts  in  excess  of  $260,600 '4  nf  1  per  cent. 

On  every  seat  sold  in  a  palace  or  parlor  car,  and  on  every  berth  sold  in  a  sleeping  car 1  cent 

LEGACY   TAXES —  TOOK    EFFECT.    FROM    DATE  OF  ACT. 
\.    Where  the  person  or  persons  entitled  to  beneficial  Interest  shall  be  tire  lineal  issue  or  lineal  ancestor,  brother, 
or  sister  of  deceased : 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  119,000  and  does  not  exceed  $25,000 75  cents  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $25,000  and  does  not  exceed  $100,000 $1,125  on  each  sino 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


43 


When  tbe  whole  amount  exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not  exceed  §500,000 SI  .50  on  each  §100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  8500.000  and  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000 $1,875  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $1,000,000 $2.25  on  each  $100 

■J.    Where  the  person  or  persons  entitled  to  beneficial  interest  shall  be  the  descendant  of  a  brother  or  sister : 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $10,000  and  does  not  exceed  $25,000 $1.50  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $25,000  and  does  not  exceed  $100,000 $2  25  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not  exceed  $500,000 $3  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $500,000  and  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000 $3.75  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $1,000.000 $4.50  on  each  $100 

3.  Where  the  person  or  persons  entitled  to  any  beneficial  interest  shall  be  the  brother  or  sister  of  the  father  or 

mother  or  a  descendant  of  a  brother  or  sister  of  the  father  or  mother : 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $10,000  and  does  not  exceed  $25.000 $3  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $25,000  and  does  not  exceed  $100,000 $4.50  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not  exceed  $500,000 $6  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $500,000  and  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000 $7.50  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $1,000,000 $9  on  each  $100 

4.  Where  the  person  or  persons  entitled  to  beneficial  interest  shall  be  the  brother  or  sister  of  the  grandfather  or 

grandmother  or  a  descendant  of  the  brother  or  sister  of  the  grandfather  or  grandmother : 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $10,000  and  does  not  exceed  $25.000 $4  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  §25,000  and  does  not  exceed  $100,000 $6  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not  exceed  $500,000 $8  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exeeds  $500,000  and  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000 $10  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $1,000,000 $12  on  each  $100 

6.    Where  the  person  or  persons  entitled  to  beneficial  interest  shall  be  a  person  of  any  other  degree  of  collateral 

consanguinity,  or  a  stranger  in  blood,  or  a  body  politic  or  corporation : 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $10,000  and  does  hot  exceed  S25.000 $5  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $25,000  and  does  not  exceed  $100,000 $7.50  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $100,000  and  does  not  exceed  $500,000 $10  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  §500.000  and  does  not  exceed  $1,000,000 $12.50  on  each  $100 

When  the  whole  amount  exceeds  $1,000,000 $15  on  each  $100 

MIXED  FLOUR— TOOK  EFFECT  60  DAYS  AFTER  PASSAGE  OF  ACT. 

Person,  firm,  or  corporation  making,  packing,  or  repacking $12  per  annum 

On  each  barrel  containing  more  than  98  pounds  and  not  more  than  196  pounds 4  cents  per  barrel 

On  each  %  barrel  or  package  containing  more  than  49  pounds  and  not  more  than  98  pounds. . .  2  cents  per  barrel 

On  each  y4  barrel  or  package  containing  more  than  24%  pounds  and  not  more  than  49  pounds.  1   cent  per  barrel 

On  each  y8  barrel  or  package  containing  24%  pounds  or  less %  cent  per  barrel 

CUSTOMS  DUTIES. 
Tea  imported  from  foreign  countries 10  cents  per  pound 

THE   BRITISH    CUSTOMS    TARIFF. 

Formerly  almost  every  article  imported  into  the  United  Kingdom,  whether  manufactured  or  raw  material, 
was  in  the  tariff.  In  1842  the  Customs  Tariff  numbered  no  fewer  than  1,200  articles.  Now  it  contains  but  twenty. 
The  following  are  the  duties  on  importations : 


£  s.  d. 
Beer,  mum  and  spruce,  the    original   specific 
gravity  not  exceeding  1215°,  per  barrel 

of  36  galls 18    0 

"      exceeding  1215  ,  per  barrel  of  36  galls 112  10 

"      and  ale,  worts  of  which  were  before  fer- 
mentation of  a  specific  gravity  of  1055°, 

per  barrel  of  36  galls 0    7    0 

And  so  in  proportion  for  any  difference  in 
gravity. 

Cards  (playing) per  doz.  packs 

Chicory,  ra'w  or  kiln-dried cwt. 

"       '    roasted  or  ground lb. 

"  and  coffee  mixed " 

rhloral  hydrate " 

Chloroform •' 

Cocoa " 

"      husks  and  shells cwt. 

"      or  chocolate,  ground,  prepared,  or  in  any 

way  manufactured lb. 

Coffee,  raw." cwt. 

"        kiln-dried,  roasted,  or  ground lb. 

Collodion gall. 

Confectionery,  in  the  manufacture  of   which 

spirit  has  been  used lb. 

Ether,  acetic " 

"       butyric gall. 

"       sulphuric " 

Ethyl,  iodide  of " 

Fruit  (dried) :    Currants cwt. 

"      Figs,  prunes,  raisins " 

Naphtha  or  methylic  alcohol  (puri.)  proof,  .gall.    0  10  10 


0    3 

9 

0  13 

3 

0    0 

2 

0    0 

i 

0     1 

3 

0    3 

1 

0    0 

1 

0    2 

0 

0    0 

2 

0  14 

0 

0    0 

a 

1     5 

0 

0    0 

i., 

0    1 

in 

0  15 

8 

1    6 

2 

0  13 

7 

0    2 

0 

0    7 

0 

0  IT 


0  14    8 


£  s.  d. 
Soap,  transparent,  in  the  manufacture  of  which 

spirit  has  been  used lb.    0    0    3 

Spirits,  or  strong  waters proof  gall.    0  10  10 

"       Perfumed   spirits   and   cologne   water 

liquid  gall. 

"       Liqueurs,  cordials,  or  other  preparations 

containing  spirit  in  bottle,  if  not  to 

be  tested  for  ascertaining  the  strength, 

liquid  gall. 

Tea lb.    0    0 

Tobacco,  unmanuf .,  containing  10  per  cent,  or 

more  of  moisture lb.    0    3 

"         containing  less  than  10  per  cent 0    3 

"         cigars 0    5 

"         Cavendisb  or  negrohead 0    4 

"         snuff   not   more   than  13  lbs.  (in  100 

lbs.)  moisture lb.    0    4 

"         snuff  cont.  more  than  13  lbs "      0    3 

"         other  manufactured 0    4 

"         Cavendish    or    negrohead   'manufac- 
tured in  bond  from  unmanufactured 

tobacco lb. 

Varnish  (cont.  spirit),  same  as  spirits. 

Wine,  not  exceeding  30°  proof  spirits gall. 

"      exceeding   30°,  but   not   exceeding  42D 

gall.    0 
"      for  each  additional  deg.  of  strength  be 

yond  42° gall 

Sparkling  wine  imported  in  bottle " 

These  duties  are  in  addition  to  the  duty  in  respect  of 
alcoholic  strength. 


0    4    0 
0    10 


0    0 
0    2 


There  are  drawbacks  for  roasted  coffee  shipped  as  stores,  and  for  tobacco  and  snuff  manufactured  an  the 
United  Kingdom. 

The  receipts  from  customs  in  the  United  Kingdom,  year  ending  March  31,  1895,  were  £20,115,000  or  about 
$98,000,000.  The  total  revenue  of  the  Government  from  all  sources  was  £101,697,304,  so  that  the  receipts  from 
customs  were  about  20  per  cent.  The  other  sources  of  revenue  were:  From  excise,  £26,050,000;  from  stamps, 
£14,440,000 ;  from  income  and  property  taxes,  £15,600,000 ;  from  post  office,  £10,760,000 ;  from  telegraphs,  £2,580,000. 
The  remainder  from  land  tax,  house  duty,  crown  lands,  and  miscellaneous. 


44 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


LABOR   LEGISLATION. 

Anti-Boy  cotting  and  Anti-Black- 
listing Laws. —  The  States  having  laws 
prohibiting  boycotting  in  terms  are  Colorado, 
Illinois,  and  Wisconsin. 

The  States  having  laws  prohibiting  black- 
listing in  terras  are  Alabama,  Colorado,  Con- 
necticut, Florida,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana, 
Nevada,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Utah, 
Virginia,  and  Wisconsin. 

The  following  States  have  laws  which  may 
be  fairly  construed  as  prohibiting  boycotting: 
Alabama,  Connecticut,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  New  Hampshire,  New 
York,  North  Dakota,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  South 
Dakota,  Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  and  Wisconsin. 

The  following  States  have  laws  which  may 
be  fairly  construed  as  prohibiting  blacklisting: 
Georgia,  Michigan,  New  Hampshire,  New 
York,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Rhode  Island,  and 
South  Dakota. 

In  the  following  States  it  is  unlawful  for 
any  employer  to  exact  an  agreement,  either 
written  or  verbal,  from  an  employee  not  to  join 
or  become  a  member  of  any  labor  organiza- 
tion, as  a  condition  of  employment :  Cali- 
fornia, Colorado,  Idaho,  Indiana,  Massachu- 
setts, Minnesota,  Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New 
York,  Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Eight  -  Honr  Laws.  —  California.  — 
Eight  hours  of  labor  constitute  a  day's  work, 
unless  it  is  otherwise  expressly  stipulated  by 
the  parties  to  a  contract.  A  stipulation  that 
eight  hours  of  labor  constitute  a  day's  work 
must  be  made  a  part  of  all  contracts  to  which 
the  State  or  any  municipal  corporation  there- 
in is  a  party.  But  in  the  case  of  drivers, 
conductors,  and  gripmen  of  street  cars  for  the 
carriage  of  passengers,  a  day's  work  consists 
of  twelve  hours.  Employment  of  minor 
children  for  more  than  eight  hours  per  day  is 
absolutely  prohibited,  except  in  vinicultural  or 
horticultural  pursuits,  or  in  domestic  or  house- 
hold occupations. 

Colorado.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  day's 
work  for  all  workingmen  employed  by  the 
State,  or  any  county,  township,  school  district, 
municipality,  or  incorporated  town. 

Connecticut.  Eight  hours  of  labor  con- 
stitute a  lawful  day's  work  unless  otherwise 
agreed. 

District  of  Columbia.  Eight  hours  con- 
stitute a  day's  work  for  all  laborers  or  mechan- 
ics employed  by  or  on  behalf  of  the  District  of 
Columbia. 

Idaho.  Eight  hours'  actual  work  consti- 
tute a  lawful  day's  work  on  all  State  and  munic- 
ipal works. 


Illinois.  Eight  hours  are  a  legal  day's 
work  in  all  mechanical  employments,  except 
on  farms,  and  when  otherwise  agreed  ;  does  not 
apply  to  service  by  the  day,  week,  or  month, 
or  prevent  contracts  for  longer  hours. 

Indiana.  Eight  hours  of  labor  constitute  a 
legal  day's  work  for  all  classes  of  mechanics, 
workingmen,  and  laborers,  excepting  those  en- 
gaged in  agricultural  and  domestic  labor. 
Overwork  by  agreement  and  for  extra  compen- 
sation is  permitted.  The  employment  of  per- 
sons under  fourteen  years  of  age  for  more  than 
eight  hours  per  day  is  absolutely  prohibited. 

Kansas.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  day's 
work  for  all  laborers,  mechanics,  or  other  per- 
sons employed  by  or  on  behalf  of  the  State  or 
any  county,  city,  township,  or  other  munic- 
ipality. 

Nebraska.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  legal 
day's  work  for  all  classes  of  mechanics,  serv- 
ants, and  laborers,  except  those  engaged  in 
farm  or  domestic  labor. 

Missouri.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  legal 
day's  work.  The  law  does  not  prevent  an 
agreement  to  work  for  a  longer  or  a  shorter 
time  and  does  not  apply  to  laborers  and  farm 
hands  in  the  service  of  farmers  or  others  en- 
gaged in  agriculture. 

Montana.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  legal 
day's  work  for  persons  engaged  to  operate  or 
handle  any  first-motion  or  direct-acting  hoist- 
ing engine,  or  any  geared  or  indirect-acting 
hoisting  engine  at  any  mine  employing  fifteen 
or  more  men  underground  when  the  duties  of 
fireman  are  performed  by  the  person  so  en- 
gaged ;  also  for  any  stationary  engineer  oper- 
ating a  stationary  engine  developing  fifty  or 
more  horse  power  when  such  engineer  lias 
charge  or  control  of  a  boiler  or  boilers  in  addi- 
tion to  his  other  duties.  The  law  applies  only 
to  such  steam  plants  as  are  in  continuous  opera- 
tion or  are  operated  twenty  or  more  hours  in 
each  twenty-four  hours,  and  does  not  apply  to 
persons  running  any  engine  more  than  eight 
hours  in  each  twenty-four  for  the  purpose  of 
relieving  another  employee  in  case  of  sickness 
or  other  unforeseen  cause. 

New  Jersey.  Eight  hours  constitute  a 
day's  labor  on  any  day  whereon  any  general  or 
municipal  election  shall  be  held. 

New  York.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  day's 
work  for  mechanics,  wTorkingmen,  and  labor- 
ers, except  in  farm  or  domestic  labor,  but 
overwork  for  extra  pay  is  permitted.  The  law 
applies  to  those  employed  by  the  State  or 
municipality,  or  by  persons  contracting  for 
State  work. 

Ohio.  Eight  hours  shall  constitute  a  day's 
work  in  all  engagements  to  labor  in  any  me- 
chanical, manufacturing,  or  mining  business, 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


45 


unless  otherwise  expressly  stipulated  in  the 
contract.  But  in  case  of  conductors,  engineers, 
firemen,  or  trainmen  of  railroads,  a  day's  work 
consists  of  ten  hours. 

Pennsylvania.  Eight  hours  of  labor  shall 
be  deemed  and  held  to  be  a  legal  day's  work 
in  all  cases  of  labor  and  service  by  die  day 
where  there  is  no  agreement  or  contract  to  the 
contrary.  This  does  not  apply  to  farm  or 
agricultural  labor  by  the  year,  month,  or 
week,  to  labor  in  factories,  laundries,  and  ren- 
ovating establishments,  or  to  labor  on  street 
railways. 

Eight  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four  shall 
make  and  constitute  a  day's  labor  in  peniten- 
tiaries and  reformatory  institutions  receiving 
support  from  the  State,  also  for  all  mechanics, 
workmen,  and  laborers  in  the  employ  of  the 
State,  or  of  any  municipal  corporation  therein, 
or  otherwise  engaged  on  public  works ;  this 
shall  be  deemed  to  apply  to  mechanics,  work- 
ingmen,  or  laborers  in  the  employ  of  persons 
contracting  with  the  State  or  any  municipal 
corporation  therein,  for  the  performance  of 
public  work. 

Utah.  Eight  hours  constitute  a  day's  work 
upon  all  public  works  and  in  all  underground 
mines  or  workings,  smelters,  and  all  other  in- 
stitutions for  the  reduction  or  refining  of  ores. 

Wi-consin.  In  all  engagements  to  labor  in 
any  manufacturing  or  mechanical  business, 
where  there  is  no  express  contract  to  the  con- 
trary, a  day's  work  shall  consist  of  eight  hours  ; 
but  the  law  does  not  apply  to  contracts  for 
labor  by  the  week,  month,  or  year.  In  all 
manufactories,  workshops,  or  other  places  used 
for  mechanical  or  manufacturing  purposes,  the 
time  of  labor  of  children  under  the  age  of 
eighteen,  and  of  women  employed  therein, 
shall  not  exceed  eight  hours  in  the  day. 

"Wyoming.  Eight  hours'  actual  work  con- 
stitute a  legal  day's  work  in  all  mines  and 
public  works. 

United  States.  Eight  hours  shall  consti- 
tute a  day's  work  for  all  laborers,  workmen, 
and  mechanics  who  may  be  employed  by  or  on 
behalf  of  the  United  States. 

PENSION  LAWS. 

Any  person  who  has  been,  since  the  4th  of 
March,  18G1,  disabled  in  the  military  or  naval 
service  of  the  United  States,  or  in  its  marine 
corps,  shall,  upon  making  due  proof  of  the 
fact,  be  placed  on  the  list  of  invalid  pensioners 
of  the  United  States.  No  claim  for  pension 
on  the  part  of  a  State  militiaman,  or  non-en- 
listed person,  on  account  of  disability  from 
wounds  received  in  battle,  shall  be  valid  un- 
less prosecuted  to  a  successful  issue  prior  to 
July  4,  1874. 


Rates  of  Pension  Per  Month. 


DISABILITIES. 


a      a  - 

S~  ac     m  h  x 


a  . 

c  ** 


U    _ 


•-  -' 


Loss  of  both  hands $25  00 

Total  disability  in  both 
hands 


Loss  of  both  feet 

Total  disability  in  both 
feet 

Loss  of  sight  of  both 
eyes 

Loss  of  sight  of  one  eye, 
the  sight  of  the  otfier 
having  been  previ- 
ously lost 

Loss  of  one  hand  and 
one  foot 

Total  disability  in  one 
hand  and  one  foot 

Any  disability  equiva- 
lent to  the  loss  of  a 
hand  or  foot 

Any  disability  incapac- 
itating for  the  per- 
formance of  any  man- 
ual labor *. 

Anydisabilityresulting 
in  a  condition  requir- 
ing the  regular  aid- 
and  attendance  of  an- 
other person 

Total  deafness 


25  00 


po  OQ 


a  t  ' 

c  so 

so  ~  x    c  -  x 


a  v 
i-s 


25  00 


20  00 


$31  25  872  00 
31  251  


31  25 
31  25 
31  25 

31  25 
24  00 
24  00 

18  00 
24  00 


00    31  25 
13  00 


72  00 


72  00 
36  00 


June 

4,  '74. 
50  00 


*  Rate  from  June,  1880,  in  case  the  disability  is  per- 
manent and  requires  the  regular  aid  and  attendance  of 
another  person.  An  applicant  for  increase  of  pension 
from  §31.25  to  $72  per  month  must  furnish  the  testimony 
of  his  physician,  or  of  two  credible  witnesses,  to  prove 
the  extent  to  which  he  requires  the  aid  and  attendance 
of  another  person. 

The  same  provision  of  law  which  entitles  to 
§31.25  per  month  entitles  to  §72  per  month, 
provided  that  in  the  latter  ease  the  disability  is 
permanent.  The  loss  of  a  leg  above  the  knee, 
or  an  arm  at  or  above  the  elbow,  entitles  the 
person  so  disabled  to  a  pension  of  §24  per 
month  after  June  4,  1874. 

The  rates  of  §10,  §12,  §14,  and  §16  per 
month  will  be  allowed  in  cases  in  which  the 
disability  bears  the  same  proportion  to  that 
produced  by  the  loss  of  a  hand  or  foot  that 
those  rates  bear  to  the  rate  of  §18  per  month. 
Under  the  pension  law  of  1890  the  soldier 
who  is  wholly  incapacitated  from  earning  a 
living  receives  the  sum  of  §12  a  month, 
whether  the  disability  was  contracted  in  the 
service  or  not ;  for  a  lesser  degree  of  disability, 
§10,  §8,  or  §6. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  by  an  applicant 

for  a  pension  is  to  file  a  declaration  before  a 

court  of  record,  or  before  some  officer  thereof 

having  custody  of  its  seal,    setting  forth  the 

ground    upon    which    he   claims    a    pension. 

Blank  forms  of  declaration  are  furnished  upon 

|  request  at  Commissioner   of   Pensions   office. 

!  The  identity  of  the  applicant  must  be  shown 

j  by  the  testimony   of  two   credible  witnesses, 

I  who  must  appear  with  him  before  the  officer 


46 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


by  whom  the  declaration  may  he  taken.  A 
pensioner  who  may  deem  himself  entitled  to 
an  increase  of  pension  should  file  a  declaration 
on  a  blank  form  furnished  for  the  purpose, 
i  setting  forth  the  ground  upon  which  he  claims 
such  increase.  A  declaration  for  increase 
of  pension  may  be  taken  before  any  officer 
duly  authorized  to  administer  oaths. 

All  invalid  pensions  granted  under  the  gen- 
eral law  will  terminate  at  re-enlistment,  or 
when  the  disabilities  for  which  they  were  al- 
lowed shall  have  ceased. 

A  widow's  pension  will  end  at  her  re-mar- 
riage, and  not  be  renewable  should  she  again 
become  a  widow. 

Pensions  allowed  to  dependent  mothers  and 
sisters  end  at  re-marriage  or  when  depen- 
dence ceases.  Pensions  allowed  to  dependent 
fathers  end  when  the  dependence  ceases. 

The  name  of  any  pensioner  shall  be  stricken 
from  the  roll  upon  his  or  her  failure  to  claim 
a  pension  for  three  years  after  the  same  shall 
have  become  due. 

To  entitle  a  widow  or  children  to  pension, 
the  death  of  the  soldier  does  not  need  to  have 
been  the  result  of  injury  received  or  disease 
contracted  under  such  circumstances  as  would 
have  entitled  him  to  an  invalid  pension  had  he 
been  disabled. 

A  widow  is  entitled  to  a  pension  of  <$ 8  per 
month,  no  matter  whether  the  death  of  the 
soldier  was  due  to  army  service  or  not.  In 
addition  to  this  rate,  she  will  be  allowed  $2 
per  month  for  each  child  of  the  officer  or  sol- 
dier under  the  age  of  sixteen  years. 

In  the  application  of  widows  and  children 
for  pensions,  they  are  not  required  to  prove 
that  death  of  husband  resulted  from  the  injury 
or  disease  on  account  of  which  his  pension  was 
granted ;  but,  if  the  husband  had  not  estab- 
lished his  claim  for  an  invalid  pension,  the 
widow  shall  prove  origin  and  cause  of  the 
fatal  disease.  Widows  will  be  required  to 
prove  their  marriage  to  the  person  on  account 
of  whose  service  and  death  the  claim  is  made  ; 
also  proof  of  dates  of  birth  of  children  by  copy 
of  church  record. 

A  mother  claiming  a  pension  must  prove 
the  cause  and  date  of  the  death  of  her  son ; 
her  relationship ;  that  he  left  no  widow  or 
minor  child  or  children  surviving ;  and  that, 
if  living,  she  would  be  dependent  upon  him  for 
support. 

A  father  claiming  pension  on  account  of  the 
death  of  his  son,  upon  whom  he  was  depend- 
ent for  support,  must  prove  facts  similar  to 
those  required  of  a  mother. 

The  claim  on  behalf  of  minor  brothers  and 
sisters  should  be  made  by  a  guardian  duly  ap- 
pointed. 


In  administration  of  the  pension  laws,  no 
distinction  is  made  between  brothers  and  sis- 
ters of  the  half  blood  and  those  of  the  whole 
blood.  Evidence  in  a  claim  for  pension  can 
not  be  verified  before  an  officer  who  is  en- 
gaged in  the  prosecution  of  such  claim. 

In  claims  for  increase  of  pension,  a  fee  of  $2 
will  be  allowed.  All  letters  of  inquiry  relative 
to  claims  pending  in  Pension  Office  should 
give  the  number  of  the  claim. 

No  sum  of  money  due,  or  to  become  due,  to 
any  pensioner,  shall  be  liable  to  attachment, 
levy  or  seizure,  under  any  legal  or  equitable 
process. 

Agents  for  paying  pensions  shall  receive 
two  per  centum  on  all  disbursements  made  by 
them  to  pensioners. 

No  agent,  or  attorney,  or  other  person,  shall 
demand  or  receive  any  other  compensation  for 
his  services  in  prosecuting  a  claim  for  pension 
or  bounty-land  than  such  as  the  Commissioner 
of  Pensions  shall  direct  to  be  paid  to  him,  not 
exceeding  $10. 

Every  officer,  or  enlisted  or  hired  man,  who 
who  has  lost  a  limb,  or  the  use  of  a  limb,  in 
the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United 
States,  is  entitled  to  receive,  once  every  three 
years,  an  artificial  limb  or  apparatus,  or  com- 
mutation therefor.  The  period  of  three  years 
is  reckoned  from  the  filing  of  first  application 
after  March  2,  1891.  The  commutation  al- 
lowed in  case  of  the  amputation  of  a  leg  is 
<$ 75  ;  in  all  other  cases,  <$ 50.  Applications  for 
artificial  limbs  should  be  transmitted  through 
the  proper  pension  agent  to  the  surgeon-gen- 
eral of  the  army. 

JURISDICTION  OF  JUSTICES   OF 
THE  PEACE. 

Justices  of  the  Peace  generally  have  juris- 
diction throughout  the  county  or  township 
in  which  they  are  elected,  and  the  limit  of  the 
amount  is  as  follows :  — 

Mississippi $150 

Missouri 2.ri0 

Montana 300 

Nebraska 200 

Nevada 300 

New  Hampshire 13J 

New  Jersey 200 

New  Mexico 100 

New  York 200 

North  Carolina 200 

Ohio 100 

Oregon 500 

Pennsylvania 300 

Rhode  Island 300 

South  Carolina 100 

Tennessee 500 

Texas 200 

Utah 300 

Vermont 200 

Virginia 100 

Washington 300 

"West  Virginia 300 

•Wisconsin 200 

Wyoming 300 

t  By  consent,  $300 


Alabama $100 

Arizona 300 

Arkansas 300 

California 300 

Colorado 300 

Connecticut 100 

Dakota,  North 200 

Dakota,  South 100 

Delaware 200 

District  of  Columbia. .   100 

Florida 100 

Georgia 100 

Idaho 300 

Illinois 200 

•Indiana 200 

t  Iowa 100 

Kansas 300 

Kentucky 50 

Louisiana 100 

Maine 20 

Maryland 100 

Massachusetts 300 

Michigan 100 

Minnesota 100 

•  By  confession,  $300. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


47 


United  States  Custom  Regulations 
as  to  Baggage. — The  following  articles  are 
exempt  from  duty :  Wearing  apparel  and 
other  personal  effects  (not  merchandise),  pro- 
fessional books,  implements,  instruments  and 
tools  of  trade. 

To  ascertain  what  articles  ought  to  be  ex- 
empted as  the  wearing  apparel  and  other 
personal  baggage,  and  the  tools  or  imple- 
ments of  a  mechanical  trade  only,  of  persons 
who  arrive  in  the  United  States,  due  entry 
thereof,  as  of  other  merchandise,  but  separate 
and  distinct  from  that  of  any  other  merchan- 
dise imported  from  a  foreign,  port,  shall  be 
made  with  the  Collector  of  the  district  in  which 
the  articles  are  intended  to  be  landed  by  the 
owner  thereof  or  his  agent,  expressing  the  per- 
sons by  whom  or  for  whom  such  entry  is  made, 
and  particularizing  the  several  packages  and 
their  contents,  with  their  marks  and  numbers  ; 
and  the  persons  who  shall  make  the  entry  shall 
take  and  subscribe  an  oath  before  the  Col- 
lector, declaring  that  the  entry  subscribed  by 
him,  and  to  which  the  oath  is  annexed,  con- 
tains, to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief, 
a  just  and  true  account  of  the  contents  of  the 
several  packages  mentioned  in  the  entry,  speci- 
fying the  name  of  the  vessel,  of  her  master, 
and  of  the  port  from  which  she  has  arrived ; 
and  that  such  packages  contain  no  merchandise 
whatever,  other  than  wearing  apparel,  personal 
baggage,  or,  as  the  case  may  be,  tools  of  trade, 
specifying  it ;  that  they  are  all  the  property  of 
a  person  named  who  has  arrived,  or  is  shortly 
expected  to  arrive,  in  the  United  States,  and 
are  not,  directly  or  indirectly,  imported  for 
any  other,  or  intended  for  sale. 

Whenever  any  article  subject  to  duty  is 
found  in  the  baggage  of  any  person  arriving 
in  the  United  States  which  was  not,  at  the 
time  of  making  entry  for  such  baggage,  men- 
tioned to  the  Collector  before  whom  such 
entry  was  made,  by  the  person  making 
entry,  such  article  shall  be  forfeited,  and  the 
person  in  whose  baggage  it  is  found  shall  be 
liable  to  a  penalty  of  triple  the  value  of  such 
article. 

"Professional  books,  implements,  and  tools 
of  trade,  occupation,  or  employment,"  are 
understood  to  embrace  such  books  or  instru- 
ments as  would  naturally  belong  to  a  surgeon, 
physician,  engineer,  or  scientific  person  re- 
turning to  this  country. 

Jewelry  that  has  been  worn  or  is  in  use  as  a 
personal  ornament  may  be  admitted  free  of 
duty. 

Duty  must  be  demanded  on  all  watches  but 
one,  brought  into  the  United  States  by  a  single 
passenger.  If  all  the  watches  are  old,  the 
passenger  may  choose  the  one  to  be  treated  as 


personal  effects.  If  some  are  old  and  some 
new,  the  new  are  to  be  included  among  those 
treated  as  subject  to  duty. 

The  United  States  Supreme  Court  has  de- 
cided that  the  free  list  includes  (1)  wearing 
apparel  owned  by  the  passenger,  and  in  a 
condition  to  be  worn  at  once  without  further 
manufacture;  (2)  brought  with  him  as  a 
passenger,  and  intended  for  the  use  or  wear  of 
himself  or  his  family  who  accompanied  him 
as  passengers,  and  not  for  sale  or  purchased  or 
imported  for  other  persons,  or  to  be  given 
away ;  (3)  suitable  for  the  season  of  the  year 
which  was  immediately  approaching  at  the 
time  of  arrival ;  (4)  not  exceeding  in  quantity, 
or  quality,  or  value  of  what  the  passenger  was 
in  the  habit  of  ordinarily  providing  for  him- 
self and  his  family  at  that  time,  and  keeping 
on  hand  for  his  and  their  reasonable  wants, 
in  view  of  their  means  and  habits  in  life,  even 
though  such  articles  had  not  been  actually 
worn. 

The  Law  of  Finding.  —  The  law  of 
finding,  though  not  prescribed  by  statute,  is 
well  defined  by  precedent.  It  may  be  stated 
thus :  The  finder  has  a  clear  title  against 
the  whole  world  except  the  owner.  The  pro- 
prietor of  a  hotel  or  a  shop  has  no  right  to 
demand  the  property  or  premises.  Such  pro- 
prietor may  make  regulations  in  regard  to 
lost  property  which  will  bind  their  employees, 
but  they  cannot  bind  the  public.  The  law 
of  finding  was  declared  by  the  King's  bench, 
England,  ovei  100  years  ago,  in  a  case  in 
which  the  facts  were  these  :  — 

A  person  found  a  wallet  containing  a  sum 
of  money  on  a  shop  floor.  He  handed  the 
wallet  and  contents  to  the  shopkeeper  to  be 
returned  to  the  owner.  After  three  years, 
during  which  the  owner  did  not  call  for  his 
property,  the  finder  demanded  the  wallet  and 
the  money  from  the  shopkeeper.  The  latter 
refused  to  deliver  them  up  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  found  on  the  premises.  The  former 
then  sued  the  shopkeeper,  and  it  was  held  as 
above  set  forth,  that  against  all  the  world  but 
the  owner,  the  title  of  the  finder  is  perfect. 
And  the  finder  has  been  held  to  stand  in  the 
place  of  the  owner,  so  that  he  was  permitted 
to  prevail  in  an  action  against  a  person  who 
found  an  article  which  the  plaintiff  had  origi- 
nally found,  but  subsequently  lost.  The  police 
have  no  special  rights  in  regard  to  articles 
lost,  unless  those  rights  are  conferred  by 
statute.  Receivers  of  articles  found  are  trus- 
tees for  the  owner  or  finder.  They  have  no 
power  in  the  absence  of  special  statute  to 
keep  an  article  against  the  finder,  any  more 
than  the  finder  has  to  retain  an  article  against 
the  owner. 


48 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


QUALIFICATIONS  FOR  VOTING  IN  EACH  STATE  OF  THE  UNION. 

In  all  the  States  except  Colorado,  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Wyoming  the  right  to  vote  at  general  elections  is  restricted 
to  males  of  21  years  of  age  and  upward.  Women  are  entitled  to  vote  at  school  elections  in  several  States.  They 
are  entitled  by  law  to  full  suffrage  in  the  States  of  Colorado,  Idaho,  Utah,  and  Wyoming. 


States. 


Alabama* 


Arizona  Ter.. 
Arkansas* 


Requirements  as  to  Citizenship. 


Previous  Residence  Required. 


In  In  In       InPre- 

State.    County  Town,    cinct. 


California* . . . 

Colorado* 

Connecticut*. 
Delaware* 

Dis.  of  Colum 
Florida* 

Georgia* 

Idaho* 

Illinois* 

Indiana* 

Iowa* ,  — 

Kansas* 

Kentucky*  . . . 
Louisiana*  . . . 


Citizen  of  United  States  or  alien II  year. 

who  has  declared  intention. 

Citizen  of  United  States  (a) lyear. 

Citizen  of  United  States  or  alien  1  year. 

who  has  declared  intention. 

Citizen  by  nativity,  naturalization  1  year. 

(90  days  prior  to  election),  or 

treaty  "of  Queretaro. 
Citizen  or  alien,  male  or  female,  i 

who  has  declared  intention  four 

months  prior  to  election. 
Citizen  of  United  States  who  can  1  year. 

read  English  language. 
Citizen  who  shall  have  paid  a  reg- 1 

istration  fee  of  $1,  and  who  is 

duly  registered  as  a  qualified 

voter. 
See  top  of  page  50. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States. 


6mos... 


1  year. 


1  year. 


90  days, 
6mos... 


90  days. 
90  days. 


3  mos. 


6  mos. 


Persons  Excluded  from 
Suffrage. 


30  days.  30  days.  Convicted  of  treason  or  other 
felonies,  idiots,  or  insane. 

10  days.  10  days.  Indians  and  Chinamen. 

30  days.  30  days.  Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  fel- 
ony, until  pardoned,  failure 
to  pay  poll  tax. 
30  days.  Chinese,  idiots,  insane,  embez- 
zlers of  public  moneys,  con- 
victed of  infamous  crime. t 
10  days.  Convicted  of  crime,  bribery  in 
public  office. 


30  days. 
6  mos... 


Citizen  of  the  United  States  who  lyear..  6 mos 

has  paid  all  his  taxes  since  1877. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States,  male 

or  female. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States 


30  days 


Maine* 

Maryland*. 


1  year. . 
6  mos... 

6  mos... 

Citizen  of  United  States  or  alien  6  mos... 

who  has  declared  intention. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States 1  year . . 

Citizen  of  United  States  (/) 2  years. 


Citizen  or  alien  who  has  declared 
intention  and  resided  one  year 
in  United  States. 

Citizen  of  the  United  States 


>mos...  30  days.  3  mos...  10  days. 
90  days.  30  days.  30  days. 


60  days.  60  days. 


Citizen  of  the  United  States. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States. 


MasS'chusetts*jCitizen  who  can  read  and  write  (b) 

Michigan* Citizen  or  alien  who  declared  in- 
tention to  become  a  citizen  prior 
!    to  May  8, 1892(b). 

Minnesota* Citizen  "of  United  States  who  has 

been  such  for  3  months  preced- 
ing election. 


3  mos... 
lyear.. 


1  year. 
6  mos.. 


Mississippi*... 
Missouri* 

Montana* 

Nebraska* 

Nevada* 

N.  Hampshire* 
New  Jersey*... 


6  mos., 


•2  years. 


Citizen  of  the  United  States  who  ! 
can  read  or  understand  Consti- 
tution. 

Citizen  of  United  States  or  alienlyear. 
who  has  declared  intention  not 
less  than  1  year  or  more  than  5 
before  election. 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  (b). . .  1  year. 


1  year. . 
60  days. 

30  days. 

40  days. 

30  davs, 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  (b)...  6  mos...  6  mos... 
Citizen  of  the  United  States lyear..  5mos... 


Citizen  of  United  States  or  alien  6  mos.. 

who  has  declared  intention  30 

days  before  election. 
Citizen  of  the  United  States 6  mos.. 


60  days. 
30  days. 
6  mos... 
lyear.. 


3  mos.. 
6  mos.. 


30  days. 


30  days, 

W. 

30  days, 
60  days.  60  days 
6  mos... 


3  mos... 


6 mos...  6 mos...  6mos... 
20  days.  20  days.  20  days. 


lyear.. 
60  days. 

30  days. 

10  days. 

30  days. 
6  mos... 


N.M. Territory! Citizen  of  the  United  States 6  mos...  3  mos 


30  days. 

lyr(c).. 
60  days. 

30  days. 

10  days. 

30  days, 
6  mos... 


30  days. 


Convicted  of  heinous  crime,  un- 
less pardoned. 

Insane  persons  and  paupers,  or 
persons  convicted  of  felony. 


Idiots,  duelists,  convicted  of  fel- 
ony or  any  infamous  crime. 

Convicted  of  felony,  unless  par- 
doned, idiots,  and  insane. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  fel- 
ony or  treason. 

Convicted  of  felony  or  bribery 
in  elections,  unless  restored  to 
citizenship,  idiots,  lunatics. 

United  States  soldiers,  sailors, 
and  marines,  and  persons  con- 
victed of  infamous  crime. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  in- 
famous crime. 

Felons,  insane,  rebels  not  re- 
stored to  citizenship  (d). 

Convicted  of  felony,  idiots,  and 
insane. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  fel- 
ony or  treason,  unless  par- 
doned, with  express  restora- 
tion of  franchise. 

Paupers  and  Indians  not  taxed. 

Convicted  of  felony,  unless  par- 
doned, lunatics,  persons  non 
compos  mentis. 

Paupers  and  persons  under 
guardianship. 

Indians  with  tribal  relations, 
duelists,  and  accessories. 

Convicted  of  treason  or  felony, 
unless  pardoned,  under  guard- 
ianship, insane,  Indians  un- 
taxed. 

Insane,  idiots,  Indians  not  tax- 
ed, felons,  persons  who  have 
not  paid  taxes. 

Persons  in  poorhouses  or  asy- 
lums at  public  expense,  those 
in  prison  or  who  have  been 
convicted  of  infamous  crimes. 

Convicted  of  felony,  unless  par- 
doned, idiots,  insane,  United 
States  soldiers,  seamen,  and 
marines,  Indians. 

Convicted  of  felony,  unless  re- 
stored to  civil  rights,  persons 
non  compos  mentis. 

Idiots,  insane,  unpardoned  con- 
victs, Indians,  Chinese. 

Insane  or  paupers. 

Idiots,  paupers,  insane,  con- 
victed of  crime,  unless  par- 
doned or  restored  oy  law. 

Convicte  '  of  felony,  unless  par- 
doned, United  .States  soldier 
or  camp  follower,  Indians  (h). 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


49 


States. 


Requirements  as  to  Citizenship. 


Prev  ous  Residence  Required. 


In  In  In      UnPre- 

State.    County   Town,  j  «inct 


New  York* Citizen  who  shall  have  been  a  citi- 1  year. 

zen  for  90  days  prior  to  election. 


North  Carolina 
North  Dakota* 

Ohio* 

Okla.Territ.(i) 

Oregon* 

Pennsylvania*. 


Rhode  Island*. 
South  Carolina 


South  Dakota* 


Citizen  of  the  United  States. 


lyear. 


Citizen  of  the  United  States,  alien 
who  has  declared  intention  1 
year  and  not  more  than  6  years 
prior  to  election,  and  civilized 
Indian*  (i). 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  (i). ..  1  year. 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  or6inos, 
alien  who  has  declared  inten- 
tion. 

White    male    citizen    of    United  6  mos... 
States  or  alien  who  has  declared 
intention  (z). 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  at  1  year, 
least  1  month,  and  if  22  years 
old  or  more  must  have  paid  tax 
within  2  years. 

Citizen  of  the  United  States 2  yrs  ( J) 

Citizen  of  the  United  States  (0-  ••  2  years. 


Citizen  of  the  United  States  or 
alien  who  has  declared  inten- 
tion (i). 


Tennessee* Citizen  of  the  United  States  who 

has  paid  poll  tax  of  preceding 

year. 

Texas* Citizen  of  the  United  States  or 

I    alien  who  has  declared  intention 

6  months  prior  to  election. 
Utah* Citizen  of  the  United  States,  male 

or  female,  who  has  been  a  citi- 
!    zen  90  days. 
Vermont* Citizen  of  the  United  States 


Virginia* Citizen  of  the  United  States. 

Washington*.. 'Citizen  of  the  United  States. 


West  Virginia*  Citizen  of  the  State. 


Wisconsin* Citizen  of  United  States  or  alien 

i    who  has  declared  intention. 


6  mos.§ 

lyear.. 
lyear.. 
lyear.. 
1  year. . 


lyear.. 
1  year. . 


1  year. . 
1  year. . 


Wyoming* Citizen  of  the  United  States,  male  I  year. 


or  female. 


4  mos.. 


90  days. 


30  days 
60  days 

30  days 


30  days.  30  days 


90  days. 


lyear. 


30  days. 


6  mos. 
6  mos. 
4  mos. 


30  days.  20  days 
60  days.  30  days 


Persons  Exclnded  from 
Suffrage. 


Convicted  and  sentenced  to  a 
State  prison  at  penitentiary 
for  felony  or  ot:.er  infamous 
crime ;  persons  who  have  re- 
ceived or  offered  to  receive,  or 
who  have  paid  or  promised  to 
pay,  compensation  for  giving 
or  withholding  votes,  or  who 
have  laid  any  bet  or  wager  up- 
on the  result  of  an  election. 

Convicted  of  felony  or  other  in- 
famous crime,  idiots,  lunatics, 
and  those  who  deny  the  being 
of  Almighty  God. 

Under  guardianship,  persons 
non  compos  mentis,  or  con- 
victed of  felony  and  treason, 
unless  restored  to  civil  rights. 

Idiots,  insane,  and  felons. 
Indians  having  tribal  relations. 


30  days. 


Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  fel- 
ony punishable  by  imprison- 
ment in  the  penitentiary. 
2  mos...  Convicted  of  perjury  and  "fraud 
as  election  officers,  or  briber}' 
of  voters. 


6  mos... 
4  mos... 


10  days. 


3  mos.. 


4mos... 
10  days. 


(*) 


60  days. 


30  days. 


3  mos... 
90  days. 

60  days. 

lyear.. 

60  days. 


3  mos... 
30  days, 


10  days. 


Paupers,  lunatics  (g). 

Convicted  of  felony,  or  bribery 
in  elections,  unless  pardoned, 
idiots,  insane,  paupers. 

Underguardianship,insane,con- 
victed  of  treason  or  felony,  un- 
less pardoned,  United  States 
soldiers,  seamen,  and  marines. 

Convicted  of  bribery  or  other 
infamous  offense. 

Idiots,  lunatics,  paupers,  con- 
victed of  felony,  United  States 
soldiers,  marines, and  seamen. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  trea- 
son or  crime  against  elective 
franchise,  unless  pardoned. 

Those  who  have  not  obtained 
the  approbation  of  the  board 
of  civil  authority  of  the  town 
in  which  they  reside. 

Idiots,  lunatics  (m). 

30  days.  Idiots,  lunatics,  convicted  of 
infamous  crimes,  Indians  not 
taxed. 

Paupers,  idiots,  lunatics,  con- 
victed of  treason,  felony,  or 
bribery  at  elections. 
10  days.  Indians  having  tribal  relations, 
insane,  convicted  of  treason 
or  felony. 

Idiots,  insane,  convicted  of  in- 
famous crimes,  unable  to  read 
State  Constitution. 


(*> 


*  Australian  Ballot  law  or  a  modification  of  it  in  force,  t  Or  a  person  unable  to  read  the  Constitution  in 
English  and  to  write  his  name.  +  Indian  must  have  severed  tribal  relations.  §One  year's  residence  in  the  United 
States  prior  to  election  required,  (a)  Or  citizens  of  Mexico  who  shall  have  elected  to  become  citizens  under  the 
treaties  ot  1848  and  1S54.  (b)  Women  can  vote  in  school  elections.  (c)Clergymen  are  qualified  after  six  months' 
residence  in  precinct,  (d)  Also  those  under  guardianship,  public  embezzlers,  guilty  of  bribery,  or  dishonorably 
discharged  from  the  United  States  service,  (e)  Only  actual  residence  required.  (/)  If  unable  to  read  and  write, 
as  provided  by  the  Constitution,  then  he  shall  be  entitled  to  register  and  vote  if  he  shall,  at  the  time  he  offers  to 
register,  be  the  bona  fide  owner  of  property  assessed  to  him  in  theState  at  a  valuation  of  not  less  than  ?300  on  the 
assessment  roll  of  the  current  year  in  which  he  offers  to  register,  or  on  the  roll  of  the  preceding  year,  if  the  roll 
of  the  current  year  shall  not  then  have  been  completed  and  filed,  and  on  which,  if  such  property  be  personal  only, 
all  taxes  due  shall  have  been  paid,  (g)  Or  persons  non  compos  mentis,  convicted  of  bribery  or  infamous  crime, 
until  restored  to  right  to  vote,  under  guardianship,  (h)  Except  Pueblo  Indians,  if  "acequia"  officers,  (i) 
Women  can  vote  in  school  elections,  (j)  Owners  of  real  estate,  one  year,  (k)  Actual  residence  in  the  precinct  or 
district  required.  (/)  Who  has  paid  six  months  before  election  any  poll  tax  then  due,  and  can  read  andwriteany 
section  of  the  State  Constitution,  or  can  show  that  he  owns  and  has  paid  all  taxes  due  the  previous  year  on 
property  in  the  State  assessed  at  §300  or  more,  (m)  Or  convicted  of  bribery  at  election,  embezzlement  of  public 
funds,  treason,  felony,  and  petty  larceny,  duelists    and  abettors,  unless  pardoned  by  Legislature. 


50 


CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Residents  of  the  District  of  Columbia  never  had  the  right  to  vote  therein  for  national  officers,  or  on  other 
matters  of  national  concern,  after  it  became  the  seat  of  the  general  government.  But  from  1802  to  June  20, 1874, 
the  citizens  of  Washington,  and  from  January  1,  1790,  to  said  date,  the  citizens  of  Georgetown  were  entitled  to 
vote  on  municipal  subjects  and  for  certain  municipal  officers ;  the  citizens  of  the  portion  of  the  District  outside 
of  Washington  and  Georgetown  were  entitled  to  the  same  privilege  from  April  20, 1871,  to  June  20, 1874,  but  that 
suffrage  was  abolished  in  the  District  of  Columbia  and  was  rescinded  June  20, 1874,  by  the  act  of  Congress  of 
that  date. 

THE  STATES  ANI>  THE  UNION. 

THE  THIRTEEN    ORIGINAL  STATES. 


States. 


Delaware 

Pennsylvania  . 
New  Jersey  ... 

Georgia 

Connecticut  .. 
Massachusetts 
Maryland 


Ratified  the  Constitution. 


December  7 1787 

December  12 1787 

December  18 1787 

January  2 1788 

JanuaryO 1788 

February  6 1788 

April  28 1788 


States. 


South  Carolina  . 
New  Hampshire 

Virginia 

New  York 

North  Carolina  . 
Rhode  Island... 


Ratified  the  Constitution. 


Mav23 1788 

June  21 1788 

June  26 1768 

Julv26 1788 

November  21 1789 

Mav29 1790 


STATES  ADMITTED    TO  THE  UNION. 


States. 


Vermont . . . 
Kentucky . , 
Tennessee.. 

Ohio 

Louisiana . . 

Indiana 

Mississippi, 

Illinois 

Alabama . . . 

Maine 

Missouri  . . . 
Arkansas  .. 
Michigan  .. 

Florida 

Texas  

Iowa 


Admitted. 


March  4 1791  17 

Junel 1792,  18 

June  1 1798  19 

November  29 1802  20 

April30 1812  21 

December  11 1810  22 

December  10 1817  23 

December  3 1818  24 

December  14 1819  25 

March  15 1820  26 

August  10 1821  27 

June  15 1836  26 

Januarv  26 1837  29 

March  3 1845  30 

December  29 1846  81 

December  28 1846 1  32 


States. 


Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West  Virginia 

Nevada  

Nebraska  

Colorado 

Ne>rth  Dakota. 
South  Dakota. 

Montana 

Washington  . . 

Idaho  

Wyoming 

Utah 


Admitted. 


May  29 1848 

September  9 1850 

May  11 1858 

February  14 1859 

January  29 1861 

June  19 1863 

October  31 1*64 

March  1 1867 

August  1 1876 

November  2 1889 

November2 1889 

November  8 1889 

November  11 1889 

Julv3 1890 

July  11 1890 

January 1896 


STATE  AND   TERRITORIAL  STATISTICS. 


States  and 
Territories. 


Gross 
Area  In 
Square 
Miles.* 


Alabama 

Alaska  Ter 

Arizona  Ter... 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut.. . 

Delaware 

Dist.  of  Col. . . . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho  

Illinois 

Indiana  

Indian  Ter 

Iowa  

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 


52,250 

577,390 

113.020 

53,850 

158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

*70 

58,680 

59,475 

84,800 

56,650 

36,350 

31,400 

56,025 

82,080 

40,400 

48,720 

33  040 

12,210 

8,315 

58,915 

83,365 

46,810 

69,415 


Extreme  Extreme 
Breadth,  Length, 
Miles.t      Miles. 


200 
800 
335 
275 
375 
390 
90 
35 
9 
400 
250 
305 
205 
160 
210 
300 
400 
350 
280 
205 
200 
190 
310 
350 
180 
300 


Capitals. 


330 
1,100 
390 
240 
770 
270 

75 
110 

10 
460 
315 
490 
380 
265 
210 
210 
200 
175 
275 
235 
120 
110 
400 
400 
340 
280 


. .  Montgomery 

Sitka 

Phoenix 

Little  Rock 

Sacramento 

Denver 

Hartford 

Dover 

. . .  Washington 

Tallahassee 

Atlanta 

Boise  City 

Springfield 

. .  Indianapolis 

Des  Moines 

Topeka 

Frankfort 

. .  Baton  Rouge 

Auirusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St.  Paul 

Jackson 

.Jefferson  City 


States  and 
Territories. 


Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada : 

New  Hamp 

New  Jersey  — 
N.  Mexico  T.... 

New  York 

N.  Carolina 

N.  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  T.... 

Oregon 

iPennsylvania  . . 
Rhode' Island... 

IS.  Carolina 

(South  Dakota.. 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington.. . . 
w.  Virginia.... 

[Wisconsin 

iWyoming 

I    Total  U.S....  3 


Gross 
Area  in 
Square 
Miles.* 

Extreme 

Extreme 

Breadth, 
Miles.t 

Length, 
Miles. 

146,080 

580 

315 

77,510 

415 

265 

110,700 

315 

■Is.", 

9,::  05 

90 

185 

7,815 

70 

160 

122,580 

350 

390 

49,170 

320 

310 

52,250 

520 

200 

70,798 

360 

210 

41,060 

230 

205 

§39,030 

365 

210 

96,030 

375 

290 

45,215 

300 

180 

1,250 

35 

50     ! 

30,570 

235 

215 

77,650 

380 

245 

42,050 

430 

120 

265,780 

760 

620 

84,970 

275 

345 

9.565 

90 

155 

42,450 

425 

205 

69,180 

340 

230 

24,780 

200 

225 

56,040. 

290 

300 

97,890 

365 

275 

.6(12,990 

||2,720 

iii,6oo   | 

Capitals. 


. .  Helena. 

..Lincoln. 

Carson  City. 

Concord. 

Trenton. 

— Santa  Fe. 

Albany. 

Raleigh. 

...Bismarck. 

. .  Columbus. 

Guthrie. 

Salem. 

.  Harrisburg. 

Npt.  &  Prov. 

. .  .Columbia. 

Pierre. 

. . .  Nashville. 

Austin. 

Salt  Lake  City. 

Montpelier. 

Richmond. 

Olympia. 

Charleston. 

Madison. 

Cheyenne. 


•Gross  area  includes  water  as  well  as  land  surface.  These  areas  are  from  the  I  .  S.  Census  Report  of  1890. 
t  Breadth  is  from  east  to  west.  Length  is  from  north  to  south,  i  The  District  of  Columbia  was  originally  loo 
square  miles,  but  30  miles  were  receded  to  Virginia  in  1846.  §  Including  the  Cherokee  Strip  and  No  Man's  Land. 
II  Breadth  from  Quoddy  Head,  in  Maine,  to  Cape  Flattery,  in  Washington;  length  from  the  49th  parallel  to 
BrownsTille,  on  the  Rio  Grande.    This  is  exclusive  of  Alaska. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


51 


THE    TERRITORIES. 


Territories. 


Organized. 


Ni'\v  Mexico September  9 1850 

Arizona |  February  24 1863 

Indian* I  June  30 1834 


Territories. 


Organized. 


District  of  Columbia IWJfiY.'.V.Y.'.'St 

Alaska i  July  27 1868 

Oklahoma  IMay  2 1890 


•The  Indian  Territory  has  as  yet  no  organized  territorial  government. 

Congress  has  before  it  a  bill  prepared  by  the  Hawaiian  Commission  providing  for  a  territorial  government 
for  Hawaii. 

STATE  AND  TERRITORIAL  GOVERNMENTS. 


States  and 
Territories. 


Legislatures. 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut  — 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts.. 

Mich  i  gan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 
North  Dakota... 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania... 
Rhode" Island.. . 
South  Carolina. 
South  Dakota  . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermwnt 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia.. 

■Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


$3,000 
3,000 
2,000 
3,000 
6,000 
5,000 
4,000 
2,000 
3,500 
3,000 
3,000 
6,000 
5.000 
3,000 
3,000 
6,500 
4,000 
2,000 
4,500 
8,000 
4,000 
5.000 
3300 
5,000 
5,000 
2300 
4,000 
2,000 

10,000 
2,600 

10,000 
3,000 
3,000 
8,000 
2,600 
1,500 

10.000 
3,000 
3.000 
W500 
4.000 
400) 
2.000 
1500 
5,000 
3.000 
2,700 
5,000 
2,500 


Vera!1    Terms  Expire.  I  Next  Session 
Years. 


Dec.  1, 
Sept.  2, 
Apr.  21, 
Dec.  31, 
Dec.  31, 
Jan.  10, 
Jan.  4, 
Jan.  19, 
Jan.  1. 
Nov.  1, 
Jan.  5, 
Jan.  11, 
Jan.  13, 
Jan.  3, 
Jan.  11, 
Jan.  1 , 
Apr.  30, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  8, 
Jan.  4, 
Dec.  31, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  4, 
Jan.  4, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  6, 
Jan.  16. 
Jan.  1. 
Dec.  31, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  13, 
Mav  6, 
Jan.  8. 
Jan.  17. 
Mav  29. 
Dec.  31, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  10, 
Jan.  12, 
Jan.  1, 
Oct.  1, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  11, 
Mar.  4, 
Jan.  2. 
Jan.    2. 


1900 
1901 
1901 
1900 
1902 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1900 


Begins. 


Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Apr. 
Oct. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 


1901  I  Jan. 
1900    Jan. 

1900  |  Mav 

1901  Jan. 
1900  Jan. 
1900    Jan. 

1900  Jan. 

1901  Jan. 

1900  Jan. 

1901  I  Jan. 
1901  Jan. 
1901  I  Jan. 
1903  I  Jan. 


1901 
1902 
1901 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1900 
1901 
1903 
1903 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1900 
1902 
1901 
1901 
1901 
1903 


Jan 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan. 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Jan 
Oct. 
Dec 
Jan 
Jan. 
Jan 
Jan, 


22,  1899 
9,1899 

2,  1899 
4,1899 
4,1899 
3,1899 
4,1899 

25, 1899 
5,1899 
4,  1899 
7,1899 
8,1900 

10,1899 
1,1900 

11,1900 
4,1899 
3,1900 
4,1899 
4,  1899 

3,  1899 
2,1900 
4,1899 
2,1899 
3,  1899 

16,  1899 
4,1899 

10,  1899 
18,1899 

4,1899 
4,1899 
3,1899 
1,1900 

12, 1899 
9,1899 
3,1899 
4,1899 

10, 1899 
9,1899 
2,1899 
7,1899 
9,1899 
3,  1900 
6,1899 
9,1899 

11.  1899 
12,1899 
10,  1899 


Ann.      Limit 

or  of 

Bien.   Session. 


Time  of  Next 

State  or 

Territorial 

Election. 


>  Terms  of 
Salaries  of  I  Members, 
Members,     I       Years. 

Annual  or  Per ; 

IMein,  while     0  Repre. 

in  Session.       Sena-    sent: 

I  wrs.    atives. 


Nov.  13,  1900  Bien.  50 days.'  Aug.  7, 1900 


Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Ann. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Ann. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Ann. 
Bien. 
Ann. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Ann. 
Ann. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bi^n. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 
Bien. 


60  davs. 
60  daVs. 
60  davs. 
90  days. 

None. 
60  days. 
60  days. 
50  days. 
60  days. 

None. 
60  days. 

None. 
50  days. 
60  days. 
60  days. 

None. 
90  days. 

None. 

None. 
90  days. 

None. 
120  days 
60  days. 
60  days. 
60  days. 

None. 

None. 
60  days. 

None. 
60  days. 
60  days. 

None. 
60  days. 
40  days. 

None. 

None. 

None. 
60  days. 
75  days. 

None. 
60  days. 

None. 
90  days. 
60  days. 
45  days. 

None. 
40  davs. 


Nov.  6 
Sept.  3 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  5 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Oct.  3 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 
Apr.  21 
Sept.10 
Nov.  7 
Nov..  7 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  4 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  G 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  7 


June  2 
Nov.  7 
Apr.  5 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Jan.  6 
Nov.  6 
Sept.  4 
Nov.  7 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  6 
Nov.  fi 
Nov.  6 


$4  per  diem 


1909 

1900 

1900 

1901 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900 

1900  | 

1900 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1900 

1899 

1899 

1900 

1900 

1899  1 

1900 

1900 

1899 

1902 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1899 

1900 

1900 

1899 


1902 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1899t 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 


$4  per  diem 


$7 

$300  ann. 

$300    " 

$6  per  diem 

§4 

$5         " 

$1,000  ses'n. 

$5  per  diem 

$550  pr  term 

$3  per  diem 

$5 

$4  " 

$150  ann. 

$5  per  diem 

$750  ann. 

$3  per  diem 

*5 

$400  pr  ann. 

S5  per  diem 

$6 

$300  ann. 

$8  per  diem 

$200  ann. 

$500      " 

$5  per  diem 

$1,500  ann. 

$4  per  diem 

$5         " 

$600  ann. 

$4  per  diem 

$3 

Sl,500ann. 

$1  per  diem 

$4 

$5 

♦4 

«5 

$4 

»3 

$4 

$5  " 

$4  " 

$500reg.se8. 

$5  per  diem 


FEDERAL  BANKRUPTCY  ACT. 

The  States  of  the  Union  have  insolvency- 
laws,  under  which  debtors  conforming  to  the 
provisions  of  law  can  secure  a  release  from 
debts  owed  in  the  State.  Only  the  Federal 
Government  can  enact  laws  under  which 
debtors  can  be  discharged  from  their  debts 
wherever  they  are  owed.  Among  the  duties 
of  Congress  is  that  of  providing  a  uniform 
system  of  bankruptcy.     Under  this  power  Con- 


gress has  passed  four  bankruptcy  acts,  the  first 
in  the  year  1800,  which  law  by  its  own  terms 
was  limited  to  five  years,  but  it  was  repealed, 
nevertheless,  in  1803.  In  1841  the  second 
bankruptcy  act  was  passed,  and  was  repealed 
in  March,  1843.  The  third  bankruptcy  act 
was  approved  March  2,  1867,  and  repealed  in 
1878.  The  fourth  bankruptcy  act  was  ap- 
proved July  1,  1898,  and,  in  brief,  this  act 
constitutes  the   district    courts  of  the  United 


52 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


States  in  the  several  States,  the  Supreme  Court 
of  the  District  of  Columbia,  the  district  courts 
of  the  several  Territories,  and  the  United 
States  courts  in  the  Indian  Territory  and  the 
district  of  Alaska  courts  of  bankruptcy.  The 
law  defines  acts  of  bankruptcy  as  follows  : — 

Acts  of  bankruptcy  by  a  person  shall  consist 
of  hie  having  (1)  conveyed,  transferred,  con- 
cealed, or  removed,  or  permitted  to  be  con- 
cealed or  removed,  any  part  of  his  property 
with  intent  to  hinder,  delay,  or  defraud  his 
creditors,  or  any  of  them  ;  or  (2)  transferred, 
while  insolvent,  any  portion  of  his  property  to 
one  or  more  of  his  creditors  with  intent  to 
prefer  such  creditors  over  his  other  creditors  ; 
or  (3)  suffered  or  permitted,  while  insolvent, 
any  creditor  to  obtain  a  preference  through 
legal  proceedings,  and  not  having  at  least  five 
days  before  a  sale  or  final  disposition  of  any 
property  affected  by  such  preference  vacated  or 
discharged  such  preference ;  or  (4)  made  a 
general  assignment  for  the  benefit  of  his  credi- 
tors ;  or  (5)  admitted  in  writing  his  inability 
to  pay  his  debts  and  his  willingness  to  be  ad- 
judged a  bankrupt  on  that  ground. 

The  following  described  persons  may  be- 
come bankrupts : — 

Any  person  who  owes  debts,  except  a  cor- 
poration, shall  be  entitled  to  the  benefits  of 
this  act  as  a  voluntary  bankrupt. 

Any  natural  person,  except  a  wage-earner  or 
a  person  engaged  chiefly  in  farming  or  the 
tillage  of  the  soil,  any  unincorporated  com- 
pany, and  any  corporation  engaged  principally 
in  manufacturing,  trading,  printing,  publish- 
ing, or  mercantile  pursuits,  owing  debts  to 
the  amount  of  one  thousand  dollars  or  over, 
may  be  adjudged  an  involuntary  bankrupt 
upon  default  or  an  impartial  trial,  and  shall 
be  subject  to  the  provisions  and  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  this  act.  Private  bankers,  but  not 
national  banks  or  banks  incorporated  under 
State  or  Territorial  laws,  may  be  adjudged 
involuntary  bankrupts. 

.The  act  does  not  affect  the  allowance  to 
bankrupts  of  the  exemptions  which  are  pre- 
scribed by  State  laws  in  force  at  the  time  of 
the  filing  of  a  petition  in  the  State  wherein 
they  have  had  their  domicile  for  six  months 
or  the  greater  portion  thereof  immediately 
preceding  the  filing  of  a  petition.  The  law 
creates  two  offices  —  referees  and  trustees. 

The  act  went  into  full  force  and  effect  upon 
its  passage,  that  is,  July  1,  1898,  but  no  peti- 
tion for  voluntary  bankruptcy  could  be  filed 
within  one  month  of  that  date,  and  no  petition 
for  involuntary  bankruptcy  within  four  months 
thereof.  Proceedings  commenced  under  State 
insolvency  laws  before  the  passage  of  the  act 
were  not  affected  by  it. 


THE  LAW  OF  TRADE-MARKS. 

Any  person,  firm,  or  corporation  can  obtain 
protection  for  any  lawful  trade- mark  by  com- 
plying with  the  following  : — 

1.  By  causing  to  be  recorded  in  the  Patent 
Office  the  name,  residence,  and  place  of  busi- 
ness of  persons  desiring  the  trade-mark. 

2.  The  class  of  merchandise  and  description 
of  the  same. 

3.  A  description  of  the  trade-mark  itself 
with  facsimiles. 

4.  The  length  of  time  that  the  said  mark 
has  already  been  used. 

5.  By  payment  of  the  required  fee  —  $6.00 
for  labels  and  $25  for  trade-marks. 

6.  By  complying  with  such  regulations  as 
may  be  prescribed  by  the  Commissioner  of 
Patents. 

7.  A  lawful  trade-mark  must  consist  of  some 
arbitrary  word  (not  the  name  of  a  person  or 
place),  indicating  or  not  the  use  or  nature  of 
the  thing  to  which  it  is  applied ;  of  some 
designated  symbol,  or  of  both  word  and 
symbol. 

INTERSTATE  COMMERCE  LAW. 

The  Interstate  Commerce  Act  is  a  law 
passed  by  Congress  in  1887  for  the  regulation 
of  rates  and  the  management  of  interstate 
commerce.  It  applies  to  carriers  engaged  in 
the  transportation  of  passengers  or  property 
wholly  by  railroad  or  partly  by  railroad  and 
partly  by  water,  from  one  State,  Territory,  or 
District  of  the  United  States  to  any  other 
State,  Territory,  or  District,  or  to  or  from  a 
foreign  country.  It  provides  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  a  board  of  five  commissioners,  em- 
powered to  inquire  into  the  management  of  the 
carriers  and  determine  the  reasonableness  of 
their  rates.  A  carrier  whose  line  is  entirely 
within  a  State  is  subject  to  the  act  so  far  as  it 
makes  or  accepts  through  rates  on  interstate 
commerce. 

Among  other  things  the  act  requires  that  all 
charges  shall  be  just  and  reasonable ;  that 
charges  for  a  shorter  distance  shall  not  exceed 
those  for  a  longer  distance  on  the  same  line  in 
the  same  direction,  when  the  circumstances 
and  conditions  are  similar;  that  there  shall  be 
no  unjust  discrimination  as  between  persons  or 
classes  of  traffic  or  localities,  in  the  charges 
made,  or  in  the  service  rendered  ;  that  the  rates 
charged  for  transportation  shall  be  printed, 
filed  with  the  Commission,  and  kept  for  public 
inspection  at  the  several  stations,  and  that  the 
carriers  shall  annually  make  a  complete  exhibit 
of  their  business  to  the  Commission. 

The  act  makes  exceptions  from  its  provisions 
of  the  carriage  of  property  for  the  United 
States  or  for  any  State  or  municipal  govern- 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


53 


ment,  or  for  charitable  purposes,  or  to  or  from 
fairs  and  expositions,  and  it  allows  of  the 
issuing  of  mileage,  excursion,  or  commutation 
tickets,  and  admits  of  the  giving  of  reduced 
rates  to  ministers  of  religion  and  free  trans- 
portation to  the  officers  and  employees  of  the 
carrier,  and  to  the  principal  officers  of  other 
carriers. 

BUSINESS  LAW  AND  FORMS. 

Agency. — "Whatever  business  a  man 
may  do,  he  may  employ  another  man  to  do  for 
him."  An  agency  may  exist  by  Implication, 
Verbally,  or  by  Writings. 

By  implication  when  the  acts  and  words  lead 
people  in  general  to  believe  that  the  agency 
exists. 

Verbally,  whenever  there  is  only  the  verbal 
agreement  between  the  parties.  A  verbal 
agency  permits  the  agent  to  make  a  contract 
even  in  cases  where  the  contract  must  be  iu 
writing. 

By  writings,  as  notes,  memoranda  or  formal 
instruments  under  seal. 

The  authority  conveyed  must  be  equal  to  the 
deed  to  be  performed.  The  instrument  of 
agency  must  be  under  seal  when  the  convey- 
ance requires  a  seal.  When  the  business  to  be 
transacted  does  not  require  a  seal,  the  instru- 
ment of  agency  need  not  be  under  seal. 

Kinds. — General  agents  ;  special  agents  ; 
professional  agents. 

A  general  agent  is  empowered  to  transact  all 
the  business  of  a  particular  kind.  He  may 
bind  his  principal,  generally,  with  innocent 
parties  so  long  as  he  keeps  within  the  apparent 
scope  of  his  authority,  even  if  he  exceeds  pri- 
vate instructions. 

A  special  agent  is  one  invested  with  limited 
powers  for  the  performance  of  some  especial 
business.  He  cannot  bind  his  principal  when- 
ever he  exceeds  his  authority.  Who  deals 
with  a  special  agent,  deals  at  his  peril,  when 
the  agent  passes  the  limit  of  his  power. 

Professional  agents,  as  attorneys,  brokers, 
captains,  auctioneers,  factors,  etc.,  are  usually 
licensed  by  competent  authority  to  transact  a 
particular  kind  of  business. 

They  are  invested  with  ample  power  and 
the  law  holds  them  responsible  for  the  proper 
performance  of  their  duties. 

Liabilities  of  Principal. — Private  instructions 
to  a  general  agent  do  not  avoid  the  principal's 
liability  to  innocent  parties.  A  principal  is 
responsible  for  fraud  on  the  part  of  the  agent, 
if  permitted  while  transacting  his  business. 
A  principal  is  not  bound  by  the  acts  of  a 
special  agent  who  exceeds  his  authority.  A 
principal  is  not  generally  liable  for  the  willful 
wrong  done  by  his  agent. 


Forms    of    Powers    of    Attorney. — 

Know  all  men  by  these  presents :     That  I,  A .  B. , 

of ,  have  made,   constituted,   and 

appointed,    and    by   these  presents  do  make, 

constitute,  and  appoint  B.  C,  of , 

my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in 
my  name  and  stead  (state  purpose  for  which 
issued),  giving  and  granting  to  my  said  attor- 
ney, by  these  presents,  full  power  and  authority 
to  do  and  perform  all  and  every  act  and  thing 
necessary  to  be  done  in  and  about  the  premises, 
as  fully  to  all  intents  and  purposes  as  I  might  or 
could  do  if  personally  present,  hereby  ratifying 
and  confirming  all  that  my  said  attorney  shall 
lawfully  do  or  cause  to  be  done  by  virtue 
hereof. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my 

hand  and  seal,  this day  of , 

A.  D.  189  .  . 

A.  B.       [L.  8.] 

Sealed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of  B.C. 

Married  women,  lunatics,  and  minors,  in 
general,  are  disqualified  from  appointing 
agents,  but  a  married  woman  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  if  over  twenty-one  years,  may  ap- 
point an  agent  the  same  as  though  unmarried. 
A  minor  may  authorize  an  agent  to  perform  an 
act  that  is  to  his  advantage,  but  not  that  is  to 
his  prejudice. 

Deeds. — The  grantor  is  the  person  who 
makes  the  conveyance  and  the  grantee  is  the 
person  who  receives  the  conveyance. 

A  deed,  being  a  contract,  has  the  same  essen- 
tials. In  most  States  married  women  may 
convey  real  estate  which  they  own  in  their  own 
right.  A  partner  cannot  convey  real  estate 
belonging  to  the  firm  unless  empowered  by 
special  authority  from  the  partners  to  do  so. 

Consideration. — A  sufficient  consideration  is 
necessary  to  a  valid  deed.  (See  consideration 
under  contracts.) 

Subject-matter. — The  description  of  the  land 
and  its  boundaries  should  be  extremely  accu- 
rate. The  usual  words  of  the  transfer  are 
"give,  grant,  sell,  and  convey,"  though  any 
others  conveying  the  same  idea  could  be  used. 
Land  sold  without  reserving  any  crops  at  that 
time  growing  on  it,  conveys  the  crops  or  every- 
thing attached  to  the  land.  When  a  building 
is  sold  it  conveys  everything  that  belongs  to  it. 
The  words  "  heirs  and  assigns  "  are  necessary 
in  some  States  to  convey  an  unconditional 
title. 

Forms  of  Deeds. — Deed  with  full  cove- 
nants.    (New  York  Laws  of  1890.) 

This  indenture,  made  the  .  .  day  of  ....  , 
in  the  year  .  .  .  .  ,  between  A.  B.,  of  .... 
(give  occupation  and  residence),  of  the  first 
part,  and  C.  D.,  of  ....  (occupation  and 
residence),  of  the  second  part. 


54 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


Witnesseth  :  That  the  said  party  of  the  first 
part,  in  consideration  of  ...  .  dollars,  lawful 
money  of  the  United  States,  paid  by  the  party 
of  the  second  part,  doth  hereby  grant  and  re- 
lease unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
his  heirs  and  assigns  forever  (here  describe 
property),  together  with  the  appurtenances 
and  all  the  estate  and  rights  of  the  party  of 
the  first  part  in  and  to  the  said  premises. 

To  have  and  to  hold  the  above  granted  prem- 
ises unto  the  said  party  of  the  second  part,  his 
heirs  and  assigns  forever. 

And  the  said  party  of  the  first  part,  doth 
covenant  with  said  party  of  the  second  part, 
as  follows :  — 

First.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part  is 
seized  of  the  said  premises  in  fee  simple,  and 
has  good  right  to  convey  the  same. 

Second.  That  the  party  of  the  second  part 
shall  quietly  enjoy  the  said  premises. 

Third.  That  the  said  premises  are  free  from 
incumbrance. 

Fourth.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part  will 
execute  or  procure  any  further  necessary  assur- 
ance of  the  title  to  said  premises. 

Fifth.  That  the  party  of  the  first  part  will 
forever  warrant  the  title  of  said  premises. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  party  of  the 
first  part  hath  hereunto  set  his  hand  and  seal 
the  day  and  year  first  above  written.     A.  B. 

In  the  presence  of,  [i»  s.] 

B.  C. 

Acknowledgment  for  the  above. 
State  of  New  York,  ) 

County  of ) 

On  this  .  .  day  of  .  .  .  .  ,  in  the  year  .  .  .  .  , 
before  me,  the  subscriber,  personally  came  A. 
B.  (and  C.  B.,  his  wife),  to  me  known  to  be 
the  person  (or  persons)  described  in  and  who 
executed  the  within  instrument,  and  (sever- 
ally) acknowledged  that  he  (or  they)  executed 
the  same.  J.  A., 

(Give  official  title.) 

New  York "  Every  conveyance  unless  re- 
corded is  void  against  a  subsequent  purchaser 
in  good  faith,  whose  conveyance  shall  be  first 
duly  recorded.  To  entitle  a  conveyance  to  be 
recorded  it  must  be  acknowledged  by  the  party 
or  parties  executing  the  same,  or  shall  be 
proved  by  a  subscribing  witness."  "  The  ac- 
knowledgment of  married  women  may  be  made, 
taken,  and  certified  in  the  same  manner  as  if 
they  were  sole." 

Ohio. —  All  deeds,  mortgages,  etc.,  executed 
within  the  State  of  Ohio  must  be  signed  by  the 
grantor  and  acknowledged  before  two  attesting 
witnesses,  and  the  said  grantor  must  also  ac- 
knowledge the  same  before  a  judge  of  the 
court  of  record  of  that  State  or  some  other 
competent  authority. 


State  of  Ohio,     ) 

County  of  ....,} 

Be  it  remembered  that  on  this  .  .  day  of 
.  .  .  .  ,  189.  .  ,  before  me,  the  subscriber,  a 
(give  official  title),  in  and  for  the  said  county, 
came  A.  B.,  and  C.  B.,  his  wife,  the  grantors 
in  the  foregoing  instrument,  and  acknowledged 
the  signing  thereof  to  be  their  voluntary  act 
and  deed  for  the  uses  and  purposes  therein  men- 
tioned. And  the  saidC.  B.,  wife  of  the  said  A. 
B.,  being  examined  by  me  separate  and  apart 
from  her  said  husband,  and  the  contents  of  the 
said  instrument  being  by  me  made  known  and 
explained  to  her  as  the  statute  directs,  declared 
that  she  did  voluntarily  sign  and  acknowledge 
the  same  and  that  she  is  still  satisfied  therewith 
as  her  act  and  deed. 

In  testimony  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my 
hand  and  affixed  my  official  seal,  the  day 
[l.  s.]  and  year  last  above  written. 

(Signature  and  title.) 

The  following  States  require  no  separate  ex- 
amination in  acknowledgments  by  husband  and 
wife  :  Connecticut,  the  Dakotas,  Illinois,  In- 
diana, Iowa,  Kansas,  Maryland,  Massachusetts, 
Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
Nebraska,  New  Hampshire,  New  Mexico,  New 
York,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming,  and  Washington. 

The  following  States  require  a  separate  ex- 
amination :  Delaware,  District  of  Columbia, 
Florida,  Idaho,  Kentucky,  Nevada,  New 
Jersey,  North  Carolina,  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Rhode  Island,  Soiith  Carolina,  Tennessee,  and 
Texas. 

Common  Carriers. — A  common  carrier 
is  one  who,  for  a  compensation,  carries  the 
goods  of  anyone  offering  them  for  transporta- 
tion as  a  regular  business. 

Carrier's  Obligations. —  He  must  take  all 
goods  offered,  unless  of  a  dangerous  kind.  He 
must  charge  one  person  no  higher  rates  than 
another.  He  must  take  such  care  of  the  goods 
as  a  prudent  man  would  of  his  own.  He  must 
carry  them  by  the  usual  route  and  make  a 
proper  delivery  of  them.  He  must  place  the 
goods  in  a  proper  place  and  give  notice  of  their 
arrival. 

Carrier's  Liabilities. — In  common  law  they 
are  liable  for  all  losses  ' '  except  those  occa- 
sioned by  the  act  of  God  or  the  acts  of  the 
public  enemy."  He  is  responsible  for  losses 
by  theft,  robbery,  etc. 

Railroad  companies  are  responsible  as  car- 
riers to  parties  sending  goods  by  express  over 
their  lines,  irrespective  of  the  said  parties' 
contract  with  the  express  company. 

A  carrier's  liability  begins  as  soon  as  he  has 
accepted  the  goods.  It  ends  as  soon  as  he  has 
carried  them  to  their  destination  and  has  de- 
posited them  there. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


55 


The  notices  on  their  receipts  whereby  they 
seek  to  avoid  all  responsibility,  are  "  no  evi- 
dence of  assent  on  the  part  of  the  owner,"  and 
the  liability  cannot  be  avoided  that  way.  He 
may  avoid  almost  anything  by  making  a 
special  contract. 

He  might  avoid  liability  by  notice  if  he 
could  prove  that  the  shipper  had  read  his 
notice  or  was  familiar  with  its  terms,  though 
there  is  some  question  about  this  in  New  York 
at  least. 

Carriers  of  Passengers. — They  are  bound  to 
make  use  of  all  ordinary  methods  for  the 
safety  of  their  passengers.  They  must  employ 
proper  vehicles  and  competent  servants.  In 
general,  they  are  bound  to  run  trains  on  their 
advertised  time.  They  are  liable  to  passengers 
for  the  misconduct  of  their  servants.  If  any 
person  is  injured  through  their  negligence, 
they  are  liable  not  only  for  the  damage  that 
person  has  received,  but  for  prospective 
damage  as  well.  He  is  an  insurer  of  his  pas- 
sengers' baggage.  He  is  liable  for  such  bag- 
gage as  his  passengers  carry  for  their  own  per- 
sonal use.  He  cannot  avoid  liability  by  no- 
tices, as  a  notice  is  no  evidence  of  the  assent 
of  the  owner  of  the  baggage.  The  carrier  may 
avoid  liability  to  some  extent  by  a  special  con- 
tract. 

They  must  take  each  person  who  tenders 
the  price  of  transportation  and  wishes  to  be 
carried.  They  are  not  obliged  to  take  dis- 
orderly or  persons  of  doubtful  character,  or 
those  afflicted  with  some  contagious  disease. 
They  are  not  responsible  to  their  passengers 
for  accidents  where  all  skill  and  diligence  has 
been  employed.  Passengers  are  required  to 
submit  to  all  reasonable  rules  and  regulations, 
to  show  their  tickets  whenever  asked,  and  to 
surrender  their  tickets  whenever  required. 

Currency. — The  National  Bank  Act  fixes 
the  capital  required  to  establish  a  National 
Bank  as  follows:  Towns  of  less  than  6,000 
inhabitants,  a  capital  of  not  less  than  $50,000  ; 
towns  of  from  6,000  to  50,000,  a  capital  of 
not  less  than  8100,000 ;  in  towns  of  over 
50,000,  at  least  8200,000  will  be  required. 

Each  bank  must  deposit  with  the  Treasurer 
at  Washington,  government  bonds  to  the  ex- 
tent of  at  least  one  third  its  capital,  as  security 
for  the  notes  of  the  bank.  The  government 
then  issues  to  the  bank  ninety  per  cent,  in 
notes,  which,  when  properly  filled  and  signed, 
constitute  the  circulation  of  the  bank. 

Such  banks  are  required  to  keep  on  hand  at 
least  twenty-five  percent,  in  legal  tender  of  its 
circulation  and  deposits. 

The  notes  of  such  banks  are  secured  to  the 
holders,  but  depositors  run  the  same  risk  of 
loss  as  with  other  banks. 


Checks. — A  check  i«  an  order  to  a  bank 
;  to  pay  the  holder  a  certain  sum  of  money  on 
presentation  and  without  days  of  grace. 

A  check,  as  in  the  case  of  a  promissory  note, 
may  or  may  not  be  negotiable,  according  to 
the  way  it  is  drawn. 

A  check  given  is  no  payment  of  a  debt  unless 
j  paid  when  presented. 

Payment  of  a  check  may  be  stopped  at  any 
time  before  it  is  presented  if  notice  is  given 
the  bank. 

Every  indorser  of  a  check  is  liable  to  each 
following  indorser  as  in  the  case  of  promissory 
notes,  but  for  rio  longer  time  than  he  would 
have  been  held  had  he  been  the  maker  of  the 
check. 

Certificates  of  Deposit  partake  of  the  nature 
of  certified  checks  and  are  used  when  money 
is  deposited  for  a  short  time  and  no  regular 
bank  account  opened. 

When  wishing  to  draw  your  money  in  per- 
son, draw  the  check  payable  to  "Self"  or 
"Cash." 

Write  the  amount  of  the  check  both  in  words 
and  figures,  taking  care  that  no  blank  spaces 
are  left  that  could  be  filled  to  ' '  raise  ' '  the 
amount  of  the  check. 

Indorsements. —  The  left-hand  end  of  a  check 
is  the  top. 

Write  the  indorsement  across  the  back,  a 
short  distance  from  the  top. 

If  your  name  has  been  improperly  spelled 
in  the  body  of  the  check,  indorse  it  exactly  as 
written  therein,  then  below  write  your  name 
properly. 

If  titles  are  used  in  the  body  of  the  check, 
they  must  appear  with  the  name  in  the  indorse- 
ment. 

In  drawing  a  check  payable  to  one  not  known 
at  the  bank  you  can  avoid  the  necessity  of 
identification  by  having  him  indorse  it  in  your 
presence  and  you  write  under  it,  "  Above  in- 
dorsement correct  "  and  sign  your  name. 

Checks  that  are  to  be  deposited  are  usually 
indorsed,  "For  deposit,"  or  "For  deposit  to 
the  credit  of,"  and  such  indorsements  may  be 
made  by  clerks,  and  the  checks  deposited  to  the 
credit  of  their  firm.  For  further  reference  see 
indorsements  of  promissory  notes. 

Notes. —  A  promissory  note  is  an  uncondi- 
tional promise  in  writing,  to  pay  a  certain  per- 
son a  certain  sum  of  money  at  a  certain  fu- 
ture time.  The  essentials  are  that  it  be  cer- 
tainly paid,  not  out  of  any  particular  fund, 
nor  dependent  upon  any  contingency  ;  that  it  be 
for  the  payment  of  money  only. 

Five  important  points  of  a  negotiable  prom- 
issory note  are:  (1)  That  the  date  of  pay- 
ment be  specified.  (2)  That  the  amount  be 
plainly  stated.     (3)  That  it  be  paid  only  in 


56 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


lawful  money.  (4)  That  the  promise  be  with- 
out conditions.  (5)  That  it  contain  the  words 
"  order  "or  "  bearer,"  or  other  words  show- 
ing the  intention  to  make  it  negotiable. 

Indorsement :  A  note  is  indorsed  when  any- 
thing relating  to  it  is  written  upon  the  back. 
The  writer  of  the  name  is  called  the  indorse?; 
and  the  person  for  whose  benefit  it  is  written 
is  the  indorsee. 

There  are  five  kinds  of  indorsements :  (1) 
In  full.  (2)  In  blank.  (3)  Conditional.  (4) 
Qualified.     (5)  Restrictive. 

1.  In  full:  When  the  name  of  the  indorsee 
is  mentioned,  when  none  but  he  can  demand 
payment.  If  he  wishes  to  transfer  it  he  must 
add  his  own  indorsement  in  writing.  This  is 
the  usual  form  and  shows  through  what  hands 
it  passes. 

2.  I)i  blank:  Indorsement  in  blank  consists 
of  the  indorser's  name  alone.  It  is  then  pay- 
able to  bearer,  and  is  transferred  by  simple 
delivery  from  hand  to  hand.  The  indorser  in 
full  or  in  blank  is  obligated  to  any  subsequent 
holder  if  the  maker  does  not  pay  it,  and  the  in- 
dorser is  given  due  notice  of  such  failure. 

3.  Conditional:  When  the  payment  is  made 
conditional  upon  some  uncertain  event. 

4.  Qualified:  When  the  usual  form  is  de- 
parted from  and  the  indorser  restrains,  limits, 
or  enlarges  his  liability  as  such. 

An  indorsement  <  <  without  recourse  to  me  ' ' 
transfers  the  title  and  releases  the  indorser 
from  any  liability.  The  exact  words  used  do 
not  matter  if  they  show  the  intention  to  avoid 
responsibility. 

When  acting  for  another  party  the  words 
"agent,"  "attorney,"  or  their  equivalent 
will  release,  if  added  to  the  indorsement,  the 
said  agent  from  personal  responsibility. 

5.  Restrictive:  When  the  indorsement  re- 
strains the  negotiability  to  some  certain  person 
as,  "  Pay  to  John  Doe  only,"  or  "  Pay  John 
Doe  for  my  account." 

Transfer. — An  indorsement  to  bearer  is  trans- 
ferred by  delivery ;  or,  if  indorsed  in  blank,  it 
can  be  done  in  the  same  way  by  the  indorsee, 
though  drawn  payable  to  order. 

1.  Before  maturity  an  innocent  purchaser  can 
enforce  the  collection  of  a  note,  even  if  it  be 
found  to  have  been  lost,  stolen,  or  obtained 
by  fraud.  Five  things  are  necessary :  (1) 
That  he  obtained  it  in  good  faith.  (2)  That 
he  was  not  aware  of  any  defect  in  the  title  of 
the  one  from  whom  he  obtained  it.  (3)  That 
it  be  negotiable.  (4)  That  it  was  obtained 
for  value.  (5)  That  it  was  obtained  before 
maturity.  Should  he  be  aware  of  any  defect  in 
the  title  at  the  time  of  obtaining  it,  he  takes 
it  subject  to  any  defense  that  could  be  legally 
brought  against  it  at  first. 


2.  Afer  maturity :  A  note  may  still  be  nego- 
tiable, but  the  purchaser  now  takes  it  subject 
to  any  defense  originally  existing. 

Demand. —  No  demand  is  necessary  to  hold 
the  maker.  For  the  purpose  of  holding  those 
conditionally  liable,  a  demand  must  be  made 
first  on  those  primarily  liable. 

1 .  Notes  should  be  presented  for  payment 
by  the  holder  or  his  authorized  agent. 

2.  Demand  should  be  made  on  the  maker,  or, 
in  his  absence,  on  his  authorized  agent. 

3.  To  hold  indorser,  the  demand  must  be 
made  on  the  very  day  of  maturity,  no  sooner, 
no  later. 

4.  If  no  place  of  payment  is  specified  in  the 
note,  it  must  be  presented  at  the  residence  or 
place  of  business  of  the  maker,  and  during 
regular  business  hours.  A  personal  demand  is 
not  necessary  when  the  place  of  payment  is 
specified.  It  is  sufficient  if  the  note  be  sent 
there  in  due  time. 

Law  of  Place When  given  in   one  State 

and  payable  in  another,  it  will  be  governed  by 
the  laws  of  the  State  where  payable,  in  the 
matter  of  interest,  if  the  rate  is  not  men- 
tioned. The  "law  merchant"  is,  that  the 
maker  is  bound  by  the  laws  of  the  place  where 
made  ;  the  indorser  by  the  law  where  indorsed  ; 
demand,  days  of  grace,  etc.,  by  the  laws  where 
payable. 

Payment.  —  Possession  is  presumptive  evi- 
dence of  title  on  paper  drawn  or  indorsed,  pay- 
able to  bearer,  and  payment  may  be  made  to 
the  one  presenting  it.  Before  paying,  the 
maker  should  be  careful  that  any  indorsements 
are  genuine,  and  that  the  title  is  properly 
transferred.  Payment  by  an  indorser  satisfies 
only  so  far  as  the  subsequent  indorsers  are 
concerned,  for  the  note  is  not  discharged  until 
paid  by  the  maker.  After  an  indorser  has  paid 
a  dishonored  note,  he  may  put  it  in  circulation 
again. 

The  holder  takes  his  title  from  the  first  in- 
dorser if  made  in  blank  or  is  a  general  in- 
dorsement, and  the  maker  is  protected  in 
making  payment  to  him. 

Non-payment.  —  If  the  only  parties  con- 
cerned are  the  original  ones,  demand  need  not 
be  made  at  maturity.  The  whole  object  of 
demand,  protest,  and  notice  of  non-payment 
is  to  hold  the  indorsers  or  others  conditionally 
liable. 

Protest A  protest  is  a  formal  statement 

made  by  a  notary  public,  giving  a  copy  or 
description  of  the  note,  stating  that  pay- 
ment has  been  demanded  and  refused,  giving 
reason  of  refusal,  if  any,  and  the  purpose 
and  object  of  the  protest.  The  protest  must 
be  made  by  the  notary  personally,  and  duly 
signed  and  sealed. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


57 


Notice.  —  1.  Notice  should  be  given  by  the 
holder  or  some  suitable  person  authorized  to 
act  for  him.     The  notary  may  do  this. 

2.  Notices  must  be  served  on  all  whom  the 
holder  wishes  to  make  responsible  for  the  pay- 
ment. He  may  notify  all  prior  parties,  or 
only  the  immediate  indorser,  as  he  may  wish. 
Each  indorser  should  protect  his  own  interests 
by  notifying  all  parties  responsible  to  him. 
Indorsers  are  liable,  in  order  of  their  respective 
indorsements,  to  each  subsequent  indorser. 

3.  Due  diligence  must  be  exercised  in  giving 
the  notice.  It  is  best  to  give  it  the  same  day, 
but  if  the  dishonor  occurs  Saturday  or  immedi- 
ately preceding  a  holiday,  it  will  be  in  time  if 
given  the  succeeding  secular  day.  Certain  ob- 
stacles, as  war,  prevalence  of  a  contagious  dis- 
ease, floods,  or  act  of  Providence,  will  be  ac- 
cepted as  legal  excuses  for  want  of  notice. 

4.  Any  place  will  do,  if  given  personally. 
Notice  in  writing  may  be  left  at  the  place  of 
business  or  at  the  house  of  the  person  to  be 
notified.  When  the  person  resides  at  a  dis- 
tance he  may  be  notified  by  a  letter  properly 
addressed  and  mailed  to  the  office  where  he  re- 
ceive i  his  letters. 

5.  The  notice  may  be  either  verbal  or 
written,  and  any  form  that  clearly  conveys  the 
idea  intended  will  be  sufficient.  The  note 
should  be  clearly  described.  It  is  well  de- 
scribed when  its  maker,  payee,  date,  amount, 
and  time  and  place  of  payment  are  named. 

Personal  notice  must  be  given  when  the 
holder  and  person  to  be  notified  live  in  the 
same  place,  unless  the  laws  of  the  State  do  not 
require  it.  In  New  York  and  many  other 
States  written  notice  properly  addressed  and 
mailed  is  sufficient 
Notice  of  Protest. 

$587.00. 
Second  National  Bank,  Utica,  N.  Y., 

June  23,  1894. 

Take  notice  that  the  promissory  note  made 
by  C.  M.  Taylor  for  $587  and  interest,  dated 
October  2,  1893,  payable  to  your  order  at 
this  bank,  payable  this  day  and  indorsed  by 
you,  is  protested  for  nonpayment,  and  the 
holder,  J.  B.  Morrow,  looks  to  you  for  the 
payment  thereof,  payment  of  the  same  having 
this  day  been  demanded  and  refused. 
Respectfully  yours, 

H.  K.  Long, 

Notary  Public. 

To  J.  L.  Browne. 

The  indorser  may  waive  demand  of  pay- 
ment, notice  of  protest,  etc.,  at  the  time  of 
the  indorsement,  or  even  at  any  time  before 
maturity.  The  following  is  the  usual  form  : 
11 1  hereby  waive  demand,  protest,  and  notice 
of  dishonor."       (Signed) 


Guaranty. — Guaranties  are  of  two  kinds, 
guaranty  of  payment  and  guaranty  of  collection. 

1 .  Guaranty  of  payment  absolutely  guaran- 
tees that  the  note  shall  be  paid  at  maturity 

2.  Guaranty  of  collection  holds  the  guaran- 
tor after  the  holder  has  failed  to  collect  of  the 
maker. 

The  general  rule  is  that  the  guarantor  is  not 
entitled  to  demand  and  notice  of  protest.  The 
following  is  the  usual  form.  "For  value  re- 
ceived I  hereby  guaranty  the  payment  (or  col- 
lection) of.  the  within  note.     (Signed) 

John  F.  Herrick. 

Defenses. — 1.  Want  of  consideration,  if 
total,  is  a  perfect  defense.  If  it  is  only  a  par- 
tial failure  it  will  defeat  recovery  only  to  that 
extent. 

2.  Obtained  through  fear  or  compulsion. 
The  threats  and  duress  must  be  such  as  would 
cause  a  person  of  ordinary  firmness  of  mind  to 
apprehend  danger  to  himself,  reputation,  or 
property. 

3.  Fraud.     Fraud  vitiates  all  contracts. 

4.  Obtained  by  finding  or  theft.  This  is 
no  defense  against  a  bona  fide  and  innocent 
purchaser  who  obtains  the  note  before  maturity 
and  gives  a  valuable  consideration  for  it. 

5.  Illegal  consideration.  A  note  illegal  on 
its  face  gives  warning  to  all.  A  note  showing 
on  its  face  that  it  called  for  more  than  the 
legal  rate  of  interest  would  be  subject  to  such 
defense.  » 

Notes  given  for  "  debts  of  honor  "  are  void 
between  original  parties,  but  if  indorsed  and 
negotiated,  the  first  indorser  would  be  holden. 

Presumptions. — 1.  The  law  presumes  that 
the  negotiable  paper  was  given  for  a  consider- 
ation, whether  expressed  or  not.  The  con- 
trary must  be  proven  to  constitute  a  defense. 

2.  The  holder  is  presumed  to  be  the  owner. 

3.  Indorsements  and  transfers  are  presumed 
to  be  made  before  the  paper  became  due. 

4.  The  law  presumes  the  holder  to  have  ac- 
quired the  paper  in  the  usual  course  of  busi- 
ness 

5.  It  is  conclusively  presumed  that  the 
paper  means  precisely  what  it  says  and  parol 
evidence  will  not  be  allowed  to  offset  it. 

A  note  given  by  a  lunatic,  an  intoxicated 
person  or  a  minor,  is  void. 

A  note  given  by  one  who  cannot  write 
should  be  witnessed  by  an  uninterested  person. 

A  person  receiving  a  note,  knowing  it  to  be 
defective,  has  no  better  title  than  the  person 
from  whom  he  purchased. 

A  note  as  a  gift,  being  without  considera- 
tion, is  voidable. 

If  the  holder  of  a  note  extends  the  time  of 
payment  to  the  maker,  his  action  releases  all 
persons  conditionally  liable. 


58 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


In  a  note  containing  "  we  promise,"  or  "we 
jointly  promise,"  the  liability  is  a  joint  one, 
and  all  must  be  sued  ;  "  we  or  either  of  us  prom- 
ise," or  "we  jointly  and  severally  promise," 
here  the  liability  is  both  joint  and  several  and 
either  or  all  the  parties  may  be  sued. 

In  a  note  containing  "  I  promise  "  and  signed 
by  two  or  more  persons,  each  signer  is  obli- 
gated for  the  whole  amount,  and  either  or  all 
may  be  sued. 

After  becoming  of  age  a  minor  may  ratify  a 
note  given  during  his  minority. 

Forms  of  Notes. 

A  Note  Negotiable  Without  Indorsement. 

$250.  St.  Louis,  June  8,  1890. 

Thirty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  J.  H. 
Ames,  or  bearer,  Two  Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars, 
at  the  Third  National  Bank  in  St.  Louis,  for  value 
received.  Charles  Carns. 

A  Note  Negotiable  Only  by  Indorsement. 

$200.  Chicago,  Nov.  26,  1890. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  John 
H.  Woltering,  or  order,  Two  Hundred  Dollars, 
value  received.  J.  T.  Norton. 

A  Note  Not  Negotiable. 
$200.  St.  Louis,  Nov.  17,  1899. 

Ninety  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Charles 
C.  Collins  Two  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 
Samuel  Atkinson. 

A  Note  Bearing  Interest. 
$100.  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  Nov.  26,  1899. 

Six  months  after  date  I  puomise  to  pay  P..  V. 
Jennings,  or  order,  One  Hundred  Dollars,  with  in- 
terest, for  value  received.  John  Q.  Watson. 

A  Note  Payable  on  Demand. 

$150.  Philadelphia,  Nov.  30,  1899. 

On  demand  I  promise  to  pay  Lamonte  Whittle- 
sey, or  bearer,  One  Hundred  and  Fifty  Dollars, 
value  received.  John  Q.  Chaffington. 

A  Note  Payable  at  Bank. 

$100.  Cincinnati,  Dec.  24,  1899. 

Thirty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Thomas 
I.  Rankin,  or  order,  at  the  Second  National  Bank, 
One  Hundred  Dollars,  value  received. 

Frank  T.  Morrison. 

Principal  and  Surety. 
$793.  Newark,  N.  J.,  Dec.  28,  1899. 

Sixty  days  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  Daniel 
O'C.    Patterson,   or" order,    Seven    Hundred    and 
Ninety-three  Dollars,  with  interest,  value  received. 
John  G.  Watterson,  Principal. 
T.  R.  Graham,  Security. 

Promissory  Note  Secured  by  Mortgage. 
$1,000.  Lansing,  Mich.,  Dec.  1,  1899. 

One  year  after  date  1  promise  to  pay  to  S.  H. 
Moore  One  Thousand  Dollars  at  the  First  National 
Bank  of  Lansing,  Mich.,  with  interest  at  the  rate 
of  ten  per  cent,  per  annum,  for  value  received. 

This  note  is  secured  by  a  mortgage  of  even  date 
herewith,  on  a  certain  tract  or  parcel  of  land  sit- 
uate (describe  the  premises). 

(Signed)        R.  S.  Marsh. 


A  Married  Woman's  Note  in  New  York. 
$400.  New  York,  Dec.  13,  1899. 

Three  months  after  date  I  promise  to  pay  John- 
son, Dunham  &  Co.,  or  order,  Four  Hundred  Dol- 
lars, with  interest.  And  I  hereby  charge  my  indi- 
vidual property  and  estate  with  the  payment  of 
this  note.  Clara  C.  Dickerson. 

A  Joint  Note. 

$3,000.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  12,  1899. 

One  year  after  date  we  jointly  promise  to  pay 
E.  C.  Langworthy,  or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dol- 
lars, value  received.  John  C.  Jennings. 
Walter  D.  Curtis. 

A  Joint  and  Several  Note. 

$3,000.  Detroit,  Mich.,  Dec.  12,  1899. 

One  year  after  date  we  jointly  and  severally 
promise  to  pay  E.  C.  Langworthy,  or  order,  Three 
Thousand  Dollars,  value  received. 

John  C.  Jennings. 
Walter  D.  Curtis. 

A  Partnership  Note- 
No.  —  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  26,  1899. 

One  month  after  date,  without  grace,  we  prom- 
ise to  pay  to  the  order  of  ourselves  Two  Hundred 
and  Fifty  Dollars,  at  any  bank  in  Boston. 
Johnson  &  Co., 
$250.    Due  Dec.  26,  1899.        209  Temple  Place. 

A  Note  Payable  by  Installments. 

$3,000.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  April  20,  1899. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Smith  & 
Brown,  or  order,  Three  Thousand  Dollars,  in  the 
manner  following,  viz. :  One  thousand  dollars  in 
one  year,  one  thousand  dollars  in  two  years,  and 
one  thousand  dollars  in  three  years,  with  interest 
on  all  said  sums,  payable  semi-annually,  without 
defalcation  or  discount.         Hugh  Faulkner, 

120  Chestnut  St. 

Sealed  Note. 

$5,000.  Cleveland,  O.,  May  8,  1899. 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  Smith  & 
Edgar,  or  order,  Five  Thousand  Dollars,  in  three 
years  from  the  date  hereof,  with  interest,  payable 
semi-annually,  without  defalcation  or  discount. 
And  in  case  of  default  of  my  payment  of  the  inter- 
est or  principal  aforesaid  with  punctuality,  I  hereby 
empower  any  attorney-atJaw,  to  be  appointed  by 
said  Smith  &  Edgar,  or  their  assigns,  to  appear  in 
any  court  which  said  Smith  &  Edgar,  or  their 
assigns,  may  select,  and  commence  and  prosecute 
a  suit  against  me  on  said  note,  to  confess  judgment 
for  all  and  every  part  of  the  interest  or  principal 
on  said  note,  in  the  payment  of  which  I  may  be 
delinquent. 

Witness  my  hand  and  seal,  this  8th  day  of  June, 
A.  D.  1899.  John  Drew,     [seal.] 

Attest,  George  White. 

Judgment  Note. 

$425ftV 

For  value  received,  I  promise  to  pay  to  John 
Doe,  or  order,  Four  Hundred  Twenty-five  and 
25-100  dollars  ($425.25),  three  months  after  date; 
and  I  here  nominate,  constitute,  and  appoint  the 
said  John  Doe,  or  any  attorney-at-law  of  this 
State,  my  true  and  lawful  attorney,  for  me  and  in 
my  name  to  appear  at  any  court  of  record  of  this 
State,  at  any  time  after  the  above  promissory  note 
becomes  due,  and  to  waive  all  processes  and  serv- 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


59 


ices  thereof,  and  to  confess  judgment  in  favor  of 
the  holder  herein,  for  the  sum  that  may  be  due 
and  owing  hereon,  with  interest  and  costs  and 
waiving  all  errors. 

In  Witness  Whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my 
hand  and  seal  at  Williamsport,  Pa.,  this  first  day 
of  June,  1899.  [seal.]     Richard  Roe. 

Indorsements. 

In  Blank.  In  Full.  General. 


L.  A.  Davis. 


Pay 

Chas. 

Evans 

or 

order. 

L.A. 

Davis. 

Pay 
Chas.  Evans. 
L.  A.  Davis. 


Qualified. 

Pay 
Chas.  Evan* 
or  order, 
■without  re- 
course.    ■ 
L.  A.  Davis. 


Conditional. 


Restrictive. 


Pay 
<  hag.  Evans 
or  order,  . 
unless  pay- 
ment forbid- 
den before 
maturity. 
L.  A.  Davis. 


Pay 
Chas.  Evans 

only. 
L.  A.  Davis. 


Forms  of  Guaranty. 

Guaranty  of  a  >'ote. 

For  value  received,  I  guarantee  the  due  payment 
of  a  promissory  note,  dated  October  8,  1883, 
whereby  John  Paxson  promises  to  pay  George 
Andrews  Eighty  Dollars  in  three  months. 

St.  Locis,  Oct.  10,  1883.  Peter  Faber. 

General  Guaranty. 

I  hereby  guarantee  payment  to  any  person  who 
shall-  accept  and  retain  this  instrument  as  a  guar- 
anty, for  all  goods  which  he  may  from  time  to 
time  supply  to  Eugene  Parsons,  not  exceeding  at 
any  time  the  sum  of  Five  Hundred  Dollars,  this  to 
be  a  continuing  guaranty  till  specially  revoked. 
Notice  to  be  given  me  within  ten  days  after  its  ac- 
ceptance. Darby  Conger. 

St.  Louis,  Sept.  8,  1883. 

Extension  of  Time. 

In  consideration  that  George  Andrews  gives  to 
John  Paxson  additional  time  to  the  extent  of  one 
month  for  payment  of  the  indebtedness  due  him 
from  said  John  Paxson  guaranteed  by  me,  I  here- 
by continue  my  guaranty  for  due  payment  thereof. 

January  8,  1884.  Peter  Faber. 

Guaranty  of  Fidelity. 

In  consideration  of  the  performance  of  the  agree- 
ments and  covenants  specified  in  the  within  agree- 
ment by  M.  M.,  with  my  son,  A.  A.,  I  do  hereby 
bind  myself  to  said  M.  M.  for  the  true  and  faithful 
observation  and  performance  of  all  the  matters 
and  things  by  said  A.  A.  agreed  and  covenanted 
therein,  and  that  he  shall  well  and  truly  serve  said 
M.  M. 

Witness  my  hand  this day  of ,  A.D. . 

P.  A. 


Contracts. — A  contract  is  "an  agreement 
for  a  suitable  consideration  to  do  or  not  to  do 
a  certain  thing." 

The  essentials  of  a  contract  are  :  1.  The 
Parties;  2.  Consideration;  3.  Subject-matter; 
4.  Asssent ;  5.  Time.  These  are  essential 
and  the  other  elements  are  those  that  give  to 
the  contract  its  particular  character. 

1 .  The  Parties. — The  parties  must  be  com- 
petent. A  contract  with  a  minor  is  not  bind- 
ing upon  him  for  anything  except  necessaries, 
though  he  may  hold  the  other  party  to  a 
strict  accounting.  What  constitute  necessa- 
ries would  depend  upon  the  age,  the  rank,  and 
fortune  of  the  minor. 

2.  Consideration. — No  contract  is  valid  with- 
out a  sufficient  consideration.  Consideration 
may  be  divided ;  as  (A)  Valuable  ;  (B) 
Good  ;   (C)  Insufficient. 

(A)  Valuable  consideration  is  usually 
expressed  by  money  or  is  convertible  into 
money. 

(B)  A  good  consideration  is  founded  on 
love,  affection  or  gratitude.  It  will  be  accepted 
as  consideration  for  a  contract  already  per- 
formed, but  is  not  good  for  contracts  to  be 
performed  some  time  in  the  future.  As  a  gift 
already  made  but  not  holding  for  one  promised. 

(C)  Insufficient  consideration  may  be 
classed,  as  (D)  gratuitous  ;  (E)  illegal  ; 
(F)  impossible  ;  (G)  moral. 

gratuitous. — A  contract  based  on  a  promise 
wholly  gratuitous  is  void  for  want  of  consid- 
eration. Examples :  Public  subscriptions, 
charities,  etc. 

illegal. — A  contract  with  an  illegal  consid- 
eration is  void.  A  contract  to  commit,  con- 
ceal, or  compound  a  crime  is  void.  Either 
party  may  avoid  the  contract  where  the  con- 
sideration is  illegal. 

impossible. — If  the  consideration  is  im- 
possible the  contract  is  void.  The  law  compels 
no  one  to  perform  impossibilities.  That  the 
consideration  was  difficult  would  not  be  an 
excuse. 

moral.  —  A  moral  obligation,  alone,  is  not 
a  sufficient  consideration.  A  person  is  not 
legally  obligated  to  pay  for  services  already 
rendered  a  relative,  even  though  he  promise  to 
do  so  after  the  services  are  performed.  Had 
the  person  promised  before  the  service  was 
performed,  the  case  would  be  different.  The 
position  of  a  parent  and  minor  child  would  be 
an  exception. 

3.  Sidjject-matter. — All  contracts  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  which  is  illegal,  immoral,  or  im- 
politic are  void. 

Contracts  in  restraint  of  trade  are  void  even 
though  given  for  a  valuable  consideration.  A 
contract   not  to   carry  on    a    lawful  business 


eo 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


anywhere,  whether  the  time  be  limited  or  not, 
is  invalid.  An  agreement  in  partial  restraint 
of  trade,  if  confined  within  reasonable  bounds, 
or  to  certain  persons  and  given  for  a  sufficient 
consideration,  would  be  valid. 

A  doctor  might  sell  his  practice  and  agree 
not  to  practice  within  a  certain  number  of 
miles  of  the  place.  If  given  for  a  valuable 
consideration,  the  contract  would  be  valid. 
The  court  would  decide  the  reasonableness  of 
the  limitation. 

Contracts  in  general  restraint  of  marriage  are 
void,  because  against  public  policy.  A  con- 
tract not  to  marry  a  particular  person  would 
be  valid.  A  contract  not  to  marry  until  of  a 
suitable  or  reasonable  age  is  valid.  The  con- 
dition that  a  widow  shall  forfeit  certain  por- 
tions of  her  deceased  husband's  estate  if  she 
marry  again  may  be  valid,  if  she  accepted  it 
under  those  conditions. 

Fraud  vitiates  any  contract  if  the  innocent 
party  so  wishes,  otherwise  the  other  party  may 
be  held.  A  contract  that  operates  as  a  fraud 
on  third  parties  is  void.  Examples  :  Fraudu- 
lent assignments  ;  fraudulent  sales  ;  perversion 
of  insolvent  laws. 

•  •  Fraud  consists  in  the  employment'  of  any 
kind  of  cunning,  deception,  artifice,  or  con- 
cealment to  cheat,  circumvent,  or  deceive 
another  in  a  business  matter. "  If  both  par- 
ties are  equally  guilty,  neither  has  usually  any 
redress  at  law.  If  one  party  is  more  innocent, 
the  reverse  is  true.  The  innocent  party  may 
many  times  hold  the  other  if  he  chooses,  or 
himself  refuse  to  be  bound  by  the  contract. 
The  guilty  party  cannot  avoid  the  contract  on 
account  of  his  own  fraud  if  the  contract  is 
already  executed. 

4.  Assent. — There  can  be  no  contract  valid 
and  binding,  unless  the  parties  assent  to  the 
same  thing  and  in  the  same  sense.  There 
must  be  a  proposition  by  one  party  and  an  ac- 
ceptance by  the  other. 

If  the  proposition  and  acceptance  are  made 
by  mail,  the  contract  is  presumed  to  be  com- 
pleted as  soon  as  the  acceptance  is  mailed,  and 
even  a  telegram  countermanding  it  before  the 
letter  was  received  need  not  necessarily  be 
allowed  to  avoid  it. 

5.  Time. — Time  enters  into  the  contract  as 
an  essential  element  and  is  either  expressed  or 
implied.  Something  to  be  done  between  two 
certain  days  is  not  performed  if  done  on  either 
of  those  days.  If  the  day  for  performance  falls 
upon  Sunday,  the  performing  party  has  the 
privilege  of  performing  on  the  next  secular  day. 

Statute  of  Frauds. — By  the  < '  Statute 
of  Frauds,"  which  has  been  adopted  by  most 
States,  certain  contracts  must  be  in  writing. 
The  following  are  those  adopted  by  New  York 


and  most  other  States:  "  Every  contract  for 
the  leasing  of  a  longer  period  than  one  year, 
or  for  the  sale  of  any  lands,  or  any  interest  in 
lands,  shall  be  void,  unless  the  contract  or 
some  note  or  memorandum  thereof,  expressing 
the  consideration,  be  in  writing  and  be  sub- 
scribed by  the  party  by  whom  the  lease  or  sale 
is  made."  Annual  crops  resulting  from  culti- 
vation, if  the  price  is  less  than  fifty  dollars,  do 
not  come  within  the  meaning  of  the  statute  ; 
as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  etc. 

In  the  following  cases  every. agreement  shall 
be  void  unless  such  agreement,  or  some  note 
or  memorandum  thereof,  be  in  writing  and 
subscribed  by  the  party  to  be  charged  there- 
with : 

1.  Every  agreement  that,  by  its  terms,  is 
not  to  be  performed  within  one  year  from  the 
making  thereof. 

2.  Every  special  promise  to  answer  for  the 
debt,  default,  or  miscarriage  of  another. 

3.  Every  agreement,  promise,  or  undertak- 
ing, made  upon  consideration  of  marriage,  ex- 
cept mutual  promises  to  marry. 

4.  Every  contract  for  the  sale  of  any  chattels, 
goods,  or  things  in  action,  for  the  price  of  fifty 
dollars  or  more  shall  be  void  unless, 

"First,  A  note  or  memorandum  of  such 
contract  be  made  in  writing  and  subscribed  by 
the  parties  to  be  charged  thereby  ;  or, 

"  Second,  Unless  the  buyer  shall  accept  and 
receive  part  of  such  goods  or  the  evidences,  or 
some  of  them,  of  such  things  in  action  ;  or, 

"  Third,  Unless  the  buyer  shall,  at  the  time, 
pay  some  part  of  the  purchase  money." 

In  addition  to  being  written,  there  must  be 
a  consideration  in  the  contracts,  as  above, 
either  express  or  implied. 

' '  A  party  to  a  contract  is  not  bound  until 
he  yields  a  full,  free,  and  intelligent  assent  of 
its  terms."  "  An  offer  made  may  be  retracted 
any  time  before  its  acceptance." 

A  competent  party  making  contract  with  a 
minor  cannot  hold  the  minor,  except  as  before 
noted,  but  the  minor  can  sue  and  recover  for 
the  nonperformance  of  the  other  party. 

Contracts  required  to  be  in  writing  by  the 
"Statute  of  Frauds,"  hold  only  the  party 
signing  if  but  one  signs.  The  other  has  it  at 
his  option. 

Damages "  Perform  your  contract  or  pay 

damages."  The  law  cannot  compel  the  per- 
formance of  a  contract ;  it  only  knows  a  money 
remedy  for  nonperformance.  In  a  contract 
for  personal  service  which  cannot  well  be  filled 
by  another,  the  sickness  of  the  promising 
party  will  excuse  nonperformance. 

A  court  of  equity  may  compel  the  perform- 
ance of  certain  agreements :  as  the  convey- 
ance of  real  estate. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


61 


Construction. — The  following  rules  are  ob- 
served in  the  interpretation  of  contracts  : 

1.  INTENTION. — -The  first  care  is  to  give 
effect  to  the  intention  of  the  parties  so  far  as  the 
intention  was  mutual  and  legal. 

2.  Meaning  of  Tkkms. —  The  terms  of  a 
contract  are  to  be  interpreted  according  to  their 
usual  meaning,  if  that  seems  to  satisfy  the  in- 
tention of  the  parties.  Technical  words  are 
interpreted  according  to  their  use  in  the  pro- 
fession, or  the  trade  to  which  they  belong. 

Interpretation. — Certain  contracts  are  ex- 
pounded according  to  the  usage  or  custom  of 
trade  when  needed  to  explain  the  meaning  of 
peculiar  terms.  The  law  of  place  would  also 
euter  as  a  factor ;  if  the  custom  of  the  place 
where  the  contract  was  made  differed  from 
other  places,  that  would  give  a  different  mean- 
ing to  its  terms. 

The  interpretation  is  made  upon  the  whole 
contract  and  not  upon  its  parts.  The  object  of 
the  parties  is  to  be  gathered  from  the  whole  in- 
strument, and  one  clause  will  be  interpreted  by 
another. 

Wherever  one  portion  cannot  be  reconciled 
with  the  obvious  intention  of  the  parties,  it 
will  be  expunged.  "  Effect  will  be  given  to 
the  whole  intention." 

Forms  of  Contracts.  —  A  General  Re- 
',  an  . 

Know   all  men    by  these  presents:       That    I, 

A.  B.,  of in  consideration  of , 

and  other  good  and  valuable  considerations  to 

me  in  hand  paid  by  A.  C,  of ,  have 

remised,  released  and  forever  discharged,  and 
hy  these  presents  do,  for  me,  my  heirs,  execu- 
tors and  administrators,  remise,  release,  and 
forever  discharge  said  A.  C,  his  heirs,  execu- 
tors, and  administrators,  of  and  from  all  and 
all  manner  of  actions,  suits,  debts,  dues,  sums 
of  money,  accounts,  reckonings,  bonds,  bills, 
specialties,  covenants,  contracts,  controversies, 
agreements,  promises,  variances,  damages, 
judgments,  executions,  claims  and  demands 
whatsoever,  in  law  or  equity,  which  against 
the  said  A.  B.  I  ever  had,  now  have,  or  which 
I,  my  heirs,  my  executors  and  administrators 
hereafter  can,  shall,  or  may  have,  for,  upon  or 
hy  reason  of  any  matter,  cause  or  thing  what- 
soever (or  by  reason  of ) ,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  world  to  the  day  of  the  date  of 
these  presents. 

In  witness  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set  my 

hand  and  seal,  this day   of 

A.D.  189  .  . 

(Signed)  A.  B.  [l.  s.] 

Signed  and  delivered  in  the  presence  of 

D.  E. 

Memorandum  of  Sale.  —  It  is  agreed  by  and 
between  A.  B.  and  B.  E.,  of,  etc.,  that  said 


A.  B.,  in  consideration  of  two  hundred  bushels 
of  wheat,  sold  to  him  this  day  by  the  said  B. 
E.,  free  of  all  charges  or  expenses, whatsoever, 

at ,  on  or  before ,  shall  and 

will  pay  or  cause  to  be  paid  to  the  said  B. 
E.,  or  his  assigns,  upon  such  delivery,  the  sum 
of dollars. 

And  the  said  B.  E.,  in  consideration  of  the 
agreement  aforesaid  of  the  said  A.  B.,  doth 
promise  and  agree,  on  or  before  the  said  .  .  .  .  , 
at  his  own  expense,  to  send  in  and  deliver  to 
the  said  A.  B.,  or  his  assigns,  the  said  two 
hundred  bushels  of  wheat  so  sold  to  him  as 
aforesaid,  and  the  said  B.  E.  shall  and  will 
warrant  the  same  to  be  good,  clean,  and  mer- 
chantable grain. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  have 
hereunto  set  their  hands  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 

A.  B. 

In  presence  of  B.  E. 

C.  D. 

Lease  of  House. — I, of , 

hereby  lease  to of ,  for  the 

term  of ,  to  commence  on 

the  dwelling  house  (describe  it)  with  its  ap- 
purtenances, for  the  yearly  rent  of , 

to  be  paid 

Said ,  agrees  to  pay  said , 

said  rents  at  the  times  above  specified  and  to 
surrender  the  premises  at  the  expiration  of  the 
term,  in  as  good  condition  as  reasonable  use 
will  allow,  fire  and  unavoidable  accidents  ex- 
cepted. 

In  witness  whereof,  the  said  parties  have 

hereunto    set   their    hands    this of 

,  A.  D.  189  .  . 

(Signed) . 

(Signed) . 

General  Form  of  Contract. — Memorandum  of 

an  agreement  made  this day  of , 

in  the  year  189  .  .  ,  between  A.  B.,  of , 

as  first  party,    and   B.    C,    of ,  as 

second  party, 

Witnesseth  :  That  the  said  first  party  here- 
by agrees  to,  etc.,     (Here  insert  first 

party's  obligations.) 

In  consideration  .of  the  above  being  faith- 
fully kept  and  performed  by  the  said  first 
party,  the  said  second  party,  etc.  (Here  insert 
second  party's  obligations.) 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  s^t 
our  hands  and  seals  the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 

A.  B. 

In  the  presence  of  B.  C. 

C.  D. 

A  seal  on  an  instrument  is  usually  conclu- 
sive proof  that  it  was  given  for  a  consideration. 


62 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


but  the  laws  of  New  York  permit  evidence  to 
be  submitted  on  rebuttal  of  this  presump- 
tion. 

Partnerships. — "  A  partnership  is  aeon- 
tract  between  two  or  more  competent  persons 
for  joining  together  their  money,  goods,  labor 
and  skill,  or  any  or  all  of  them,  under  an 
understanding  that  there  shall  be  a  communion 
of  profit  between  them,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  on  a  legal  trade,  business,  or  adven- 
ture.— Story. 

Partners  :  Any  person  of  sound  mind  and 
able  to  conduct  ordinary  business  may  enter 
into  a  partnership.  An  infant  may  be  a  part- 
ner, but  in  general  he  could  incur  no  liability 
and  might  disaffirm  the  contract  at  any  time. 
Married  women  can  be  partners  only  in  such 
States  as  have  removed  their  disabilities. 

Partners  are  grouped  as  follows  : — 

Ostensible,  those  whose  names  are  known 
and  appear  as  partners ;  nominal,  those  who 
appear  to  the  world  as  partners,  but  who  have 
really  no  interest  in  the  business. 

Nominal  partners  are  responsible  to  all  credi- 
tors who  gave  the  firm  credit  because  of  their 
apparent  connection  with  it. 

Dormant  partners  are  those  who  do  not  ap- 
pear to  the  world  as  partners,  but  are  actually 
interested  in  the  business.  They  are  liable  to 
creditors  of  the  business.  Special  partners  are 
those  who  supply  a  certain  amount  of  capital, 
and  on  complying  with  certain  requirements 
are  not  liable  for  debts  of  the  firm  above  the 
amount  they  invest. 

Relations  of  Partners :  Mutual  respect,  con- 
fidence in  the  honesty,  skill,  judgment,  and 
good  business  instinct  of  each  other  must  be 
the  basis  of  each  partnership.  On  this  ac- 
count, if  the  partnership  suffers  through  the 
neglect  of  any  partner,  he  is  liable  to  the 
others.  He  is  liable  in  damages  to  the  other 
partners  for  any  breach  of  partnership  con- 
tract. 

No  partner  has  any  right  to  engage  in  any 
private  business  that  will  in  any  way  operate 
to  the  detriment  of  the  partnership. 

The  powers  of  all  partners  in  ordinary  cases 
are  equal  and  neither  can  exclude  the  other 
from  a  share  in  the  management  of  the  busi- 
ness or  from  the  possession  of  partnership 
property. 

A  partnership  can  only  exist  by  voluntary 
contract,  and  no  third  party  can  be  introduced 
into  the  firm  without  unanimous  consent. 

Powers  of  Partners :  The  acts  of  one  partner 
bind  all  the  rest.  Each  partner  has  power  to 
transact  any  and  all  necessary  business  for  the 
partnership.  The  frauds  of  one  partner  bind 
the  firm,  though  the  others  have  no  knowledge 
of  his  action.     The  partner  should  transact  all 


business  in  the  name  of  the  firm,  otherwise  he 
alone  is  liable.  He  has  no  power  to  bind  the 
partnership  outside  the  transaction  of  the 
regular  business  of  the  firm.  The  fraud  of  a 
partner  will  not  bind  the  partnership  if  the 
third  party  is  aware  of  the  fraud  or  that  the 
partner  is  exceeding  his  authority.  Each 
partner  is  liable  to  third  parties  for  partner- 
ship debts  to  the  extent  of  his  whole  private 
property. 

Subject-matter:  By  this  is  meant  the  busi- 
ness in  which  they  have  engaged.  The  es- 
sence of  the  contract  is,  that  the  partners  are 
jointly  concerned  in  the  profits  and  losses,  or 
at  least  the  profits  of  some  legitimate  business. 
If  the  contract  does  not  specify  the  manner  of 
division,  they  will  be  supposed  to  be  divided 
equally. 

Articles  of  Co-partnership. — If  the  business 
is  extensive,  or  the  relations  to  continue  for  a 
great  length  of  time,  formal  articles  should  be 
adopted.  Any  form  that  clearly  sets  forth 
the  nature  of  the  business,  the  investments  of 
each  partner,  the  division  of  the  profits  and 
losses,  the  powers  and  duties  of  each  partner, 
the  commencement  and  termination  of  the 
partnership,  will  answer  the  purpose.  The 
partnership  commences  at  once  if  no  other 
time  is  specified.  The  laws  of  New  York  pro- 
hibit the  use  of  fictitious  names  in  the  firm 
name.  "  &  Co."  cannot  there  be  used  unless 
it  represent  an  actual  partner.  If  no  time  is 
expressed  for  termination,  the  partnership  is 
presumed  to  be  "at  will"  only,  and  may  be 
dissolved  at  any  time. 

Dissolution. — This  may  take  place  by  acts  of 
the  parties,  by  judicial  decree,  by  operation  of 
law. 

A  partnership  may  be  dissolved  at  any  time 
by  mutual  consent.  If  the  partnership  is  for 
any  specified  time  it  may  be  dissolved  by  one 
partner  refusing  to  act  with  the  other,  or  by  his 
assigning  his  share  to  a  third  party.  Such 
assignment  does  not  constitute  the  third  party 
a  partner  without  the  consent  of  all  the  others. 
A  partnership  for  a  certain  time  expires  when 
that  period  is  passed. 

The  partnership  could  be  dissolved  by 
judicial  decree  at  any  time  for  good  and  suffi- 
cient reasons,  as  unfitness  or  inability  of  a 
partner  developed  after  the  commencement  of 
the  partnership,  or  should  the  business  be  im- 
practicable or  when  founded  in  error. 

The  law  would  operate  to  dissolve  the  part- 
nership if  one  partner  became  insane,  idiotic, 
or  in  any  way  incapable  of  performing  his 
duties. 

All  right,  title  and  interest  of  any  partner 
may  be  sold  under  execution  against  him. 
The  bankruptcy  of  one  partner  would  dissolve 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


63 


the  partnership  unless  provided  for  by  special 
agreement. 

After  dissolution  no  power  remains  to  create 
new  obligations,  and  a  partner  could  not  renew 
a  partnership  note,  or  even  indorse  one  to  pay 
a  prior  debt  of  the  firm.  Unless  provided  for, 
to  the  contrary,  each  partner  has  power  to 
collect  accounts  and  to  settle  up  the  affairs  of 
the  business. 

A  notice  of  dissolution  to  all  persons  dealing 
with  the  firm  is  necessary  when  the  retiring 
partner  wishes  to  avoid  further  liability  for 
debts  incurred  by  the  partnership.  The  re- 
tiring partner  is  already  liable  for  all  prior 
debts.  To  avoid  responsibility,  notice  must 
be  given  to  each  person  who  has  had  dealings 
with  the  partnership.  A  notice  published  in 
the  local  paper  will  do  for  all  subsequent  credi- 
tors. 

Wills. —  No  particular  form  of  a  will  is  re- 
quired. A'iy  words  that  clearly  convey  the 
idea  of  the  testator  are  sufficient. 

Kinds.  —  Unwritten  or  nuncupative  and 
written.  All  wills  must  be  written,  except 
those  of  soldiers  and  sailors  when  in  actual 
service,  or  in  some  States  they  maybe  allowed 
in  extreme  cases  when  a  necessity.  The 
parties  to  a  will  are  the  testator  or  person 
making  the  will,  the  donee  or  person  benefited 
by  the  will,  and  the  executor  or  person  em- 
powered to  see  that  the  provisions  of  the  will 
are  carried  out. 

Testator. —  The  testator  must  be  competent. 
In  New  York,  males  of  18  years  of  age  and 
females  of  1 6  years  of  age  may  dispose  of  per- 
sonal property.  A  married  woman  cannot 
make  a  valid  will  without  the  consent  of  her 
husband,  except  in  those  States  where  their 
disabilities  have  been  removed.  The  testator 
must  possess  mind  and  memory  enough  to 
fully  understand  the  nature  and  consequences 
of  his  action. 

Donee. — The  donees  are  the  persons  bene- 
fiting by  the  will. 

They  are  called  devisees  when  the  gift  is  of 
real  estate,  and  legatees  when  the  gift  is  one 
of  personal  property. 

Any  person  in  general,  capable  of  acquiring 
property  by  his  own  exertion,  may  be  a  donee. 
Corporations  cannot  take  by  will  unless  em- 
powered to  do  so  by  their  charters. 

Executor. — Any  person  capable  of  making  a 
will  may  be  an  executor. 

He  must  see  that  the  deceased  is  buried  in  a 
suitable  manner ;  he  must  file  a  bond,  offer 
the  will  for  probate,  make  the  return  and  in- 
ventory, collect  the  property,  pay  the  debts 
and  distribute  the  remainder  according  to  the 
terms  of  the  will.  He  must  render  an  account 
of  all,  and  file  with  the  probate  office. 


Subject-matter. —  Little  form  is  necessary  for 
disposing  of  personal  property.  A  will  might 
be  accepild  for  disposing  of  personal  property 
when  parts  relating  to  real  estate  would  not  be 
valid. 

By  common  law  the  testator  must  be  pos- 
sessed of  real  estate  he  devises  at  the  time  the 
will  is  made.  By  the  laws  of  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts, New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Vir- 
ginia, he  may  devise  any  that  he  is  possessed 
of  at  the  time  of  his  death,  if  that  was  evi- 
dently his  intention.  The  laws  of  Maine, 
Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Connecticut  are  similar. 

Execution. — The  will  must  be  signed  by  the 
testator,  or  by  some  person  acting  for  him  at 
his  request.  When  he  signs  or  acknowledges 
the  will  he  must  declare  it  to  be  his  last  will. 

It  is  best  to  have  three  witnesses,  though 
some  of  the  States  require  but  two.  The  New 
England  States  and  some  of  the  Southern 
States  require  three  ;  the  Middle  and  Western 
States  in  general  require  two ;  Louisiana  re- 
quires four  witnesses.  The  witnesses  must 
write  their  names  and  addresses  as  witnesses. 
New  York  prescribes  a  fine  of  fifty  dollars  for 
their  failure  to  do  so. 

The  testator  must  sign  or  acknowledge  his 
signature  in  the  presence  of  these  witnesses. 
A  codicil  to  be  valid  must  be  witnessed  with 
the  same  formalities  as  the  will. 

A  subsequent  will  revokes  the  preceding  one. 
All  witnesses  should  be  disinterested  parties. 

The  following  States  have  particular  pro- 
visions in  their  statutes  concerning  wills  : — 

New  York. — No  person  having  a  husband, 
wife,  child,  or  parent,  shall  devise  more  than 
one  half  of  his  or  her  estate  to  any  charitable, 
literary,  scientific,  or  kindred  institution. 
Should  a  testator  marry  after  making  a  will 
disposing  of  the  whole  of  his  estate,  and  there 
should  be  born  an  issue  of  such  marriage, 
unless  provision  shall  have  been  made  for  such 
issue,  by  settlement,  or  uuless  the  will  provides 
for  such  issue,  or  shqws  an  intention  not  to 
provide  for  such  issue,  the  will  shall  be  re- 
voked and  no  other  evidence  shall  be  submitted 
in  rebuttal. 

A  child  born  after  the  making  of  a  will,  and 
not  provided  for  by  will  or  settlement,  shall 
succeed  to  such  portion  of  the  estate  as  would 
have  fallen  to  it  had  the  parent  died  intestate. 

A  bequest  to  a  witness  renders  the  will  void 
only  so  far  as  the  witness  and  his  bequest  is 
concerned.     He  is  a  competent  witness  still. 

Colorado. — A  married  man  cannot  by  will 
deprive  his  wife  of  more  than  one  half  his 
estate.  A  married  woman  cannot  deprive  her 
husband  of  more  than  one  half  her  estate 
without  his  consent  in  writing. 

Connecticut. — No  bequest  can  be  given  to 


64 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


a  subscribing  witness,  and  a  subsequent  mar- 
riage or  birth  of  a  child  revokes  the  will  unless 
specially  provided  for  therein.  *^ 

District  of  Columbia. — Bequests  to  any 
minister,  teacher,  or  religious  sect  or  denomina- 
tion, unless  made  at  least  one  month  before 
the  testator's  death,  are  void. 

Iowa. — Disposition  of  homestead  or  other 
privileged  property  to  wife  and  family  is  void. 

Kansas. — A  married  person  cannot,  without 
the  consent  of  the  husband  or  wife,  dispose  of 
more  than  one  half  of  his  or  her  property. 

Maine. —  A  posthumous  child  shares  the 
same  as  though  there  was  no  will,  unless  other- 
wise provided  for. 

Massachusetts. — A  bequest  to  a  subscrib- 
ing witness  is  void,  or  to  the  husband  or  wife  of 
such  witness,  unless  there  are  three  other 
witnesses. 

New  Hampshire. — Bequest  to  subscribing 
witness  void  without  there  are  three  other  sub- 
scribing witnesses. 

New  Jersey. — Same  as  Maine. 

Pennsylvania. — Bequest  to  a  charity 
within  one  month  of  testator's  death  is  void. 

Short  Form  for  a  Will. — I,  James  Dick- 
son, of  the  city  of  Chicago,  in  the  county  of 
Cook,  and  State  of  Illinois,  being  of  sound 
mind  and  memory  and  understanding,  do 
make  my  last  will  and  testament  in  manner 
and  form  following  : — 

First.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  daughters 
Mary  and  Jane  two  thousand  dollars  each  after 
they  have  attained  the  age  of  twenty  years. 

Second.  T  give  and  bequeath  to  my  wife 
Susan  all  my  household  furniture,  and  all  the 
rest  of  my  personal  property,  after  paying 
from  the  same  the  legacies  already  named,  to 
be  hers  forever  :  but  if  there  should  not  be  cat 
my  decease  sufficient  personal  property  to  pay 
the  aforesaid  legacies,  then  so  much  of  my 
real  estate  shall  be  sold  as  will  raise  sufficient 
money  to  pay  the  same. 

Third.  I  also  give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to 
my  wife  Susan  all  the  rest  and  residue  of  my 
real  estate  as  long  as  she  shall  remain  un- 
married, and  my  widow ;  but  on  her  decease 
or  marriage,  the  remainder  thereof  I  give 
and  devise  to  my  said  children  and  their  heirs, 
respectively,  to  be  divided  in  equal  shares  be- 
tween them. 

I  appoint  my  wife  Susan  sole  executrix  of 
this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

In  testimony  whereof,  T  hereunto  set  my  hand 
and  seal,  and  publish  and  decree  this  to  be  my 
last  will  and  testament,  in  tin-,  presence  <>f  the 
witnesses  named  below,  this  eighth  day  of" 
March,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  ninety-three. 

James  Dickson,     [l.  s.] 


Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by 
the  said  James  Dickson  as  and  for  his  last  will 
and  testament,  in  the  presence  of  us,  who,  at 
his  request  and  in  his  presence,  and  in  pres- 
ence of  each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names 
as  witnesses  hereto. 

John  Smith,  residing  at  Chicago  in  Cook 
County. 

Peter  Jones,  residing  at  Chicago  in  Cook 
County. 

Another  Form  of  Will.  Know  all  men 
by  these  presents :  That  I,  Joseph  Atkinson,  of 
Media,  in  the  county  of  Chester,  and  State  of 
Pennsylvania,  merchant,  considering  the  un- 
certainty of  this  life,  and  being  of  sound  mind 
and  memory,  do  make,  and  declare,  and  pub- 
lish, this  my  last  will  and  testament. 

First.  I  give  and  bequeath  unto  my  beloved 
wife  Mary  the  use,  improvement  and  income 
of  my  dwelling  house,  warehouses,  lands,  and 
their  appurtenances,  situate  in  Nelson  town- 
ship, Chester  county,  State  of  Pennsylvania, 
to  have  and  to  hold  the  same  to  her  for  and 
during  her  natural  life. 

Second.  I  give  and  bequeath  to  my  son 
Robert  two  thousand  dollars,  to  be  paid  to 
him  by  my  executor,  hereinafter  named,  within 
six  months  after  my  decease  ;  and  I  also  give, 
devise,  and  bequeath  to  my  said  son  Robert  the 
reversion  or  remainder  of  my  dwelling  house, 
warehouses,  lands  and  their  appurtenances, 
situate  in  Nelson  township,  Chester  county, 
State  of  Pennsylvania,  and  all  profit,  income, 
and  advantage  that  may  result  therefrom,  from 
and  after  the  decease  of  my  beloved  wife 
Mary. 

Third.  I  give,  devise,  and  bequeath  to  my 
beloved  wife  Mary  all  the  residue  of  my  estate, 
real,  personal,  or  mixed,  of  which  I  shall  be 
seized  or  possessed,  or  to  which  I  shall  be  en- 
titled at  the  time  of  my  decease  ;  to  have  and 
to  hold  the  same  to  her  and  her  executors  and 
administrators  and  assigns  forever. 

Fourth.  I  do  nominate  and  appoint  my 
brother  James  Atkinson  to  be  the  executor  of 
this,  my  last  will  and  testament. 

///  testimony  whereof,  I  have  to  this,  my  last 
will  and  testament,  contained  on  two  sheets  of 
paper,  and  to  each  sheet  thereof,  subscribed 
my  name  and  set  my  seal ;  and  to  this,  the  last 
sheet  thereof,  I  have  here  subscribed  my  name 
and  affixed  my  seal,  this  eighteenth  day  of  May, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  ninety-three. 

James  Atkinson,      [l.  8.] 

Signed,  sealed,  declared  and  published  by  the 
said  James  Atkinson,  as  and  for  his  last  will 
and  testament,  in  presence  of  us,  who,  at  his 
request  and  in  his  presence,  and  in  presence  of 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


65 


each  other,  have  subscribed  our  names  as 
witnesses  hereto. 

Thomas  May.  rending  at  Media,  Pa. 
John  Nolan,         "        "       "         " 

Henry  Mann,        ••         

Codicil  to  a  Will.  —  Whereas,  I,  Richard 
Roe,  of  the  city  of  Pittsburg,  in  the  county  of 
Allegheny  and  State  of  Pennsylvania,  have 
made  my  last  will  and  testament,  in  writing, 
bearing  date  the  fourteenth  day  of  February, 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  ninety-three,  in  and  by  which  I 
have  given  to  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for 
Deaf  Mutes,  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  the 
sum  of  one  thousand  dollars. 

Now,  therefore,  I  do,  by  this  my  writing, 
which  I  hereby  declare  to  be  a  codicil  to  my 
said  last  will  and  testament,  and  to  be  taken 
as  a  part  thereof,  order  and  declare  that  my 
will  is  that  only  the  sum  of  five  hundred  dol- 
lars shall  be  paid  to  the  said  Pennsylvania  In- 
stitution for  Deaf  Mutes  as  the  full  amount 
bequeathed  to  the  said  institution,  and  that 
the  residue  of  the  said  legacy  be  given  to  the 
person  who  shall  be  acting  as  treasurer  at  the 
time  of  my  decease  of  the  Baptist  Publication 
Society,  located  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  to 
be  expended  by  the  society  in  such  manner  as 
the  officers  of  the  said  society  may  deem  best 
for  the  interests  of  said  society ;  and,  lastly, 
it  is  my  desire  that  this  codicil  be  annexed  to 
and  made  a  part  of  my  last  will  and  testament 
as  aforesaid,  to  all  intents  and  purposes. 

Tn  testimonv  whereof,  etc.  (as  in  form  of 
will). 

MISCELLANEOUS    FORMS. 

Mortgage  of  Lands  by  Husband  and 

Wife. — This  Indenture,  made  the day 

of ,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 

eight  hundred  and ,  between  F.  F.,  of  the 

city  of  New  York,  merchant,  and  J.  his  wife,  of 
the  first  part,  and  L.  M.,  of  said  city,  mer- 
chant, of  the  second  part,  witnesseth:  That  the 
said  parties  of  the  first  part,  for  and  in  consid- 
eration of  the  sum  of ,  lawful  money  of 

the  United  States,  to  them  in  hand  paid,  the 
receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  have 
granted,  bargained,  sold,  aliened,  released, 
conveyed,  and  confirmed,  and  by  these  pres- 
ents do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  alien,  release, 
convey,  and  confirm,  unto  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  and  to  his  assigns  forever,  all 
that  certain  lot,  etc.  :  together  with  all  and 
singular  the  hereditaments  and  appurtenances 
thereunto  belonging,  or  in  any  wise  appertain- 
ing, and  the  reversion  and  reversions,  remainder 
and  remainders,  rents,  issues,  and  profits 
thereof ;  and  also  all  the  estate,  right,  title, 
interest,  dower,  possession,  claim,  and  demand 


whatsoever,  of  the  said  parties  of  the  first  part, 
of,  in,  and  to  the  same,  and  every  part  thereof, 
with  the  appurtenances  :  To  have  and  to  hold 
the  said  hereby  granted  premises,  with  the  ap- 
purtenances, unto  the  said  party  of  the  second 
part,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  to  his  and  their 
only  proper  use,  benefit,  and  behoof  forever. 
Provided  always,  and  these  presents  are  upon 
this  condition,  that  if  the  said  parties  of  the 
first  part,  their  heirs,  executors,  administra- 
tors, or  assigns,  shall  pay  unto  the  said  party 
of  the  second  part,  his  executors,  administra- 
tors, or  assigns,  the  sum  of ,  on  Or  before 

the flay  of ,  which  will  be  in  the  year 

-,  with  interest,  according  to  the  condition 


of  a  bond  of  the  said  F.  F.,  to  the  said  L.  M., 
bearing  even  date  herewith,  then  these  presents 
shall  become  void,  and  the  estate  hereby 
granted  shall  cease  and  utterly  determine. 
But  if  default  shall  be  made  in  the  payment  of 
the  said  sum  of  money,  or  the  interest,  or  of 
any  part  thereof,  at  the  time  hereinbefore 
specified  for  the  payment  thereof,  the  said  par- 
ties of  the  first  part,  in  such  case,  do  hereby 
authorize  and  fully  empower  the  said  party  of 
the  second  part,  his  executors,  administrators, 
and  assigns,  to  sell  the  said  hereby  granted 
premises  at  public  auction,  and  convey  the  same 
to  the  purchaser,  in  fee  simple,  agreeably  to 
the  act  in  such  case  made  and  provided,  and 
out  of  the  moneys  arising  from  such  sale,  to 
retain  the  principal  and  interest  which  shall 
then  be  due  on  the  said  bond,  together  with  all 
costs  and  charges,  and  pay  the  overplus  (if 
any)  to  the  said  F.  F.,  party  of  the  first  part, 
his  heirs,  executors,  administrators,  or  assigns. 

In   witness   whereof,    the   parties   to   these 
presents  have    hereunto   set   their  hands  and 
seals,  the  day  and  year  first  above  written. 
Sealed  and  delivered  in    \ 
the  presence  of  > 

John  Smith.  ) 

Francis  Forest,     [l.  s.] 
Julia  Forest.  [l.  s.] 

Articles  of  Copartnership. — Articles 

of  copartnership  made  and  concluded  this 

day  of ,  in  the  year  one   thousand   eight 

hundred  and  sixty,  by  and  between  A.  B., 
bookseller,  of  the  first  part,  and  C,  D.,  book- 
seller, of  the  second  part,  both  of ,  in  the 

county  of . 

WThereas,  it  is  the  intention  of  the  said 
parties  to  form  a  copartnership,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  on  the  retail  business  of  book- 
sellers and  stationers,  for  which  purpose  they 
have  agreed  on  the  following  terms  and  articles 
of  agreement,  to  the  faithful  performance  of 
which  they  mutually  bind  and  engage  them- 
selves each  to  the  other,  his  executors  and  ad- 
ministrators. 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


First.     The  style  of  the  said  copartnership 

shall  be  " and  company";  and  it  shall 

continue  for  the  term  of years  from  the 

above  date,  except  in  case  of  the  death  of 
either  of  the  said  parties  within  the  said  term. 

Second.  The  said  A.  B.  and  C-  D.  are  the 
proprietors  of  the  stock,  a  schedule  of  which  is 
contained  in  their  stock  book,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  thirds  to  the  said  A.  B.,  and  of 
one  third  to  the  said  C.  D.  ;  and  the  said 
parties  shall  continue  to  be  owners  of  their 
joint  stock  in  the  same  proportions ;  and  in 
case  of  any  addition  being  made  to  the  same 
by  mutual  consent,  the  said  A.  Bl  shall  ad- 
vance two  thirds,  and  the  said  C.  D.  one  third 
of  the  cost  thereof. 

Third.  All  profits  which  may  accrue  to  the 
said  partnership  shall  be  divided,  and  all  losses 
happening  to  the  said  firm,  whether  from  bad 
debts,  depreciation  of  goods,  or  any  other 
cause  or  accident,  and  all  expenses  of  the  busi- 
ness, shall  be  borne  by  the  said  parties  in  the 
aforesaid  proportions  of  their  interest  in  the 
said  stock. 

Fourth.  The  said  C.  D.  shall  devote  and 
give  all  his  time  and  attention  to  the  business 
of  the  said  firm  as  a  salesman,  and  generally 
to  the  care  and  superintendence  of  the  store  ; 
and  the  said  A.  B.  shall  devote  so  much  of  his 
time  as  may  be  requisite,  in  advising,  over- 
seeing, and  directing  the  importation  of  books 
and  other  articles  necessary  to  the  said  busi- 
ness. 

Fifth.  All  the  purchases,  sales,  transactions, 
and  accounts  of  the  said  firm  shall  be  kept  in 
regular  books,  which  shall  be  always  open  to 
the  inspection  of  both  parties  and  their  legal 
representatives  respectively.  An  account  of 
stock  shall  be  taken,  and  an  account  between 
the  said  parties  shall  be  settled,  as  often  as  once 
in  every  year,  and  as  much  oftener  as  either 
partner  may  desire  and  in  writing  request. 

Sixth.  Neither  of  the  said  parties  shall  sub- 
cribe  any  bond,  sign  or  indorse  any  note  of 
hand,  accept,  sign,  or  indorse  any  draft  or  bill 
of  exchange,  or  assume  any  other  liability, 
verbal  or  written,  either  in  his  own  name  or 
in  the  name  of  the  firm,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  any  other  person  or  persons  whatso- 
ever, without  the  consent  in  writing  of  the 
other  party  ;  nor  shall  either  party  lend  any  of 
the  funds  of  the  copartnership  without  such 
consent  of  the  other  partner. 

Seventh.  No  importation,  or  large  purchase 
of  books  or  other  things,  shall  be  made,  nor 
any  transaction  out  of  the  usual  course  of  the 
retail  business  shall  be  undertaken  by  either 
of  the  partners,  without  previous  consultation 
with,  and  the  approbation  of,  the  other 
partner. 


Eighth.  Neither  party  shall  withdraw 
from  the  joint  stock,  at  any  time,  more  than 
liis  share  of  the  profits  of  the  business  then 
earned,  nor  shall  either  party  be  entitled  to 
interest  on  his  share  of  the  capital ;  but  if,  at 
the  expiration  of  the  year,  a  balance  of  profits 
be  found  due  to  either  partner,  he  shall  be  at 
liberty  to  withdraw  the  said  balance,  or  to 
leave  it  in  the  business,  provided  the  other 
partner  consent  thereto,  and  in  that  case  he 
shall  be  allowed  interest  on  the  said  bal- 
ance. 

Ninth.  At  the  expiration  of  the  aforesaid 
term,  or  earlier  dissolution  of  this  copartner- 
ship, if  the  said  parties  or  their  legal  repre- 
sentatives cannot  agree  in  the  division  of  the 
stock  then  on  hand,  the  whole  copartnership 
effects,  except  the  debts  due  to  the  firm,  shall  be 
sold  at  public  auction,  at  which  both  parties 
shall  be  at  liberty  to  bid  and  purchase  like 
other  individuals,  and  the  proceeds  shall  be 
divided,  afterpayment  of  the  debts  of  the  firm, 
in  the  proportions  aforesaid. 

Tenth.  For  the  purpose  of  securing  the  per- 
formance of  the  foregoing  agreements,  it  is 
agreed  that  either  party,  in  case  of  any  viola- 
tion of  them  or  either  of  them  by  the  other,, 
shall  have  the  right  to  dissolve  this  copartner- 
ship forthwith,  on  his  becoming  informed  of 
such  violation. 

In  witness  whereof,   we  have    hereunto   set 
our   hands  and    seals,    the  day  and  year  first 
above  written. 
Sealed  and  delivered"") 

in  presence  of        I  A.  B.     [l.  s.] 

John  Smith,  C.  D.     [l.  s.] 

Frank  Robinson.    J 

Agreement  to  Continue  the  Partnership  ;  to  he 
Indorsed  on  the  Back  of  the  Original  Articles. — 
Whereas,  the  partnership  evidenced  by  the 
within-written  articles  has  this  day  expired  by 
the  limitations  contained  therein  [or,  will  ex- 
pire on  the day  of next],  it  is  hereby 

agreed,  that  the  same  shall  be  continued  on 
the  same  terms,  and  with  all  the  provisions 
and   restrictions    therein   contained,    for    the 

further  term  of years  from  this  date   [or 

from  the day  of next]. 

In  witness,  &c.  [a.s  in  General  Form~\  . 

Assignment  of  a.  Lease. — Know  all 
men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  the  within- 
named  A.  B.,  the  lessee,  for  and  in  considera- 
tion of  the  sum  of  one  thousand  dollars,  to  me 
in  hand  paid  by  C.  D.,  of,  &c,  at  and  before 
the  sealing  and  delivery  hereof  (the  receipt 
whereof  I  do  hereby  acknowledge),  have 
granted,  assigned,  and  set  over,  and  by  these 
presents  do  grant,  assign,  and  set  over,  unto 
the  said  C.  D.,  his  executors,  administrators, 
and  assigns  the  within  indenture  of  lease,  and 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


67 


all  that  messuage,  &c,  thereby  demised,  with 
the  appurtenances  ;  and  also  all  my  estate, 
right,  title,  term  of  years  yet  to  come,  claim, 
and  demand  whatsoever,  of,  in,  to,  or  out  of 
the  same.  To  have  and  to  hold  the  said  mes- 
suage, &c,  unto  the  said  CD.,  his  executors, 
administrators,  and  assigns,  for  the  residue  of 
the  term  within  mentioned,  under  the  yearly 
rent  and  covenants  within  reserved  and  con- 
tained, on  my  part  and  behalf  to  be  done, 
kept,  and  performed. 

In  testimony  whereof,  I  have  hereunto  set 
my  hand  and  seal,  this  tenth  day  of  May,  one 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty. 

Executed  and  delivered  )        .    t,    r  i 

.     ,,  ,      >      A.  B.  [seal.] 

in  the  presence  ol      )  L  J 

Assignment  of  a  3Iortgage. — Know 
all  men  by  these  presents,  that  I,  A.  B.,  the 
mortgagee  within  named,  for  and  in  considera- 
tion of  the  sum  of  sixteen  hundred  dollars,  to 
me  paid  by  CD.,  of,  &c,  at  and  before  the 
sealing  and  delivery  hereof  (the  receipt  where- 
of is  hereby  acknowledged),  have  granted, 
bargained,  sold,  assigned,  and  set  over,  and  by 
these  presents  do  grant,  bargain,  sell,  assign, 
and  set  over,  unto  the  said  C  D.,  his  heirs, 
executors,  administrators,  and  assigns,  •  the 
within  deed  of  mortgage,  and  all  my  right  and 
title  to  that  messuage,  &c,  therein  mentioned 
and  described,  together  with  the  original  debt 
for  which  the  said  mortgage  was  given,  and 
all  evidence  thereof,  and  all  the  rights  and  ap- 
purtenances thereunto  belonging.  To  have 
and  to  hold  all  and  singular  the  premises  here- 
by granted  and  assigned,  or  mentioned,  or  in- 
tended so  to  be,  unto  the  said  C  D.,  his  heirs 
and  assigns,  forever;  subject,  nevertheless,  to 
the  right  and  equity  of  redemption  of  the 
within  named  E.  E.,  his  heirs  and  assigns  (if 
any  they  have),  in  the  same. 

In  testimony,  &c.  [as  in  General  Form  of 
Assignment"]. 

Assignment  of  a   Patent. — Whereas, 

letters  patent,  bearing  date day  of , 

in  the  year ,  were  granted  and  issued   by 

the  government  of  the  United  States,  under  the 

seal  thereof,  to  A.  B.,  of  the  town  of ,  in 

the  county  of  ,  in  the  State  of ,  for 

[here  state  the  nature  of  the  invention  in  gen- 
eral terms,  as  in  the  patent],  a  more  particular 
and  full  description  whereof  is  annexed  to  the 
said  letters  patent  in  a  schedule ;  by  which 
letters  patent  the  full  and  exclusive  right  and 
fiberty  of  making  and  using  the  said  invention, 
and  of  vending  the  same  to  others  to  be  used, 
was  granted  to  the  said  A.  B.,  his  heirs,  ex- 
ecutors, and  administrators,  or  assigns,  for 
the  term  of  fourteen  years  from  the  said  date  : 

Now,  know  all  men  by  these  presents,  that 
I,  the  said  A.  B.,  for  and  in  consideration  of 


the  sum  of dollars,  to  me   in   hand  paid 

(the  receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged), 

have  granted,  assigned,  and  set  over,   and  by 

j  these  presents  do  grant,  assign,  and  set  over, 

unto  C  D.,  of  the  town  of ,  in  tire  county 

of  ,    and    State    of   ,  his  executors, 

administrators,  and  assigns,  forever,   the  said 
letters   patent,    and    all    my  right,  title,  and 
|  interest    in    and   to   the    said     invention,    so 
1  granted  unto  me  :     To  have  and  to   hold  the 
j  said   letters   patent    and    invention,    with   all 
benefit,  profit,  and   advantage   thereof,    unto 
the  said  CD.,  his  executors,  administrators, 
and  assigns,  in  as  full,  ample,  and  beneficial  a 
manner,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as  I,  the 
said  A.  B.,  by  virtue  of  the  said  letters  patent, 
may  or  might  have  or  hold  the  same,    if   this 
assignment   had   not  been  made,  for  and  dur- 
ing all  the  rest  and  residue  of  the  said  term  of 
fourteen  years. 

In  testimony,  &c.   [as    in    General  Form  of 
Assignment]. 

Assignment    of   a    Policy    of  Insu- 
rance.— Know  all   men   by  these   presents, 
j  that  I,  the   within  named  A.  B.,  for  and  in 

consideration  of  the  sum  of ,  to  me  paid 

by  C  D.,  of,  etc.  (the  receipt  whereof  is 
hereby  acknowledged),  have  granted,  sold, 
|  assigned,  transferred,  and  set  over,  and  by  these 
presentsj  do  absolutely  grant, sell,  assign,  trans- 
fer, and  set  over  to  him,  the  said  C  D.,  all  my 
right,  property,  interest,  claim,  and  demand 
in  and  to  the  within  policy  of  insurance,  which 
have  already  arisen,  or  which  may  hereafter 
arise  thereon,  with  full  power  to  use  my  name 
so  far  as  may  be  necessary  to  enable  him  fully 
to  avail  himself  of  the  interest  herein  assigned, 
or  hereby  intended  to  be  assigned.  The  con- 
veyance herein  made,  and  the  powers  hereby 
given,  are  for  myself  and  my  legal  representa- 
tives to  said  CD.  and  his  legal  representa- 
tives. 

In   testimony,  etc.  [as  in   General  Form  of 
Assignment]. 

Assignment  of  Demand  for  Wages 
or  Debt. — In  consideration  of  $100  to  me 

in  hand  paid  by  M.  D.,  of  the  city  of ,  the 

receipt  whereof  is  hereby  acknowledged,  I, 
L.C,  of  the  same  place,  have  sold,  and  by  these 
presents  do  sell,  assign,  transfer,  and  set  over, 
unto  the  said  M.  D.,  a  certain  debt  due  from 
N.  E.,  amounting  to  the  sum  of  $150,  for 
work,  labor,  and  services,  by  me  performed 
for  the  said  N.  E.  (or  for  goods  sold  and  de- 
livered to  the  said  N.  E.),  with  full  power  to 
sue  for,  collect,  and  discharge,  or  sell  and 
assign  the  same  in  my  name  or  otherwise,  but 
at  his  own  cost  and  charges ;  and  I  do  hereby 
covenant  that  the  said  sum  of  $150  is  justly 
due  as  aforesaid,  and  that  I  have  not  done  and 


68 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


will  not  do  any  act  to  hinder  or  prevent  the    sell  and   assign  to  M.   D.  the  within  account 


collection  of  the  same  by  the  said  M.  D. 

Witness  my  hand,  this  April  10th,  1863. 

L.  C. 

Assignment  of  Account  Indorsed  Thereon. — In 
consideration  of  $1 ,    value  received,  I  hereby 


which  is  justly  due  from  the  within  named 
X.  E.,  and  I  hereby  authorize  the  said  M.  D. 
to  collect  the  same. 

Troy,  April  10th,  1863.  L.  C. 


INTEREST   LAWS   ANT>    STATUTES    OF    LIMITATIONS. 


States  and 
Territobiks. 


Interest  Laws. 


Uml    Rate  Allowed    J"df; 
H;it.-.      by  Contract.    J}.1^™' 


Statutes  of 
Limitations. 


Alabama.. 

Arkansas 

Arizona 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut  . . . 

Delaware 

D.  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 


Per  ct. 
8 
6 


Per  ct. 

8 

10 

Any  rate. 

Any  rate. 

Any  rate. 

(jb 

6 
10 
10 

8 
12 


10 

6 

8 

Anv  rate. 

6 

Any  rate. 

8 

10 

10 

8 

Anv  rate. 


20 
10 

5 

5 

6 

t 

(«) 
12 
20 

7 

6 
20 
20 
20(d) 

5 
15(a) 
10 
20 
12 
20 

6* 
10 

7 
10 
10 


Notes, 
Years. 


6* 

5 

5 

41 

6 

(e) 

6|| 

3 

5 

6 

5 
10 
10 
10 

5 

5 

5 

611 

3 

6 

6 

6 

6 
10 

8 


Open 

counts. 
Years. 


3 

2 

6 

6 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

5 

6 

5 

3 

5(6) 

3 


States  and 
Territories. 


Nebraska 

Nevada 

N.  Hampshire.. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico . . . 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 
North  Dakota.. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . 
Rhode  Island.. 
South  Carolina 
South  Dakota. . 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Canada 


Interest  Laws. 


Statutes  o 

Limitation.' 


Letstl 
Kate. 


Per  ct. 
7 
7 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 


Rate  Allowed 
by  Contract. 


•Iwdg-    Notes.' 
ments.  -- 
Years. 


*  Under  seal,  10  years,  t  If  made  in  the  State;  if  outside,  2  years,  t  No  law  and  no  decision  regarding  judg- 
ments. §  Unless  a  different  rate  is  expressly  stipulated.  ||  Under  seal,  20  years.  If  Store  accounts;  other 
accounts  3  years,  tt  New  York  has  by  a  recent  law  legalized  any  rate  of  interest  on  call  loans  of  $5,000  or  up- 
ward, on  collateral  security,  tt  Becomes  dormant,  but  may  be  revived.  §§Six  years  from  last  item.  («). Judg- 
ments 15  years  from  last  execution  issued.  (6)  Actions  on  merchants'  accounts  must  be  commenced  in  two  years 
from  January  1  following  last  item,  (c)  Ten  years  in  New  Castle  County,  twenty  years  in  Kent  and  Sussex  coun- 
ties, Delaware,  (d)  Twenty  years  in  Courts  of  Record;  in  Justice's  Court  10  vears.  (e) Negotiable  notes  6  years, 
non-negotiable  notes  17years.  (/)  Ceases  to  be  a  lien  after  that  period.  (y)Store  accounts  3  years,  (A)  Unless 
execution  issue  thereon.  May  be  kept  alive  indefinitely  by  issuing  execution  every  rive  years.  On  foreign 
judgments  1  year.  (i)Is  a  lien  on  real  estate  for  only  10  years,  (j)  Any  rate,  but  only  G  per  cent,  can  be  collected 
at  law. 


♦Inns   and    Innkeepers. — An  Inn  is   a 

public  house  for  the  lodging  and  entertain- 
ment of  travelers  for  compensation,  and  the 
person  who  conducts  such  house  is  called  an 
innkeeper.  To  enable  him  to  obtain  his  com- 
pensation the  law  invests  an  innkeeper  with 
peculiar  privileges,  giving  him  a  lien  upon  the 
personal  property  brought  into  the  inn  by  the 
guest,  and  on  the  other  hand  holds  him  to  a 
strict  degree  of  responsibility  to  the  guest  if 
the  goods  are  lost  or  stolen. 

The  essential  character  of  an  inn  is,  that  it 
is  open  for  all  who  may  desire  to  visit  it ; 
hence,  a  mere  private  boarding  house,  or  Indu- 
ing house,  cannot,  in  any  proper  sense,  l><'  re- 
garded as  an  inn;  nor  will  a  coffeehouse  or 
restaurant  come  within  the  term.  A  person 
•  who  entertains  t  revelers  occasionally,  although 
he  may  receive  compensation,  is  not  an  inn- 
keeper, nor  liable  as  such,  provided  he  does 
not  bold  himself  out  in  that  character. 


An  Innkeeper  is  bound  to  receive  all  trav- 
elers and  wayfaring  persons  who  may  apply  to 
him,  and  to  provide  entertainment  for  them, 
if  he  can  accommodate  them,  unless  they  are 
drunk,  or  disorderly,  or  afflicted  with  conta- 
gious diseases.  If  a  person  be  disorderly  he 
may  not  only  refuse  to  receive  him,  but  even 
after  he  has  received  him  may  eject  him  from 
the  house. 

He  is  further  bound  to  exercise  a  high  degree 
of  care  over  the  person  and  property  of  his 
guests,  and  is  held  to  a  strict  responsibility  for 
all  loss  or  damage  which  may  occur  through 
his  negligence.  .  This  responsibility  extends 
not  only  to  his  own  acts,  and  the  acts  of  his 
servants,  bu!  also  to  the  acts  of  his  other 
guests.  The  liability  of  an  innkeeper  com- 
mences iVoni  the  time  the  goods  are  brought 
into  the  inn  or  delivered  to  any  of  the  inn- 
keeper's servants  ;  and  a  delivery  into  the  per- 
sonal custody  of  the  innkeeper  is  not  necessary 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


69 


in  order  to  make  him  responsible.  He  is  not 
liable  for  what  are  termed  the  acts  of  God,  or 
the  public  enemy  ;  nor  for  property  destroyed 
without  his  negligence  by  accidental  fire  ;  and, 
generally,  the  innkeeper  will  be  exonerated  if 
the  negligence  of  the  guest  occasion  the  loss  in 
such  a  way  that  the  loss  would  not  have  hap- 
pened if  the  guest  had  used  the  ordinary  care 
that  a  prudent  man  may  be  reasonably  ex- 
pected to  have  taken  under  the  circumstances. 

The  strict  liability  of  an  innkeeper  has  been 
much  modified  by  statute,  particularly  in  re- 
gard to  money  and  valuables,  and  where  the 
innkeeper  provides,  in  the  office  or  some  other 
convenient  place  in  the  hotel,  an  iron  safe  for 
the  keeping  of  money,  jewels,  etc.,  and  notifies 
his  guests  of  that  fact,  and  the  guest  neglects  to 
avail  himself  of  the  opportunity  thus  afforded, 
the  innkeeper  will  not  be  liable  for  the  losses 
sustained  by  the  guest  by  theft  or  otherwise. 

A  Guest,  in  the  restricted  and  legal  sense,  is 
the  only  person  who  is  entitled  to  the  privilege 
of  protection,  and  to  entitle  him  to  this  he  must 
have  the  character  of  a  traveler,  a  mere  so- 
journer or  temporary  lodger,  in  distinction  from 
one  who  engages  for  a  fixed  period,  and  at  a 
certain  agreed  rate  ;  but  if  a  party  be  in  fact  a 
wayfarer,  and  his  visit  is  only  transient,  it  mat- 
ters not  how  long  he  remains,  provided  he  re- 
tains this  character.  Thus,  regular  boarders 
by  the  week  or  month  are  not  guests,  nor  are 
they  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  guests,  and 
on  the  other  hand,  in  the  absence  of  an  en- 
acted statute,  the  landlord  is  not,  as  to  them, 
an  innkeeper,  and  as  such  entitled  to  a  lien  on 
their  effects  for  his  compensation. 

The  Law  of  the  Road. — General  Princi- 
ples.— To  prevent  collisions,  and  to  secure  the 
safety  and  convenience  of  travelers  meeting 
and  passing  each  other  upon  the  highway,  a 
code  of  rules  has  been  adopted  which  consti- 
tutes what  is  called  the  law  of  the  road.  These 
rules,  originally  established  by  custom,  have, 
in  many  instances,  been  re-enacted  and  de- 
clared by  statute,  and  are  of  general  and 
uniform  observance  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  general,  they  apply  to  private  ways, 
as  well  as  public  roads,  and,  indeed,  extend  to 
all  places  appropriated,  either  by  law  or  in 
fact,  for  the  purposes  of  travel. 

The  fundamental  rule,  applicable  alike  to 
all  who  use  a  traveled  way,  is,  that  every  per- 
son must  exercise  reasonable  care,  adapted  to 
t lie  plaee  and  circumstances,  to  prevent  col- 
lision and  avoid  accidents,  and  to  this  all 
other  rules  are  subsidiary.  No  one  will  he 
entitled  to  redress  for  an  injury  sustained  on 
the  highway  where  his  own  negligence  con- 
tributed to  such  injury,  nor  will  the  fact  that 
a  fellow-traveler  fails  to  observe  the  law  in  the 


use  of  the  road  absolve  another  who  is  in  the 
right  from  the  duty  of  exercising  ordinary 
care  to  avoid  injury  to  himself  or  to  prevent 
injury  to  the  party  who  is  in  the  wrong.  At 
the  same  time,  a  person  lawfully  using  a  public 
highway  has  a  right  to  assume  that  a  fellow- 
traveler  will  observe  the  law  and  exercise 
ordinary  care  and  prudence,  and  to  govern  his 
own  conduct  in  determining  his  use  of  the  road 
accordingly.  This  assumption  he  may  rely  on, 
not  to  justify  carelessness  on  his  own  part,  but 
to  warrant  him  in  pursuing  his  business  in  a 
convenient  manner. 

Vehicles. — It  is  a  primary  rule  that  vehicles 
meeting  on  a  highway  must  bear  or  keep  to 
the  right.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  pass- 
ing vehicles,  for  a  person  having  before  him 
the  entire  road  free  from  carriages  or  other  ob- 
structions, and  having  no  notice  of  any  carriage 
behind  him,  is  at  liberty  to  travel  upon  any 
part  of  the  way  as  suits  his  convenience  or 
pleasure,  and  no  blame  can  be  imputed  to  him. 
But  while  a  traveler  may  well  occupy  any  part 
of  the  road  if  no  other  is  using  any  portion  of 
it,  he  must,  upon  all  occasions  of  the  meeting 
of  another,  reasonably  turn  to  the  right ;  and 
in  all  cases  of  a  crowded  condition  of  a 
thoroughfare  must  keep  to  the  right  of  the 
center  or  traveled  part  of  the  way.  A  driver 
may,  indeed,  pass  on  the  left  side  of  the  road, 
or  across  it,  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  at  a 
house,  a  store,  or  other  object  on  that  side  ; 
but  he  must  not  interfere  or  obstruct  another 
lawfully  passing  on  that  side  ;  and  if  he  does, 
he  acts  at  his  peril,  and  must  answer  for  the 
consequences  of  his  violation  of  duty.  In 
such  case  he  must  pass  before  or  wait  until  the 
person  on  that  side  of  the  way  has  passed  on. 

When  two  drivers  are  moving  in  the  same 
direction,  the  one  in  advance  is  entitled  to  the 
road,  provided  he  does  not  obstruct  it,  and  is 
not  bound  to  turn  out  for  the  other  if  there  is 
room  for  the  latter  to  pass  on  either  side  ;  if, 
however,  there  is  not  sufficient  room  to  pass, 
the  foremost  traveler  should  yield  an  equal 
share  of  the  road,  on  request  made,  if  that  is 
practicable.  If  it  is  not  practicable,  then  they 
must  defer  passing  until  they  reach  more 
favorable  grounds.  If  the  leading  traveler 
then  refuses  to  comply  with  the  request  to 
permit  the  other  to  pass  him,  he  will  be 
answerable  for  such  refusal.  Ordinarily,  When 
a  driver  attempts  to  pass  another  on  a  public 
road,  lie  does  so  at  his  peril,  and  will  be  held 
responsible  for  all  damages  which  he  causes  to 
the  one  whom  he  attempts  to  pass,  and  whose 
right  to  the  proper  use  of  the  road  is  as  great 
as  his,  unless  the  latter  is  guilty  ot  such  reck- 
lessness, or  even  gross  carelessness,  as  would 
bring  disaster  upon  himself. 


70 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  rule  requiring  persons  meeting  upon 
the  highway  to  keep  to  the  right  is  not  im- 
perative, however,  and  where  a  driver  cannot 
safely  turn  to  the  right  on  meeting  another 
vehicle,  the  law  will  absolve  him  from  negli- 
gence in  not  attempting  impossibilities ;  but 
where  it  is  not  practicable  to  pass  to  the  right, 
either  of  the  travelers  should  stop  a  reasonable 
time  until  the  other  passes  ;  nor  will  the  rule 
apply  in  the  winter  season,  when  the  depth  of 
snow  renders  it  difficult  or  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain where  the  center  of  the  road  is.  In  such 
cases  the  center  of  the  road  is  the  beaten  or 
traveled  track,  without  reference  to  the  worked 
part  of  the  road.  Again,  the  rule  does  not 
apply  when  one  vehicle  is  passing  along  one 
street  and  another  is  passing  into  said  street 
from  a  cross  street. 

A  traveler  is  bound  to  keep  his  harness  and 
carriage  in  good  condition,  and  is  liable  for 
any  damage  that  may  result  from  a  failure  to 
do  so ;  he  must  not  drive  at  an  immoderate 
rate  of  speed,  and  must  yield  the  road  to  a 
heavier  or  loaded  vehicle. 

Equestrians  are  not  governed  by  the  same 
stringent  rules  that  apply  to  drivers  of  vehicles, 
and  usually  all  that  is  required  of  them  is  to 
exercise  prudent  care  under  the  existing  cir- 
cumstances. They  need  not  turn  out  in  any 
particular  direction  on  meeting  another  horse- 
man or  a  vehicle,  but  in  crowded  thorough- 
fares must  keep  to  the  proper  side  in  passing, 
and  must  yield  the  traveled  part  of  the  road  to 
a  wagon. 

Pedestrians  have  a  right  to  use  the  carriage- 
way as  well  as  the  sidewalk,  and  drivers  must 
exercise  reasonable  care  to  avoid  injuring  them, 
but  a  foot  passenger  in  crossing  the  street  of  a 
city  has  no  prior  right  of  way  over  a  passing 
vehicle  ;  both  are  bound  to  act  with  prudence 
to  avoid  an  accident,  and  it  is  as  much  the 
duty  of  the  pedestrian  to  look  out  for  passing 
vehicles  as  it  is  for  the  driver  to  see  that  he 
does  not  run  over  any  one  ;  nor  does  the  rule 
requiring  vehicles  to  keep  to  the  right  apply 
to  carriages  and  foot  passengers,  for,  as  regards 
a  foot  passenger,  a  carriage  may  go  on  either 
side. 

Landlord  and  Tenant. — The  relation 
of  landlord  and  tenant  exists  by  virtue  of  a  con- 
tract for  the  use  or  occupation  of  lands  or  ten- 
ements, either  fur  a  definite  period,  for  life,  or 
at  will.  It  is  usually  created  by  express  con- 
tract, but  its  existence  will  be  implied  by  law 
whenever  there  is  an  ownership  of  land  on  the 
one  hand  and  an  occupation  of  it  by  permis- 
sion on  the  other.  In  every  such  case  it  will 
be  presumed  that  the  occupant  intends  to  com- 
pensate the  owner  for  such  use.  While  the 
relation    may  be   inferred   from   a   variety  of 


circumstances,  the  most  obvious  acknowledg- 
ment is  the  payment  of  rent.  If  a  tenant  under 
an  express  contract  hold  over  after  the  termi- 
nation of  his  term,  the  landlord  may  consider 
him  as  a  tenant,  and,  indeed,  is  so  understood, 
unless  he  takes  some  steps  to  eject  him.  If 
the  landlord  receives  rent  from  him,  or  by  any 
other  act  admits  the  tenancy,  a  new  leasing 
begins,  and  can  only  be  terminated  by  a  proper 
notice  to  quit. 

The  rights  and  obligations  of  the  parties  are 
usually  considered  as  having  commenced  from 
the  date  of  the  lease,  if  there  be  one,  and  no 
other  time  has  been  designated  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  tenancy,  or,  if  there  be  no 
date  from  the  delivery  of»  the  papers,  and  if 
there  be  no  writings,  from  the  time  the  tenant 
entered  into  possession. 

The  Landlord  is  bound  to  protect  the  posses- 
sion of  his  tenant,  and  to  defend  him  against 
every  one  asserting  a  paramount  right.  Xor 
can  the  landlord  do  any  act  himself  calculated 
to  disturb  the  enjoyment  of  the  tenant.  He 
must,  unless  otherwise  agreed,  pay  all  taxes 
and  assessments  on  the  property,  and  all  other 
charges  of  his  own  creation  ;  and  if  the  tenant, 
in  order  to  protect  himself  in  the  enjoyment  of 
the  land,  is  compelled  to  make  a  payment 
which  should  have  been  made  by  the  landlord, 
he  may  call  upon  his  landlord  to  reimburse 
him,  or  deduct  the  amount  from  the  rent. 

The  landlord  has  no  right  of  possession  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  lease,  nor  indeed 
any  substantial  rights  in  the  property  further 
than  such  as  may  be  necessary  to  protect  his 
reversionary  interests.  He  may  go  upon  the 
premises  peaceably  and  during  reasonable 
hours,  for  the  purpose  of  viewing  same  and 
ascertaining  whether  waste  or  injury  has  been 
committed,  and  may  make  such  repairs  as  are 
necessary  to  prevent  waste  ;  but  he  is  under  no 
obligation  to  make  any  repairs,  nor  does  he 
guarantee  that  the  premises  are  reasonably  fit 
for  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  taken. 
Nor  can  the  tenant  make  any  repairs  at  the 
expense  of  the  landlord  in  the  absence  of  a 
special  agreement. 

The  Tenant  is  entitled  to  all  the  rights  inci- 
dent to  possession,  and  to  the  use  of  all  the 
privileges  appendant  to  the  land,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  personally  liable  for  any  mis- 
use or  obstruction  he  may  erect.  He  must 
use  the  premises  in  such  a  manner  that  no 
substantial  injury  shall  be  done  them,  and 
that  they  may  revert  to  the  landlord  at  the  end 
o£  the  term  unimpaired  by  any  negligent  or 
willful  conduct  on  his  part.  He  must  keep, 
the  premises  in  fair  repair  at  his  own  expense, 
but  is  not  bound  to  rebuild  structures  which 
have  accidentally  become   ruinous  during   his 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW 


71 


occupation  ;  nor  is  he  answerable  for  incidental 
wear  and  tear,  nor  accidental  fire,  or  flood. 

He  must  further  punctually  pay  the  rent  re- 
served, or  if  none  have  been  specifically 
reserved,  then  such  reasonable  compensation 
as  the  premises  are  fairly  worth.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  special  agreement  he  must  pay  only 
for  the  time  he  has  had  the  beneficial  enjoy- 
ment, but  if  he  has  agreed  to  pay  for  an  entire 
term,  as  a  rule  nothing  short  of  an  eviction 
will  excuse  him  from  such  payment.  If  he  is 
evicted  by  a  third  person,  or  if  the  landlord 
annoys  him  by  the  erection  of  a  nuisance,  or 
renders  the  premises  untenantable,  or  makes 
his  occupation  so  uncomfortable  as  to  justify 
his  removal,  he  will  be  discharged  from  the 
payment  of  rent. 

The  rights  and  liabilities  of  the  relation  are 
not  confined  to  the  immediate  parties,  but  at- 
tach to  all  persons  to  whom  the  estate  is 
transferred,  or  who  may  succeed  to  the  posses- 
sion of  the  premises.  A  landlord  may  not 
violate  his  tenant's  rights  by  a  sale  of  the 
property,  nor  can  the  tenant  avoid  his  responsi- 
bility by  assigning  his  term.  The  purchaser 
of  the  property  becomes,  in  one  case,  the  land- 
lord, with  all  his  rights  and  remedies,  while 
in  the  other  the  assignee  of  the  tenant  assumes 
all  the  responsibilities  of  the  latter,  but  the 
original  lessee  is  not  thereby  discharged  from 
his  obligations. 

The  Tenancy  may  be  terminated  in  a  variety 
of  ways.  Tf  for  a  definite  time,  or  conditioned 
on  the  happening  of  a  certain  event,  it  expires 
by  its  own  limitation,  and  usually,  when  de- 
pending upon  the  express  conditions  of  a 
lease,  no  notice  to  quit  is  necessary.  If  from 
year  to  year,  or  at  will,  a  notice  is  always 
necessary.  This  must  be  in  writing,  and  ex- 
plicitly require  the  tenant  to  surrender  up  the 
premises.  It  must  be  served  upon  the  tenant 
and  afford  the  statutory  notice  in  regard  to 
time.  A  breach  of  any  of  the  covenants  of 
the  lease  will  forfeit  the  tenant's  rights,  and 
when  a  tenancy  has  been  terminated,  by  what- 
ever cause,  the  landlord's  right  to  re-enter  be- 
comes absolute. 

EXEMPTION  EAAVS. 

Alabama.— A  homestead  not  exceeding  160  acres  of 
land,  or  a  lot  in  a  city,  town  or  village,  with  a  dwelling 
house  thereon,  not  exceeding  the  value  of  §2,000.  Per- 
sonal property  to  the  value  of  $1,000.  May  he  selected 
by  the  debtor".  Waiver  of  exemption  is  not  valid  unless 
joined  in  by  the  wife. 

Arkansas. — For  single  person,  personal  property  in 
addition  to  wearing  apparel  #200.  For  head  of  a  family, 
personal  property  to  the  value  of  §500. 

For  a  head  of  a  family  outside  of  any  town  or  city, 
160  acres  of  land  not  to  exceed  $2,500  in  value  or  not  less 
than  80  acres  without  regard  to  value. 

In  city  or  town,  not  exceeding  one  acre  of  the  value 
of  82,500,  or  not  less  than  one  fourth  of  an  acre  without 
regard  to  value. 

Arizona. —The  homestead  of  a  married  person  or 
head  of  a  family  in  the  country,  not  exceeding  160  acres. 


with  improvements,  not  to  exceed  $2,500.  Personal  prop- 
erty of  married  person,  $500  besides  wearing  apparel, 
and  of  a  person  unmarried,  $200  and  wearing  apparel. 

California.— The  homestead  on  which  debtor  resides, 
to  the  value  of  $5,003,  if  he  is  the  head  of  a  family ;  if 
not,  to  the  value  of  $1,000.  Personal  property  exempt 
includes  chairs,  tables,  desks  and  books,  $200;  necessary 
household  and  kitchen  furniture,  sewing  machines, 
stoves,  beds,  etc. ;  provisions  for  family  for  three 
months,  three  cows,  four  hogs,  two  horses,  oxen  or 
mules ;  seed,  grain,  and  vegetables  for  sowing,  not  above 
$200  in  value ;  tools  and  implements  of  husbandry  of 
the  debtor,  not  exceeding  the  value  of  $1,000 ;  the  neces- 
sary instruments  of  a  surgeon,  physician,  surveyor,  or 
dentist  together  with  their  professional  library  and 
necessary  office  furniture;  the  professional  library  of 
attorneys,  judges,  ministers  of  the  gospel,  editors, 
school  teachers  and  music  teachers  and  their  necessary 
office  furniture ;  miner's  cabin,  not  exceeding  $500  of 
value,  with  all  tools  and  gear  necessary  for  his  business, 
not  exceeding  $500.  Two  horses  or  mules  with  harness, 
and  the  miner's  claim  worked  by  him,  and  not  exceed- 
ing $1,000  in  value,  are  also  exempt. 

Colorado. — A  homestead  consisting  of  house  and  lot 
in  town  or  city,  or  a  farm  of  any  number  of  acres,  in 
value  not  exceeding  $2,000,  is  exempt  if  occupied  by  a 
householder  and  head  of  a  familv,  provided  it  has  been 
entered  on  record  as  a  homestead  and  so  specified  in  the 
title.  Personal  property,  including  wearing  apparel  of 
the  debtor  and  his  family,  pictures,  schoolbooks, 
library,  etc.,  and  household  furniture,  not  exceeding 
$100 ;  provisions  for  six  months,  tools,  implements  or 
stock  in  trade,  $200;  one  cow  and  calf,  ten  sheep  and 
necessary  food  for  six  months;  working  animals  up  to 
$200 ;  the  library  and  implements  of  a  professional  man 
up  to  $300.  The  head  of  .'a  family  may  select  personal 
property  to"  the  value  of  $1,000;  others,  to  the  value  of 
$300. 

Connecticut.— There  is  no  homestead  exemption. 
Personal  property  is  exempt  as  follows :  Libraries  not 
above  $500  in  value ;  a  cow  worth  £150;  ten  sheep,  not 
over  $50  in  value ;  two  hogs,  and  200  pounds  of  pork. 
Implements  of  trade,  the  horse,  harness  and  buggy  of  a 
practicing  physician,  and  the  boat,  not  exceeding  $200 
in  value,  of  a  person  engaged  in  fishing,  and  used  for 
that  purpose,  are  also  exempt. 

North  and  South  Dakota.— A  homestead  consisting 
of  not  more  than  160  acres,  with  buildings  and  appurte- 
nances thereon,  and  personal  property  defined  by 
statute,  aggregating  in  value  not  to  exceed  $1,500,  is 
exempted  to  a  householder.  A  firm  can  claim  but  one 
exemption,  not  a  several  exemption  for  each  partner. 
Tools  and  implements  of  a  mechanic  to  the  value  of 
$200,  books  and  instruments  of  a  professional  man  to 
the  value  of  $600,  are  also  exempt  from  seizure. 

Delaware. — Family  pictures,  family  Bible,  and  li- 
brary ;  lot  in  burial  ground  and  pew  in  church  ;  family 
wearing  apparel  and  tools  and  implements  necessary  to 
carry  on  business,  the  whole  not  exceeding  $75  in  value, 
are  exempt  from  attachment.  In  addition  to  the  above 
the  head  of  a  family  may  claim  $200  of  personal  prop- 
erty. In  Newcastle  county  wages  of  laborers  are  also 
exempt.    No  homestead  law. 

District  of  Columbia.— Family  wearing  apparel; 
household  furniture  to  the  amount  of  $300 ;  provisions 
and  fuel  for  three  months ;  tools  or  instruments  neces- 
sary to  carry  on  any  trade,  to  the  value  of  $200 ;  library 
anil  implements  or  a  professional  man  or  artist  not 
above  $::00;  family  pictures  and  library  to  the  value  of 
$400,  and  a  farmer's  team  and  other  utensils  to  the  value 
of  $100,  are  exempt  from  attachment  or  sale  on  exe- 
cution, except  for  servants'  or  laborers'  wages.  There 
is  no  homestead  exemption. 

Florida.— A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  land,  together 
with  improvements,  in  the  country,  or  a  residence  and 
one-half  acre  of  ground  in  a  village  or  city,  is  exempted 
to  the  head  of  a  family.  Also  personal  property  to  the 
value  of  $1,000.  No  property  is  exempt  from  sale  for 
taxes  or  for  obligations  contracted  for  its  purchase  or 
for  the  erection  of  improvements  thereon.  The  wages 
of  every  laborer  who  is  the  head  of  a  family  are  also 
exempt  under  any  process  of  law. 

Georgia.— Each  head  of  a  family,  or  guardian,  or 
trustee  of  a  family  of  minor  children,  and  every  aged  or 
infirm  person,  or  person  having  the  care  and  support 
of  dependent  females  of  any  age,  who  is  not  the  head  of 
a  family,  is  entitled  to  realty  or  personalty,  or  both,  to 
the  value  in  the  aggregate  of  $1,600.  Said  property  shall 
be  exempt  from  levy  and  sale  by  virtue  of  any  process 
whatever,  under  the  laws  of  this'State,  except  for  taxes, 


72 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


purchase-money,  of  the  homestead,  labor  done  thereon, 
or  material  furnished  therefor,  or  for  the  removal  of 
incumbrances. 

Idaho.— A  homestead  worth  $5,000  is  exempted  to  a 
householder  who  is  head  of  a  family ;  either  husband 
or  wife  may  select  the  homestead.  Personal  property 
is  also  exempted  to  the  value  of  $300.  Exemption  does 
not  extend  to  purchase-money  or  to  mortgages  on  the 
property. 

Illinois.— A  homestead  valued  at  $1,000  is  exempted 
to  every  householder  who  has  a  family ;  such  exemption 
not  covering  liabilities  for  purchase-money  or  improve- 
ment of  the  homestead.  After  the  death  of  a  house- 
holder his  family  are  entitled  to  the  exemption  so  long 
as  the  survivor  occupies  it,  or  until  the  youngest  child 
is  twenty-one  years  of  age.  There  are  also  exempted  to 
every  person  wearing  apparel,  schoolbooks,  family  pic- 
tures and  family  Bible,  and  $100  worth  of  other  prop- 
erty selected  by  the  debtor.  In  addition  to  this,  $300 
worth  may  be  selected  by  the  debtor  if  a  head  of  a  fam- 
ily ;  but  such  selection  cannot  be  made  from  any  money 
or  wages  due ;  no  exemption  is  allowed  when  the  debt  is 
for  the  wages  of  laborer  or  servant ;  $50  of  wages  is  ex- 
empt to  every  head  of  a  family  if  residing  with  the 
same. 

Indiana. — There  is  no  homestead  exemption ;  any  res- 
ident householder  has  exempted  real  or  personal  prop- 
erty, or  both,  to  the  amount  of  $600  on  any  debt  founded 
on  contract  since  May  31,  1879.  On  debts  founded  on 
contracts  made  previous  to  that  date,  exemption  is  $300. 
Exemption  does  not,  in  any  event,  affect  liens  for  labor, 
purchase-money  or  taxes. 

Iowa.— A  homestead  in  country  of  40  acres,  or  in 
town  or  city  of  one-half  acre,  with  improvements  and 
buildings  to  the  aggregate  value  of  $500,  is  exempted  to 
the  head  of  every  family.  If  less  than  $500  in  value,  it 
may  be  increased  to  that  amount.  It  is  not  exempted 
from  execution  for  the  purchase-money  thereof,  or  for 
debts  contracted  prior  to  its  acquirement.  Upon  the 
death  of  either  husband  or  wife  the  homestead  passes 
to  the  survivor.  Professional  men  are  allowed  their 
libraries,  instruments,  etc.,  and  a  team  and  wagon: 
printers  retain  their  presses  and  type  to  the  value  of 
$1,200.  The  head  of  a  family  may  claim  wearing  ap- 
parel, tools,  a  gun,  his  library  and  furniture  to  the  ex- 
tent of  $200  in  value.  The  personal  earnings  of  the 
debtor  for  ninety  days  preceding  the  execution,  certain 
stock,  with  food  for  them  for  six  months,  a  pew  in 
church  and  a  lot  in  a  burying  ground  are  also  exempt. 
Non-residents  and  unmarried  persons,  not  beingheads  of 
families,  can  only  claim  their  ordinary  wearing  apparel 
and  trunk  necessary  to  carry  the  same  to  the  value 
of  $75. 

Kansas.— An  independent  fortune  is  exempted  in  this 
State.  A  homestead  of  160  acres  of  farming  land,  or  of 
one  acre  within  an  incorporated  town  or  city,  with 
buildings  and  improvements  thereon,  with  no  limit  to 
value.  The  head  of  every  family  is  allowed  personal 
property  as  follows :  The  family  library,  schoolbooks 
and  family  Bible ;  family  pictures  and  musical  instru- 
ments in  use ;  pew  in  church  and  lot  in  burial  ground : 
all  wearing  apparel  of  the  familv,  beds,  bedsteads  and 
bedding,  one  cooking  stove  and  appendages,  and  all 
other  cooking  utensils,  and  all  other  stoves  and  append- 
ages necessary  for  the  use  of  the  debtor  and  his  fam- 
ily; one  sewing  machine,  spinning  wheel  and  all  other 
implements  of  industry,  and  all  other  household  furni- 
ture not  herein  enumerated,  not  exceeding  $500  in 
value ;  two  cows,  ten  hogs,  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one 
horse  or  mule,  or  in  lieu  of  one  yoke  of  oxen  and  one 
horse  or  mule,  a  span  of  mules  or  horses ;  twenty  sheep 
and  their  wool;  food  for  the  support  of  the  stock  for 
one  year ;  one  wagon,  two  plows,  drag  and  other  farm- 
ing utensils  not  exceeding  in  value  $300;  grain,  meat, 
vegetables,  groceries,  fuel,  etc.,  for  the  family  for  one 
year ;  the  tools  and  implements  of  any  mechanic,  miner 
or  other  workman,  kept  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on 
his  business,  together  with  stock  in  trade  not  exceed- 
ing $400  in  value ;  library,  instruments  and  office  furni- 
ture of  any  professional  man.  Residents,  not  the  head 
of  a  family,  nave  tools,  implements  and  stock  in  trade 
up  to  $400.  No  personal  property  is  exempt  for  the 
wages  of  any  clerk,  mechanic,  laborer,  or  servant.  A 
lien  on  the  homestead  may  be  created  by  husband  and 
wife  joining  in  the  mortgage. 

Kentucky. — To  bona-fide  housekeepers  with  a  family 
are  exempted  from  execution  ami  attachment  for  debt : 
A  homestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000;  two  work  beasts,  or 
one  work  beast  and  one  yoke  of  oxen;  two  cows  ami 
calves ;  one  wagon  or  cart ;  two  plows  and  gear ;  five 


head  of  sheep ;  provisions  for  family  and  provender  for 
stock  for  one  year;  the  tools  and  stock  of  a  mechanic 
who  is  a  housekeeper  and  has  a  family,  not  exceeding 
$'200  in  value;  libraries  or  instruments  of  professional 
men.  which  may  vary  in  value  from  one  to  seven 
hundred  dollars;  the' wages  of  a  laboring  man  to  the 
amount  of  fifty  dollars,  except  for  house  rent  and 
necessaries. 

Louisiana. — A  homestead  of  ICO  acres  of  land,  with 
buildings  and  Improvements  thereon,  is  exempted  to 
the  head  of  a  family,  if  owned  and  occupied  as  a  resi- 
dence, together  with]  icrsonal  property,  the  whole  not  to 
exceed  $2,000;  all  wearing  apparel,  implements,  stock, 
etc.,  with  provisions  and  supplies  necessary  for  the 
plantation  for  one  year.  If  the  wife  own  separate 
property  in  her  own  right  to  the  value  of  $2,000  there  is 
no  exemption. 

Maine.— Homestead  $500,  j>r  any  lot  purchased  from 
State  as  a  homestead ;  $50  furniture ;  $150  library  ;  $300 
team;  $50  poultry;  $100  sewing  machine;  $10  lumber; 
cow  and  heifer,  ten  sheep  and  lambs,  plow,  wagon, 
mowing  machine,  a  two-ton  boat,  the  flax,  raw  and 
manufactured,  from  one  acre  of  ground,  wearing 
apparel,  provisions,  fuel,  seed,  grain,  provender  for 
stock,  and  tools.  After  the  debtor's  death  his  familv 
has  the  benefit  of  the  exemptions. 

Maryland. — Besides  wearingapparel,  books,  and  tools 
used  for  earning  a  living,  there  is  exempt  other  property 
to  the  value  of  $100.    No  homestead. 

Massachusetts. — Homestead,  $800  (must  be  recorded 
as  such) ;  furniture,  $300 ;  sewing  machine,  $100 ;  library, 
$50;  tools  and  implements,  $100;  stock  in  trade,  $100; 
boats  and  outfit,  $100;  one  cow;  one  hog  and  six  sheep, 
and  wages  under  $20. 

Michigan. — Forty  acres  of  land,  with  improvements, 
in  the  country,  or  house  and  lot  worth  $1,500  in  town  ; 
furniture,  $250;  library,  $150;  two  cows,  five  hogs,  ten 
sheep,  team,  tools,  provisions,  and  fuel.  No  exemptions 
from  execution  for  purchase  money. 

Minnesota. — Eighty  acres  with  improvements,  in 
country,  or  lot  with  dwelling  on  it,  in  town.  Household 
property,  $500;  wagon,  plows  and  farming  implements, 
$300;  three  cows,  ten  hogs,  twenty  sheep,  yoke  of  cattle 
and  a  horse,  or,  instead,  a  pair'of  horses ;  one  year's 
provisions,  fuel,  feed  for  stock  and  seed  grain*.  A 
miner's  or  mechanic's  tools  and  stock  in  trade  to  $400; 
the  library  and  instruments  of  a  professional  man. 
Wages  under  $50  of  a  laboring  man,  earned  within  the 
last  ninety  days,  and  where  the  debtor  is  publisher  of  a 
newspaper,  his  complete  outfit  to  value  82,000,  and  stock 
$400. 

Mississippi.— To  householding  head  of  family,  1C0 
acres  of  land  and  improvements  in  country,  or  house  and 
lot  in  town,  either  to  value  of  $2,000.  Tools  and  farm- 
ing implements  necessary  for  two  male  laborers ;  library 
ami  instruments  of  professional  man  to  value  of  $250*; 
two  horses  or  mules  or  a  yoke  of  oxen,  two  cows  and 
calves,  five  hogs,  five  slieep ;  wagon,  $100 ;  personal 
property,  $250;  one  sewing  machine;  provisions  and 
provender ;  wages  of  a  laborer,  $100. 

Missouri. — To  head  of  family  one  hundred  and  sixty 
acres  in  the  country  to  the  value  of  $1,500,  a  lot  (thirty 
rods)  in  small  town  to  same  value,  or  lot  (eighteen  rods') 
in  city  having  40,000  inhabitants,  to  value  of  $3,000. 
Personal  property,  $300.    One  month's  wages. 

Montana. — House  and  a  quarter  acre  lot  in  town,  or 
a  farm  of  eighty  acres,  neither  to  exceed  $2,500  in 
value.  Personal  property  to  the  value  of  $1,400.  No 
exemptions  are  good  against  a  mortgage,  a  mechanics' 
lien  or  a  claim  for  purchase-money. 

Nebraska. — Dwelling  and  ICO  acres  of  land  in 
country,  or  two  adjoining  lots  in  town,  value  $2,000.  If 
be  has  no  real  property,  the  debtor  may  retain  personal 
property  to  value  $500*.  Clothing,  furniture,  provisions, 
animals,  tools,  and  other  things  as  per  statute,  and 
sixty  days'  wages  of  laborer.  Exemptions  are  not  good 
against  mechanics'  lien,  mortgage,  or  purchase-money. 

Nevada.— Homestead,  $5,000;  tools,  implements,  and 
other  personal  property,  as  per  statute;  miner's  cabin, 
$500. 

New  Hampshire.— Homestead,  $500;  $100  furniture ; 
$100  tools  ;  $200  books ;  $500  fuel  and  provisions ;  sewing 
machine,  cook  stove,  bedding  and  clothing,  one  hog,  six 
sheep,  one  yoke  of  oxen  or  one  horse,  and  four  tons  of 
bay. 

New  Jersey.— Homestead  $1,500,  and  $200  household 
property. 

New  "Mexico.— Homestead,  $100;  $10  furniture;  $20 
tools ;  $25  provisions. 

New    York.— Homestead,    $1,000;     $250    furniture, 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


73 


tools,  team  and  other  personal  property;  sixty  days' 
wages. 

North  Carolina. — Ahomestead  to  the  value  of  $1,000, 
and  personal  property  worth  $600.  No  exemption  is 
pood  against  taxes,  purchase-money,  or  mechanics' 
liens. 

Ohio. — Homestead  is  exempt  to  the  value  of  $1,000; 
if  appraised  to  a  higher  value  a  partition  is  made,  or  an 
appropriate  rental  is  charged.  Clothing  and  necessary 
furniture  are  exempted ;  tools  and  farming  implements 
to  value  $100 ;  $50  worth  of  provisions  anil  three  months' 
wages ;  one  horse  or  yoke  of  cattle,  harness  and  wagon ; 
one  cow,  two  hogs,  six  sheep,  and  sixty  days'  provender, 
or,  instead,  $65  in  household  property.  A  professional 
man's  books,  $100.  When  resident  debtor,  being  head 
of  a  family,  has  no  homestead,  he  may  retain  personal 
property  to  the  value  of  $500,  besides  other  exempted 
property. 

Oklahoma. — Exemption  to  head  of  a  family  outside 
of  city  or  town  not  to  exceed  160  acres ;  and  in  a  city  or 
town  hot  more  than  one  acre ;  in  addition  thereto,  cer- 
tain personal  effects  and  equipment  appertaining  to  the 
various  vocations.  These  exemptions  do  not  apply  to 
corporations  for  profit,  to  a  non-resident,  or  a  debtor 
who  is  in  the  act  of  removing  his  family  from  the  terri- 
tory, or  who  has  absconded,  taking  with  him  his  family. 

To  a  single  person :  Wearing  apparel,  tools,  appara- 
tus and  books  belonging  to  a  trade  or  profession ;  one 
horse,  saddle  and  bridle  or  one  yoke  of  oxen;  current 
wages  for  personal  service.  In  certain  classes  of  debts 
all  exemptions  are  invalid. 

Oregon. — Musical  instruments,  books  and  pictures, 
$75;  household  effects,  $300;  clothing,  $100,  and  cloth- 
ing to  each  member  of  the  family,  $50 ;  team,  tools,  in- 
struments, library  or  Whatever  is  heeded  in  the  trade  or 
Erof ession  of  debtor,  $400 ;  ten  sheep,  two  cows,  five 
oes,  three  months'  provisions  and  six  months'  prov- 
ender. No  exemption  is  good  against  a  claim  for  pur- 
chase-money.   No  homestead. 

Pennsylvania. — Clothing,  books,  sewing  machine 
and  $300  worth  of  other  property.  Right  may  be 
waived.    No  homestead. 

Rhode  Island. — Furniture  and  supplies  for  family, 
$300;  tools,  $200;  library,  $300;  wages,  $10;  clothing; 
one  cow  and  one  hog ;  debts  secured  by  negotiable 
paper.    No  homestead. 

South  Carolina. — Homestead,  $1,000 ;  this  right  can- 
not be  waived.  Furniture,  wagons,  live  stock  and  tools, 
to  value  of  $500.  Homestead  exemption  cannot  hold 
against  an  execution  for  the  purchase-money,  a  lien  for 
improvements  or  for  taxes.  Any  person  not  the  head  of 
a  family  may  have  one  third  of  'his  annual  earnings  ex- 
empted. 

Tennessee. — Only  the  head  of  a  family  can  have  the 
benefit  of  exemptions;  $1,000  homestead' and  a  variety 
of  personal  property  designated  by  statute,  prominent 
items  being  horses,  mules,  oxen,  cows,  calves,  wagon, 
tools,  lumber,  grain,  provisions,  beds,  bedding,  furni- 
ture, and  $30  waces. 

Texas. — Two  hundred  acres  of  land  with  improve- 
ments in  the  country,  or  city  property  to  value  at  time 
of  being  designated  as  homestead  (regardless  of  the 
value  of  after  improvements)  of  $5,000.  Furniture, 
farming  implements,  tools,  books,  five  cows  and  calves, 
two  yoke  of  cattle,  two  horses  and  wagon,  a  carriage  or 
buggy,  twenty  hogs,  twenty  sheep,  provision,  proven- 
der and  many  other  articles.  The  exemption  of  the 
homestead  is  not  good  against  taxes,  purchase-money  or 
mechanics'  lien  :  but  in  this  last  case  the  contract  must 
have  been  signed  by  both  husband  and  wife.  On  the 
death  of  a  husband,  the  widow  and  children  may  have 
one  year's  support  out  of  the  estate,  and  if  the  property 
be  not  in  such  shape  as  to  be  exempted  by  law,  enough 
may  be  sold  to  raise  an  allowance  for  homestead  to 
value  of  $5,000  and  other  property  $500.  Any  person 
not  the  head  of  a  familv  may  have  exempted  clothing, 
books,  horse,  bridle  and  saddle. 

Utah. — Homestead,  $1,000;  personal  property  to  head 
of  the  family,  $700,  and  to  each  member  $"250.  Not 
good  against"  purchase-money,  mechanics'  lien  or  a 
mortgage. 

Vermont. — Homestead,  $500;  growing  crop,  clothing, 
furniture,  sewing  machine,  tools,  one  cow,  ten  sheep, 
one  hog,  three  hives  of  bees,  poultry,  one  yoke  of  oxen 
or  two  horses,  fuel,  provisions  and  provender;  also  the 
instruments  and  library  of  a  professional  man,  (200. 

Virginia. — The  head  of  a  family  who  is  a  householder 
has  a  homestead  exemption  to  the  value  of  $2,000,  which 
may  be  in  real  or  personal  property,  bow  or  either. 
Also  clothing,  sewing  machine,  furniture  and  animals ; 


books,  $100 ;  tools,  $100.  The  value  of  the  exemptions 
outside  of  the  homestead  is  varied  according  to  the 
number  in  family,  and  ranges  from  $50  to  $500. 

West  Virginia.— Homestead,  $1,000,  where  the 
property  has  been  granted  or  devised  for  the  purpose, 
to  the  head  of  a  family,  or  where  he  has  devoted  such 
property  to  that  purpose  by  having  it  so  recorded. 
Also  personal  property  to  value  of  $200.  Tools  to 
mechanic,  $50. 

Washington. — Homestead  (must  be  actually  occu- 
pied) to  the  value  of  $1,000;  clothing,  books,  bedding 
and  household  goods,  to  value  of  $1,600 ;  one  small  boat 
to  value  of  $50;  two  cows,  five  hogs,  bees,  poultry,  fuel, 
and  provisions.  To  a  farmer,  two  horses,  or  two  yoke 
of  oxen,  and  farming  implements  to  value  of  $200.  To 
professional  man,  library  worth  $500,  office  furniture 
and  fuel.  To  lighterman,  his  boats,  to  value  of  $260. 
To  drayman,  his  team. 

Wisconsin.— Forty  acres  in  the  country,  or  one 
quarter  of  an  acre  in  town,  with  the  dwelling  thereon. 
Clothing,  household  furniture,  $200 ;  books,  two  cows, 
ten  hogs,  ten  sheep,  one  horse  and  yoke  of  cattle,  or  a 
pair  of  horses  and  mules,  farming  tools,  one  year's  pro- 
visions and  provender.  To  a  mechanic,  tools,  $200 ;  pro- 
fessional man,  his  library,  $200 ;  a  publisher  or  printer, 
his  outfit  for  $1,500.  To  any  head  of  a  family,  sixty 
days'  earnings.  No  exemption  good  against"  a  me- 
chanic's lien  or  claim  for  purchase-money. 

Wyoming. — House  and  lot  in  town  or  one  hundred 
and  sixty  acres  of  land  in  the  country,  either  to  value 
of  $1,500.  Tools,  team  and  stock  in  trade  of  mechanic, 
miner,  or  other  person,  $300.  Benefit  of  exemption  can 
only  be  claimed  Toy  a  bona  fide  resident  householder. 

Ontario. — The  exemptions  from  executionare,  speak- 
ing generally :  the  beds  and  bedding  in  ordinary  use  by 
the  debtor  and  his  family ;  necessary  wearing  apparel 
and  a  list  of  domestic  utensils  necessarily  incident  to 
living,  not  to  exceed  in  value  the  sum  of  $150 ;  necessary 
provender  for  30  days  not  to  exceed  in  value  the  sum  of 
$40 ;  a  cow,  six  sheep,  four  hogs,  and  twelve  hens,  in  all 
not  to  exceed  the  value  of  $75;  tools  and  implements 
ordinarily  used  in  the  debtor's  occupation  to  the  value 
of  $100  or  the  debtor  may  elect  to  receive  the  proceeds 
of  the  sale  of  such  tools  up  to  $100. 

Under  the  Free  Grants  and  Homestead  Act,  there  is 
an  exemption  from  liability  for  any  debt  incurred  be- 
fore the  issue  of  the  patent  and  for  twenty  years  from 
date  of  location,  except  where  the  land  itself  is  mort- 
gaged or  pledged  or  for  the  payment  of  taxes. 

Quebec. — The  exemptions  from  execution  are :  beds, 
bedding  and  bedsteads  in  ordinary  use  by  debtor 
and  his  family ;  necessary  wearing  apparel ;  one  stove 
and  pipes  and  a  number  of  smaller  articles;  all 
necessary  fuel,  meat,  vegetables,  fish,  flour  not  more 
than  sufficient  for  ordinary  consumption  of  debtor  and 
family  for  thirty  days  and  not  exceeding  in  value  $40; 
one  cow,  four  sheep,  two  hogs  and  food  therefor  for 
thirty  days ;  tools  and  implements  or  chattels  ordinarily 
used  in  debtor's  occupation.    No  real  estate. 

New  Brunswick.  —  Wearing  apparel;  bedding, 
kitchen  utensils ;  tools  of  trade  to  the  value  of  $100  are 
exempted. 

Nova  Scotia. — Necessary  wearing  apparel ;  beds,  bed- 
ding and  bedsteads  of  debtor  and  his  family; 
household  utensils  not  exceeding  in  value  $20; 
food  enough  for  thirty  days'  consumption  and  not  ex- 
ceeding in  value  $40 ;  one  cow,  two  sheep,  and  hay  and 
food  therefor  for  thirty  days;  tools  or  chattels  ordi- 
narily used  in  the  debtor's  occupation  to  the  value  of 
$30.    No  real  estate. 

Prince  Edward  Island.— Necessary  wearing  apparel 
and  bedding  for  the  debtor  and  his  family ;  tools  and 
instruments  of  his  trade  or  calling ;  $16.20  in  money  and 
his  last  cow  are  exempted  from  execution  out  of  Su- 
preme Court.  Wearing  apparel  and  bedding  of  debtor 
and  his  family;  the  tools  and  implements  of  his  trade; 
one  cook  stove  and  one  cow,  in  all  amounting  in  value  to 
$50,  are  exempt  from  process  out  of  county  court. 

Manitoba.— Household  goods  to  the  value  of  §500; 
tools,  agricultural  implements  and  necessaries  used  by 
the  debtor  in  his  trade,  occupation  or  profession,  to  the 
value  of  $500 ;  homestead  to  the  extent  of  1C0  acres  being 
the  residence  of  the  debtor,  the  buildings  and  improve- 
ments thereon  :  or  the  town  residence  of  the  debtor  to 
the  value  of  $1,600,  provided  that  no  real  or  personal 
property  shall  be  exempt  from  seizure  or  sale  under 
execution  for  the  purchase  price  of  the  same.  A  debtor 
cannot  waive  his  exemption  from  seizure  and  sale  under 
execution. 

Northwest    Territories.— Necessary     clothing     of 


74 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


the  defendant  and  his  family  ;  furniture  and  household 
furnishings  belonging  to  defendant  and  his  family  to 
the  value  of  $500 ;  also  certain  personalty  exclusive  of 
the  foregoing  and  homestead  not  exceeding  1(0  acres; 
house  and  buildings  occupied  by  the  defendant,  also 
the  lot  or  lots  on  which  same  is  si  tuate  according  to  the 
registered  plan,  to  the  extent  of  $1,500;  defendant  is 
entitled  to  his  choice  from  a  greater  number  of  articles 
from  the  same  class. 

British  Columbia.— rersonal  property  of  debtor  to 
the  value  of  $500  is  exempt  from  execution.  No  goods 
or  personalty,  however,  is  exempt  from  seizure  in  respect 
to  debts  contracted  in  regard  to  the  identical  goods. 
The  stock  in  trade  of  a  merchant  is  not  exempt  from 
seizure  although  under  $500  and  they  can  be  sold  to 
satisfy  a  judgment.  Registered  homesteads  are  exempt 
from  execution  to  the  value  of  $2,500. 

MARRIAGE  AND  DIVORCE  LAWS. 

Marriage  Licenses.  —  Required  in  all  the 
States  and  Territories  except  Idaho,  New 
Mexico,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota, 
Oklahoma,  South  Carolina,  and  Wisconsin. 

Marriage,  Prohibition  of. — Marriages  between 
whites  and  persons  of  negro  descent  are  pro- 
hibited and  punishable  in  Alabama,  Arizona, 
Arkansas,  California,  Colorado,  Delaware,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  In- 
diana, Kentucky,  Maryland,  Mississippi,  Mis- 
souri, Nebraska,  Nevada,  North  Carolina, 
Oklahoma,  Oregon,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Texas,  Utah,  Virginia,  and  West  Virginia. 

Marriages  between  whites  and  Indians  are 
void  in  Arizona,  Nevada,  North  Carolina,  Or- 
egon, and  South  Carolina. 

Marriages  between  whites  and  Chinese  are 
void   in    Arizona,  Nevada,  Oregon,  and  Utah. 

The  marriage  of  first  cousins  is  forbidden  in 
Arizona,  Arkansas,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Missouri,  Montana,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire, 
North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon, 
South  Dakota,  Washington,  and  Wyoming, 
and  in  some  of  them  is  declared  incestuous  and 
void,  and  marriage  with  step-relatives  is  for- 
bidden in  all  the  States,  except  California, 
Colorado,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Louisiana, 
Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  Oregon,  Utah,  and  Wis- 
consin. 

Marriage,  Age  to  Contract,  Without  Consent 
of  Parents — In  all  the  States  which  have 
laws  on  this  subject  21  years  is  the  age  for 
males,  and  for  females  21  years  in  Connecticut, 
Florida,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Ohio, 
Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota, 
Virginia,  West  Virginia,  and  Wyoming,  and 
18  in  all  the  other  States  having  laws,  except 
Maryland,  in  which  it  is  16  years. 

Marriages,  Voidable Marriages  are  void- 
able in  nearly  all  the  States  when  contracted 
under  the  age  of  consent  to  cohabit. 

Divorce  Laws. 

Alabama.— Divorce  may  be  obtained  for  the  follow- 
ing causes:  Impotency,  adultery,  desertion  for  two 
years,  habitual  drunkenness,  imprisonment  for  two 
years  and  continued  cruelty.  An  allowance  must  be 
made  by  the  court,  out  of  the  husbands  estate,  for  the 


support  of  the  wife  pending  suit;  also  an  allowance 
when  the  decree  iamade.  The  custody  of  minor  chil- 
dren may  be  given  to  either  parent,  in  the  discretion  of 
the  court. 

Arizona. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  the  violation 
of  the  marriage  vow ;  physical  incapacity ;  willful  deser- 
tion for  six  months ;  habitual  drunkenness;  conviction 
for  felonv ;  cruelty ;  failure  by  husband  to  provide  for 
six  months. 

Arkansas. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  impotency, 
bigamy,  adulter,  conviction  of  felony,  habitual  drunk- 
enness, willful  desertion  for  one  year,  cruel  and  barba- 
rous treatment.  Plaintiff  must  reside  in  the  State  one 
year  before  bringing  suit.  Court  may  allow  alimony  to 
the  wife. 

California. — Divorces  are  granted  for  adultery,  ex- 
treme cruelty,  conviction  of  felony,  willful  desertion, 
neglect  or  habitual  intemperance  continued  for  one 
year.    No  divorce  can  be  granted  by  default. 

Colorado.— Divorces  may  be  granted  for  adultery, 
impotency,  bigamy,  willful  desertion  forone  year,  habit- 
ual drunkenness  for  two  years,  extreme  crue'lty  or  con- 
viction for  felony  or  infamous  crime.  One  year's 
residence  in  the  Sta';e  is  required  before  bringing  suit, 
except  where  the  offense  was  committed  in  the  State 
or  while  one  or  both  of  the  parties  resided  there. 

Connecticut.— Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  by 
the  Superior  Court  for  adultery,  fraud,  duress  or  force 
in  obtaining  the  marriage,  willful  desertion  for  three 
years,  seven  years'  absence  without  being  heard  of,  habit- 
ual intemperance,  intolerable  cruelty,  sentence  to  im- 
prisonment for  life,  the  commission  of  any  crime 
punishable  by  imprisonment  in  the  State  penitentiary 
and  any  such*  misconduct  as  permanently  destroys  the 
happiness  of  the  petitioner  and  defeats  the  purposes  of 
the  marriage  relation.  Three  years'  residence  in  the 
State  is  necessary  before  filing  a  petition.  Either  party 
may  marry  again  after  divorce,  and  the  court  may 
change  the  wife's  name  and  make  order  for  alimony 
and  custody  of  the  children. 

North  and  South  Dakota.— Divorce  may  be  granted 
for  violation  of  the  marriage  vow ;  willful  desertion; 
conviction  for  felony;  cruelty  and  physical  incapacity. 

Delaware.— Divorce  may  be  granted  by  the  Superior 
Court  for  adultery,  impotency  at  the  time  of  marriage, 
habitual  drunkenness,  extreme  cruelty,  desertion  for 
three  years  or  conviction  of  crime  sufficient  to  consti- 
tute a  felony.  In  the  case  cf  marriage  by  fraud  or  for 
want  of  age,  the  wife  being  less  than  sixteen,  the  hus- 
band being  less  than  eighteen,  at  the  time  of  marriage, 
absolute  divorce  or  divorce  from  bed  and  board  may  be 
granted,  at  the  discretion  of  the  court.  The  wife  re- 
ceives ill  her  real  estate  and  such  other  allowance  and 
alimony  as  the  court  may  decree  where  the  husband  is 
proved  to  be  in  fault.  Willful  neglect  of  the  husband  to 
provide  the  necessities  of  life  also  forms  sufficient 
grounds  for  divorce. 

District  of  Columbia.— Divorce  may  be  granted 
for  violation  of  the  marriage  vow ;  physical  incapacity ; 
willful  desertion  for  two  years;  habitual  drunkenness: 
conviction  for  felony;  cruelty;  insanity  or  idiocy  at 
time  of  marriage. 

Florida. — Applicants  for  divorce  must  have  resided 
two  years  within  the  State.  Absolute  divorces  may  be 
granted  only  by  the  Circuit  Courts.  Adultery,  impo- 
tency, bigamy,  extreme  cruelty,  habitual  intemperance 
or  desertion  forone  ycararesufficientcauses.  Alimony 
may  be  granted  to  the  wife  by  the  courts,  and  provision 
for'a  division  of  property  when  a  decree  is  granted. 

Georgia.— Grounds  for  total  divorce  are  as  follows: 
Marriage  within  the  prohibited  degrees  of  affinity  or 
consanguinity;  mental  or  physical  incapacity  at* the 
time  of  marriage,  force,  menace,  duress  or  fraud  in  ob- 
taining it;  adultery,  willful  desertion  by  either  party 
for  three  years;  cruel  treatment  by,  or  habitual  intoxi- 
cation of  "either  party  ;  or  sentence  to  the  penitentiary 
tor  two  years  or  over  for  any  offense  involving  moral 
turpitude.  No  total  divorce  may  be  granted  except  bv 
the  concurrent  verdict  of  two  juries,  rendered  at  dif- 
ferent times  of  court;  and  when  a  divorce  is  granted, 
the  jury  renderingtheflnal  verdict  determines  the  rights 
and  disabilities  of  the  parties. 

Idaho. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation  of  the 
marriage  tow  ;  willful  desertion  for  one  year;  habitual 
drunkenness  ;  conviction  for  felony  ;  cruelty  ;  failure  of 
husband  to  provide  *or  one  year :  insanity  and  confine- 
ment in  an  asylum  six  years. 

Illinois.— Divorce  may  he  granted,  where  complain- 
ant has  been  a  resident  of  the  State  for  one  year,  for  im- 
potency, bigamy,  adultery,  desertion  or  drunkenness  for 


GOVERNMENT  AND    LAW. 


75 


two  years,  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  other  by  poison 
or  other  means  showing  malice,  extreme  cruelty,  con- 
viction of  felony  or  other  infamous  crime.  If  no  de- 
fense is  Interposed,  decree  may  he  granted  on  testimony 
of  complainant  alone;  but  examination  of  witnesses 
must  be  had  in  open  court,  and  the  judge  is  required  to 
be  satisfied  that  all  proper  means  nave  been  taken 
to  notify  defendant.  When  decree  is  granted,  the  court 
may  restore  the  wile's  maiden  name.  During  pendency 
of  suit,  the  court  may  require  the  husband  to  pay  such 
sum  as  may  enable  tlie  wife  to  maintain  or  defend  the 
suit,  and  alimony  when  declared  just  and  equitable. 

Indiana.— Petitioners  for  divorce  must  l;e  bona  fide 
residents  of  the  Stat3  for  two  years,  and  of  the  county 
at  the  time  of,  and  for  at  least  six  months  prior  to.  filing 
the  petition:  the  oath  of  two  resident  freeholders  being 
required  to  this  fact.  Decrees  may  issue  by  the  Superior 
or  Circuit  Court  for  the  following"  causes :  Impotency 
at  marriage  ;  adultery  (where  connivance  or  collusion  is 
not  proven  i :  habitual  cruelty  or  habitual  drunkenness 
by  either  partv:  abandonment  for  two  years;  failure 
by  the  husbund  to  provide  for  the  family  for  a  period  of 
two  years,  and  conviction  of  either  party  of  an  in- 
famous crime  at  any  time  subsequent  to  ma'rriage. 

Iowa.— Divorce  may  be  granted  by  the  District  or 
Circuit  Court  of  tho  county  in  which'  plaintiff  resides. 
Plaint ;ff  must  declare  under  oath  that  he  or  she  has  re- 
sided in  the  State  for  one  year  next  preceding  the  filing 
of  the  petition,  unless  defendant  is  resident,  and  re- 
ceived personal  service  of  the  writ.  A  decree  may  issue 
against  the  husband  for  adultery,  willful  desertion  for 
two  years,  conviction  of  felony  subsequent  to  marriage, 
habitual  drunkenness  and  "continued  ill-treatment. 
The  husband  may  obtain  a  decree  for  like  causes,  and 
also  when  the  wife  at  the  time  cf  marriage  was  preg- 
nant by  another.  Bigamy  or  impotency  at  the  time  of 
marriage  is  also  a  sufficient  cause  to  annul. 

Kansas. — To  obtain  a  decree  of  divorce,  plaintiff  must 
have  resided  in  the  State  one  year,  and  must  bring  suit 
in  the  county  of  residence.  Decrees  are  granted  in  the 
Circuit  Court  on  the  following  grounds:  Adultery, 
impotencv  fraudulent  contract,  extreme  cruelty, 
habitual  drunkenness,  gross  neglect,  abandonment  for 
one  year  or  conviction  of  felony. 

Kentucky.— Before  a  petition  can  be  presented  for  a 
decree  of  divorce,  one  year's  continuous  residence  in 
the  State  is  required.  Jury  trials  are  not  permitted,  ard 
decrees  are  granted  by  courts  having  equitable  juris- 
diction. An  absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  to  the 
party  not  in  fault  on  the  ground  of  adultery,  impotency, 
etc.,  separation  for  five  years,  condemnation  for  felony 
subsequent  to  the  marriage,  force,  duress  or  fraud  in 
obtaining  the  marriage,  or  uniting  with  any  religious 
society  which  requires  a  renunciation  of  the  marriage 
contract.  Habitual  neglect  or  maltreatment  on  the  part 
of  the  husband,  or  where  the  husband  is  a  confirmed 
drunkard,  may  give  the  wife  a  divorce;  and  where  the 
wife  is  proven  unchaste,  or  pregnant  by  another  man  at 
at  the  time  of  marriage,  the  husband  i.s  entitled  to 
divorce.  The  parties  are  free  to  inarry  again,  and  their 
personal  property  1?  restored, 

Louisiana.— Sentence  of  either  party  to  imprison- 
ment in  the  penitentiary  is  sufficient  ground  for 
divorce.  A  decree  may  also  be  obtained  by  either  party 
for  adultery,  habitual  "intemperance  or  cruel  treatment 
of  such  nature  as  to  render  living  together  insupport- 
able. 

Maine. — The  Supreme  Judicial  Court  grants  divorce 
for  impotency.  adultery,  or  for  three  years*  willful 
desertion.  Alimony  may  be  allowed  and  "dower  if  the 
husband  be  to  blame. 

Maryland.— Absolute,  for  adultery,  three  years' 
abandonment,  or  ante-nuptial  misconduct  of  wife. 
Partial,  for  cruelty,  abandonment,  and  desertion.  Ali- 
mony and  restoration  of  wife's  property. 

Massachusetts.—  Unfaithfulness,  incapacity,  three 
years'  desertion,  cruelty,  drunkenness,  neglect  to  pro- 
vide, sentence  to  five  years'  imprisonment  and  joining  a 
sect  which  disavows  marriage,  are  grounds  for  absolute 
divorce.  Alimony  is  allowed,  and  where  the  husband  is 
at  fault  the  wife's  personal  property  is  restored. 

Michigan. — Absolute  divorce  may  be  granted  for  in- 
capacity at  time  of  marriage,  adultery,  two  years'  con- 
tinuous" desertion,  drunkenness  or  three  years'  sentence 
to  imprisonment.  A  life  sentence  dissolves  the  mar 
riage  without  any  proceedings  in  court.  Divorce  from 
bed  and  board  for  cruelty  and  neglect  to  provide. 
Separation  of  property,  dower,  anil  alimony  as  per 
statute. 

Minnesota. — Absolute  divorce  for  unfaithfulness,  in- 


capacity, three  years'  abandonment,  one  year's  drunk- 
enness, cruel  treatment  or  sentence  to  State's  prison. 
Limited  divorce  for  abuse,  desertion  or  failure  to  sup- 
port. Plaintiff,  except  where  breach  of  faith  occurred 
in  the  State,  must  have  been  one  year  a  resident.  The 
court  i-iay  order  alimony  and  custody  of  the  children, 
and  the  wife  regains  possession  of  Her  real  estate,  un- 
less decree  has  been  obtained  on  account  of  her  bad 
conduct. 

Mississippi. — After  one  year's  residence  in  the  State, 
divorce  may  be  obtained  for  impotency,  adultery,  big- 
amy, cruelty,  two  years'  abandonment  or  imprisonment 
in  the  penitentiary.  Alimony  is  allowed  when  the  wife 
is  the  injured  party,  and  the  "court  awards  the  custody 
of  minor  children. 

Missouri. — Grounds  :  Impotency  at  time  of  marriage, 
unfaithfulness,  bigamy,  conviction  of  crime,  drunken- 
ness, cruelty,  and  one  year's  desertion.  Petitioner  must 
have  been  one  year  a  resident  of  the  State.  Trial  with- 
out jury. 

Montana. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation  of 
the  marriage  vow ;  physical  incapacity ;  willful  desertion 
one  year ;  habitual  drunkenness :  conviction  for  felony ; 
cruelty. 

"Nebraska.— Unless  the  marriage  took  place  in  the 
State,  and  the  plaintiff  has  since  continuously  resided 
therein,  a  residence  in  the  county  of  six  months  next 
preceding  the  application  is  necessary.  Divorce  i3 
granted  on  the  grounds  of  impotency  at  the  time  of 
marriage,  adultery,  two  years'  desertion,  drunkenness, 
cruelty,  three  years'  sentence  to  imprisonment,  or  fail- 
ure on  the  part  of  husband  to  support  wife.  The  court 
may  order  alimony,  and  where  a  decree  is  granted  on 
account  of  the  husband's  bad  conduct  the  wife  takes 
dower. 

Nevada. — Plaintiff  must  have  resided  six  months  in 
the  county.  Grounds  of  divorce  are  physical  incompe- 
tency at  time  of  marriage,  adultery,  one  year's  deser- 
tion, drunkenness,  cruelty,  conviction  or  crime,  and 
failure  on  part  of  husband'to  support. 

New  Hampshire.— Divorces  are  granted  by  the 
Superior  Court  for  physical  incompetency,  adultery, 
drunkenness,  cruelty,  three  years'  desertion,  one  year's 
sentence  to  prison  or  adhere'nee  to  a  religious  sect  that 
condemns  marriage. 

New  Jersey. — Absolute  for  adultery ,  bigamy,  or  three 
years'  abandonment.  Partial  for  cruelty.  Applicant 
must  reside  in  the  State,  unless  the  marriage  or  the  al- 
leged misconduct  occurred  here. 

New  Mexico. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation 
of  the  marriage  vow;  habitual  drunkenness;  cruelty; 
failure  of  husband  to  provide. 

New  York. -Only  for  adultery  will  an  absolute 
divorce  be  granted.  Partial  divorce  is  ordered  for 
cruelty,  desertion  and  neglect.  Marriages  are  annulled 
for  fraud  or  force,  idiocy,  lunacy  or  impotency  at  the 
time  of  marriage,  or  for  bigamy. 

North  Carolina. — Only  for  irnpotency  or  adultery 
can  absolute  divorce  be  obtained.  Partial  divorce  is 
granted  for  cruelty,  desertion,  or  drunkenness. 
~  Ohio.— Divorce  is  granted  for  unfaithfulness,  bigamy, 
incapacity,  cruelty,  drunkenness,  deception,  three  year's' 
neglect  and  abandonment,  or  imprisonment  in  a"  peni- 
tentiary. Alimony  may  be  granted ;  and  if  the  decree 
is  obtained  on  account  "of  the  husband's  ill  conduct,  the 
wife  has  her  separate  property  and  her  maiden  name 
restored. 

Oklahoma.— Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation  of 
the  marriage  vow ;  physical  incapacity :  willful  desertion 
one  year;  habitual  drunkenness:  conviction  of  felony; 
cruelty. 

Oregon.— Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident  for  one 
year  before  bringing  suit.  Grounds  are  impotency, 
adultery,  two  years'  drunkenness,  three  years'  abandon- 
ment, cruelty,"  conviction  of  felony.  Piaintiff  gaining 
the  suit  nasa  right  to  one  third  of  the  real  estate  be- 
longing to  defendant;  and  if  a  successful  plaintiff  be 
the  wife,  she  may  have  a  maintenance  awarded  her. 

Pennsylvania.— Plaintiff  must  have  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  tor  one  year  next  preceding  the  applica- 
tion. Grounds:  Deception  or  force  in  procuring  the 
marriage,  impotency.  adultery,  bigamy,  cruelty  and  two 
vears'  abandonment,  and  two  years'  sentence  to  impris- 
onment. Divorce  will  not  be  granted  on  the  ground  of 
adultery  if  proved  to  have  been  condoned.  Even  after 
a  divorce,  defendant  is  not  allowed  to  inarry  a  co-re- 
spondent. A  wife  may  obtain  partial  divorce  and  ali- 
mony for  ill  treatment. 

Rhode  Island. — Divorce  is  granted  for  impotency. 
adultery,  cruelty,  drunkenness,  neglect  to  support,  five 


76 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


years'  abandonment,  conviction  of  murder  or  arson, 
presumption  of  death  from  long  absence,  or  for  defect 
in  marriage  rendering  it  void.  Divorce  may  only  be 
decreed  by  Supreme  Court.  Alimony  may  be  ordered, 
and  restoration  of  wife's  separate  property. 

South  Carolina.— Has  no  divorce  laws. 

Tennessee.— The  applicantmust  have  been  a  resident 
of  the  State  for  two  years  next  preceding  the  petition. 
Grounds:  physical  incapacity  at  time  of  marriage,  big- 
amy, adultery,  two  years'  abandonment,  conviction  of 
crime,  imprisonment  in  penitentiary,  drunkenness, 
ante-nuptial  immorality  of  wife,  attempt  of  either  party 
upon  the  life  of  the  other.  Limited  divorce  may  be 
granted  for  cruelty,  desertion,  or  failure  to  provide. 

Texas.— Applicant  must  be  really  an  inhabitant  of 
the  State  and  a  resident  of  the  county  for  six  months 
previous  to  filing  petition;  grounds:  adultery,  three 
years'  desertion,  unendurable  cruelty. 

Utah.— Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation  of  the 
marriage  vow;  willful  desertion  one  year;  habitual 
drunkenness ;  conviction  for  felony ;  cruelty ;  failure  of 
husband  to  provide ;  parties  cannot  live  in  peace  and 
union. 

Vermont. — Divorce  is  granted  for  adultery,  cruelty, 
three  years'  abandonment,  three  years'  imprisonment 
in  penitentiary  or  seven  years'  absence  without  being 
beard  of.  The  wife  may  obtain  divorce  where  the  hus- 
band, being  able,  fails  to  support. 

Virginia. — Grounds :  Impotency,  adultery,  sentence 
to  penitentiary,  guilt  of  either  of  infamous  crime  be- 
fore marriage,  the  other  being  ignorant,  notorious 
immorality  of  wife  before  marriage,  five  years'  aban- 
donment. Partial  divorce  for  cruelty  or  desertion. 
Alimony  and  maintenance  of  children  are  decreed,  and 
the  care  of  the  children  is  given  to  either  party  at  the 
discretion  of  the  court. 

West  Virginia. — Divorce  is  granted  for  mental  or 
physical  defect  at  time  of  marriage,  unfaithfulness, 
three  years'  abandonment,  sentence  to  penitentiary, 
conviction  of  crime  before  marriage,  or  notorious  im- 
morality of  either  before  marriage,  the  other  party 
being  ignorant.  Partial  divorce  may  be  obtained  for 
cruelty  or  desertion.  Alimony  and  custody  of  chil- 
dren is  decreed  by  the  court. 

Washington. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation 
of  the  marriage  vow ;  physical  incapacity ;  willful  deser- 
tion one  year ;  conviction  for  felony ;  cruelty ;  fraud  and 
fraudulent  contract ;  indignities  as  render  life  burden- 
some ;  insanity  lasting  ten  years. 

Wisconsin. — Unless  the  parties  had  been  married 
and  since  remained  in  the  State,  the  applicant  must 
have  been  for  one  year  a  resident  before  filing  a  peti- 
tion. Absolute  divorce  is  granted  for  impotency,  adul- 
tery, one  year's  abandonment,  five  years'  separation, 
three  years'  sentence  to  penitentiary,  cruelty  and 
drunkenness.  Partial  divorce  for  desertion,  cruelty, 
drunkenness,  or  failure  to  provide.  The  court  may 
decree  alimony,  and  the  wife  regain  her  separate  prop- 
erty. 

Wyoming. — Divorce  may  be  granted  for  violation  of 
the  marriage  vow ;  physical'incapacity ;  willful  desertion 
one  year;  habitual  drunkenness;  conviction  for  felony; 
cruelty;  failure  of  husband  to  provide  one  year;  indig- 
nities as  render  life  burdensome ;  vagrancy  of  husband. 

PROPERTY     RIGHTS      OF     MAR- 
RIED   WOMEN. 

Alabama. — Married  women  may  hold  all  property, 
real  and  personal,  acquired  before  and  after  marriage, 
as  a  separate  estate  not  liable  for  the  husband's 
debts,  and  it  may  be  devised  or  bequeathed  as  by  a 
single  woman.  This  separate  estate  is  liable  for  debts 
contracted  by  the  woman  before  marriage,  and  for  con- 
tracts after  marriage  for  articles  of  comfort  and  support 
of  family.  The  wife  is  entitled  to  dower  of  one  half  of 
husband's  real  estate,  if  he  leave  no  lineal  decendants, 
one  third  if  there  are  any,  provided  she  has  no  separate 
estate;  if  her  separate  estate  is  less  than  the  dower  in- 
terest would  be,  she  is  entitled  to  as  much  as  would 
make  it  equal.  Women  attain  their  legal  majority  at 
twenty-one,  but  may  marry  without  consent  of  their 
parents  at  eighteen. 

Arizona.— Married  women  may  carry  on  business  and 
sue  and  be  sued  in  their  own  names.  All  property 
acquired  before  marriage, and  all  afterwards  acquired, 
by  gift,  grant,  devise  or  inheritance,  is  separate  estate, 
liable  for  her  own  but  not  for  her  husband's  debts.  She 
may  control  it  and  dispose  of  it  in  all  respects  like  a 
single  woman. 


Arkansas. — Married  women  have  absolute  and  un 
qualified  right  in  property  of  every  kind  and  are  not 
liable  for  debts  or  contracts  of  the  husband.  But  a 
schedule  under  oath,  and  verified  by  some  other  repu- 
table person,  must  be  made  by  thehusband  ami  wife, 
and  filed  in  the  recorder's  office  of  the  county  where 
the  property  is, and  of  the  county  where  they  reside. 
The  wife  may  control  her  property,  may  carry  on  busi- 
ness on  her  sole  ami  separate  account,  mar sne  and  be 
sued,  may  make  a  will  and  may  insure  her  husband's 
life  for  her  benefit.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  one  third 
part  of  the  estate,  unless  legally  relinquished  by  her. 

California. — All  property  acquired  in  any 'manner 
before  marriage,  or  afterwards  by  gift,  grant,  inheri- 
tance or  devise,  is  wife's  separate  property,  controlled 
by  her  and  not  liable  for  debts  of  the  hiisband.  The 
husband's  property  similarly  acquired  is  not  liable  for 
debts  of  the  wife.  All  property  acquired  after  marriage 
by  husband  or  wife,  except  as  above,  shall  be  common 
property,  but  under  the  husband's  control.  Dower  and 
curtesy  are  abolished,  but  the  survivor  takes  half  the 
common  property  after  payment  of  debts  and  expenses 
of  administration.  A  married  woman  may  dispose  of  her 
separate  estate  by  will  without  the  consent  of  her  hus- 
band and  may  insure  her  husband's  life  for  her  benefit. 

Colorado. —  Married  women  are  treated  in  all  re- 
spects, as  to  their  property  rights,  as  if  they  were  single. 
A  wife  may  carry  on  trade  or  business,  sue  or  be  sued, 
contract  debts,  transfer  real  estate,  and  in  all  tots 
bind  her  separate  property,  without  the  husband's 
joining.  She  may  make  a  will,  but  cannot  bequeath 
more  than  half  her  property  away  from  her  husband 
without  his  consent  in  writing.  The  husband  cannot 
by  will  deprive  his  wife  of  over one  half  of  his  property. 
Dower  is  abolished.  The  husband  is  liable  for  debts  of 
the  wife  contracted  before  marriage  to  the  extent  of 
the  property  he  may  receive  through  her,  but  no  fur- 
ther. 

Connecticut.— Previous  to  the  year  1877,  the  husband 
acquired  a  right  to  the  use  of  all  the  real  estate  of  the 
wife  during  her  life  and  if  he  had  a  child  by  her  and  sur- 
vived her,  then  during  his  own  life  as  tenant  by  curt- 
esy. By  the  Act  of  May  20th,  1877,  the  rights  of  married 
women  are  materially  enlarged.  Any  woman  married 
after  that  date  retains  her  real  estate"  as  if  unmarried. 
She  may  make  contracts,  convey  real  estate,  and  sue  or 
be  sued"  in  regard  to  any  property  owned  by  her  at  the 
time  of  marriage,  or  afterwards  acquired."  The  estate 
is  liable  for  her  debts,  and,  jointly  with  her  husband, 
for  debts  contracted  for  joint  benefit  of  both  or  house- 
hold expenses.  The  separate  earnings  of  a  wife  are  her 
sole  property.  Dower  exists  only  in  real  estate  of 
which  the  husband  is  possessed  at  the  time  of  his  de- 
cease. 

North  and  South  Dakota.— Married  women  may 
transact  business  in  all  respects  the  same  as  if  tinmar- 
ried.  Neither  husband  nor  wife  has  any  interest  in  the 
separate  estate  of  the  other.  The  earnings  and  ac- 
cumulations of  the  wife  are  her  separate  property  and 
not  liable  for  the  husband's  debts  nor  even  for  house- 
hold debts  contracted  by  her  as  her  husband's  agent. 
Her  separate  property  is,  however,  liable  for  her  own 
debts,  contracted  before  or  after  marriage,  if  such  debts 
are  contracted  on  her  own  responsibility. 

Delaware. — Married  women,  married  since  1S73,  re- 
tain all  real  and  personal  property  held  at  marriage,  or 
since  acquired  from  any  person  other  than  the  husband, 
as  their  separate  estate,  and  not  subject  to  the  disposal 
of  the  husband  or  liable  for  his  debts.  They  may  re- 
ceive wages  for  personal  labor,  sue  or  be  sued  in  respect 
to  their  own  property  as  if  unmarried;  and  the  rents, 
issues,  and  profits  of  their  separate  estate  are  not  con- 
trolled by  the  husband.  The  widow  is  entitled  to  one 
third  dower  of  all  the  lands  and  tenements  whereof  the 
husband  was  seized  at  any  time  during  her  marriage, 
unless  she  shall  have  relinquished  such  right  for  and 
during  the  term  of  her  natural  life.  She  may  be  an 
administratrix,  and  the  husband's  life  may  be  insured 
for  her  benefit  if  premium  does  not  exceed  $150. 

District  of  Columbia.— Married  women  may  be- 
queath, devise,  or  convey  property  or  interest,  therein  in 
the  same  manner  as  if  unmarried.  Real  or  personal 
property  belonging  to  the  wife  at  marriage  or  after- 
wards acquired  is  separate  estate.  She  may  sue  and  be 
sued  In  all  matters  pertaining  to  her  property,  and  the 
husband  is  not  liable  for  any  contracts  made  by  her  in 
respect  to  her  personal  estate. 

Florida.— Married  women  retain  all  real  or  personal 
property  owned  at  marriage  or  acquired  thereafter,  and 
are  not  liable  for  the  husband's  debts.    In  order  that  it 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


77 


shall  be  free  from  his  debt?,  the  property  must  be  in- 
ventoried and  recorded  within  six  months  after  mar- 
riage or  subsequent  acquirement  of  the  property.  The 
wife  may  Bel]  and  convey  all  real  estate  inherited  by  her 
tin-  bum  as  if  she  were  unmarried;  but  her  husband 
must  join  in  all  sales,  transfers,  and  conveyances  of  her 
property,  both  real  and  personal,  she  is  entitled  to 
dower  in  a  life  estate  in  one  third  of  all  the  real  estate 
of  which  her  husband  was  seized  and  possessed  at  his 
death  or  at  any  time  daring  his  life,  unless  she  has  re- 
linquished the  same;  also  an  absolute  one  third  of  his 
personalty. 

Georgia. — Married  women  retain  as  a  separate  estate 
all  property  in  their  possession  at  the  time  of  marriage, 
or  afterwards  acquired  and  are  not  liable  for  any  debts, 
defaults,  or  contracts  of  the  husband.  By  consent  of 
her  husband  advertised  for  four  weeks  she  "may  become 
a  free  trader,  in  which  event  she  is  liable  the  same  as  if 
unmarried.  The  wife  may  not  bind  her  estate  by  any 
contract  of  suretyship,  either  in  behalf  of  her  husband  or 
any  other  person.  The  widow  takes  dower  in  one  third 
of  all  the  lands  of  which  her  husband  was  seized  at  his 
death  ;  and  wife  and  children,  after  the  husband's  death, 
are  entitled  to  one  year's  support  from  his  property,  all 
other  claims  yielding  to  this. 

Idaho.— All  property,  both  real  and  personal,  owned 
at  marriage  or  afterwards  acquired,  by  either  wife  or 
husband,  remains  a  separate  estate.  All  property  ac- 
quired after  marriage  is  held  in  common.  Separate  prop- 
erty of  the  wife  should  be  inventoried  with  the  county 
recorder;  the  husband  has  control  of  it  during 
marriage,  but  cannot  create  alien  or  encumbrance  un- 
less joined  by  the  wife,  who  is  examined  separately.  If 
the  husband*  mismanages,  or  commits  waste,  the  Dis- 
trict Court  may,  on  application  of  the  wife,  appoint  a 
trustee  to  manage  her  separate  property.  Upon  the  I 
death  of  husband  or  wife,  half  the  common  property 
goes  to  survivor ;  if  no  direct  descendants,  all  goes  to 
survivor. 

Illinois. — Married  women  may  own  in  their  own  right  i 
realty  and  personalty,  may  sue  and  be  sued,  contract  I 
and  incur  liabilities,  the  same  as  if  unmarried ;  but  they 
may  not  enter  into  or  carry  on  any  partnership  business 
without  consent  of  the  husband," unless  abandoned  by 
him  or  he  is  incapable  of  giving  assent.    Beyond  the  i 
necessaries,  the  husband  is  not  liable  for  debts  of  the 
wife,  except  in  cases  where  he  would  be  jointly  liable  if 
the  marrir.ge  did  not  exist.    The  estate  of  both  is  liable 
for  family  expenses,  but  the  wife's  separate  earninjrs 
are  her  own.    A  surviving  wife  or  husband  takes  one 
third  of  all  the  realty  of  the  deceased,  unless  relin- 
quished in  due  form.    The  husband  and  wife  are  put 
upon  the  same  footing  as  to  dower,  and  the  estate  of 
curtesy  is  abolished. 

Indiana. — Married  women  retain  all  realty  and  per- 
sonalty owned  by  them  at  marriage,  or  afterwards  ac- 
quired, and  are  hot  liable  for  the  husband's  debts.  The 
husband  is  liable  for  debts  of  the  wife  contracted  before 
marriage  only  to  the  extent  of  the  personal  property  he 
may  receive  from  or  through  her.  or  derive  from  sale 
or  rent  of  her  lands.  She  may  sell  personal  property, 
but  she  may  not  convey  or  encumber  her  real  estate 
unless  the  husband  joins.  Suits  against  her  separate 
estate  should  be  brought  in  the  name  of  both.  A  widow 
take.?  one  third  of  her  deceased  husband's  real  estate  in 
fee  simple,  free  from  all  demands  of  creditors,  where 
the  estate  does  not  exceed  810,000;  where  the  estate  is 
over  §10,000  and  under  $20,000,  she  takes  one  fourth  ;  and 
one  fifth  if  it  exceeds  §20,000.  She  also  takes  one  third 
of  the  personalty  after  payment  of  debts,  and  in  all 
cases  takes  §500,"  without  accounting,  and  may  occupy 
the  dwelling  ami  forty  acres  of  land  for  one  year,  rent 
free. 

Iowa. — Married  women  may 'own  in  their  own  right 
real  and  personal  property  acquired  by  descent,  gift,  or 
purchase,  may  sell,  convey,  and  devise  the  same,  may 
sue  and  be  sued,  make  contracts  and  buy  goods  in  their 
own  name.  Wife  or  husband  are  notliable  for  the  debts 
of  the  other  before  marriage,  or  for  separate  debts  in- 
curred afterwards.  The  wife's  earnings  are  her  own, 
and  her  note  is  good  against  her  own  estate.  Women 
attain  majority  at  eighteen,  or  earlier,  upon  marriage  ; 
a  female  of  fourteen  may  marry.  The  surviving  wife 
or  husband  is  entitled  to  one  third  of  the  real  estate  of 
the  deceased,  free  from  all  claims  of  creditors.  If  they 
leave  no  children,  survivor  takes  one  half,  parents  the 
other  half. 

Kansas. — Married  women  have  the  same  property 
rights  as  men,  and  may  make  contracts,  carry  on  busi- 
ness, sue  and  be  sued,  and  sell  or  convey  real  estate  pre- 


cisely as  their  husbands;  their  earnings  or  profits  are 
their  own.  A  note  or  indorsement  made  by  a  married 
woman  will  bind  her  property  the  same  as  if  unmarried. 
Homestead  is  absolute  property  of  widow  and  children, 
and  neither  wife  nor  husband  may  bequeath  more  than 
half  their  property  without  written  consent  of  the 
other.  If  either  die  intestate  and  without  children,  the 
entire  property  goes  to  the  survivor. 

Kentucky. — Married  women  may  hold  real  or  per- 
sonal property  as  a  separate  estate  free  from  the  control 
of  the  husband  or  liability  for  his  debts.  By  petition  to 
the  Circuit  Court,  in  which  the  husband  must  join,  she 
may  acquire  the  right  to  transact  business  in  her  own 
name.  Unless  dower  be  barred,  forfeited,  or  relin- 
quished, she  takes  one  third  of  the  real  estate  and  one 
half  of  the  personal  property. 

Louisiana. — Married  women  may  hold  and  control 
both  real  and  personal  property  owned  at  time  of 
marriage ;  all  property  or  revenues  of  separate  proirerty 
acquired  by  either  husband  or  wife  after  marriage  is 
held  in  common,  and  is  divided  equally  between  them 
at  dissolution  of  the  marriage  either  by  death  or  divorce. 
The  wife  may  carry  on  a  separate  business,  but  her  hus- 
band will  be  bound  by  her  contracts,  so  long  as  the 
community  of  property  exists ;  she  cannot  sue  without 
the  concurrence  of  her  husband,  and  she  cannot  hind 
herself  or  her  property  for  his  debts.  There  is  no  right 
of  dower  to  the  wife. 

Maine.— A  married  woman  holds  real  and  personal 
property,  acquired  in  any  way  except  from  the  husband, 
the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  make  contracts,  sue  and 
be  sued,  and  do  business  in  her'own  name ;  and  her  prop- 
erty may  be  taken  to  satisfy  judgments  against  her. 
Her  property  is  liable  only  for  her  own  debts.  She  joins 
husband  in  a  deed  selling  his  property  to  relinquish 
dower.  He  joins  with  her  in  selling  hers  only  when 
such  property  comes  from  him.  A  wife,  being  aban- 
doned by  her  husband,  may  be  allowed  to  take  and  use 
his  personal  property.  Dower,  life  estate  in  one  third 
of  all  husband's  real  property  owned  during  coverture ; 
one  half  if  no  children.  He  has  same  interest  in  de- 
ceased wife's  estate. 

Maryland. — Property  acquired  by  a  married  woman 
is  her  own,  controlled  by  herself,  and  is  free  from  her 
husband's  debts.  She  conveys  by  joint  deed  with  the 
husband,  but  devises  and  bequeaths  the  same  as  if 
single.  She  may  be  sued  with  her  husband  on  joint 
contracts  made  by  them,  and  the  property  of  both  is 
equally  liable.  Dower  one  third,  if  they  have  children ; 
one  half,  if  none. 

Massachusetts. — The  property  of  a  married  woman 
is  managed  by  herself,  and  is  not  liable  for  her  hus- 
band's debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  sue  and  be 
sued,  and  do  business  in  her  own  name,  provided  a  cer- 
tificate is  filed  by  her  or  her  husband  in  the  office  of  the 
town  clerk.  Contracts  and  conveyances  between  hus- 
band and  wife  are  not  allowed.  "Her  conveyances  of 
real  estate  are  subject  to  husband's  tenancy  by  curtesy. 
A  wife  cannot  make  a  will  affecting  her  husband's  right 
to  one  half  of  the  personal  property  or  his  tenancy  by 
curtesy  in  her  real  estate,  without  his  written  consent. 
Dower  as  by  common  law. 

Michigan. — Married  women  own  and  control  prop- 
erty the  same  as  if  single.  A  wife  may  do  business  in 
her  own  name  and  make  contracts,  even  with  her  hus- 
band. Her  separate  property  is  liable  for  wrongs  com- 
mitted by  her.  Widow  has  dower,  but  there  is  for  the 
surviving  husband  no  right  of  tenancy  by  curtesy. 

Minnesota. — A  married  woman  holds  property  in  her 
own  name.  She  may  make  contracts,  and  her  property  is 
liable  only  for  her  own  debts.  She  cannot  sell  or  convey 
real  estate  further  than  a  mortgage  for  purchase-money 
or  a  three  years'  lease,  without  her  husband  joining  her. 
Contracts  between  husband  and  wife  are  void.  The 
surviving  husband  or  wife  keeps  the  homestead  for 
life. 

Mississippi. — A  married  woman  holds  property  ac- 
quired in  any  manner,  and  the  revenues  therefrom,  for 
her  own  use  and  free  from  control  or  liability  of  her 
husband.  She  may  convey  and  encumber  the  same  as  if 
single,  but  husband  joins  in  conveyance.  She  may  de- 
vise and  bequeath.  Deed  from  husband  to  wife  is  void 
as  to  creditors  at  time  of  making  it.  A  wife  may  not 
encumber  her  estate  by  mortgage  or  otherwise  for  her 
husband's  debts ;  she  may  do  business  on  her  own  ac- 
count the  same  as  if  single,  and  is  then  liable  for  her 
contracts,  housekeeping  and  family  expenses.  She 
joins  her  husband  in  conveyance  of  homestead,  but  not 
in  that  of  his  other  property.  Dower  in  property  of 
which  the  husband  dies  seized. 


78 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Missouri. — A  married  woman  controls  her  own  pro]>- 
erty,  and  holds  it  through  a  trustee,  free  from  liability 
for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may  make  contracts,  sign 
notes,  and  do  business  in  her  own  name.  She  may 
make  a  will.  She  joins  her  husband  in  his  conveyances 
to  release  dower.  Her  dower  is  one  third  for  life  of  all 
lands  owned  by  husband. 

Montana.— A  list  of  married  woman's  property  filed 
and  recorded  saves  it  from  being  liable  for  the  hus- 
band's debts,  except  necessaries  for  herself  and  children 
under  eighteen.  A  married  woman  may  become  a  sole 
trader  by  recording  her  intention.  If  she  invests  more 
than  $10,000  in  business  she  must  make  oath  that  the 
surplus  did  not  come  from  her  husband.  The  husband 
is  not  liable  for  debts  contracted  by  her  in  business. 
She  is  also  responsible  for  the  maintenance  of  her 
children.  A  surviving  husband  or  wife  takes  one  half 
of  deceased's  property,  if  no  children ;  one  third  if  there 
are. 

Nebraska.— A  married  woman  holds  her  separate 
property  free  from  the  disposal  of  her  husband  and 
from  liability  for  his  debts.  She  may  bargain,  sell, 
make  contracts,  do  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  all  so  far 
as  her  separate  estate  may  warrant ;  but  she  cannot  be- 
come surety  for  another,  not  even  beingallowed  to  bind 
herse'f  for  her  husband's  debts.  Property  coming  to 
the  wife  from  the  husband  is  not  privileged  as  her 
separate  property.  Dower,  use  for  life  of  one  third  of 
real  estate  owned  by  husband  during  coverture. 

Nevada. — The  separate  property  of  a  married  woman 
which  is  controlled  by  herself  is  such  as  she  may  have 
owned  before  marriare  or  acquired  afterwards  by  gift, 
devise,  or  descent.  All  property  acquired  otherwise,  by 
either  husband  or  wife,  is  common  property,  and  under 
the  absolute  control  of  the  husband.  On  the  death  of 
the  husband  the  widow  receives  one  half  of  the  common 
property. 

New  Hampshire. — A  married  woman  holds  property 
owned  before  marriage  or  acquired  afterwards,  except 
what  may  come  from  the  husband,  for  her  own  use. 
She  may  sell,  convey  and  encumber,  devise  and  be- 
queath, do  business,  give  notes,  sue  and  be  sued.  Her 
contracts  are  binding,  excepting  that  there  can  be  no 
contracts  or  conveyances  between  husband  and  wife, 
nor  can  the  wife  become  security-  for  her  husband. 
Wife  is  entitled  to  dower. 

New  Jersey. — The  propertv  owned  before  marriage, 
and  such  as  she  may  acquire  afterwards  by  gift,  descent, 
or  bequest,  is  the  sole  property  of  a  married  woman  and 
is  not  liable  for  the  husband's  debts.  She  mav  make 
contracts,  but  cannot  sell  or  encumber  her  real  estate 
without  consent  of  husband.  She  cannot  indorse  notes 
or  become  security.  She  joins  husband  in  his  convey- 
ances and  mortgages.    Dower  and  curtesy. 

New  Mexico. — The  separate  property  of  a  married 
woman  is  what  she  owned  previous  to  marriage,  or  what 
she  may  inherit.  All  that  she  arquires  afterwards,  and 
the  revenues  of  her  separate  estate,  go  into  the  common 
property.  The  husband  has  control  and  management 
of  her  separate  estate  and  the  common  property.  There 
is  no  dower,  but  on  decease  of  a  husband  the  wife's 
private  property  is  first  deducted  ;  then  she  receives 
one  half  of  the  common  property,  after  all  debts  are 
paid.  If  there  be  no  children  she* has  a  right  to  all  the 
common  property. 

New  York. — Married  women  may  have  real  and  per- 
sonal property,  buy  and  sell,  and  do  business  in  their 
own  names.  A  married  woman  is  liable  for  debts  con- 
tracted in  her  own  trade  or  business,  or  when  an  agree- 
ment or  contract  has  been  made  for  the  benefit  of  her 
separate  property,  when,  by  the  terms  of  such  instru- 
ment, her  separate  property  is  to  be  charged  with  the 
liability.    Dower. 

North  Carolina.— A  married  woman's  separate  prop- 
erty is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  She  may 
devise  and  bequeath,  but  must  have  husband's  consent 
to  convey.  Unless  she  be  a  free  trader,  she  can  male 
no  contract  other  than  for  personal  or  familv  necessi- 
ties or  for  payment  of  ante-nuptial  debts,  without  the 
consent  of  her  husband.  She  becomes  a  free  trader,  the 
husband  assenting,  by  filing  her  intention.  Common 
law  dower  and  one  year's  subsistence. 

Ohio.— The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  not  liable 
for  her  husband's  debts;  beyond  a  three  vears' lease  or 
a  contract  for  the  improvement  of  her  real  estate,  she 
cannot  sell  or  encumber  it  without  the  consent  of  her 
husband.  If  a  married  woman  engages  in  trade,  her 
separate  property  is  liable  for  the  debts  she  mav  then 
contract,  and  she  may  sue  and  be  sued  the  same  as  if 
single.    A  deserted  wife  must  procure  an  order  from 


court,  by  which  she  shall  have  all  property  rights  as  a 
femme  sole.  Dower  in  a'l  real  estate  owned  by  nusband 
during  coverture. 

Oklahoma. — Neither  husband  nor  wife  has  any  inter- 
est in  the  property  of  the  other.  Either  mav  enter  into 
any  engagement  or  transaction  with  the  other,  or  with 
any  other  person,  respecting  property  which  either 
might,  if  married,  subject,  between  them,  to  rules  which 
control  the  actions  of  persons  occupying  confidential 
relations.  The  wife  may,  without  consent  of  husband, 
convey  her  separate  property.  Woman  retains  the  same 
legal  existence  and  personality  after  marriage  as  before, 
and  receives  the  same  protection  of  her  rights  as  does 
her  husband.  She  may  hold  and  transfer  real  and  per- 
sonal property ;  may  buy  and  sell  goods,  give  notes  or 
other  obligations,  and  sue  and  be  sued,  same  as  if  un 
married. 

Oregon. — A  married  woman  holds  her  property  free 
from  the  control  or  debts  of  her  husband.  She  may 
make  contracts,  buy  and  sell,  and  give  notes,  and  her 
own  property  will  be  liable.'  The  husband  joins  in  her 
conveyances.  She  may  make  a  will,  but  it  must  not 
interfere  with  her  husband's  rights  of  curtesy. 

Pennsylvania.— The  property  of  a  married  woman  is 
held  as  her  separate  estate,  but 'is  chargeable  for  family 
necessaries  ordered  by  her.  A  wiie  cannot  make  a  con- 
tract or  conveyance  without  her  husband  joining  her. 
By  obtaining  'leave  from  the  court  she  may  have  the 
benefit  of  her  own  earnings.  She  may  make  a  will, 
saving  the  husband's  right  by  curtesy.  She  may  deposit 
money  in  bank  and  write  cheeks  against  it  in'her  own 
name.  Dower,  one  third  of  all  real  estate  owned  by 
husband  during  coverture. 

Ehode  Island. — A  married  woman's  property  is  held 
by  trustees  for  her  separate  use  free  from  her  husband's 
debts.  She  cannot  make  contracts  or  do  business.  She 
may  make  a  will  subject  to  husband's  right  by  curtesy. 

South  Carolina.— The  property  of  a  married  woman 
cannot  be  seized  for  her  husband's  debts.  A  married 
woman  can  bequeath,  devise. and  encumberher  separate 
property.  She  can  buy  in  her  own  name,  and  have  con- 
veyances made  to  her,' and  make  contracts,  the  same  as 
if  "she  were  single.  A  gift  from  husband  to  wife  is  not 
good  against  a  creditor's  claim.    Dower  rights. 

Tennessee. — A  married  woman  has  her  separate  prop- 
erty free  from  the  husband's  control  and  from  liability 
for'bis  debts.  She  may  encumber,  convey,  or  devise  her 
separate  property  without  being  joined  by  her  husband 
in  the  deed.  Widow  has  dower  in'one  third  of  husband's 
real  estate,  and  a  child's  share  in  his  personalty.  The 
husband  dying  intestate,  leaving  no  heirs,  the  wife  in- 
herits all  his  property. 

Texas. — The  property  owned  by  husband  or  wife  be- 
fore marriage,  and  what  either  may  acquire  afterwards, 
by  gift,  devise,  or  descent,  is  community  property.  The 
husband  controls  the  common  property  and  the'  wife's 
separate  estate.  The  common  property  is  liable  for  the 
debts  of  either,  and  the  husband  may  dispose  of  it.  At 
the  death  of  either,  the  survivor  takes  one  half  and  the 
children  the  other  half  of  the  common  property.  The 
husband  joins  wife  in  conveyance  of  her  separate  prop- 
erty. She  joins  him  in  conveyance  of  homestead.  A 
married  woman  cannot  do  business  in  her  own  name, 
but  she  may  become  security  for  her  husband  by  mort- 
gaging her  separate  estate. 

Utah. — A  married  woman's  separate  propertv  is  held, 
manage1,  controlled,  and  disposed  of  by  herself.  A  wife 
may  carry  on  business,  sue  and  be  sued,  give  notes  and 
make  contracts  tbe  same  as  if  single. 

Vermont. — The  property  of  a  married  woman  is  held 
separate,  and  is  not  liable  for  her  husband's  debts.  In 
conveyance  of  the  wife's  real  estate  the  husband  must 
join  in  deed.  A  married  woman  may  make  a  will. 
Widow  has  dower  in  one  third  the  real  estate  of  which 
the  husband  died  seized. 

Virginia.  —  A  married  woman  holds  the  property 
owned  by  her  previous  to  marriage,  and  what  she  may 
afterwards  acquire, as  sole  trader,  free  from  the  control 
of  her  husband]  and  from  liability  for  his  debts.  She 
may  make  a  will  subject  to  husband's  rights  by  curtesy. 
Common  law  dower. 

West  Virginia.— The  property  of  a  married  woman, 
however  acquired,  except  from  the  husband,  is  held  for 
her  sole  and  separate  use.  Husband  must  join  in  con- 
veyances of  real  estate.    Dower. 

Washington.— The  property  owned  before  marriage 
by  husband  or  wife,  and  all'acquired  afterwards  by 
gift,  devise,  or  descent  to  either,  is  separate  property. 
All  otherwise  acquired  is  common  property,  subject  to 
control  of  the  husband.    He  also  controls  the  separate 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


79 


property  of  the  wife,  but  cannot  sell  or  convey  it  with- 
out her  "joining:  in  the  deed.  To  save  the  separate  prop- 
erty of  the  wife  from  attachment  for  husband's  debts, 
there  must  he  an  inventory  of  it  on  record. 

\i  isconsin.— A  married  woman  has  all  property  rights 
the  same  as  if  single.  She  may  buy  and  fell,  lend  and 
borrow,  make  conveyances,  and  have  real  estate  con- 
veyed to  her,  and  all  such  business  may  be  transacted 
between  her  and  her  husband  as  between  strangers. 
She  may  sue  alone,  but  in  being  sued  she  must  be  joined 
to  husband.  Dower,  life. interest  in  one  third  of  all 
husband's  realty  held  during  the  marriage.  Husband 
has  wife's  realty  for  life. 

Wyoming. — A  married  woman  may  carry  on  busi- 
ness, make  contracts,  keep  her  own  earnings,  hold 
property,  real  or  personal,  receive  the  rents  in  her  own 
name,  sue  and  be  sued,  make  a  will,  free  from  any  con- 
trol or  interference  of  her  husband,  the  same  as  if  she 
were  single.  Her  property  is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of 
her  husband.  Women  in  this  State  have  the  right 
to  vote  and  hold  office. 

Canada. — In  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion,  gener- 
ally. ■  married  woman  nobis  all  her  property  and 
earnings,  free  from  the  control  of  her  husband."  It  is 
liable  for  her  debts  before  marriage,  and  her  husband 
is  not.  She  may  manage  it  and  bequeath  it.  She  is  en- 
titled to  dower,"but  there  is  no  tenancy  by  curtesy.  In 
the  province  of  Quebec  the  law  is  modified  by  the 
French  law.  There  all  the  personal  property  and  gains 
of  both  parties  are  put  together,  and  form  the  com- 
munity property,  which  the  husband  administers.  Each 
can  bequeath  only  his  or  her  interest,  and  the  heirs  of 
each  inherit  the  interest  of  each. 

THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

The  supreme  legislative  power  of  the  British 
Empire  is  by  its  Constitution  given  to  Parlia- 
ment. Parliament  is  summoned  by  the  writ 
of  the  sovereign  issued  out  of  Chancery,  by  ad- 
vice of  the  Privy  Council,  at  least  thirty-five 
days  previous  to  its  assembling.  On  a  vacancy 
occurring  in  the  House  of  Commons  whilst 
Parliament  is  sitting,  a  writ  for  the  election  of 
a  new  member  is  issued  upon  motion  in  the 
House.  It  the  vacancy  occurs  during  the  recess, 
the  writ  is  issued  at  the  instance  of  the  Speaker. 

It  has  become  customary  of  late  for  Parlia- 
ments to  meet  in  annual  session  extending 
from  the  middle  of  February  to  about  the  end 
of  August.  Every  session  must  end  with  a 
prorogation,  and  by  it  all  Bills  which  have  not 
been  passed  during  the  session  fall  to  the 
ground.  The  royal  proclamation  which  sum- 
mons Parliament  in  order  to  proceed  to  busi- 
ness must  be  issued  fourteen  days  before  the 
time  of  meeting.  A  dissolution  is  the  civil 
death  of  Parliament ;  it  may  occur  by  the  will 
of  the  sovereign,  or,  as  is  most  usual,  during 
the  recess,  by  proclamation,  or  finally  by  lapse 
of  time,  the  statutory  limit  of  the  duration  of 
tho  existence  of  any  Parliament  being  seven 
years.  Formerly,  on  the  demise  of  the  sover- 
eign, Parliament  stood  dissolved  by  the  fact 
thereof ;  but  this  was  altered  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  to  the  effect  of  postponing  the 
dissolution  till  six  months  after  the  accession 
of  the  new  sovereign,  while  the  Reform  Act  of 
1867  settled  that  the  Parliament  "  in  being  at 
any  future  demise  of  the  Crown  shall  not  be 
determined  by  such  demise." 

The  present  form  of  Parliament,  as  divided 


into  two  Houses  of  Legislature,  the  Lords  and 
the  Commons,  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century. 

The  House  of  Lords  consists  of  peers  who 
hold  their  seats — (1)  by  hereditary  right;  (2) 
by  creation  of  the  sovereign  ;  (3)  by  virtue  of 
office — English  bishops ;  (4)  by  election  for 
life — Trish  peers ;  (5)  by  election  for  duration 
of  Parliament — Scottish  peers. 

The  number  of  names  on  the  "  Roll  "  was 
401  in  1830;  457  in  1840;  448  in  1850;  458 
in  1860;  503  in  1877;  and  586  in  1898. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  hereditary  peerages 
were  created  in  the  present  century.  Exclud- 
ing the  royal  and  ecclesiastical  peerages,  the 
4  oldest  existing  peerages  in  the  House  of 
Lords  date  from  the  latter  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century-,  while  5  go  back  to  the 
fourteenth  and  7  to  the  fifteenth  century. 
There  are  besides  8  peeresses  of  the  United 
Kingdom  in  their  own  right,  and  2  Scotch 
peeresses,  and  18  Scotch  and  62  Irish  peers 
who  are  not  peers  of  Parliament. 

The  House  of  Commons  has  consisted,  since 
49  Hen.  III.,  of  knights  of  the  shire,  or  repre- 
sentatives of  counties  ;  of  citizens,  or  represen- 
tatives of  cities  ;  and  of  burgesses,  or  represen- 
tatives of  boroughs,  all  of  whom  vote 
together.  To  the  House  of  Commons,  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  I.,  37  counties  and  166 
boroughs  each  returned  two  representatives ; 
but  at  the  accession  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  total 
number  of  constituencies  was  only  147.  The 
additions  from  Edward  VI.  to  Charles  II.  were 
almost  entirely  of  borough  members.  In  the 
fourth  Parliament  of  Char'es  L,  the  number 
of  places  in  England  and  Wales  for  which  re- 
turns were  made,  exclusive  of  counties, 
amounted  to  210;  and  in  the  time  of  the 
Stuarts,  the  total  number  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  was  about  500.  At  the 
union  of  the  English  and  Scottish  Parliaments 
in  1707,  45  representatives  of  Scotland  were 
added  :  and  at  the  union  of  the  British  and 
Irish  Parliaments  in  1801,  100  representatives 
of  Ireland.  The  average  number  of  members 
was  then  about  650. 

By  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  the  number  of 
English  county  constituencies  was  increased 
from  52  to  82 ;  56  boroughs,  containing  a 
population  of  less  than  2,000  each,  were 
totally  disfranchised,  and  31  other  boroughs, 
of  less  than  4,000  each,  were  required  to  send 
one  representative  instead  of  two.  On  the 
other  hand,  22  new  boroughs  acquired  the 
right  to  return  two  members,  and  24  to  return 
one  member.  In  Scotland  the  town  members 
were  increased  from  15  to  23 — making  53  in 
all,  while  the  Irish  representatives  were  in- 
creased from  100  to  103. 


80 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


The  next  great  change  in  the  constituency 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  was  made  by  the 
Reform  Bill  of  1867-68.  By  this  Act  England 
and  Wales  were  allotted  493  members  and 
Scotland  60,  while  the  number  for  Ireland  re- 
mained unaltered,  and  household  suffrage  was 
conferred  on  boroughs  in  England  and  Scot- 
land. A  still  greater  reform  was  effected  by 
the  Representation  of  the  People  Act,  1884, 
and  the  Redistribution  *of  Seats  Act,  1885. 
The  former  introduced  a  "service  franchise," 
extending  to  householders  and  lodgers  in 
counties  the  suffrages  which  in  1867  had  been 
conferred  upon  householders  and  lodgers  in 
boroughs,  and  placed  the  three  Kingdoms  on  a 
footing  of  equality  as  regards  electoral  qualifi- 
cations ;  while  the  latter  made  a  new  division 
of  the  United  Kingdom  into  county  and  borough 
constituencies,  and  raised  the  total  number  of 
members  to  670,  England  receiving  6  new 
members,  and  Scotland  12. 

All  elections  for  members  of  Parliament 
must  be  by  secret  vote  by  ballot,  an  Act  being 
passed  annually  to  this  effect. 

No  one  under  twenty-one  years  of  age  can 
be  a  member  of  Parliament.  All  clergymen  of 
the  Church  of  England,  ministers  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  and  Roman  Catholic 
clergymen  are  disqualified  from  sitting  as 
members  ;  all  Government  contractors,  and  all 
sheriffs  and  returning  officers  for  the  localities 
for  which  they  act,  are  disqualified  both  from 
voting  and  from  sitting  as  members.  No  Eng- 
lish or  Scottish  peer  can  be  elected  to  the 
House  of  Commons,  but  non-representative 
Irish  peers  are  eligible. 

The  executive  government  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  is  vested  nominally  in  the  Crown  ; 
but  practically  in  a  committee  of  Ministers, 
commonly  called  the  Cabinet,  whose  existence 
is  dependent  on  the  possession  of  a  majority  in 
the  House  of  Commons. 

The  member  of  the  Cabinet  who  fills  the 
position  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  is,  as  a 
rule,  the  chief  of  the  Ministry.  It  is  on  the 
Premier's  recommendation  that  his  colleagues 
are  appointed ;  and  he  dispenses  the  greater 
portion  of  the  patronage  of  the  Crown. 

The  Cabinet  officers  are  as  follows  : — 

Prime  Minister  and  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs. 

Lord  President  of  the  Council. 

Lord  High  Chancellor. 

Lord  Privy  Seal. 

Chancellor  of  the    Duchy  of  Lancaster. 

Ft7-st  Lord  of  the  Treasury. 

Secretary  oj    Stale  for  the  Home   Department. 

Chancellor  jf  the  Excheqtu  r. 

Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 

Secretary  of  State  for  War. 


Secretary  of  State  for  India. 

First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

President  of  the  Local  Government  Board. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 

Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 

Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland. 

Secretary  for   Scotland . 

First  Comrnissioner  of  Works. 

President  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture. 

Local  Government. — England  and  Wales. — In  each 
county  the  Crown  is  represented  by  a  Lord  Lieutenant, 
who  is  generally  also  custos  rotulontm,  or  keeper  of  the 
records.  He  usually  nominates  persons  whom  he  con- 
siders fit  and  proper  persons  to  be  justices  of  the  peace 
for  his  county,  to  be  appointed  by  the  Lord  Chancellor. 
His  duties,  however,  are  almost  nominal.  There  is  also 
a  sheriff,  who  represents  the  executive  of  the  Crown,  an 
under-sheriff,  a  clerk  of  the  peace,  coroners,  who  are 
appointed  and  paid  by  the  County  Councils,  and  other 
officers.  The  licensing  of  persons  to  sell  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  the  administration  of  the  criminal  law — 
except  that  which  deals  with  some  of  the  graver  of- 
fenses—  is  in  the  hands  of  the  magistrates.  For  the 
purposes  of  local  government,  England  and  Wales  are 
divided  into  sixty-one  administrative  counties,  includ- 
ing the  county  of  London,  which  differ  slightly  in  area 
from  the  geographical  counties. 

For  each  administrative  county  there  is  a  popularly- 
elected  Council,  called  a  County  Council,  who  co-opt  a 
prescribed  number  of  aldermen,  either  from  their  own 
body  or  from  outside  it.  Aldermen  are  elected  for  six 
years,  half  of  them  retiring  every  third  year.  A 
councilor  is  elected  for  three  years.  The  juris- 
diction of  the  County  Councils  extend  to  (1)  making  of 
county  and  police  rates ;  (2)  borrowing  money ;  (3)  super- 
vision of  county  treasurer ;  (4)  management  of  county 
halls  and  other  buildings;  (5)  licensing  of  houses  for 
music  and  dancing,  and  of  race  courses ;  (6)  maintenance 
and  management  of  pauper  lunatic  asylums;  (7)  main- 
tenance or  reformatory  and  industrial  schools ;  (8)  man- 
agement of  bridges  and  main  roads;  (9)  regulation  of 
fees  of  inspectors,  analysts,  and  other  officers ;  (10)  con- 
trol of  officers  paid  out  of  the  county  rate ;  (11)  coroner's 
salary,  fees,  and  district;  (12)  Parliamentary  polling 
districts  and  registration;  (13)  contagious  diseases  of 
animals,  and  various  other  matters.  The  control  of  the 
county  police  is  vested  in  a  standing  joint  committee, 
composed  of  an  equal  number  of  magistrates  and  mem- 
bers of  the  County  Council.  The  London  police  are, 
however,  under  the  control  of  the  Home  Secretary. 

The  administrative  counties,  with  the  exception  of 
the  County  of  London,  are  subdivided  into  "  County 
Districts, "  which  are  either  Urban  or,  Rural,  as  the 
case  may  be.  Generally  speaking,  an  urban  district 
comprises  a  town  or  a  small  area  more  or  less  closely 
populated,  and  a  rural  district  takes  in  several  country 
parishes.  Women  may  be  elected  to  District  Councils, 
but  may  not  sit  on  County  Councils;  and  the  chairman 
of  a  District  Council  is,"unless  a  woman,  a  magistrate 
for  the  county  by  virtue  of  his  office.  The  District 
Councils  administer  the  Public  Health  and  Highway 
Acts,  and  also  exercise  some  powers  formerly  exercised 
by  the  justices  out  of  session. 

In  every  civil  parish  in  a  "rural  district"  there  is  a 
Parish  Meeting,  at  which  every  parochial  elector  may 
attend  and  vote.  In  such  parishes  of  over  300  inhabit- 
ants there  is  in  addition  a  Parish  Council.  To  these 
latter  bodies  has  been  transferred  all  the  civil  powers 
of  the  old  Vestries,  including  the  election  of  overseers, 
and  in  addition  very  considerable  powersovcr  charities, 
allotments,  and  other  public  matters.  Where  there  is 
no  Parish  Council  some  of  these  powers,  including  the 
appointment  of  the  overseers,  are  exercised  by  the 
Parish  Meeting.  Urban  District  Councils  can,  by  peti- 
tioning the  Local  Government  Board  —  which  is  the 
supreme  Local  Government  authority — obtain  part  or 
all  of  the  powers  of  a  Parish  Council.  Only  Parish 
Meetings  may  have  power  to  adopt  the  Public  Libraries 
Acts,  the  Baths  and  Washhooses  Acta,  the  Lighting  and 
Watching  Acts,  the  Burials  Acts,  and  the  Public  Iiu 
provements  Acts. 

In  the  County  of  London  local  government  is  carried 
on  under  the  County  Council  by  the  Vestries,  formed 
under  the  Metropolis  Management  Acts,  which  exercise 
powers  similar  but  somewhat  wider  than  urban  district 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


81 


councils.    These  Vestries  are  elected  on  the  same  wide  1 
suffrage  as  district  councilors.    Married  women,  prop-  ! 
crly  qualified,  have  votes,  and  may  now  sit  on  them,  as 
well  as  single  women. 

In  all  the  great  towns,  including  "  county  boroughs." 
local  business  is  administered  by  a  municipal  Corpora- 
tion which  derives  i  t.s  authority  from  a  charter  granted 
by  the  Crown.  In  1835  the  municipalities  of  the  conn  t  ry 
were  completely  reorganized.  A  municipal  Corporation 
consists  of  the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  burgesses,  and  acts 
through  a  Council  elected  by  the  burgesses — practically 
by  the  ratepayers.  The  councilors  serve  for  three 
years,  one  third  retiring  annually ;  the  aldermen  are 
elected  by  the  Council,  and  the  mayor,  who  serves  for 
one  year,  also  by  the  Council.  A  municipal  Corporation 
has  practically  all  the  powers  of  an  urban  district  coun- 
cil, in  addition  to  the  privilege  of  electing  a  mayor  and 
corporation,  and  in  some  cases  municipal  boroughs 
have  a  separate  commission  of  the  peace  and  maintain 
their  own  police  force.  As  to  Poor  Law  and  School 
Board  administration,  see  "Pauperism"  and  "Instruc- 
tion." 

Scotland.— By  the  Local  Government  (Scotland)  Act, 
1894,  a  Local  Government  Board  for  Scotland  was  con- 
stituted, its  President  being  the  Secretary  for  Scotland. 
The  Local  Government  Act,  which  was  passed  for  Scot- 
land in  1889,  followed  in  its  main  outlines  the  English 
Act  of  the  previous  year.  The  powers  of  local  adminis- 
tration in  counties  formerly  exercised  by  the  Commis- 
sioners of  Supply  anil  Road  Trustees,  were  either  wholly 
or  in  part  transferred  to  the  new  Councils,  which  took 
over  their  duties  and  responsibilities  in  1890.  The  Act 
of  1894  provided  that  a  Parish  Council  should  be  estab- 
lished in  every  parish  to  take  the  place  of  the  Parochial 
Boards,  and  to  exercise  powers  similar  to  those  of  the 
Parish  Councils  in  cost  of  administration.  Such  towns, 
having  over  1.500  inhabitants,  may  be  constituted  urban 
sanitary  districts. 

The  Isle  of  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands  are  not  bound 
by  Acts  of  the  Imperial  Parliament  unless  specially 
mentioned.  The  Isle  of  Man  is  administered  in  accord- 
ance with  its  own  laws  by  the  Court  of  Tynwald,  con- 
sisting of  the  Governor,  appointed  by  the'Crown;  the 
Council  for  Public  Affairs,  composed  chiefly  of  ecclesi- 
astical and  judicial  dignitaries  appointed  by  the  Crown, 
and  the  House  of  Keys,  a  representative  assembly  of  24 
members  chosen  on  a  property  qualification  for  seven 
years  by  the  six  "  sheadings  "  or  local  subdivisions,  and 
the  four  municipalities.  The  Channel  Islands  are  ad- 
ministered according  to  their  own  laws  and  customs, 
each  by  a  Lieut.  Governor,  with  judicial  and  other 
functionaries;  and  a  "States"  Assembly,  partly  elec- 
tive. Jersey  has  a  separate  legal  existence.  Guernsey, 
Alderney,  and  Sark  have  a  Lieut.  Governor  in  common, 
but  otherwise  their  governments  are  separate. 

Justice. — England  and  Wales. — The  principal  courts 
having  criminal  jurisdiction  are  the  petty  sessional 
courts,  the  general  or  quarter  sessions,  the  courts  of 
oyer  and  terminer  and  gaol  delivery,  more  popularly 
known  as  "assizes,"  anil  the  Central  Criminal  Court. 
Two  or  more  justices  of  the  peace  sitting  in  a  petty 
sessional  courthouse,  the  Lord  Mayor  or  any  alderman 
of  the  City  of  London,  or  any  metropolitan  or  borough 
police  magistrate  or  other  stipendary  magistrate  sitting 
in  a  courthouse,  constitute  a  pettv  sessional  court. 
The  courts  of  quarter  sessions  are  held  four  times  a 
year  by  the  justices  of  the  county.  Similar  courts  can 
be  held  at  other  times,  and  are  then  called  "general 
sessions."  Two  justices  constitute  a  court,  but  usually 
a  larger  number  attend.  Certain  boroughs  have  a  court 
of  quarter  sessions,  with  similar  jurisdiction  to  the 
county  justices  in  quarter  sessions  assembled,  in  which 
the  recorder  of  the  borough  is  the  judge.  The  assize 
courts  are  held  four  times  a  year  in  various  towns 
throughout  the  country  by  "  commissioners  "  nominated 
by  the  Crown.  These  commissioners  are  generally 
judges  of  the  Queen's  Bench  Division  of  the  High  Court 
of  Justice,  but  sometimes  Queen's  Counsel  of  good 
standing  are  appointed.  The  trial  takes  place  before  a 
single  commissioner.  The  Central  Criminal  Court  is 
the  court  of  oyer  and  terminer  and  gaol  delivery  for  the 
City  of  London  and  a  large  surrounding  district.  The 
sessions  of  this  court  are  held  at  least  twelve  times  a 
year,  and  more  often  if  necessary.  The  Recorder  and 
the  Common  Sergeant,  and,  if  the  number  of  the  pris- 
oners makes  it  necessary,  the  judge  of  the  City  of 
London  Court,  sit  on  the  first  two  days,  after  which 
they  are  joined  by  the  judges  of  the  High  Court  on  the 
rota,  for  whom  the  more  serious  eases  are  reserved.  A 
petty  sessional    court    deals   summarily  with   minor 


offenses.  Cases  of  a  more  serious  nature  are  usually 
investigated  by  a  petty  sessional  court  before  being 
tried  at  the  sessions  or  the  assizes.  To  every  session, 
assize,  and  to  every  sitting  of  the  Central  Criminal 
Court,  the  sheriff  cites  24  of  the  chief  inhabitants  of  the 
district,  of  whom  not  less  than  12  and  not  more  than 
23  are  sworn  and  eonstitute  a  grand  jury.  The  grand 
jury  examines  the  1  > i  1 1  of  indictment  against  the 
accused  i>er8on,  hears  the  evidence  of  witnesses  for 
the  prosecution,  and  if  they  think  a  prima  facie  case 
for  trial  is  made  out  they  indorse  the  bill  "  a  true  bill." 
All  criminal  trials,  except  those  which  come  before  a 
court  of  summary  jurisdiction,  take  place  before  a 
judge  and  a  petty  jury  of  twelve  men.  Except  on  some 
highly  technical  point  of  procedure  there  is  no  appeal 
in  criminal  cases.  No  man  can  be  tried  again  for  the 
same  crime  after  a  petty  jury  has  found  him  "not 
guilty."  On  a  conviction  the  judge  can,  if  he  think  fit, 
reserve  a  question  of  law  (but  not  of  fact)  for  the  Court 
for  Crown  Cases  Reserved.  This  Court  is  formed  by 
live  or  more  judges  of  the  High  Court,  and  can  reverse, 
amend,  or  affirm  the  judgment.  The  only  other  method 
of  securing  the  revision  of  a  sentence  is  by  the  royal 
prerogative,  exercised  on  the  advice  of  the  Home  Sec- 
retary, by  which  a  sentence  can  be  modified  or  annulled. 
Nominally  all  the  judges  are  appointed  by  the  Queen, 
but  in  practice  the  Lord  Chancellor  (who  is  a  Cabinet 
minister,  ex  officio  president  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  goes  out  with  the  ministry)  and  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice  are  appointed  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Prime  Minister,  and  all  the  other  judges  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  Lord  Chancellor. 

Scotland. — The  High  Court  of  Justiciary  is  the  su- 
preme criminal  court  in  Scotland.  It  consists  of  all  the 
judges  of  the  Court  of  Session,  and  sits  more  or  less 
frequently,  as  the  number  of  cases  before  it  may 
require,  in  Edinburgh  or  in  the  circuit  towns.  One 
judge  can,  and  usually  does,  try  cases,  but  two  or  more 
preside  in  cases  of  difficulty  or  importance.  It  is  the 
only  competent  court  in  cases  of  treason,  murder,  rob- 
bery, rape,  fire-raising,  deforcement  of  messengers,  and 
generally  in  all  cases  in  which  a  higher  punishment 
than  imprisonment  is  by  statute  directed  to  be  inflicted ; 
and  it  has  moreover  an  inherent  jurisdiction  to  punish 
all  criminal  acts,  both  those  already  established  by 
common  law  or  statute,  and  such  as  have  never  previ- 
ously come  before  the  courts  and  are  not  within  any 
Statute. 

The  sheriff  of  each  county  is  the  proper  criminal 
judge  in  all  crimes  occurring  within  tne  county  which 
infer  only  an  arbitrary  punishment,  and  if  the  case  is 
tried  with  a  jury  the  High  Court  has  no  power  of  review 
on  the  merits.  Even  in  cases  indicted  to  the  High  Court 
the  accused  is,  under  the  Criminal  Procedure  (Scotland) 
Act  of  1887,  regularly  asked  to  plead  in  the  sheriff  court, 
and  minor  objections  to  the  indictment  can  be  wholly 
or  in  part  disposed  of  there.  Borough  magistrates  and 
justices  of  the  peace  have  jurisdiction  in  petty  cases 
occurring  within  the  burgh  or  county,  and  in  a  number 
of  minor  offenses  under  various  statutes. 

Ireland. — In  Ireland  persons  charged  with  crime  are 
first  brought  before  the  petty  sessions  court,  which 
must  consist  of  at  least  two  ordinary  justices  of  the 
peace,  one  of  whom  may  be  a  stipendary — commonly 
called  a  resident  magistrate.  Then  if  the  charge  be 
trifling  it  may  be  disposed  of,  the  prisoner,  if  convicted, 
having  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  quarter  sessions  or 
recorder's  court  (according  as  it  is  in  a  borough  or  in 
the  county),  provided  he  is  fined  more  than  twenty 
shillings  of  sentenced  to  a  longer  imprisonment  than 
one  month  (Petty  Sessions  Act,  sec.  24).  If  the  charge 
be  of  a  more  serious  character  it  must  either  be  dis- 
missed or  sent  for  trial  to  the  quarter  sessions  or 
recorder's  court,  or  to  the  assizes,  as  in  England.  There 
is  this  difference,  however,  between  quarter  sessions  in 
Ireland  and  in  England :  in  England  they  are  presided 
over  by  an  unpaid  chairman,  who  need  not  be  a  lawyer, 
and  who  is  elected  by  his  fellow  justices  of  the  peace 
for  the  county ;  while  in  Ireland  they  are  presided  over 
bv  a  paid  official,  who  must  be  a  barrister,  whose  de- 
cision on  points  of  law  binds  the  court,  who  is  appointed 
by  the  Crown,  and  who  is  also  judge  of  the  civil  bill 
court  of  the  county,  which  corresponds  to  the  English 
county  court.  The'assizes  are  presided  over  by  one  of 
the  common  law  judges  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 
In  the  quarter  sessions,  recorder's  court,  and  assizes 
the  trial  is  by  jurv  in  all  cases  save  appeals  from  petty- 
sessions.  Under  the  Crimes  Act  witnesses  and  persons 
suspected  of  crime  may  be  interrogated  before  a  secret 
court  of  inquiry ;  but  admissions  then  made  are  not 


82 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


evidence  against  the  persons  making  them.  Prisoners  I  in  cases  where  the  sentence  exceeds  a  month,  convicted 
mav  he  convicted  hef  ore  two  resident  magistrates  spe- [  persons  have  a  right  of  appeal  to  the  county  enalrman 
daily  appointed  to  hear  cases  under  the  Crimes  Act,  and  |  at  quarter  sessions. 

Territorial  Extent  of  the  British  Empire. 

THE  UNITED  KINGDOM. 


Countries. 


England . 
Wales. . . . 
Scotland. 
Ireland . . 
Islands . . 

Total 


Area  in 
Square  Miles. 


How  Acquired  by  England. 


50,840 

7,470 

29,785 

32,583 

295 


120,973 


Conquest. 

Union 

Conquest. 


1282 
1603 
1172 


Population, 
1891. 


27,499,984 

1,501.031 

4,033.103 

4.70.;.  448 

14;, 870 


37,888,439 


COLONIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES. 


Europe: 

Gibraltar 

Malta,  etc 

Asia: 

India  (including  Burmah) 

Ceylon 

Cyprus 

Aden  and  Socotra , 

Straits  Settlements , 

Hong  Kong , 

Labuan , 

British  North  Borneo 

Africa  : 

Cape  Colony , 

Natal 

St.  Helena , 

Ascension 

Sierra  Leone 

British  Guinea,  Gold  Coast,  etc 

Mauritius,  etc , 

British  South  and  East  Africa  . 

America: 

Canada  Proper , 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Manitoba 

British  Columbia,  etc 

Northwest  Territories 

Prince  Edward  Island 

Newfoundland 

British  Guiana 

British  Honduras 

Jamaica 

Trinidad  and  Tobago 

Barbadoes 

Bahamas 

Bermuda 

Other  Islands 

Australasia: 

New  South  Wales 

Victoria < 

South  Australia 

Queensland 

Western  Australia 

Tasmania 

New  Zealand 

Fiji 

New  Guinea  (British) 


122 


Conquest 

Treaty  cession 


1704 
1814 


25,869 
165,662 


1,800,258 

25,365 
3,584 
3,070 
1,500 

3oy2 

31 

31,000 


( Conquest 

I  Transfer  from  East  India  Co. 

Treaty  cession 

Convention  with  Turkey 

(Aden)  conquest 

Treaty  cession 

Treaty  cession 

Treaty  cession 

Cession  to  Company   


Begun  1757 
1858 
1801 
1878 
1839 
1785-1824 
1841 
l>-46 
18.7 


221,310 

21,150 

47 

38 

15,000 

339,900 

1,063 

1,989,247 


Treaty  cession 

Annexation 

Conquest 

Annexation 

Settlement 

Treaty  cession ■ 

Conquest  and  cession. 
Conquest  and  cession. 


1588.  1814 

18)3 

1673 

1815 

1787 

1872 
1810.  1814 
1870-1890 


370,488 

28,200 

20,907 

73,956 

383.300 

3,257.500 

2,133 

42.200 

76,000 

7.562 

4,193 

1,754 

166 

5,794 

41 

8,742 


Conquest 

Treaty  cession 

Conquest 

Settlement 

Transfer  to  Crown 

Charter  to  Company  . . 

Conquest 

Treaty  cession 

Conquest  and  cession. 

Conquest 

Conquest 

Conquest .". 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 


310,700 

87,884 

903,690 

668,497 

975,876 

26,215 

104,032 

7,423 

234,768 


Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Purchase 

Cession  from  the  natives  . 
Annexation 


2*7,223,431 

3,008.239 
187,000 
44,000 
606,577 
221.411 
5.853 
150,000 


1,527,224 

543,913 

4,116 

200 

300.000 

23,455,000 

3'.i2.500 

14,911,000 


4,833,239 


198.000 
282.000 
28.000 
581.000 
205.000 
172,000 
48.000 
16,000 
255.000 


1,132,234 
1,140.405 
320,431 
393,718 
49,782 
146,667 
626.658 
125.402 
350,000 


CANADA. 

Constitution  and  Government. — As 

originally  constituted  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
was  composed  of  the  Provinces  of  Canada  — 
Upper  and  Lower  —  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick.  They  were  united  under  the  pro- 
visions of  an  Act  of  the  Imperial  Parliament 


passed  in  March,  18G7,  known  as  "  The 
British  North  America  Act  1867,"  which 
came  into  operation  on  the  1st  July,  1867,  by 
royal  proclamation.  The  Act  provides  that 
the  Constitution  of  the  Dominion  shall  be 
•'similar  in  principle  to  that  of  the  United 
Kingdom  "  ;  that  the  executive  authority  shall 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


83 


be  vested  in  the  Sovereign  of  Great  Britain 
&nd  Ireland,  and  carried  on  in  her  name  by  a 
Governor  General  and  Privy  Council ;  and 
that  the  legislative  power  shall  be  exercised  by 
a  Parliament  of  two  Houses,  called  the  "  Sen- 
ate "  and  the  "House  of  Commons."  Pro- 
vision was  made  in  the  Act  for  the  admis- 
sion of  British  Columbia,  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, the  North- West  Territories,  and  New- 
foundland into  the  Dominion  ;  Newfoundland 
alone  has  not  availed  itself  of  such  provision. 
In  1869  the  extensive  region  known  as  the 
North- West  Territories  was  added  to  the  Do- 
minion by  purchase  from  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company ;  the  province  of  Manitoba  was  set 
apart  out  of  a  portion  of  it,  and  admitted 
into  the  confederation  on  the  i5th  July,  1870. 
On  20th  July,  1871,  the  province  of  British 
Columbia,  and  on  the  1st  J  ily,  1873,  the  pro- 
vince of  Prince  Edward  Island,  respectively 
entered  the  confederation. 

The  members  of  the  Senate  of  the  Parlia- 
ment of  the  Dominion  are  nominated  for  life, 
by  summons  of  the  Governor  General  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  Canada.  By  the  terms  of 
the  Constitution,  there  are  now  81  Senators  — 
namely,  21  from  the  Province  of  Ontario,  24 
from  Quebec,  10  from  Nova  Scotia,  10  from 
New  Brunswick,  4  from  Manitoba,  3  from 
British  Columbia,  4  from  Prince  Edward  Is- 
land, and  two  from  the  Territories.  Each 
senator  must  be  30  years  of  age,  a  born  or 
naturalized  subject,  and  reside  in,  and  be  pos- 
sessed of  property,  real  or  personal,  of  the 
value  of  4,000  dollars  within,  the  province  for 
which  he  is  appointed.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons of  the  Dominion  is  elected  by  the  peo- 
ple, for  five  years,  unless  sooner  dissolved,  at 
the  rate  at  present  of  one  representative  for 
every  22,688,  the  arrangement  being  that  the 
province  of  Quebec  shall  always  have  65  mem- 
bers, and  the  other  provinces  proportionally 
according  to  their  populations  at  each  decen- 
nial census.  On  the  basis  of  the  census  of 
the  Dominion  taken  in  April,  1891,  and  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  redistribution  bill  passed  in 
1892,  the  House  of  Commons  consists  of  213 
members  —  92  for  Ontario,  65  for  Quebec, 
20  for  Nova  Scotia,  14  for  New  Brunswick,  7 
for  Manitoba,  6  for  British  Columbia,  5  for 
Prince  Edward  Island,  and  4  for  the  North- 
West  Territories. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
are  elected  by  constituencies,  the  electors  of 
which  are  supplied  by  franchises  under  the 
control  of  the  several  provincial  assemblies, 
an  Act  having  been  passed  to  that  effect  in  the 
session  of  1898.  The  qualifications  for  vot- 
ing at  provincial  elections  vary  in  the  several 
provinces.     Voting  is  by  ballot. 


The  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  has 
a  salary  of  4,000  dollars  per  annum,  and  each 
member  an  allowance  of  10  dollars  per  diem, 
up  to  the  end  of  30  days,  and  for  a  session 
lasting  longer  than  this  period  the  sum  of 
1,000  dollars,  with,  in  every  case,  10  cents  per 
mile  for  traveling  expenses.  The  sum  of  8 
dollars  per  diem  is  deducted  for  every  day's 
absence  of  a  member,  unless  the  same  is 
caused  by  illness.  There  is  the  same  allow- 
ance for  the  members  of  the  Senate  of  the 
Dominion. 

Dominion  Executive  Officers.— 

Governor  General. 

Premier  and  President  of  Privy  Council. 

Minister  of  Public  Works. 

Minister  of 'Customs. 

Minister  of  Militia  and  Defense. 

Minister  of  Agriculture. 

Minister  of  Finance. 

Minister  of  Justice. 

Minister  of  Marine  and  Fisheries. 

Minister  of  the  Interior. 

Minister  of  Railways  and  Canals. 

Minister  without  Portfolio. 

Secretary  of  State. 

Postmaster-  General. 

Rulers  since  1867. — 

Lord  Monck,  Governor  General.    1867-1868. 

Lord  Lisgar,  Governor  General.    1868-1372. 

Earl  Dufferin,  Governor  General.  1872- 
1878. 

Marquis  of  Lome,  Governor  General. 
1878-1883. 

Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  Governor  General. 
1883-1888. 

Baron  Stanley  of  Preston,  Governor  Gen- 
eral.    1888-1893. 

Earl  of  Aberdeen,  Governor  General.  1893- 
1898-. 

Earl  of  Minto,  Governor  General.     1898. 

Each  of  the  ministers  has  a  salary,  fixed  by 
statute,  of  7,000  dollars,  or  1,400/.  a  year,  with 
the  exception  of  the  recognized  Prime  Mini3ter, 
who  has  8,000  dollars,  or  1,600/.  and  the  Min- 
isters of  Customs  and  Inland  Revenue,  who 
have  each  5,000  dollars  a  year.  The  body  of 
ministers  is  officially  known  as  the  "  Queen's 
Privy  Council  of  Canada."  The  Governor 
General  has  a  salary  of  10,000/.  per  annum. 

Provincial  Government.— The  seven  provinces  form- 
ing the  Dominion  have  each  a  separate  Parliament  and 
administration,  with  a  Lieutenant  Governor  at  the  head 
of  the  executive.  They  have  full  powers  to  regulate 
their  own  local  affairs'and  dispose  of  their  revenues, 
provided  only  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  and 
policy  of  the  central  administration.  The  Lieutenant 
Governors  are  appointed  by  the  Governor  General. 
Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia  have  each  two  Chambers  (a 
Legislative  Council  and  a  Legislative  Assembly)  and  a 
responsible  Ministry.  In  New  Brunswick,  Ontario. 
Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  and  Prince  Edward  Island 
there  is  only  one  Chamber  (the  Legislative  Assembly; 
and  a  responsible  Ministry.    Thf  members  of  the  Legis- 


84 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


lative  Council  of  Nova  Scotia  number  21,  and  Quebec  24. 
The  membership  of  the  Legislative  Assemblies  are: 
Prince  Edward  Island  30,  Nova  Scotia  38,  New  Bruns- 
wick 41,  Quebec  73,  Ontario  94,  Manitoba  40,  British 
Columbia  33,  and  the  North- West  Territories  26.  The 
North-West  Territories  are  presided  over  by  a  Lieu- 
tenant Governor  and  a  Legislative  Assembly.  The  Ex- 
ecutive Council  consists  (since  October  1,  1897)  of  the 
Lieutenant  Governor  and  five  members,  elected,  as  such, 
by  the  people. 

Instruction.— All  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion 
have  one  or  more  universities,  and  several  colleges 
which  prepare  for  university  degrees.  There  are  in  all 
about  16  degree-granting  bodies  in  the  Dominion,  with 
about  24  colleges,  including  denominational,  medical, 
and  other  special  institutions.  From  special  official 
statistics  of  these  institutions  it  may  be  estimated  that 
they  are  attended  by  about  13,000  students,  and  their 
total  annual  expenditure  is  upwards  of  $700,000,  while 
the  estimated  value  of  their  endowments,  buildings, 
land,  etc.,  is  over  $16,000,000. 

The  expenditure  for  the  year  on  public  and  high 
schools,  including  Government  grants,  was  over  $10,- 
000,000.  The  supervision  of  education  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Governments  of  the  several  provinces, 
and  the  systems  in  use  vary  somewhat,  but  are  all  based 
on  the  principle  of  free  education,  the  funds  being  sup- 
plied in  nearly  all  the  provinces  by  Government  grants 
and  local  taxation.  In  British  Columbia  and  the  North- 
West  Territories  the  schools  are  supported  wholly  by 
Government.  Education  is  more  or  less  compulsory 
in  all  the  provinces,  but  the  law  is  not  very  strictly 
enforced.  In  Ontario,  Quebec,  and  the  North-West 
Territories  there  are  separate  schools  for  Roman  Catho- 
lics; in  the  other  provinces  the  schools  are  unsectarian. 
Separate  schools  in  Manitoba  were  abolished  by  a  Pro- 
vincial Act  passed  in  1890. 

Justice.— There  is  a  Supreme  Court  in  Ottawa,  hav- 
ing appellate,  civil,  and  criminal  jurisdiction  in  and 
throughout  Canada.  There  is  also  an  exchequer  court, 
which  is  also  a  colonial  court  of  admiralty,  with  powers 
as  provided  in  the  Imperial "  Colonial  Courts  of  Admi- 
ralty Act,  1890."  There  is  a  Superior  Court  in  each  prov- 
ince; county  courts,  with  limited  jurisdiction,  in  most 
of  the  provinces ;  all  the  judges  in  these  courts  being 
appointed  by  the  Governor  General .  Police  magistrates 
and  justices  of  the  peace  are  appointed  by  the  Provincial 
Governments. 

Religion.— There  is  no  State  Church  in  the  whole  of 
British  North  America.  The  Church  of  England  is  gov- 
erned by  twenty  bishops,  with  about  1,000  clergy;  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  by  one  cardinal,  seven  arch- 
bishops, twenty-three  bishops,  and  about  1,500  clergy: 
and  -the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Canada,  with  about 
1,000  ministers— formed  in  1875  by  the  union  of  two 
formerly  distinct  bodies — by  presbyteries,  synods,  and 
an  annual  assembly  as  in  the  Scotch  Church,  with  2,358 
churches  and  stations.  The  Methodists  have  1,700  and 
the  Baptists  about  500  ministers.  All  these  bodies  have 
one  or  more  divinity  schools.  The  number  of  members 
of  each  religious  creed  in  the  Dominion  was  as  follows 
at  the  census  of  April  6, 1891 :  — 


Congregationalists 28,157 

Miscellaneous  creeds.,106,739 
No  creed  stated *89,355 


Roman  Catholics..  1,992.017 

Presbyterians 755,326 

Anglicans 646,059 

Methodists 847,765 

Baptists 303,839 

Lutherans 63,982 

*  Including  Pagans. 

The  following  shows  the.  numl>er8  of  the  leading  de- 
nominations in  the  several  provinces  according  to  the 
census  of  1891 : — 


Total 4,833,239 


Province. 


a. 2 


©•d 

A  e 

if 


4)  - 

£2 


4« 


Ontario. 


368,300  386,999  463,141  664,033  106,041 


Quebec 1,291,709   76,472   62,673   39,644     7,991 


Nova  Scotia 122,462 

New  Brunswick 115,961 

Manitoba 20,571 

British  Columbia... i  20,848 

Prince  Edw'd  Island  47.837 


64,410  108.962  64,196  83,123 

43,096   40,639  86,604  79,649 

30,862   39,001  28,437  16,112 

23,619]  15,284  14,296  3,098 

6,646   83,072  13,696  6,268 


The  Territories 14,344   15,966   12,558     8,158     1,555 


Production  and  Industry.— Jgriadttirr.— Of  the 
total  area  of  Canada  in  1891,  there  were  28,537,242  acres 
of  improved  land,  out  of  60,287,730  acres  of  occupied 
land.  Of  the  improved  lands,  19,904,826  acres  were  un- 
der crop,  being  4,792,542  acres  more  than  were  under 
crop  in  1881.  The  acreage  under  pasture  in  1891  was  15,- 
234,788  acres,  an  increase  of  8,899,226  acres  since  1881. 
The  acreage  under  wheat  in  1891  was  2,723,861  acres,  an 
increase  of  381,506  acres  in  ten  years.  The  average  yield 
of  1891  per  acre  was  15.4  bushels,  an  increase  of  1.6 
bushels  per  acre  over  the  yield  of  1881.  There  is  a  cen- 
tral experimental  farm  near  Ottawa,  and  others  in  sev- 
eral of  the  provinces.  In  1895  there  were  195  ranches 
in  the  N.-W.  Territories,  covering  an  area  of  904,187 
acres. 

Forestry. —  The  timber  wealth  of  Canada  is  very 
large,  and  timbering  one  of  its  most  important  indus- 
tries. The  forest  area  is  estimated  at  1,248,798  square 
miles.  The  forest  products  of  1891  were  valued  at  80,- 
071,415  dollars,  of  which  27,207,547  dollars  were  exported. 
The  census  returns  show  an  aggregate  of  2,045,073,072 
cubic  feet  as  the  total  cut  of  the  year.  The  forest  prod- 
ucts exported  to  the  United  Kingdom  in  1897  amounted 
in  value  to  14,973,292  dollars  out  of  a  total  of  32,937,976 
dollars.  The  recently  introduced  wood  pulp  industry  is 
increasing  rapidly,  the  exportable  surplus  being  741,960 
dollars  in  1897,  chiefly  going  to  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States.  The  Crown  forests  belong  to  the  Pro- 
vincial Governments,  except  in  Manitoba,  the  N.-W. 
Territories,  and  the  Railway  Belt  (forty  miles  wide)  in 
British  Columbia,  where  they  belong  to  the  Dominion. 

Fisheries. — The  total  value,of  the  produce  of  the  tisher- 
iesof  Canada  in  1896was 20,407,424 dollars;  inl895,  20,185,- 
298  dollars.  The  values  of  the  principal  catches  in  1896 
were:  cod,  3,610,979  dollars;  salmon,  4,009,679  dollars; 
herring,  2,909,744  dollars;  lobsters,  2,205,762  dollars,  and 
mackerel/ 727,743  dollars.  In  1896,  according  to  prov- 
inces, the  values  were:  Nova  Scotia,  6,070,895  dollars; 
British  Columbia,  4,183,999;  New  Brunswick,  4,799,433: 
Quebec,  2,025,754;  Ontario,  1.605.674;  Prince  Edward 
Island,  976,126;  Manitoba  and  N.-W.  Territories,  745,543. 

Mining.— Nova  Scotia,  British  Columbia,  Quebec,  N. 
and  W.  Ontario,  and  part  of  the  N.-W.  Territories,  are 
the  chief  mining  districts  of  Canada.  The  total  value 
of  the  mineral  produce  of  Canada  was,  in  1897,  28,779,173 
dollars;  in  1896, 22.609,825  dollars.  The  principal  product 
is  coal,  of  which,  in  1896,  3,745,716  tons  were  raised,  val- 
ued at  7,226,462  dollars ;  in  1897,  3,876,201  tons,  valued  at 
7,442,204  dollars.  Among  the  other  minerals  produced 
in  1897  were  gold,  6,190,000  dollars;  nickel,  1,400,000  dol- 
lars; asbestos,  324,700  dollars;  petroleum,  1,011,546  dol- 
lars; copper,  1,501,660  dollars;  silver,  3,322,000  dollars; 
lead,  1,396,850  dollars;  iron  ore,  178,719  dollars.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  coal-bearing  area  of  the  N.-W. 
Territories  extends  over  65,000  square  miles. 

Capital. — The  capital  of  Canada  was  transferred  in 
1841  from  Kingston  to  Montreal,  and  in  1849  serious  riots 
arose  resulting  in  the  burning  of  the  Parliament  Houses 
on  the  26th  of  April,  over  the  question  of  compensation 
for  those  who  had  suffered  losses  during  the  recent 
rebellion.  The  riots  were  in  reality  caused  by  the  hostil- 
ity of  the  British  and  French  inhabitants.  One  of  the 
results  was  the  establishment  of  two  seats  of  govern- 
ment, one  at  Toronto  and  the  other  at  Ottawa,  Parlia- 
ment sitting  four  years  in  each  city  alternately.  Ottawa 
later  on  was  made  the  capital  of  Canada  and  eventually 
of  the  Dominion. 

Naturalization. — No  question  of  naturalization  arises 
in  connection  with  the  emigration  of  British  subjects  to 
Canada.  Settling  in  the  Dominion  makes  no  more 
change  in  this  respect  than  a  removal  from  York,  Glas- 
gow, Swansea,  or  Dublin  to  London,  and  a  new  arrival 
has  all  the  privileges  of  a  Canadian  born  fellow  subject. 
For  foreigners  the  Canadian  naturalization  laws  arc 
marked  by  a  spirit  of  liberality,  and  such  persons  can 
transact  any  business  and  hold  real  estate  without  being 
naturalized.  By  residing  three  years  and  taking  the 
oath  of  allegiance  they  become  naturalized  British  sub- 
jects. The  oath  is  one  of  simple  allegiance  and  does 
not  require  any  offensive  renunciations.  Naturaliza- 
tion confers  political  and  all  other  rights. 

Money  and  Credit.— The  Bank  Acts  of  Canada  im- 
pose  Btrfngent  conditions  as  to  capital,  notes  In  circula- 
tion, limit  of  dividend,  returns  to  the  Dominion 
Government,  and  other  points  in  all  chartered  and 
incorporated  hanks.  In  making  paymentsevery  hank  is 
compelled  If  required  to  bay  a  certain  proportion  in 
Dominion  Government  notes,  and  must  hold  not  less 
than  40  per  cent,  of  its  cash  reserve  in  Dominion  Govern- 
ment notes.    In  1897  there  were  37  incorporated  banks 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


85 


making  returns  to  the  Government,  with  575  branches 
all  over  the  Dominion. 

Post-office  savings  banks  under  charge  of  the 
Government  have  been  in  operation  in  Canada  since  1868 ; 
there  are  also  Government  savings  banks,  under  the 
management  of  the  Finance  Department,  in  the  Mari- 
time Provinces,  Manitoba,  and  British  Columbia.  In 
1897  there  were  779  offices  of  the  former  and  28  of  the 
latter.  In  1897  the  post-office  savings  banks  had  135,737 
depositors  and  32,380,829  dollars  on  deposit. 

Internal  Communications.  Canada  has  a  system  of 
canal,  river,  and  lake  navigation  over  2,700  miles  in 
length,  and  vessels  from  the  lake  ports  reach  the  Atlan- 
tic without  breaking  bulk.  Up  to  1897,  71,750,000  dollars 
had  been  spent  on  canals  for  construction  alone.  In 
1896,  25,622  vessels,  of  4,677,826  tons,  passed  through  the 
Canadian  canals, carrying- 151,342  passengers  and  3,413,674 
tons  of  freight,  chiefly  grain,  timber,  and  coal. 

The  Dominion  of  Canada  had  a  network  of  railways 
of  a  total  length  of  16,687  miles  completed  at  the  end  of 
June,  1897,  being  an  increase  of  300  miles  over  that  of 
1896.  The  number  of  miles  in  operation  was  16,550.  The 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway  main  line  from  Montreal  to 
Vancouver  is  2,906  miles  in  length.  By  means  of  this 
railway  and  a  line  of  Pacific  steamers  subsidized  by  the 
Imperial  and  Dominion  Governments,  Montreal  and 
Yokohama  have  been  brought  within  14  days  of  one  an- 
other. There  is  a  monthly  steam  service  between  A  ustra- 
lia  and  British  Columbia,  for  which  the  Dominion  Gov- 
ernment gives  25,000?.  a  year  and  the  Australian  12,000£. 
a  year. 

The  number  of  electric  railways  in  Canada  in  1897  was 
35,  with  a  mileage  of  535 ;  the  "number  of  passengers 
carried  during  the  year  was  83,811,306 ;  the  total  paid  up 
capital  was  18,727,355  dollars,  and  the  bonded  debt,  9,- 
894,452  dollars. 

On  June  30, 1897,  there  was  9,191  post  offices  in  the 
Dominion.  During  the  year  ended  on  the  foregoing 
date  the  number  of  letters  sent  through  the  post  office 
was  123,830,000,  of  post  cards  26,140,000,  of  newspapers, 
books,  etc.  26,640,000,  and  of  parcels  369,570.  Newspa- 
pers sent  from  the  office  of  publication  are  carried  free. 
Their  number  in  1897  was  estimated  at  upwards  of  74,- 
319,976.  The  letters  and  post  cards  posted  amounted  to 
28.88  per  head,  and  the  other  articles  to  19.51  per  head. 
Revenue,  4,311,243  dollars;  expenditure,  4,897,783  dol- 
lars. A  uniform  rate  of  postage  of  three  cents  has 
been  established  over  the  whole  Dominion.  The  num- 
ber of  money  order  offices  in  Canada  in  1897  was  1,349 
and  of  orders  issued  1,162,209,  their  value  having  been 
13,081,860  dollars. 

There  were  29,318  miles  (2,786  being  Government)  of 
telegraph  lines  in  Canada  in  1897  and  70,761  miles  of 
wire,  with  2,572  offices,  and  the  number  of  messages 
sent,  as  nearly  as  could  be  ascertained,  4,313,925.  There 
were  in  1894,  44,000  miles  of  telephone  wire,  and  33.500 
sets  of  Instruments ;  72,500,000  messages  were  sent.  The 
returns  for  1897  do  not  vary  greatly  from  those  of  1894. 

Area,  Population,  and  Seats  of  Gov- 
ernment of  the  Provinces. 


The  following  table  shows  the  value  of  the  leading 
imports  and  exports  in  1897 :  — 


Provinces. 


Area, 
Square 
Miles.* 


Alberta 

Assiniboia 

Athabaska  

British  Columbia... 

Manitoba 

New  Brunswick 

Nova  Scotia 

Ontario 

Prince  Edw'd  Island 

Quebec 

Saskatchewan 

Mackenzie,  Ungava, 

and  Franklin 

Yukon 

Keewatin 

GreatLakesA  Rivers 


100,000 

90,340 

251,300 

383,300 

73,956 

28,200 

20,600 

222,000 

2,000 

347,350 

114,000 

1,019,200 
198,300 
756,000 
47,400 


Popula- 
tion, 
1891. 


25,278 
30,374 


98,173 

t 152,506 

321,270 

450,523 

2,114,475 

109,088 

1,488,586 

11,146 


Seats  of 
Government. 


Regina. 

Regina. 

Regina. 

Victoria. 

Winnipeg. 

...Fredericton. 

Halifax. 

Toronto. 

Charlottetown. 

Quebec. 

Regina. 


Total 3,653,946     4,823,875 


31.462    Regina. 


Imports,  1897, 

for  Home 
Consumption. 


Dollars. 


*  Land  and  water  included  in  area, 
t  127,928  by  census  of  1896. 


Wool,  mfrs.  of. . . 
Iron,    steel,    and 

mfrs.  of 

Coal  and  coke 

Breadstuffs 

Cotton  mfrs 

Tea  and  coffee 

Sugar  of  all  kinds 
Cotton  wool  and 

waste 

Silk  and  mfrs.  of 

Provisions I 

Wool,  raw | 

Wood  and  mfrs  J 

of 

Animals,  living. . 
Flax,  hemp,  jute, 

and  mfrs.  of 

Spirits  and  wines 
Coin  and  bullion. 
All  other  articles. 


Total 111,294,021 


7,125 

10,613, 
9,276. 
1,136, 
4,269 
4,034 
8,560. 

3,290, 

1,988, 

655, 


861, 
397 

1,362 
1,379 
4,676 

50,786 


Exports  of 
Canadian  prod- 
uce, 1897. 


,748 Cheese 

I  Horned  cattle 

630  Horses 

534  Sheep 

263  Eggs 

,620  Other    animal 

,208 1    products 

790  Wood  pulp 

|  Wood  and  other 

,240,1    mfrs.  of 

305  Wheat  and  wheat 

3161    flour 

339,  Peas 

Apples 

728  Hav 

902  [Other  agricul- 
tural products. 
853  Codfish 
436 
194 


Fish   of   other 

kinds 

9151  'Coal 

Gold-b'r'g  quartz 
&  nuggets,  etc. 

Other  minerals. . . 

[Iron  and  steel  and 
mf  s 

Deatherand  mfrs. 

Coin  and  bullion. 

All  other  articles. 

Foreign  produce . 


Total. 


Dollars. 


14,676,239 

7,132,807 

1,710,922 

1,002,011 

978,479 

13,744,794 
741,959 

32,169,087 

7,085,048 

2,352,891 

2,682,472 

999,238 

4,862,997 
2,706,827 

7,607,496 
3,330,017 

2,804,101 
5,164,797 

522,988 
1,541,732 

327,298 
9.815,638 
13,990,415 


137,950,253 


ARGENTINE    REPUBLIC. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, formerly  known  by  the  name  of  * '  Pro- 
vincias  Unidas  del  Rio  de  la  Plata,"  bears  date 
May  15,  1853,  with  modifications  in  1860, 
when  Buenos  Ayres  joined  the  confederacy. 
By  its  provisions,  the  executive  power  is  left 
to  a  President,  elected  for  six  years  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  fourteen  provinces,  equal  to 
double  the  number  of  senators  and  deputies 
combined ;  while  the  legislative  authority  is 
vested  in  a  National  Congress,  consisting  of  a 
Senate  and  a  House  of  Deputies,  the  former 
numbering  30,  two  from  the  capital  and  from 
each  province,  elected  by  a  special  body  of 
electors  in  the  capital,  and  by  the  legislatures 
in  the  provinces  ;  and  the  latter  133  members 
elected  by  the  people.  By  the  constitution  as 
revised  in  1898,  there  should  be  one  deputy  for 
every  33,000  inhabitants.  A  deputy  must  be 
25  years  of  age,  and  have  been  a  citizen  for 
four  years.  The  deputies  are  elected  for  four 
years,  but  one  half  of  the  House  must  retire 
every  two  years.  Senators  must  be  30  years 
of  age,  have  been  citizens  for  six  years,  and 
have  an  annual  income  of  12,000  dollars. 
One  third  of  the  Senate  is  renewed  every  three 
years.  The  two  chambers  meet  annually  from 
May  1  to  September  30.  The  members  of  both 
the  Senate  and  the  House  of  Deputies  are  paid 
for  their  services,  each  receiving  12,000  pesos 
per  annum.     A  Vice-President,  elected  in  the 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


same  manner  and  at  the  same  time  as  the 
President,  fills  the  office  of  Chairman  of  the 
Senate,  but  has  otherwise  no  political  power. 
The  President  is  commander-in-chief  of  the 
troops,  and  appoints  to  all  civil,  military,  and 
judicial  offices,  and  has  the  right  of  presenta- 
tion to  bishoprics  ;  he  is  responsible  with  the 
ministry  for  the  acts  of  the  executive  ;  both 
President  and  Vice-President  must  be  Roman 
Catholics,  Argentine  by  birth,  and  cannot  be 
re-elected. 

The  Ministry,  appointed  by  and  acting  un- 
der the  orders  of  the  President,  consists  of  eight 
Secretaries  of  State  —  namely,  of  the  Interior, 
Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  War,  Justice,  Agri- 
culture, Marine,  and  Public  Works. 

The  President  has  a  salary  of  36,000  dollars, 
the  Vice-President  of  18,000  dollars,  and  each 
of  the  five  ministers  of  16,800  dollars  per 
annum. 

Local  Government. —  The  Constitution,  with  certain 
small  exceptions,  is  identical  with  that  of  the  United 
States.  Such  niattersas  affect  the  Republic  asa  whole  are 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Central  Government. 
The  governors  of  the  various  provinces  are  invested 
with  very  extensive  powers,  and  in  their  constitutional 
functions  are  independent  of  the  central  executive. 
They  are  not  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic, but  electee!  by  the  people  of  each  province  for  a  term 
of  three  years  and  four  years.  The  provinces  elect  their 
own  legislatures,  and  have  complete  control  over  their 
own  affairs;  they  can  contract  loans  (internal  and  ex- 
ternal) under  their  sole  and  exclusive  responsibility. 

Religion  and  Instruction. —  Although  the  Consti- 
tution recognizes  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  as  that  of 
{he  State,  all  other  creeds  are  tolerated.  There  are  1 
archbishop  and  five  suffragan  bishops.  For  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  clergy  there  are  5  seminaries.  In  1888  civil 
marriage  was  established  in  the  Republic. 

Primary  education  is  free,  secular,  and  compulsory 
for  children  from  6  to  14  years  of  age.  The  elementary 
schools  are  supported  in  the  capital  and  each  province 
by  the  taxes  established  in  their  Education  Acts,  aided 
by  large  subsidiesf  rom  the  general  Government. 

Thei-e  are  also  35  normal  schools  with  10,049  pupils. 
There  are  3  universities,  at  Cordova,  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
La  Plata,  comprising  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and 
engineering,  with  a  total  of  2,500  students:  a  school  of 
mines  (39  students),  2  colleges  of  agriculture,  a  naval 
and  lnilkary  school.  There  is  a  well-equipped  national 
observatory  at  Cordova,  and  another  at  La  Plata, 
museums  at  Bueno3  Ayres  and  La  Plata,  and  a  meteoro- 
logical bureau. 

Justice. —  Justice  is  exercised  by  a  Supreme  Court  of 
five  judges  and  an  attorney-general,  which  isalsoa  court 
of  appeal,  and  by  a  number  of  inferior  and  local  courts, 
trial  by  jury  being  established  by  the  Constitution  for 
criminal  cases.  Each  State  has  its  own  judicial  sys- 
tem. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

Austria  and  Hungary,  or,  as  in  international 
relations  they  are  officially  called,  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  consists  of  two  States, — 
the  Austrian  Empire  and  the  Hungarian  King- 
dom. The  relation  between  the  two  States  in 
its  present  form  was  fully  regulated  by  the  so- 
called  Compromise  of  1867.  According  to 
this  agreement  the  two  States  are  perfectly 
independent  of  each  other,  possessing  each  it's 
own  constitution,  its  legislative  power,  and  its 
executive  departments  for  most  branches  of 
State  affairs.     There  is,  however,  a  close  polit- 


ical connection  between  them  through  the 
identity  of  the  Sovereign  and  the  community 
of  certain  departments  of  state  affairs. 

The  common  head  of  the  monarchy  is  the 
Emperor  (Kaiser)  of  Austria  and  King  (Kiraly) 
of  Hungary.  The  crown  is  hereditary  in  the 
Habsburg-Lothringen  dynasty,  passing  by 
right  of  primogeniture  and  lineal  succession  to 
males  and  (on  failure  of  males)  to  females. 
The  monarch  must  be  a  member  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  He  is  styled  "  His  Imperial 
and  Royal  Apostolic  Majesty, "  being  "Em- 
peror of  Austria,  King  of  Bohemia,  etc.,  and 
Apostolic  King  of  Hungary." 

Affairs  common  to  the  two  States  are  :  — (1 ) 
Foreign  affairs  ;  (2)  military  and  naval  affairs, 
but  excluding  legislation  concerning  the  army  ; 
(3)  finance  relating  to  common  affairs,  but 
each  State  provides  separately  for  the  assess- 
ment, collection,  and  transmission  of  its.  con- 
tribution. The  two  States,  moreover,  form 
one  commercial  territory,  having  the  same  sys- 
tem of  coinage  and  of  weights  and  measures, 
a  joint  bank  of  issue,  and  the  same  commercial 
(as  well  as  political)  representation  abroad, 
while  the  monopolies  and  taxes  connected 
with  industrial  production  (salt,  tobacco, 
spirits,  beer,  sugar,  and  mineral  oil)  are  the 
same  in  both.  This  commercial  union,  unlike 
the  political  connection,  which  has  a  perma- 
nent character,  depends  on  a  compromise  re- 
newable every  ten  years. 

Legislative  power  relating  to  common  affairs 
is  exercised  by  the  Parliaments  of  both  States, 
but  the  voting  of  money  to  be  applied  to  com- 
mon purposes,  and  the  control  of  the  official 
action  of  the  common  ministries,  belong  to  the 
so-called  Delegations.  Of  these  there  are  two, 
each  consisting  of  60  members,  of  whom  20 
are  chosen  from  each  of  the  Upper  Houses  (the 
Austrian  Herrenhaus  and  the  Hungarian  Por- 
endihaz),  and  40  from  each  of  the  Lower 
Houses  (the  Austrian  Abgeordnetenhaus  and 
the  Hungarian  K£pvlseldhar) .  The  members 
are  appointed  for  one  year.  The  Delegations 
are  summoned  annually  by  the  Emperor,  al- 
ternately at  Vienna  and  Budapest.  They  de- 
liberate independently  of  each  other,  their 
decisions  being  communicated  reciprocally  in 
writing ;  and  if,  after  three  such  interchanges, 
they  do  not  agree,  then  all  the  delegates  (or 
an  equal  number  of  members  from  each  Dele- 
gation) meet  together,  and,  without  discussion, 
settle  the  matter  by  vote.  The  three  minis- 
tries or  executive  departments  for  common 
affairs  are :  — 

1.  The  Common  Ministry  of  Foreign  A  flair* 
and  of  the  Imperial  House. 

2.  The   Common  Ministry  of  War. 

3.  The   Common  Ministry  of  Finance. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


87 


To  these  departments  must  be  added  :  — 
The  Common  Court  of  Public  Accounts. 
The  ministers  are  responsible  for   the    dis- 
charge of  their  official  functions  to  the  Dele- 
gations. 

Religion.— In  Austria  the  relation  of  the  State  to  the 
religious  bodies  is  regulated  bv  the  statutes  of  Decem- 
ber 21,  1867,  and  of  May  25,  18i"8.  In  these  the  leading 
principle  is  religious  "liberty,  the  independence  of  the 
Church  as  regards  the  State,  saving  the  rights  of  the 
sovereign  arising  from  ecclesiastical  dignity.  Full 
liberty  of  faith  and  conscience  is  secured,  and  the  en- 
joyment of  civil  and  political  rights  is  independent  of 
religious  profession.  Every  religiousbody, legally  recog- 
nized, has  the  right  of  ordinary  public  worship,  the 
management  of  its  own  affairs,  and  the  undisturbed  pos- 
session of  its  premises,  endowments,  and  funds  for  the 
purposes  of  worship,  instruction,  or  charity.  Recog- 
nized religious  bodies  in  Austria  are:  The  Roman 
Catholic,  Old  Catholic,  Greek-Oriental,  Evangelical 
(Augsburg  or  Lutheran,  and  Helvetian  or  Reformed),  the 
Evangelical  Brotherhood,  the  Gregorian-Armenian,  and 
the  Jewish.  The  Minister  for  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  will 
grant  legal  recognition  to  any  religious  bodies  if  their 
doctrine,  worship,  constitution,  and  designation  con- 
tain nothing  illegal  or  immoral. 

In  Hungary  there  is  perfect  equality  among  all  legally 
recognized  religions.  These  are:  The  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic,  the  Evangelical  (Augsburg  and  Helvetian),  the 
Greek -Oriental,  the  Gregorian-Armenian, the  Unitarian, 
and  the  Jewish.  Each  has  the  independent  administra- 
tion of  its  own  affairs. 

Justice. —  In  Austria  the  ordinary  judicial  authori- 
ties are :  — 

(1)  The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  and  Court  of  Cassa- 
tion (Oberste  Gerichts-und  Kassationshof)  in  Vienna. 

(2)  The  9  higher  provincial  courts  (Oberlandesgerichte). 

(3)  The  71  provincial  and  district  courts  (Landes-und 
Kreisgerichte),  and,  in  connection  with  these,  the  jury 
courts  (Geschworenengerichte").  (4)  The  937  county 
courts  (Bezirksgerichte).  Of  these  the  third  and  fourth 
groups  are  courts  of  first  instance;  the  second  group 
consists  of  courts  of  second  instance.  Courts  of  first 
instance  act  as  courts  of  inquiry  and  have  summary  ju- 
risdiction. Courts  of  second  instance  are  courts  of  ap- 
peal from  the  lower  courts,  and  have  the  supervision  of 
the  criminal  courts  in  their  jurisdiction.  The  jury 
courts  try  certain  cases  where  severe  penalties  are  in- 
volved, political  offenses,  and  press  offenses.  The 
county  courts  exercise  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  misde- 
meanor in  the  counties,  and  co-operate  in  preliminary 
proceedings  regarding  crime. 

There  are  in  all  for  Austria  71  provincial  and  937  county 
or  district  courts. 

There  exist  also  special  courts  for  commercial,  reve- 
nue, military,  and  other  matters. 

In  case  of  "conflict  between  different  authorities  the 
Imperial  Court  (Reichsgerichte)  in  Vienna  has  power  to 
decide. 

In  Hungary  the  ordinary  judicial  authorities  are  :  — 

The  Royal"  Court  (kir. 'kuria)  in  Budapest  and  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  (Table  of  Septemvirs)  in 
Zagrab  (Agram),  of  the  highest  instance  in  all  civil  and 
criminal  matters;  12  Royal  Tables  (kiralyi  tablak)  of 
second  instance.  As  courts  of  first  instance,  76  courts 
(torvenyszekek)  with  collegiate  judgeships;  456  county 
courts  (jarasbirdsagok)  with  single  judges;  15  jury 
courts  (sajtoldrdsagok)  for  press  offenses,  besides  ah 
army  special  court. 

Instruction. —  Public  education  in  Hungary  com- 
prises the  following  grades :  (1)  Infant  schools ;  (2)  ele- 
mentary schools;  (3)  middle  or  secondary  schools, 
gymnasia  and  realschools  (in  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  real- 
gymnasia);  (4)  preparatory  and  traininginstitutions  for 
infant-school  nurses  and  male  and  female  teachers;  (5) 
academies  (high  schools)  of  law;  (6)  institutions  for 
religious  education;  (7)  universities;  (8)  polytechnicum 
(technicalhijrh  school).  The  schools  for  special-subjects, 
such  as  agricultural,  industrial,  commercial,  mining, 
and  military  schools,  are  for  the  greater  part  adminis- 
tered by  the  competent  ministries,  while  the  philan- 
thropic and  artistic  schools  are  placed  under  the 
authority  of  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction. 

Compulsory  school  attendance  was  established  by  law 
in  1868,  for  children  of  six  to  twelve  years,  and  repeti- 
tion courses  for  children  of  twelve  to  fifteen  years ;  the 
industrial  law  of  1872  requires  special  courses  for  ap- 


prentices; and  by  the  law  of  1891,  children  from  three 
to  six  years  of  age  may  be  sent  to  infant  schools,  unless 
otherwise  provided  for. 

Every  parish  or  commune  is  bound  to  maintain  an 
infant  school. 

The  educational  organization  of  Austria  comprises :  — 

(1)  Elementary  schools;  (2)  gymnasia  and  realschu- 
len;  (3)  universities  and  colleges;  (4)  technical  high 
schools ;  and  <5)  schools  for  special  subjects. 

The  erection  of  elementary  schools  is  incumbent  on 
the  school  districts.  Compulsory  attendance  begins 
with  the  completion  of  the  sixth  year,  and  continues 
in  Austria  generally,  till  the  completion  of  the  four- 
teenth. 

In  Austria  there  are  eight  universities  maintained  by 
the  State,  each  comprising  four  faculties,  viz. :  the- 
ology, law,  medicine,  philosophy. 


Universities. 


Vienna 

f  German 
Prague  ]  Bohe- 

(     mian 
Graz 


Pro- 

fes- 

Stu- 

sors, 

dents 

etc. 

444 

5,796 

166 

1,232 

168 

2.470 

140 

1,421  | 

Universi- 
ties. 


Cracow 
Lemberg 
Innsbruck 
Czernowitz 


Total 


Pro- 
fes- 
sors, 
etc. 


153 
84 
111 

40 


Stu- 
dents 


1.201 

1,640 

93-S 

369 


1,306    14,88' 


In  addition  to  the  universities  there  are  in  Austria  48 
theological  colleges,  viz. :  44  Roman  Catholic,  1  Greek 
Catholic,  1  Armenian  Catholic,  1  Greek  Oriental,  and  1 
Protestant,  with  a  total  of  2,0(>8  students. 

There  are  six  Government  technical  high  schools  for 
various  branches  of  engineering  and  technical  chemis- 
try, and  a  high  school  for  agriculture  in  Vienna. 

BELGIUM. 

According  to  the  Constitution  of  1831  Bel- 
gium is  "a  constitutional,  representative,  and 
hereditary  monarchy."  The  legislative  power 
is  vested  in  the  King,  the  Senate,  and  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives.  The  royal  suc- 
cession is  in  the  direct  male  line  in  the  order 
of  primogeniture.  By  marriage  without  the 
King's  consent,  however,  the  right  of  succes- 
sion is  forfeited,  but  may  be  restored  by  the 
King  with  the  consent  of  the  two  Chambers. 
The  King's  person  is  declared  sacred  ;  and  his 
ministers  are  held  responsible  for  the  acts  of 
the  Government.  No  act  of  the  King  can 
have  effect  unless  countersigned  by  one  of  his 
ministers,  who  thus  becomes  responsible  for  it. 
The  King  convokes,  prorogues,  and  dissolves 
the  Chambers.  In  default  of  male  heirs,  the 
King  may  nominate  his  successor  with  the 
consent  of  the  Chambers.  If  the  successor  be 
under  eighteen  years  of  age,  which  is  declared 
to  be  the  age  of  majority,  the  two  Chambers 
meet  together  for  the  purpose  of  nominating  a 
regent  during  the  minority. 

According  to  the  law  amending  the  consti- 
tution, promulgated  7th  September,  1893,  the 
Senate  consists  of  members  elected  for  eight 
years,  partly  directly,  and  partly  indirectly. 
The  number  of  Senators  elected  directly  is 
proportioned  to  the  population  of  each  prov- 
ince, and  is  equal  to  half  the  number  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Chamber  of  Representatives.     The 


88 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


constituent  body  is  similar  to  that  which  elects 
deputies  to  the  Chamber,  except  that  the  min- 
imum age  of  electors  is  fixed  at  thirty  years. 
In  1895-96  the  number  of  electors  was  1,186,- 
000,  disposing  of  1,92-4,000  votes.  Senators 
elected  indirectly  are  chosen  by  the  provincial 
councils,  two  for  each  province  with  less  than 
500,000  inhabitants ;  three  for  each  with  a 
population  up  to  1,000,000  ;  and  four  for  each 
with  over  1,000,000.  No  one,  during  two 
years  preceding  the  election,  must  have  been  a 
member  of  the  council  appointing  him.  All 
senators  must  be  at  least  forty  years  of  age, 
and  those  elected  directly  must  pay  not  less 
than  1,200  francs  in  direct  taxes,  or  own  im- 
movable property  in  Belgium  yielding  an  in- 
come of  12,000  francs.  In  provinces,  how- 
ever, where  the  number  eligible  for  the  Sen- 
ate would  be  less  than  one  in  5,000  of  popula- 
tion, the  list  is  extended  to  this  proportion  by 
admission  of  the  most  highly  taxed.  Sons  of 
the  King,  or  failing  these,  Belgian  princes  of 
the  reigning  branch  of  the  Royal  Family  are 
by  right  Senators  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  but 
have  no  voice  in  the  deliberations  till  the  age 
of  twenty-five  years. 

The  members  of  the  Chamber  of  Represen- 
tatives are  elected  directly.  Their  number 
is  proportioned  to  the  population,  and  cannot 
exceed  one  for  every  40,000  inhabitants. 
They  sit  for  four  years,  one  half  retiring 
every  two  years,  except  that  after  a  dissolu- 
tion a  general  election  takes  place.  Every 
citizen  over  twenty-five  years  of  age,  dom- 
iciled for  not  less  than  one  year  in  the 
same  commune,  and  not  legally  disqualified, 
has  a  vote.  Every  citizen  over  thirty-five 
years  of  age,  married  or  widower,  with  legiti- 
mate issue,  and  paying  at  least  5  francs  a  year 
in  house  tax,  has  a  supplementary  vote,  as  has 
also  every  citizen  over  twenty-five  years  of  age 
owning  immovable  property  to  the  value  of 
2,000  francs,  or  having  a  corresponding  in- 
come from  such  property,  or  who  for  two 
years  has  derived  at  least  100  francs  a  year 
from  Belgian  funds  either  directly  or  through 
the  Savings  Bank.  Two  supplementary  votes 
are  given  to  citizens  over  twenty-five  years  of 
age  who  have  received  a  diploma  or  certificate 
of  higher  instruction,  or  who  fill  or  have  filled 
offices  or  engaged  in  private  professional  prac- 
tice, implying  at  least  average  higher  instruc- 
tion. No  person  has  more  than  three  votes ; 
failure  to  vote  is  a  misdemeanor,  punishable 
by  law.  There  were  in  1896-97,  1,401,951 
electors  possessing,  in  all,  2,141,041  votes. 
Deputies  must  be  not  less  than  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  and  resident  in  Belgium.  Each 
deputy  has  an  annual  indemnity  of  4,000 
francs  (1G0/.),  and  a  free  pass  over  Govern- 


ment railways  between  his  home  and  the  place 
of  Session. 

The  Senate  and  Chamber  meet  annually  in 
the  month  of  November,  and  must  sit  for  at 
least  forty  days  ;  but  the  King  has  the  power 
of  convoking  them  on  extraordinary  occasions, 
and  of  dissolving  them  either  simultaneously 
or  separately.  In  the  latter  case  a  new  elec- 
tion must  take  place  within  forty  days,  and  a 
meeting  of  the  Chambers  within  two  months. 
An  adjournment  cannot  be  made  for  a  period 
exceeding  one  month  without  the  consent  of 
tjhe  Chambers.  Money  bills  and  bills  relating 
to  the  contingent  for  the  army  originate  in  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives. 

The  Executive  Government  consists  of  eight 
departments,  under  the  following  Ministers  : — 

President  of  the  Council. 

Minister  of  Railways. 

Minister  of  War. 

Minister  of  Finance. 

Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Minister  of  Justice. 

Minister   of  Interior  and  Puhlic  Instruction. 

Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Public  Works. 

Minister  of  Industry  and  Labor. 

Besides  the  above  responsible  heads  of  de- 
partments, there  are  a  number  of  "  Minis- 
tres  d'Etat, "  without  portfolio,  who  form  a 
Privy  Council  called  together  on  special  occa- 
sion by  the  sovereign.  The  acting  ministers, 
as  such,  do  not  form  part  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Local  Government. —  The  provinces  and  communes 
(2,607  in  1896)  of  Belgium  have  a  large  amount  of  au- 
tonomous government.  The  provincial  and  communal 
electors  are  the  same  as  those  who  elect  the  senators 
directly.  Communal  electors  must  have  heen  domiciled 
at  least  three  years  in  the  commune,  and  a  supplemen- 
tary vote  is  given  to  owners  of  real  property  yielding  an 
income  of  at  least  150  francs.  No  one  has*  more  than  4 
votes.  In  communes  with  over  20.000  inhabitants  there 
are  councilors  elected  directly, by  single  vote,  by  citizens 
enrolled  on  the  communal  electoral  lists,  and  possess- 
ing the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  to  the  Coun- 
cils of  Industry  and  Labor;  half  the  councilors  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  workingmen  electors,  and  half  by  the 
electors  w"ho  are  industrial  heads  (chefs  d'  Industrie). 
In  communal  elections  vote  by  ballot  is  suppressed,  ex- 
cept when  there  is  merely  a  single  mandate  to  be  con- 
ferred. Candidates  obtaining  an  absolute  majority  are 
declared  elected ;  others  have  seats  allocated  in  accord- 
ance with  the  system  of  "  Proportional  Representa- 
tion." In  the  year  1896-97  there  were  1,188,208  provincial 
and  1,124,276  communal  electors.  To  be  eligible  to  the 
Provincial  or  Communal  Council,  persons  must  be 
twenty-five  years  of  age  and  domiciled  in  the  province 
or  commune.  Half  the  Provincial  Council  is  renewed 
every  four  years,  and  it  meets  fifteen  days  each  year. 
There  is  a  permanent  deputation  of  six  members  elected, 
which  is  presided  over  by  the  (Governor  of  the  province. 
All  provincial  and  communal  interests,  including  local 
finances,  are  under  the  care  of  the  Council,  as  far  as 
they  are  not  provided  for  in  the  general  administration. 
The  Communal  Councils  are  elected  for  eight  years,  half 
being  renewed  every  four  years.  In  each  commune 
there  is  a  college  composed  "of  the  burgomaster,  presi- 
dent, and  a  certain  number  of  aldermen,  corresponding 
to  the  permanent  deputation  of  the  Provincial  Council, 
and  both  are  the  organs  of  the  central  administration. 

Religion. —  The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  professed 
by  nearly  the  entire  population  of  Belgium.  The  Pro- 
testants number  only  10,000,  while  the  Jews  number 
about  4,000.    The  State  does  not  interfere  in  any  way 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


89 


with  the  internal  affairs  of  either  Catholic  or  Protes- 
tant Churches.  Full  religious  liberty  is  granted  by  the 
Constitution,  and  part  of  the  income  of  the  ministers 
of  all  denominations  is  paid  from  the  national  treas- 
surv. 

Instruction.— There  are  four  universities  In  the 
kingdom,  three  of  them  with  four  "  facultes,"  or 
branches  of  study,  and  one  Louvain,  nursery  of  the 
clergv,  with  five  ."Ghent  and  Liege  are  State  universi- 
ties, Brussels  and  Louvain  free. 

Attached  to  the  universities  are  various 'special 
schools  of   engineering,  arts,    manufactures,  mining, 

Besides  the  above  public  schools  there  are  many  pri- 
vate or  free  schools— about  80  colleges,  65  middle-class 
schools  for  bovs,  150  institutions  for  girls,  besides  many 
infant,  primary,  andadult  schools,  mostly  under  ecclesi- 
astical care. 

Justice.— Judges  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  King 
from  lists  prepared  bv  the  Senate  and  by  the  Court. 
There  is  one  Court  of  Cassation  for  t  e  whole  kingdom: 
There  are  three  Courts  of  Appeal,  and  there  are  Assize 
Courts  for  criminal  cases.  The  country  is  divided  into 
26  judicial  arrondissements  or  districts,  in  each  of 
which  is  a  Court  of  first  instance.  In  each  canton  there 
is  a  justice  of  the  peace,  a  police  court,  and  a  judge  of 
the  peace ;  there  are  216  such  cantons.  There  are,  be- 
sides, special  military,  commercial,  and  other  tribunals. 
There  is  trial  by  jury  in  all  criminal  and  political  cases. 
The  Gendarmerie  (2,586)  and  the  Garde  Civique  are  util- 
ized for  the  maintenance  of  internal  order. 


BRAZIL. 

In  1807  the  royal  family  of  Portugal  fled  to 
Brazil;  in  1815  the  colony  was  declared  "  a 
kingdom  ' ' ;  and  the  Portuguese  Court  having 
returned  to  Europe  in  1821,  a  National  Con- 
gress assembled  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  on  May 
13,  1822,  Dom  Pedro,  eldest  son  of  King  Joao 
VI.  of  Portugal,  was  chosen  "  Perpetual  De- 
fender" of  Brazil.  He  proclaimed  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  on  September  7, 1822, 
and  was  chosen  "  Constitutional  Emperor  and 
Perpetual  Defender  "on  October  12  following. 
In  1831  he  abdicated  the  crown  in  favor  of  his 
only  son,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  who  reigned  as  Em- 
peror until  November  15,  1889,  when  by  a 
revolution  he  was  dethroned,  and  he  and  his 
family  exiled,  and  Brazil  declared  a  Republic 
under  the  title  of  the  United  States  of  Brazil. 

General  Deodoro  Fonseca  was  the  first  Pres- 
ident. On  November  23,  1891,  he  resigned, 
and  Vice-President  Peixoto  took  his  place. 
Dissatisfaction,  occasioned  principally  by  mil- 
itary interference  in  the  States,  led  to  a  rising 
in  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  to  a  naval  revolt  in 
the  Bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  rising  in  the 
South  terminated  in  August,  1895,  and  the 
naval  revolt  was  suppressed  in  March,  1894. 

According  to  the  constitution  adopted  by  the 
National  Congress  in  February,  1891,  the  Bra- 
zilian nation  is  constituted  as  the  United 
States  of  Brazil  Each  of  the  old  Provinces 
forms  a  State,  administered  at  its  own  expense 
without  interference  from  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment save  for  defense,  for  the  maintenance 
of  order,  and  for  the  execution  of  the  Federal 
laws.  Fiscal  arrangements  in  such  matters  as 
import  duties,  stamps,  rates  of  postage,  and 
bank  note  circulation  belong  to  the  Union  : 


but  export  duties  are  the  property  of  the  vari- 
ous States. 

The  legislative  authority  is  exercised  by  the 
National  Congress  with  the  sanction  of  the 
President  of  the  Republic.  Congress  consists 
of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and  the  Senate. 
It  meets  annually  on  the  3d  of  May,  without 
being  convoked,  unless  another  day  be  fixed 
by  law,  and  sits  four  months,  but  may  be  pro- 
rogued or  convoked  extraordinarily.  No  mem- 
ber of  Congress,  after  his  election,  can  con- 
tract with  the  executive  power  or  accept  any 
commission  or  paid  office,  except  such  as  are 
diplomatic  or  military  or  imposed  by  law.  If, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  the  acceptance  of 
diplomatic  or  military  office  would  cause  the 
loss  of  the  legislative  services  of  a  member, 
the  permission  of  the  Chamber  is  required. 
Nor  can  any  member  of  Congress  take  part  in 
the  administration  of  any  company  which  re- 
ceives a  subsidy  from  the  Federal  Government. 
Deputies  and  Senators  are  paid,  and  neither 
can  be  Ministers  of  State,  and  retain  at  the 
same  time  their  seats  in  Congress.  Deputies 
must  have  been  Brazilian  citizens  for  four 
years.  Senators  must  be  over  thirty-five  years 
of  age  and  must  have  been  citizens  for  six 
years. 

The  Chamber  of  Deputies  consists  cf  212 
members  elected  for  three  years  by  direct  vote 
(providing  for  the  representation  of  the  minor- 
ity), in  a  proportion  not  greater  than  one  to 
every  70,000  of  population  as  shown  by  a  de- 
cennial census,  but  so  that  no  State  will  have 
less  than  four  representatives.  It  has  the  in- 
itiative in  legislation  relating  to  taxation. 

Senators,  63  in  number,  are  chosen  by  direct 
vote,  three  for  each  state,  and  for  the  Federal 
district,  for  nine  years,  and  the  Senate  is  re- 
newed to  the  extent  of  one  third  every  three 
years.  The  Vice-President  of  the  Republic  is 
President  of  the  Senate. 

The  executive  authority  is  exercised  by  the 
President  of  the  Republic.  He  must  be  a  na- 
tive of  Brazil,  over  thirty-fivo  years  of  age. 
His  term  of  office  is  four  years,  and  he  is  not 
eligible  for  the  succeeding  term.  The  Presi- 
dent and  the  Vice-President  are  elected  by  the 
people  directly,  by  an  absolute  majority  of 
votes.  The  election  is  held  on  the  1st  of 
March  in  the  last  year  of  each  presidential 
period  in  accordance  with  forms  prescribed  by 
law.  No  candidate  must  be  related  by  blood 
or  marriage,  in  the  first  or  second  degree,  to 
the  actual  President  or  Vice-President,  or  to 
either  who  has  ceased  to  be  so  within  six 
months. 

The  President  has  the  nomination  and  dis- 
missal of  ministers,  supreme  command  of  the 
army  and  navy,  and,  within  certain  limits,  the 


90 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


power  to  declare  war  and  make  peace.  He 
(with  the  consent  of  Congress)  appoints  the 
members  of  the  Supreme  Federal  Tribunal  and 
the  diplomatic  ministers.  No  minister  can 
appear  in  Congress,  but  must  communicate  by 
letter,  or  in  conference  with  commissions  of 
the  Chambers.  Ministers  are  not  responsible 
to  Congress  or  the  Tribunals  for  advice  given 
to  the  President  of  the  Republic. 

The  franchise  extends  to  all  citizens  not  un- 
der twenty-one  years  of  age,  duly  enrolled,  ex- 
cept beggars,  "illiterates,"  soldiers  actually 
serving,  and  members  of  monastic  orders,  etc., 
under  vows  of  obedience. 

There  are  six  Secretaries  of  State  at  the 
head  of  the  following  Departments :  — 

1,  Finance;  2,  Justice,  Interior  and  Public 
instructions  ;  3,  War  ;  4,  Marine  ;  5,  Foreign 
Affairs  ;  6,  Industry,  Communications  and  Pub- 
lic Works. 

In  1885  a  bill  was  passed  for  the  gradual  ex- 
tinction of  slavery,  and  on  May  13,  1888,  an 
act  was  passed  repealing  all  former  acts  on  the 
subject,  and  abolishing  slavery  from  the  day 
of  the  promulgation  of  the  law. 

local  Government. -According  to  the  new  Con- 
stitution each  State  must  be  organized  under  the  repub- 
lican form  of  government,  and  must  have  its  adminis- 
trative, legislative,  and  judicial  authorities  distinct 
and  independent.  The  governors  and  members  of  the 
legislatures  must  be  elective ;  the  magistrates  must  not 
be  elective  nor  removable  from  office  save  by_  judicial 
sentence.  The  Federal  executive  cannot  intervene 
directly  in  the  local  government  of  the  States.  In  cases 
of  obstinate  infringement  of  the  Federal  Constitution 
by  State  authorities  the  only  resource  of  the  central 
power  is  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Tribunal  of  Federal 
District.  The  Federal  District  is  administered  by  a 
council  elected  by  the  citizens  of  the  District,  the  munic- 
ipal executive  authority  being  exercised  by  a  Prefect 
appointed  for  four  vears  by  the  President  of  the  Repub- 
lic. There  are  in  Brazil  '892  municipalities  and  1,886 
parishes. 

Religion. — The  established  religion  under  the  Empire 
was  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  under  the  Republic  the 
connection  between  Church  and  State  has  been  abolished, 
and  absolute  equality  declared  anions  all  forms  of  reli- 
gion. The  Federal-  Government  continues  to  provide 
for  the  salaries  and  maintenance  of  the  existing  f  unc- 
tionaries  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  population  in 
1890  contained  14,179,615  Catholics;  143,746  Protestants; 
3.300  of  other  faiths ;  and  7,257  of  no  religious  profes- 
sion. 

Brazil  constitutes  an  ecclesiastical  province,  with  a 
metropolitan  archbishopric,  the  seat  of  which  i3  at 
Bahia,  11  suffragan  bishops,  12  vicars-general,  and  2.000 
curates.  For  the  private  instruction  of  the  clergy  there 
are  11  seminaries. 

Instruction. — Public  instruction  is  divided  into  three 
distinct  forms  or  classes — namely,  primary;  secondary, 
or  preparatory ;  and  scientific,  or  superior.  The  higher 
education  is  controlled  by  the  central  Government. 
There  are  two  schools  of  medicine,  four  of  law,  four 
military  and  one  naval  school,  a  school  of  mines,  and  a 
polytechnic.  In  1890  these  schools  had,  in  all,  2,916  pu- 
pils. There  are,  besides,  the  Lyceum  of  Arts  and  Trades 
with  2,277  pupils,  and  five  other  special  schools  with  575 
pupils.  Connected  with"  the  observatory  at  Rio  is  a 
school  for  astronomy  and  engineering.  The  two  estab- 
lishments for  secondary  education,  called  jointly  the 
Gymnasio  Nacional  (old  Pedro  II.  college),  confer  a 
degree,  and  are  controlled  by  Federal  Government. 
The  States  Governments  are  allowed  to  found  gymnasia 
with  similar  organization  and  privileges,  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  control  this  branch  or  instruction.  All 
other  secondary  schools  are  private.  Examinations  arc 
always  official."  Primary  instruction  in  the  Federal  Dis- 


trict is  under  the  charge  of  the  municipality,  and  in  the 
States  under  the  municipal  and  State  authorities.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Constitution  education  is,  at  all  stages, 
under  lay  management,  and  primary  education  is  gra- 
tuitous. The  central  department  complain  that  they 
can  get  no  data  from  the  States  on  public  instruction. 
It  seems  that  education  is  nowhere  compulsory  in 
Brazil.  In  1889  there  were,  it  was  officially  stated,  7.500 
public  and  private  primary  schools,  attended  by  300,000 
pupils  in  all.  The  number  of  illiterates  is  returned  at 
8,365,997,  or  84  per  cent,  of  the  population. 

Justice. — There  is  a  supreme  tribunal  of  Justice  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro;  and  a  court  of  appeal  in  the  capital  of 
each  State.  There  are  courts  of  first  and  second  in- 
stance, both  in  civil  and  criminal  cases.  Judges  are  ap- 
pointed for  life.  There  are  also  municipal  magistrates 
and  justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  elected,  and  whose 
chief  function  is  to  settle  cases  by  arbitration. 

CHILE. 

The  Republic  of  Chile  threw  off  allegiance 
to  the  Crown  of  Spain  by  the  declaration  of 
independence  of  September  18,  1810,  finally 
freeing  itself  from  the  yoke  of  Spain  in  1818. 
The  Constitution  voted  by  the  representatives 
of  the  nation  in  1833,  with  a  few  subsequent 
amendments,  establishes  three  powers  in  the 
State  —  the  legislative,  the  executive,  and  the 
judicial.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in 
the  National  Congress,  consisting  of  two  as- 
semblies, called  the  Senate  and  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  The  Senate  is  composed  of  mem- 
bers, elected  for  the  term  of  six  years,  in  the 
proportion  of  one  Senator  for  every  three  Dep- 
uties ;  while  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  com- 
posed of  members  chosen  for  a  period  of  three 
years,  consists  of  one  representative  for  every 
30,000  of  the  population,  or  a  fraction  not  less 
than  15,000  ;  both  bodies  are  chosen  by  the 
same  electors — the  Chamber  directly  by  de- 
partments, and  the  Senate  directly  by  prov- 
inces on  the  cumulative  system  of  voting.  Elec- 
tors must  be  21  years  of  age,  and  be  able  to  read 
and  write.  In  1887  there  were  134,119  regis- 
tered electors,  or  1  to  18  of  the  population.  In 
the  election  of  deputies  in  March,  1888,  89,977 
citizens  voted,  or  67  per  cent,  of  those  who  had 
the  right  to  vote.  Deputies  must  have  an  in- 
come of  100/.  a  year,  and  Senators  400Z.  The 
executive  is  exercised  by  the  President  of  the 
Republic,  elected  for  a  term  of  five  years,  by  in- 
direct vote,  the  people  nominating,  by  ballot, 
delegates  who  appoint  the  President.  A  re- 
tiring President  is  not  re-eligible.  In  legisla- 
tion the  President  has  a  modified  veto  ;  a  bill 
returned  to  the  Chambers  with  the  President's 
objections  may,  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  mem- 
bers present  (a  majority  of  the  members  being 
present),  be  sustained  and  become  law.  The 
day  of  a  Presidential  election  is  June  25  of  the 
last  of  the  five  years  of  a  Presidency,  and  the 
inauguration  takes  place  on  September  18  of 
the  same  year. 

The  salary  of  the  President  is  fixed  at  18,- 
000  pesos,  with  12,000  pesos  for  expenses. 

The   President  is  assisted  in  his  executive 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


91 


functions  by  a  Council  of  State,  and  a  Cabi- 
net or  Ministry,  divided  into  seven  depart- 
ments, under  six  Ministers,  viz.  :  Of  the  In- 
terior ;  of  Foreign  Affairs;  of  Worship  and 
Colonization  ;  of  Justice  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion ;  of  Finance ;  of  War  and  Marine ;  of 
Industry  and  Public  Works.  The  Council  of 
State  consists  of  five  members  nominated  by 
the  President,  and  six  members  chosen  by  the 
Congress. 


Government. —  For  the  purposes  of  local  gov- 
the  Republic  i3  divided  into  Provinces,  presi- 


I.ocal 

ernment 

dedoverby  Intehdents;  and  the  Provinces  into  Depart- 
ments, with  Gobernadores  as  chief  officers.  The  Depart- 
ment.'constitute  one  or  more  municipal  districts  each 
with  a  council  or  municipality  of  9  members,  inhabit- 
ants" popularly  elected  for  three  years.  The  police  of 
Santiago  and  of  the  capitals  of  departments  is  organ- 
ized and  regulated  by  tne  President  of  the  Republic  at 
the  charge  of  the  national  treasury. 

Religion.- -The  Roman  Catholic  religion  is  main- 
tained T>y  the  State,  but  according  to  the  Constitution 
all  religious  are  respected  and  protected.  There  is  one 
archbishop  and  three  bishops.  For  1818  the  amount  of 
subsidies  to  the  clergy  and  for  building  and  other  pur- 
poses was  578,888  pesos.  Civil  marriage  is  the  only  form 
acknowledged  by  law. 

Instruction. —  Education  is  gratuitous  and  at  the 
cost  of  the  State,  but  is  not  compulsory.  It  is  di- 
vided into  superior  or  professional,  medium  or  second- 
ary, and  primary  or  elementary  instruction.  Profes- 
sional and  secondary  instruction  is  provided  in  the 
University  and  the  National  Institute  of  Santiago,  and 
in  the  lyceums  and  colleges  established  in  the  capitals 
of  provinces,  and  in  some  departments.  In  the  Uni- 
versity the  branches  included  are  law,  physical  and 
mathematical  sciences,  medicine,  and  fine  arts.  The 
number  of  students  inscribed  for  the  study  of  these 
branches  in  1897  was  774.  The  number  of  studentsat  the 
National  Institute  in  1897  was  1,278.  There  are  2  ly- 
ceurns  for  girls  in  Santiago  maintained  by  Government. 
There  are,  besides,  provincial  colleges,  normal,  agri- 
cultural, anil  other  special  schools.  At  the  seats  of  the 
bishops  there  are  seminaries  under  ecclesiastics  where 
instruction  is  given  similar  to  that  in  the  Government 
colleges.  There  were,  in  1897-.  1,321  public  primary 
schools,  with  109,058  pupils,  and  an  average  attendance 
of  65,507,  and  2,208  teachers.  There  were  also  411  private 
schools,  with  an  attendance  of  18,052.  The  National  Li- 
brary contains  over  86,Q00  volumes  of  printed  books,  and 
24,04"?  manuscripts.  Other  educational  institutions  are 
the  Pedagogic  Institute,  the  National  Conservatory  of 
Music,  the  National  Observatory,  School  of  Arts  and 
Trades,  Institute  for  Deaf  Mutes",  and  public  museums. 
In  1897  the  cost  of  higher  instruction  to  the  State  was 
2,000,000  pesos ;  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  elementary 
schools  was  1,9^0,200  pesos :  and  the  total  cost  of  instruc- 
tion supplied  by  the  State,  including  buildings,  pen- 
sions, books,  etc.,  in  1897,  was  5.633,021  pesos. 

Justice. —  There  are,  in  addition  to  a  High  Court  of 
Justice  in  the  capital,  six  Courts  of  Appeal,  Courts  of 
First  Instance  in  the  departmental  capitals,  and  subordi- 
nate courts  in  the  districts. 

CHINA. 

The  laws  of  the  Chinese  Empire  are  laid 
down  in  the  Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien,  or  '<  Collected 
Regulations  of  the  Ts'ing  dynasty,"  which 
prescribe  the  government  of  the  State  to  be 
based  upon  the  government  of  the  family. 

The  supreme  direction  of  the  Empire  is 
vested  in  the  Chun  Chi  Ch'u,  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, or  Grand  Council.  The  administration  is 
under  the  supreme  direction  of  the  Nei-ko  or 
Cabinet,  comprising  four  members,  two  of 
Manchu  and  two  of  Chinese  origin,  besides 
two  assistants  from  the  Han-lin,  or  Great  Col- 


lege, who  have  to  see  that  nothing  is  done 
contrary  to  the  civil  and  religious  laws  of  the 
Empire,  contained  in  the  Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien 
and  in  the  sacred  books  of  Confucius.  These 
members  are  denominated  "  Ta-hsio-shih,"  or 
Ministers  of  State.  Under  their  orders  are  the 
Ch'i-pu,  or  seven  boards  of  government,  each 
of  which  is  presided  over  by  a  Manchu  and  a 
Chinese.  These  boards  are:  (1)  the  board 
of  civil  appointments,  which  takes  cognizance 
of  the  conduct  and  administration  of  all  civil 
officers  ;  (2)  the  board  of  revenues,  regulating 
all  financial  affairs  ;  (8)  the  board  of  rites  and 
ceremonies,  which  enforces  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms to  be  observed  by  the  people ;  (4)  the 
military  board  ;  (5)  the  board  o.f  public  works  ; 
(0)  the  high  tribunal  of  criminal  jurisdiction  ; 
and  (7)  the  admiralty  board  at  Tientsin,  es- 
tablished in  1885. 

Independent  of  the  Government,  and  theo- 
retically above  the  central  administration,  is 
the  Tu-ch'a-yuen,  or  board  of  public  censors. 
It  consists  of  from  40  to  50  members,  under 
two  presidents,  the  one  of  Manchu  and  the 
other  of  Chinese  birth.  By  the  ancient  cus- 
tom of  the  Empire,  all  the  members  of  this 
board  are  privileged  to  present  any  remon- 
strance to  the  sovereign.  One  censor  must  be 
present  at  the  meetings  of  each  of  the  Gov- 
ernment boards. 

The  Tsungli  Yamen,  or  Foreign  Office,  was 
created  by  a  decree  of  January  19,  1861,  and 
comprises  among  its  members  all  those  of  the 
Council  of  State  and  six  other  officials  of  the 
highest  rank.  It  controls  not  merely  the  mat- 
ters with  foreign  nations,  but  also  those  insti- 
tutions in  which  foreigners  form  part  of  the 
working  staff,  such  as  the  Maritime  Customs, 
and  Peking  University. 

The  present  sovereign,  reigning  under  the 
style  of  Kwangsii,  is  the  ninth  Emperor  of 
China  of  the  Manchu  dynasty  of  Ts'ing,  which 
overthrew  the  native  dynasty  of  Ming,  in  the 
year  1G44.  There  exists  no  law  of  hereditary 
succession  to  the  throne,  but  it  is  left  to  each 
sovereign  to  appoint  his  successor  from  among 
the  members  of  his  family  of  a  younger  gene- 
ration than  his  own.  The  late  Emperor,  dying 
suddenly  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  age,  did 
not  designate  a  successor,  and  it  was  in  conse- 
quence of  arrangements  directed  by  the  Em- 
press Dowager,  widow  of  the  Emperor  Hien- 
Feng,  predecessor  and  father  of  T'ung-chi,  in 
concert  with  Prince  Ch'un,  that  the  infant 
son  of  the  latter  was  made  the  nominal  occu- 
pant of  the  throne.  Having  become  of  age 
the  young  Emperor  nominally  assumed  gov- 
ernment in  March,  1887.  In  February,  1889, 
he  undertook  the  full  control,  but  on  Septem- 
ber 22,   1898,  an    Imperial  edict   was   issued 


92 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


announcing  that  the  Emperor  had  resigned 
power  to  the  Empress  Dowager,  who  has  since 
retained  the  direction  of  affairs. 

Local  Government.—  Each  of  the  18  provinces  is 
ruled  by  a  Governor  or  Governor  General,  who  is  re- 
sponsible to  the  Emperor  for  the  entire  administration, 
Eolitical,  judicial,  military,  and  fiscal.  He  is  assisted 
y  a  council  and  various  other  officials,  such  as  the 
Treasurer,  the  sub-Commissioner,  and  the  Literary 
Chancellor.  Each  province  is  subdivided  into  depart- 
ments ruled  by  prefects,  and  each  department  into  dis- 
tricts, each  with  a  district  ruler.  Two  or  more  depart- 
ments are  sometimes  united  into  a  tau,  the  ruler  of 
which  is  called  a  touted.  Each  town  and  village  has  also 
its  governing  body,  and  among  the  various  rulers  there 
is  regular  gradation  of  rank,  each  being  responsible  to 
his  immediate  superior.  Political  office  in  the  gen- 
eral administration  of  the  Empire  is  less  sought 
after  than  the  position  of  viceroy  or  f  "»vernor  in  the 
provinces,  where  the  opportunities  of  ac.^  'ringwealth, 
not  from  official  salaries  but  from  gifts,  eve,  are  abun- 
dant. 

Religion. —  Three  religions  are  acknowledged  by  the 
Chinese  as  indigenous  and  adopted ;  viz.,  Confucianism, 
Buddhism,  and  Taoism. 

The  Emperor  is  considered  the  sole  high  priest  of  the 
Empire,  and  can  alone,  with  his  immediate  representa- 
tives and  ministers,  perform  the  great  religious  cere- 
monies. No  ecclesiastical  hierarchy  is  maintained  at 
the  public  expense,  nor  any  priesthood  attached  to  the 
Confucian  religion.  The  Confucian  isthe  State  religion, 
if  the  respect  paid  to  the  memory  of  the  great  teacher 
can  be  called  religion  at  all.  But  distinct  and  totally 
separate  from  the  stated  periodic  observances  of  respect 
offered  to  the  memory  of  Confucius  as  the  Holy  Man  of 
old,  and  totally  unconnected  therewith,  there  is  the  dis- 
tinct worship  of  Heaven  (t'ien),  in  which  the  Emperor, 
as  the  "sole  high  priest,"  worships  and  sacrifices  to 
"  Heaven  "  every  year  at  the  time  of  the  winter  solstice, 
at  the  Altar  of  Heaven  in  Peking.  With  the  exception 
of  the  practice  of  ancestral  worship,  which  is  every- 
where observed  throughout  the  Empire,  and  was  f  uliy 
commended  by  Confucius,  Confucianism  has  little  out- 
ward ceremonial.  The  study  and  contemplation  and  at- 
tempted performance  of  the  moral  precepts  of  the 
ancients  constitute  the  duties  of  a  Confucianist.  Bud- 
dhism and  Taoism  present  a  very  gorgeous  and  elabo- 
rate ritual  in  China,  Taoism  —  originally  a  pure  philos- 
ophy—having  abjectly  copied  Buddhist  ceremonial 
on  the  arrival  of  Buddhism  1,800  years  ago.  Large  num- 
bers of  the  Chinese  in  Middle  and  Southern  China  pro- 
fess and  practice  all  three  religions.  The  bulk  of  the 
people,  however,  are  Buddhists.  There  are  probably 
about  thirty  million  Mahometans,  chiefly  in  the  north- 
east and  southwest.  Roman  Catholicism  has  long  had 
a  footing  in  China,  and  is  estimated  to  have  about  1,- 
000,000  adherents,  with  25  bishoprics  besides  those  of 
Manchuria,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  and  Corea.  Other  Chris- 
tian societies  have  stations  in  many  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, the  number  of  Protestant  adherents  being  estimated 
at  50,000.  Most  of  the  aboriginal  hill  tribes  are  still 
nature  worshipers,  and  ethnically  are  distinct  from  the 
prevailing  Mongoloid  population. 

Instruction.— Education  of  a  certain  type  is  very 
general,  but  still  there  are  vast  masses  of  adult  country- 
men in  China  who  can  neither  read  nor  write.  There 
is  a  special  literary  class  who  alone  know  the  literature 
of  their  country,  to  the  study  of  which  they  devote 
their  lives.  There  are  boarding  schools  and  day  schools 
for  boys  and  young  men,  the  latter  being  held  in  the 
entrance  halls  of  temples  and  in  the  spare  chambers  of 
guilds,  and  in  all  the  important  cities  there  are  colleges 
for  training  candidates  for  degrees.  Examinations. 
mainly  confined  to  moral  philosophy  and  literature,  are 
held  in  the  prefectorial  cities  of  each  province  twice  in 
three  years  for  the  lower  degree  necessary  as  a  passport 
to  the  public  service,  but  of  the  six  or  seven  thousand 
candidates  who  come  forward,  not  more  than  sixty  can 
be  admitted  to  the  degree  by  the  Literary  Chancellor 
For  the  higher  degree,  examinations  are  held  in  each 
provincial  capital  once  in  three  years,  and  the  success- 
ful candidates  are  subjected  to  a  third  and  fourth  ex- 
amination, those  who  finally  emerge  being  divided  into 
four  classes  to  wait  for  appointments  to  offices  of  dif- 
ferent grades.  There  are,  however,  other  means  (e.  a. 
military  service)  by  which  such  appointments  may  be 
obtained.  In  1887,  for  the  first  time,  mathematics  were 
admitted  with  the  Chinese  classics  among  the  subjects 


of  examination,  and  schools  for  the  propagation  of 
Western  science  and  literature  are  now  on  the  increase. 
The  "  Tung  Wen  Kwan,"  or  College  of  Foreign  Knowl- 
edge, at  Peking,  is  a  Government  institution,  Where  the 
English,  French,  German,  Japanese,  and  Russian  lan- 
guages, and  mathematics,  chemistry,  physiology,  etc., 
are  taught  by  European,  Japanese,  and  American  pro- 
lessors,  while  the  Chinese  education  of  the  pupils  is 
entrusted  to  Chinese  teachers.  There  arc,  besides, 
numerous  Catholic  and  Protestant  mission  schools  and 
colleges  at  Shanghai  and  other  ports,  where  the  Eng- 
lish language  and  lower  branches  of  Western  science 
are  taught.  The  Chinese  Government  has  of  late  years 
established  naval  and  military  colleges  and  torpedo 
schools  in  connection  with  the  different  arsenals  at 
Tientsin,  Nanking,  Shanghai,  and  Foochow,  in  which 
foreign  instructors  are  engaged  to  teach  such  young 
Chinese  as  intend  to  make  their  career  in  the  army  or 
navy  of  their  country  Western  modes  of  warfare,  be- 
sides Western  languages  and  literature.  Ten  Chinese 
newspapers  are  published  at  Shanghai,  and  the  success 
they  have  achieved  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  others 
at  some  of  the  other  treaty  ports. 

FRANCE. 

Since  the  overthrow  of  Napoleon  III. ,  on  Sep- 
tember 4,  1870,  France  has  been  under  a  Re- 
publican form  of  government,  confirmed  on 
February  25,  and  June  16, 1875,  by  an  organic 
law  (Constitution  Walton),  which  has  been 
partially  modified  in  June,  1879,  August,  1884, 
June,  1885,  and  July,  1889.  It  vests  the  leg- 
islative power  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  and 
the  Senate,  and  the  executive  in  the  President 
of  the  Republic  and  the  Ministry. 

The  President  is  elected  for  seven  years,  by 
a  majority  of  votes,  by  the  Senate  and  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies  united  in  a  National  Assembly, 
or  Congress.  He  promulgates  the  laws  voted 
by  both  Chambers,  and  ensures  their  execu- 
tion. He  selects  a  Ministry  from  the  Cham- 
ber, appoints  to  all  civil  and  military  posts, 
has  the  right  of  individual  pardon,  and  is 
responsible  only  in  case  of  high  treason.  The 
President  concludes  treaties  with  foreign 
Powers,  but  cannot  declare  war  without  the 
previous  assent  of  both  Chambers.  Every  act 
of  the  President  has  to  be  countersigned  by  a 
Minister.  With  the  consent  of  the  Senate  he 
can  dissolve  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  In 
case  of  vacancy,  the  two  Chambers  united  im- 
mediately elect  a  new  President. 

The  Ministers  or  Secretaries  of  State,  the 
number  of  whom  varies,  are  usually,  but  not 
necessarily,  members  of  the  Senate  or  Cham- 
ber of  Deputies.  The  President  of  the  Coun- 
cil (Premier)  chooses  his  colleagues  in  concert 
with  the  President  of  the  Republic.  Each 
Minister  has  the  direction  of  one  of  the  great 
administrative  departments,  and  each  is  respon- 
sible to  the  Chambers  for  his  acts,  while  the 
Ministry  as  a  whole  is  responsible  for  the  gen- 
eral policy  of  the  Government. 

The  Ministry  is  constituted  as  follows  :  — 

President  of  the  Council  and  Minister  of  the 
Interior. 

Minister  of  Finance. 

Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


93 


Minister  of  War. 

Minister  <>(  Murine. 

Minister  of  Colonies. 

Minister  of  Public  Instruction  and  Worship. 

Minister  of  Justia  . 

Minister  of  Commerce,  Industry,  and  Posts  and 
Telegraphs. 

Minister  of  Agriculture. 

Minister  of  Public  Works. 

The  Chamber  of  Deputies  is  elected  for  four 
years,  by  universal  suffrage,  and  each  citizen 
'21  years  old,  not  actually  in  military  service, 
who  can  prove  a  six  months'  residence  in  any 
one  town  or  commune,  and  not  otherwise  dis- 
qualified, has  the  right  of  vote.  Deputies 
must  be  citizens  and  not  under  25  years  of  age. 
The  manner  of  election  of  Deputies  has  been 
modified  several  times  since  1871.  The  scrutin 
de  liste,  under  which  each  elector  votes  for  as 
many  Deputies  as  the  entire  department  has  to 
elect,  was  introduced  in  1871.  In  1876  it  was 
replaced  by  the  scrutin  d'arrondisse?nent,  under 
which  each  department  is  divided  into  a  num- 
ber of  armndissements,  each  elector  voting  for 
one  Deputy  only;  in  1885, there  was  a  return 
to  the  scrutin  de  liste,  and  in  1889  the  uni- 
nominal  vote  was  reintroduced.  In  1889  it 
was  enacted  that  each  candidate  is  bound  to 
make,  within  the  fortnight  which  precedes  the 
elections,  a  declaration  as  to  his  being  a  candi- 
date for  a  given  constituency,  and  for  one  con- 
stituency only —  all  votes  which  eventually 
may  be  given  for  him  in  other  constituencies 
being  reckoned  as  void.  Multiple  elections 
and  elections  of  persons  previously  condemned 
by  the  law  courts  are  thus  rendered  impos- 
sible. The  Chamber  verifies  the  powers  of 
its  members.  In  each  constituency  the  votes 
are  cast  up  and  the  Deputy  proclaimed  elected 
by  a  commission  of  Councilors-General  ap- 
pointed by  the  Prefect  of  the  department. 

The  Chamber  is  now  composed  of  584  De- 
puties ;  each  arrondissement  elects  one  Deputy, 
and  if  its  population  is  in  excess  of  100,000,  it 
is  divided  into  two  or  more  constituencies. 
There  were  10,446,178  inscribed  electors  in 
1893,  and  7,427,354  voted. 

The  Senate  is  composed  of  300  members, 
elected  for  nine  years  from  citizens  40  years 
old,  one  third  retiring  every  three  years.  The 
election  of  the  Senators  is  indirect,  and  is 
made  by  an  electoral  body  composed  (1)  of 
delegates  chosen  by  the  Municipal  Council  of 
each  commune  in  proportion  to  the  population  ; 
and  (2)  of  the  Senators,  Deputies,  Councilors- 
General,  and  District  Councilors  of  the  de- 
partment. Besides  the  225  Departmental 
Senators  elected  in  this  way,  there  were,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  1875,  75  Senators  elected 
for  life  by  the  united  two  Chambers  ;  but  by 


the  Senate  Bill  of  1884  it  was  enacted  that 
vacancies  arising  among  the  Life  Senatorships 
would  be  filled  by  the  election  of  ordinary 
nine-years  Senators,  the  department  which 
should  have  the  right  to  the  vacant  seat  to  be 
determined  by  lot.  The  Princes  of  deposed 
dynasties  are  precluded  from  sitting  in  either 
House. 

The  Senate  and  Chamber  of  Deputies  as- 
semble every  year  on  the  second  Tuesday  in 
January,  unless  a  previous  summons  is  made 
by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  and  they 
must  remain  in  session  at  least  five  months  out 
of  the  twelve.  The  President  is  bound  to 
convoke  them  if  the  demand  is  made  by  one 
half  of  the  number  of  members  composing 
each  Chamber.  The  President  can  adjourn 
the  Chambers,  but  the  adjournment  cannot 
exceed  the  term  of  a  month,  nor  occur  more 
than  twice  in  the  same  session. 

Bills  may  be  presented  either  in  the  Cham- 
ber or  Senate  by  the  Government,  or  on  the 
initiative  of  private  members.  In  the  first 
case  they  are  remitted  to  the  bureaux  for  ex- 
amination ;  in  the  second,  they  are  first  sub- 
mitted to  a  commission  of  parliamentary  ini- 
tiative. Financial  laws  must  be  first  presented 
to  and  voted  by  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

The  President  and  the  Ministers  may  be 
impeached  by  the  Chamber  of  high  treason,  in 
which  case  the  Senate  acts  as  a  High  Court  of 
Justice.  The  same  function  is  vested  in  the 
Senate  for  all  other  cases  of  high  treason. 

Senators  and  Deputies  are  paid  9,000  francs 
(£360)  a  year,  and  the  Presidents  of  the  two 
Chambers  receive,  in  addition,  72,000  francs 
(£2,840)  for  the  expense  of  entertainment. 
Members  of  both  Chambers  travel  free  on  all 
railways  by  means  of  a  small  annual  pay- 
ment. The  dotation  of  the  President  of  the 
Republic  is  600,000  francs,  with  a  further  al- 
lowance of  600,000  francs  for  his  expenses. 

France  has,  besides,  a  special  institution 
under  the  name  of  Conseil  d'Etat,  which  was 
introduced  by  Napoleon  I.,  and  has  been 
maintained  since.  It  is  presided  over  by  the 
Minister  of  Justice  or  (in  his  absence)  by  a 
vice-president,  and  is  composed  of  Councilors, 
Masters  of  Requests  (Maitres  de  Requftes), 
aild  Auditors,  all  appointed  by  the  President 
of  the  Republic.  Its  duty  is  to  give  opinion 
upon  such  questions,  chiefly  those  connected 
with  administration,  as  may  be  submitted  to  it 
by  the  Government.  It  is  judge  in  the  last 
resort  in  administrative  suits,  and  it  prepares 
the  rules  for  the  public  administration. 

Local  Government. —  For  administrative  purposes 
France  is  divided  into  86  departments,  or  87  if  the  "  ter- 
litory  of  Belfort"  (a  remnant  of  the  department  of  Haut- 
Rhin)  be  considered  as  a  separate  department.  Since 
1881  the  three  departments  of  Algeria  are  also  treated, 


94 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


for  most  purposes,  as  part  of  France  proper.  The  de- 
partment has  representatives  of  all  the  Ministries,  and 
is  placed  under  a  Prefect,  nominated  by  Government, 
and  having  wide  and  undefined  functions.  He  is 
assisted  by  a  Prefectorial  Council,  an  administrative 
body,  whose  advice  he  may  take  without  being  bound  to 
follow  it.  The  Prefect  is  a  representative  of  the  Execu- 
tive, and,  as  such,  supervises  the  execution  of  the  laws, 
issues  police  regulations,  supplies  information  on  mat- 
ters which  concern  the  department,  nominates  subor- 
dinate officials,  and  has  under  his  control  all  officials  of 
the  State.  There  is  a  sub-Prefect  in  every  arrondisse- 
ment,  except  capitals  of  departments  and  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Seine. 

The  unit  of  local  Government  is  the  commune,  the 
size  and  population  of  which  vary  very  much.  There 
are  36,170  communes,  and  new  ones  cannot  be  created 
otherwise  than  by  law.  Most  of  them  (31,610)  have  less 
than  1,600  inhabitants,  and  18.054  hve  even  less  than 
600 ;  while  117  communes  only  have  more  than  20,000  in- 
habitants. The  local  affairs  "of  the  commune  are  under 
a  Municipal  Council,  composed  of  from  10  to  36  mem- 
bers, elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  by  the  serutin 
de  liste  for  4  years  by  Frenchmen  after  21  years  and  6 
months'  residence ;  but  each  act  of  the  Council  must  re- 
ceive the  approval  of  the  Prefect,  while  many  must  be 
submitted  to  the  Council  General,  or  even  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  Republic,  before  becoming  lawful.  Even 
the  commune's  quota  of  direct  taxation  is  settled  by 
persons  (repartiteurs)  chosen  by  the  Prefect  from  among 
the  lists  of  candidates  drawn  up  by  the  Municipal  Coun- 
cil. 

Each  Municipal  Council  elects  a  Mayor,  who  is  both 
the  representative  of  the  commune  and  the  agent  of  the 
central  government.  He  is  the  head  of  the  local  police 
and,  with  his  assistants,  acts  under  the  orders  of  the 
Prefect. 

In  Paris  the  Municipal  Council  is  composed  of  80  mem- 
bers ;  each  of  the  20  arrondissements  into  which  the  city  is 
subdivided  has  its  own  Mayor.  The  place  of  the  Mayor 
of  Paris  is  taken  by  the  Prefect  of  the  Seine,  and,  in 

Sart,  by  the  Prefect  of  Police.  Lyons  has  an  elected 
[ayor,  but  the  control  of  the  police  is  vested  in  the  Pre- 
fect of  the  department  of  the  Rhone. 

The  next  unit  is  the  canton  (2,899  in  France),  which  is 
composed  of  an  average  of  12  communes,  although  some 
of  the  largest  communes  are,  on  the  contrary,  divided 
into  several  cantons.  It  is  a  seat  of  a  justice  of  the 
peace,  but  is  not  an  administrative  unit. 

The  district,  or  arrondissement  (3C2  in  France),  has  an 
elected  conseil  d'arroyidisement,  with  as  many  members 
as  there  are  cantons,  its  chief  function  being  to  allot 
among  the  communes  their  respective  parts  in  the  direct 
taxes  assigned  to  each  arrondissement  by  the  Council 
General.  That  body  stands  under  the  control  of  the 
sub-Prefect.  A  varying  number  of  arrondissements 
form  a  department,  which  has  its  conseil  general  re- 
newed by  universal  suffrage. 

Religion.—  All  religions  are  equal  bv  law,  and  anv 
sect  which  numbers  100,000  adherents  is  entitled  to  a 
grant ;  but  at  present  only  the  Roman  Catholics,  Protes- 
tants, and  Jews  have  State  allowances. 

Instruction. —  Public  education  in  France  is  entirely 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Government.  The  highest 
schools,  or  "  facultes  de  l'Etat,"  are  now  often  designated 
by  the  name  of  universities.  There  are  15  "  facultes  des 
lettres,"  one  in  each  academy  (except  Chamberv)  at 
Paris,  Aix,  Besancon,  Bordeaux,  Caen,  Clermont,  Dijon, 
Lille,  Grenoble,  Lyon,  Montpellier,  Nancv,  Poitiers, 
Rennes,  and  Toulouse.  At  all  of  these,  except  Aix,  are 
also  "  facultes  des  sciences,"  besides  one  at  Marseilles 
(instead  of  Aix,  belonging  to  the  sameacademv).  There 
are  also  2  "facultes  "of  Protestant  theologv,  13"  facultes 
dedroit,"  and  7  "  facultes  de  medecine  etpharmacie,"  10 
superior  or  preparatory  schools  of  pharmacv,  and  8 
schools  of  law,  science,  or  letters.  In  Janiiarv,  1898, 
there  were  137  students  of  Protestant  theologv;  9,371  of 
law;  7,426  of  medicine;  3,544  of  sciences ;  3,404  of  letters; 
and  4,661  at  superior  and  preparatory  schools  of  phar- 
macy, etc.;  total,  28,543  students.  To  the  support  of 
the  "  faculty  "  the  sum  of  1-2,496,911  francs  was  set  down 
in  the  budget  of  1899.  The  Roman  Catholic  theological 
"  facultes  "  were  suppressed  in  1885.  Catholic  "  facultes  " 
or"ecoles  libres"  exist  on  certain  conditions asprivate 
establishments.  The  "  College  de  France,"  "  Museum 
d'histoirenaturelle,""Ecole  pratique  des hautes  etudes," 
"  Ecole  des  chartes,"  etc.,  are  public  establishments  for 
highest  education.  The  "  Ecole  libre  des  Sciences  poli- 
tiques"  is  a  private  establishment. 

There  are  many  other  public  establishments  for  spe- 


cial training.  For  military  and  naval  education :  Ecole 
Supe>ieure  de  Guerre,  Ecole  Polytechnique,  Ecole  Spe- 
ciale  Militaire  de  St.  Cyr,  Ecole  Superieure  de  la  Marine. 
Ecole  Navale  de  Brest," etc. ;  for  civil  servicesand  indus- 
try: Ecole  des  Mines,  Ecole  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees, 
Ecole  Centrale  des  Artes  et  Manufactures,  Ecole  Supe- 
rieure des  Hautes  Etudes  commerciales,  Conservatoire 
des  Artes  et  Metiers. 

Elementary  schools  existed  before  the  Revolution  in 
the  towns  and  in  many  of  the  rural  parishes  of  France, 
but  little  was  done  for  the  advancement  of  education 
till  near  the  first  quarter  of  this  century.  In  1833  a 
law  was  passed  requiring  every  commune  "to  maintain 
at  least  one  primary  school,  every  town  one  higher  pri- 
mary school,  and  every  department  one  primary  normal 
school.  A  law  of  1850  Obliged  every  commune  with  a 
population  of  800  (extended  in  1867  to  communes  with  a 
population  of  500)  to  have  a  school  for  girls.  Since  187« 
elementary  education  has  advanced  rapidly ;  many 
schools  have  been  built,  the  number  of  teachers  and 
pupils  has  increased  (until  1889),  and  the  standard  of 
education  has  been  raised.  In  1881  primary  instruction 
was  made  free,  and  in  1882,  obligatory  for  children  from 
6  to  13  years  of  age.  In  1886  the  system  of  education 
was  reorganized,  and  it  was  ordained  that  all  public 
schools  should  be  under  the  charge  of  laymen.  In  1892 
there  were  only  50  communes  which  had  no  primary 
school,  public  or  private. 

Colonies  and  Dependencies. 


Year  of 
Acquisi- 
tion. 


Area  in 
Square 
Miles. 


In  Asia  : 

India 

Annam 

Cambodia 

Cochin-China 

Tonking  (with  Laos). 

Total  of  Asia 


In  Africa: 

Algeria 

Algerian  Sahara ' i 

Tunis ! 

Sahara  Region ! 

Senegal I 

Western  Sudan 

Ivory  Coast,  etc ! 

Dahomey j 

Congo...". 

Bagirmi j 

Obock  and  Somali  roast 

Reunion 

Comoro  Isles 

Mayotte 

Nossi-B£ | 

Ste.  Marie 

Madagascar 

Total  of  Africa 


In  America  : 

Guiana 

Guadeloupe  and  Depend- 
encies   

Martinique 

St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon 

Total  of  America 


In  Oceania  : 
New  Caledonia  and  De- 
pendencies   

Marquesas  Islands 

Tahiti  and  Moorea 

TubuaVand  Raivavae... 
Tuamotu   and   Gambier 

Islands 

Wallis  Archipelago,  etc.. . ! 


1679 

1884 

1862 

1861 

1884-93 


1881 

1637 
1880 
1813 
1899 
1884 
1895 
1864 
1649 
1886 
1843 
1841 
1643 
1896 


1626 

1034 
1635 
1635 


1851 
1841 
1880 
1881 

1881 
1887 


197 
81,000 
46.000 
22.950 


Popula- 
tion. 


286,910 
6,000.000 
1.500.000 
2,035,000 


135,000  |  12,000.000 
285,147     21.821,910 


184.474 

4,430.000 

123,600 

50,000 

50,840 

1.500,000 

1.684.000 

2,500.000 

115,800 

2,00  1,000 

250.190 

4,900  000 

04.420 

650,0*10 

14.140 

600,000 

496,980 

8  950  000 

65,650 

1,000.000 

8,640 

30,000 

970 

171.720 

620 

53.000 

143 

8,700 

113 

7.800 

64 

7.670 

227,750 

3,500,000 

46,800 


30,358,890 


22,710 


688  167.100 

380  I       187.690 

93  6.250 


48,011 

383,760 

7,630 

51.000 

480  i 

4.450 

455 

11.800 

80 

880 

390 

5.250 

100  | 

5.000 

Total  of  Oceania . 
Grand  Total 


9,135  j         78,.s80 

3,630,327 

52,642,930 

GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


95 


Justice. —  The  Courts  of  First  Instance  in  France  are 
those  of  the  Justices  of  Peace  who  try  civil  cases  anil 
act  also  as  judges  of  Police  Courts,  where  all  petty 
offenses  are  disposed  of.  In  criminal  cases  the  Police 
Correctional  Courts  pronounce  upon  all  graver  cases  of 
misdemeanour  (rfelits),  including  cases  involving  impris- 
onment up  to  5  years.  They  have  no  jury,  and  consist  of 
3  judges  belonging  to  the  civil  tribunals.  In  all  general 
cases,  the  preliminary  inquiry  is  made  in  secrecy 
by  an  examining  magistrate  (juf/e  d'itistructimi),  who, 
acting  under  the  public  ministry  (Procureur),  may  dis- 
miss the  case  or  send  it  f»r  trial*.  The  Court  of  Assizes 
is  assisted  by  12  jurors,  who  decide  by  simple  majority 
on  the  fact  with  respect  to  crimes  involving  a  severe 
penalty.  The  highest  courts  are  the  26  Courtsof  Appeal, 
composed  each  of  one  President  and  4  Councilors  for 
all  criminal  cases  which  have  been  tried  without  a  jury, 
and  by  one  Court  of  Cassation  which  sits  at  Paris,  and 
is  composed  of  a  first  President,  3  Presidents  of  Sec- 
tions, and  45  Councilors,  for  all  criminal  cases  tried  by 
jury. 

For  civil  cases  there  is,  under  the  Justice  of  Peace,  in 
each  a rrondissrment ,  a  civil  tribunal  of  first  instance, 
then  the  Appeal  Courts  and  Courts  of  Cassation.  For 
commercial  cases  there  are  Tribunals  of  Commerce  and 
Councils  of  experts(prnd'hommes). 

All  Judges  are  nominated  by  the  President  of  the  Re- 
public. They  can  be  removed"  only  by  a  decision  of  the 
Court  of  Cassation  constituted  as  the  Conseil  Superieur 
of  the  magistracy. 

GERMAN  EMPIRE. 

The  present  German  Empire  is  essentially 
different  from  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  which 
came  to  an  end  in  1806.  But  though  Austria, 
the  most  important  factor  in  the  earlier  Empire, 
is  not  a  member  of  the  present,  a  brief  histor- 
ical summary,  including  both,  is  for  conven- 
ience inserted  here.  The  imperial  throne, 
after  the  extinction  of  the  Carlovingian  line, 
was  rilled  by  election,  though  with  a  tendency 
towards  the  hereditary  principle  of  succession. 
At  first  the  Emperor  was  chosen  by  the  vote  of 
all  the  Princes  and  Peers  of  the  Reich  ;  but  the 
mode  came  to  be  changed  in  the  fourteenth 
century,  when  a  limited  number  of  Princes, 
fixed  at  seven  for  a  time,  and  afterwards  en- 
larged to  eight  (nine  from  1692  to  1777), 
assumed  the  privilege  of  disposing  of  the 
crown,  and,  their  right  being  acknowledged, 
were  called  Electors.  With  the  overthrow  of 
the  old  Empire  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  in 
180G,  the  Electoral  dignity  virtually  ceased, 
although  the  title  of  Elector  was  retained  sixty 
years  longer  by  the  sovereigns  of  Hesse-Cassel, 
the  last  of  them  dethroned  in  1866  by  Prussia. 
The  election  of  Wilhelm  I.,  King  of  Prussia, 
as  the  German  Emperor  (1871)  was  by  vote  of 
the  Reichstag  of  the  North  German  Confeder- 
ation, on  the  initiative  of  all  the  reigning 
Princes  of  Germany.  The  imperial  dignity  is 
hereditary  in  the  House  of  Hohenzollern,  and 
follows  the  law  of  primogeniture. 

The  Constitution  of  the  Empire  bears  date 
April  16,  1871.  By  its  terms,  all  the  States  of 
Germany  "  form  an  eternal  union  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  realm  and  the  care  of  the  welfare 
of  the  German  people."  The  supreme  direction 
of  the  military  and  political  affairs  of  the  Em- 
pire is  vested  in  the  King  of  Prussia,  who,  in 


this  capacity,  bears  the  title  of  Deutscher  Kaiser. 
According  to  Art.  11  of  the  Constitution,  "  the 
Emperor  represents  the  Empire  internation- 
ally," and  can  declare  war,  if  defensive,  and 
make  peace,  as  well  as  enter  into  treaties  with 
other  nations,  and  appoint  and  receive  ambas- 
sadors. But  when  treaties  relate  to  matters 
regulated  by  imperial  legislation,  and  when 
war  is  not  merely  defensive,  the  Kaiser  must 
have  the  consent  of  the  Buudesrath,  or  Federal 
Council,  in  which  body,  together  with  the 
Reichstag,  or  Diet  of  the  realm,  are  vested  the 
legislative  functions  of  the  Empire.  The 
Emperor  has  no  veto  on  laws  passed  by  these 
bodies.  The  Bundesrath  represents  the  indi- 
vidual States  of  Germany,  and  the  Reichstag 
the  German  nation.  The  58  members  of  the 
Bundesrath  are  appointed  by  the  Governments 
of  the  individual  States  for  each  session,  while 
the  members  of  the  Reichstag,  397  in  number 
(about  one  for  every  131,601  inhabitants),  are 
elected  by  universal  suffrage  and  ballot  for  the 
term  of  five  years.  By  the  law  of  March  19, 
1888,  which  came  into  force  in  1890,  the  dura- 
tion of  the  legislative  period  is  five  years. 

Both  the  Bundesrath  and  the  Reichstag 
meet  in  annual  session,  convoked  by  the  Em- 
peror. The  Emperor  has  the  right  to  prorogue 
and  dissolve,  after  a  vote  by  the  Bundesrath, 
the  Reichstag.  Without  consent  of  the  Reichs- 
tag the  prorogation  may  not  exceed  thirty 
days ;  while  in  case  of  dissolution  new  elec- 
tions must  take  place  within  sixty  days,  and  a 
new  session  must  open  within  ninety  days. 
All  laws  for  the  Empire  must  receive  the  votes 
of  an  absolute  majority  of  the  Bundesrath  and 
the  Reichstag.  The  Bundesrath  is  presided 
over  by  the  Reichskanzler,  or  Chancellor  of 
the  Empire,  and  the  President  of  the  Reichs- 
tag is  elected  by  the  deputies. 

The  laws  of  the  Empire,  passed  by  the 
Bundesrath  and  the  Reichstag,  to  take  effect 
must  be  promulgated  by  the  Emperor,  and  the 
promulgation,  like  all  other  official  acts  of  the 
Emperor,  requires  the  counter-signature  of 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Empire.  All  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Bundesrath  have  the  right  to  be 
present  at  the  deliberations  of  the  Reichstag. 

The  following  are  the  imperial  authorities 
or  Secretaries  of  State :  they  do  not  form  a 
Ministry  or  Cabinet,  but  act  independently  of 
each  other,  under  the  general  supervision  of 
the  Chancellor. 

1.  Chancellor  of  the  Empire. 

2.  Ministry  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

3.  Imperial  Home  Office  and  "Representative 
of  the  Chancellor." 

4-   Imperial  Admiralty. 

5.  Imperial  Ministry  of  Justice. 

6.  Imperial  Treasury. 


96 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


'.^Imperial  Post  Office. 


S ^Imperial  Railways. 
,        9.   Imperial  Exchequer. 

10.  Imperial  Invalid  Fund. 

11.  Imperial  Bank. 

12.  Imperial  Debt  Commission. 

Acting  under  the  direction  of  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Empire,  the  Bundesrath  represents  also 
a  supreme  administrative  and  consultive  board, 
and  as  such  has  twelve  standing  committees  — 
namely,  for  army  and  fortifications  ;  for  naval 
matters ;  tariff,  excise,  and  taxes ;  trade  and 
commerce ;  railways,  posts,  and  telegraphs ; 
civil  and  criminal  law ;  financial  accounts ; 
foreign  affairs ;  for  Alsace-Lorraine ;  for  the 
Constitution ;  for  the  standing  orders ;  and 
for  railway  tariffs.  Each  committee  consists 
of  representatives  of  at  least  four  States  of  the 
Empire ;  but  the  foreign  affairs  committee 
includes  only  the  representatives  of  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Wurtemberg,  and  two  other  repre- 
sentatives to  be  elected  every  year. 

Religion. — The  Constitution  provides  for  entire 
liberty  of  conscience  and  for  complete  social  equality 
among  all  religious  confessions.  The  relation  between 
Church  and  State  varies  in  different  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire. The  order  of  the  Jesuits  is  interdicted  in  all 
parts  of  Germany,  and  all  convents  and  religious  orders, 
except  those  engaged  in  nursing  the  sick  and  purely 
contemplative  orders,  have  been  suppressed.  There  are 
Ave  Roman  Catholic  archbishops,  and  twenty  bishop- 
rics.   The  "  Old  Catholics  "  have  a  bishop  at  Bonn. 

The  various  creeds  were  distributed  as  follows  at  the 
last  religious  census,  1895 : — 


Creed 

Numbers 

Per  Cent,  of  Pop. 

Roman  Catholics 

Other  Christians 

1,440,240 
621,474 

7,451 

11,887 

99 

69.2 

29.9 

0.36 

Others 

0  004 

Instruction. — Education  is  general  and  compulsory 
throughout  Germany.  The  laws  of  Prussia,  which  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  of  elementary  schools(  }rotks- 
schulen),  supported  from  the  local  rates,  in  every  town 
and  village,  and  compel  all  parents  to  send  their  chil- 
dren to  these  or  other  schools,  have  been  adopted,  with 
slight  modifications,  in  all  the  States  of  the  Empire. 
The  school  age  is  from  six  to  fourteen.  The  system  of 
secondary  education  is  also  practically  homogeneous. 
Above  the  elementary  schools  rank  the  middle  schools  of 
the  towns,  the  Burgerschulcn.  and  IFohere  Bilrgerschulen, 
which  fit  their  pupils  for  business  life.  Children  of  the 
working  classes  may  continue  their  education  at  the 
Forthildungs-  Schulen  or  continuation  schools,  which 
.tre  open  in  the  evening  or  other  convenient  time.  The 
Gymnasia  are  the  most  fully  developed  classical 
schools,  preparing  pupils  in  a  nine  years'  course  for  the 
universities  and  the  learned  professions.  The  Proffym- 
natta  differ  from  these  only  in  not  having  the  high- 
est classes.  In  the  liealaymnasui ,  Latin,  but  not  Greek 
is  taught,  and  what  are  usually  termed  "  modern  sub- 
jects "nave  niore  time  devoted  to  them.  JReaJjtro'/t/in- 
nasf<x  have  a  similiar  course,  but  have  no  class  corre- 
sponding to  the  highestclass  in  the  preceding.  In  the 
Oberrealschuten  and  ReaUchvlen  Latin  is  wholly  dis- 
placed in  favor  of  modern  languages.  In  1*97,  1,048 
secondary  schools  (including  56  private  schools),  also 
181  public Leh/nr-SemAmare and  32  public  Facheckiden: 
total  1,261  Institutions,  possessed  the  right  of  granting 
certificates  to  pupils,  entitling  them  to  serve  in  the 
army  as  one-year  volunteers.  The  teachers  iu  German 
schools  are  required  to  hold  a  Government  certificate, 
and  to  have  undergone  a  year's  probation.  Higher 
schools  for  girls  are  called  Hohere  Tochterschulen.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  numerous  Gewerbeschulen  or  tech- 


nical schools,  Polytechuica,  normal  schools,  seminaries, 
and  the  universities. 

There  are  21  universities  in  the  German  Empire,  be- 
sides the  Lyceum  Hosianum  at  Braunsberg  (!)  teachers 
and  about  forty  students),  which  has  only  faculties  of 
theology  (Roman  Catholic)  and  philosophy. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  teachers  for 
the  summer  half-year,  1898.  and  the  number  of  students 
for  the  winter  half-year,  1897-98. 


Iniversities 

r.        j 

o     S 

i.  -  — 

&  5  9 

O       Q) 

Students 

The- 
ology 

Juris- 
pru- 
dence 

Medi- 
cine 

Philos- 
ophy        '"tal 

Breslau 

Erlangen . . . 
Freiburg 

Gottingen . . 
Greif  swald . 

Halle 

Heidelberg . 

Kiel 

Konigsberg 

Leipzig 

Marburg 

Miinchen . . . 

Miinster 

Rostock 

Strassbmrg. 
Tiibingen. .. 
WUrzburg... 

372 
147 

164 

68 
115 

72 
123 

91 
144 
147 

90 
102 
113 
208 
100 
180 

48 

49 
137 

98 
101 

441 

304 
324 
240 
218 
58 
137 

am 

411 

54 

35 

61 

67 

348 

110 

152 

315 

30 

82 

409 

146 

1,984 
409 
443 
182 
249 
236 
336 
lf»7 
346 
340 
158 
125 
211 

1,032 
229 

1,145 

iio 

335 
441 
20 

1,360 
264 
845 

434 
392 
224 
236 
883 
265 
203 
198 
263 
2&5 
724 
249 
1,396 

106 
329 
255 

742 

2,150 
694 
385 
112 
214 
156 
445 
87 
584 
487 
241 
131 
171 

1,173 
320 

1,124 
211 
196 
320 
121 
-- 

5,935 

1,671 

1,497 

1,068 

1,073 

674 

1.154 

75f 

1,606 

1.084 

632 

580 

684 

3,277 

908 

3,817 

526 

451 

1,066 

1,226 

1,425 

In  four  universities,  namely,  Freiburg,  iMUnchen, 
Miinster,  and  WUrzburg,  the  faculties  of  theology  are 
Roman  Catholic  ;  three  are  mixed,  both  Protestant  and 
Roman  Catholic — Bonn,  Breslau,  and  Tubingen;  and 
the  remaining  fourteen  are  Protestant. 

Justice. —  In  terms  of  Judicature  Acts  in  1877  and 
1879  a  uniform  system  of  law  courts  was  adopted 
throughout  the  Empire  not  later  than  January  1,  1879, 
though  with  the  exception  of  the  Reichsgericht,  all 
courts  are  directly  subject  to  the  Government  of  the 
special  State  in  which  they  exercise  jurisdiction,  and 
not  10  the  Imperial  Government.  The  appointment  of 
the  judges  is  also  a  State  and  not  an  Imperial  f auction. 
The  Empire  enjoys  uniform  codes  of  commercial  and 
criminal  law,  and  the  civil  code  of  August  18,  1896,  will 
come  into  force  on  January  1, 1900. 

The  lowest  courts  of  first  instance  are  the  Amtsge- 
richte, each  with  a  single  judge,  competent  to  try  petty 
civil  and  criminal  cases.  There  was  on  January  1, 1897, 
1,926  Amtsgerichte  in  the  Empire,  or  one  for  every  27,- 
144  inhabitants.  The  Lanclgrrirhte  exercise  a  revising 
jurisdiction  over  the  Amtsgerichte,  and  also  a  more  ex- 
tensive original  jurisdiction  in  both  civil  and  criminal 
cases,  divorce  cases,  etc.  In  the  criminal  chamber  five 
judges  sit,  and  a  majority  of  four  votes  is  required  for 
a  conviction.  Jury  courts  (Scliwiirgerichte)  are  also 
held  periodically, in  which  three  judges  preside;  the 
jury  are  twelve  in  number.  There  are  172  Landgerichte 
in  the  Empire,  or  one  for  every  303,953  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  first  court  of  second  instance  is  the  Oberlandes- 
r/trirht.  In  its  criminal  senate,  which  also  has  an 
original  jurisdiction  in  sorious  cases,  the  number  of 
the  judges  is  seven.  There  are  twenty-eight  such  courts 
in  the  Empire.  The  total  number*  of  judges  on  the 
bench  in  all  the  courts  above  mentioned  is  7,634.  In 
Bavaria  alone  there  is  an  Obtrste  Landeagericht,  with 
eighteen  judges,  with  a  revising  jurisdiction  over  the 
Bavarian  Oberlandesgerichte.  The  supreme  court  is  the 
ReiehagerloM,  which  sits  at  Leipzig.  The  judges, 
eighty-four  in  number,  are  appointed  by  the  Emperor 
on  the  advice  of  the  Bundesrath.  The  court  exercises 
an  appellate  jurisdiction  over  all  inferior  courts,  and 
also  an  original  jurisdiction  in  cases  of  treason.  It  has 
four  criminal  and  six  civil  senates. 

Foreign  Dependencies.— Germany  has  declared 
her  protection  over  various  areas  or  spheres  of  influ- 
ence in  Africa,  in  China,  and  in  the  Western  Pacific. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  various  foreign  regions  at 
present  (1899)  under  the  protection  or  influence  of  Ger- 
many, the  estimates  given  being  necessarily  vague ;  — 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


97 


Date  of 
Acquisi- 
tion, 

1884 

1884 
1884-90 
1885-90 

1884-90 

1897 

1885-86 
1885 
1886 
1886 

1884-86 

1884-97 

Method  of  Government. 

Imperial  Commissioner 

Imperial  Governor 

Estimated 

Area, 
Sq.  Miles. 



Estimated 
Popula- 
tion. 

In  Ai-'Jin   \  : 
Togoland 

33,000 
191,130 
322,450 
384,180 

2,500.000 

3,500,000 

200,000 

4,000,000 

German  South-West  Africa 

930.7C0     f    10,200,000 

[  New  Guinea  Company . .   .  j 

Imperial  Commissioner 

I N  Asia  : — 

120*              <"■"  """* 

1  n  the  Pacific  : — 
Bismarck  Archipelago 

70,000 

20,000 

9,000 

150 

110,000 
188,000 
89,000 
13,000 

Marshall  Islands,  etc 

99,270     j         4  0  000 

1,030,030         in  i;r.n  nun 

*  Exclusive  of  the  Bay  with  an  area  of  about  200  square  miles,  and  the  neutral  zone  with  an  area  of  about 
2,500  square  miles,  and  population  of  1,200,000. 


GREECE. 

Greece,  a  province  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
since  the  commencement  of  the  16th  century, 
gained  its  independence  in  the  insurrection  of 
1821-29,  and  by  the  Protocol  of  London,  of 
February  3,  1830,  was  declared  a  kingdom, 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Russia.  Prince  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg 
having  declined  the  crown  of  Greece,  on  the 
ground  that  the  boundaries  proposed  were  in- 
sufficient, and  especially  excluded  the  island 
of  Crete,  it  was  offered  to,  and  accepted  by, 
Prince  Otto  of  Bavaria,  who  ascended  the 
throne  January  25,  1833,  being  under  the  age 
of  eighteen.  He  was  expelled  from  the  King- 
dom, after  a  reign  of  29  years,  in  October, 
1862,  which  event  was  followed  by  the  election, 
under  the  directing  guidance  of  the  three  pro- 
tecting Powers,  of  the  present  sovereign. 

The  King,  according  to  Art.  49  of  the  Con- 
stitution of  1864,  attains  his  majority  upon 
completing  his  eighteenth  year.  Before  he 
ascends  the  throne,  he  must  take  the  oath  to 
the  Constitution  in  the  presence  of  the  minis- 
ters, the  sacred  synod,  the  deputies  then  in  the 
metropolis,  and  the  higher  officials  of  the  realm. 
Within  two  months  at  the  most  the  King  must 
convoke  the  Legislature.  If  the  successor  to 
the  throne  is  either  a  minor  or  absent  at  the 
time  of  the  King's  decease,  and  no  Regent  has 
been  appointed,  the  Legislative  Chamber  has 
to  assemble  of  its  own  accord  within  ten  days 
after  the  occurrence  of  that  event.  The  con- 
stitutional royal  authority  in  this  case  has  to 
be  exercised  by  the  ministerial  council,  until 
the  choice  of  a  Regent,  or  the  arrival  of  the 
successor  to  the  throne.  The  present  sover- 
eign is  allowed,  by  special  exception,  to  adhere 
to  the  religion  in  which  he  was  educated,  the 
Protestaut  Lutheran  faith,  but  his  heirs    and 


successors  must  be  members  of  the  Greek  Or- 
thodox Church. 

The  Constitution  of  Greece,  adopted  Octo- 
ber 29,  1864,  vests  the  whole  legislative  power 
in  a  single  chamber,  called  the  Boul6,  consist- 
ing of  207  representatives,  elected  by  manhood 
suffrage  for  the  term  of  four  years.  Repre- 
sentatives must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age,  and 
electors  21 .  The  elections  take  place  by  ballot, 
and  each  candidate  must  be  put  in  nomination 
by  the  requisition  of  at  least  one  thirtieth  of 
the  voters  of  an  electoral  district.  At  the 
election  of  1881  there  were  460,163  voters  on 
the  list,  being  1  voter  in  every  4.3  of  the  pop- 
ulation ;  the  number  who  voted  was  306,957, 
or  66  percent,  of  the  voters.  The  Boul6  must 
meet  annually  for  not  less  than  three,  nor 
more  than  six,  months.  No  sitting  is  valid 
unless  at  least  one  half  of  the  members  of  the 
Assembly  are  present,  and  no  bill  can  pass  into 
law  without  an  absolute  majority  of  members. 
Every  measure,  before  being  adopted,  must  be 
discussed  and  voted,  article  by  article,  thrice, 
and  on  three  separate  days.  But  the  Legisla- 
tive Assembly  has  no  power  to  alter  the  Con- 
stitution itself  ;  particular  provisions  may  be 
reviewed  after  the  lapse  of  ten  years,  with  the 
exception  of  "  fundamental  principles. "  The 
Chamber  of  Deputies,  unless  specially  con- 
voked at  an  earlier  date,  for  extraordinary 
occasions,  must  meet  on  November  1  (old 
style)  of  every  year.  The  deputies  are  paid 
2,000  old  drachmai  (equal  to  1,800  new  dra- 
chmai,  or  72/.)  each  per  session  ;  for  an  extra 
session  the  allowance  varies  according  to  its 
length  from  20/.  to  72/. 

The  Ministry  is  as  follows  :  - — 

President  of  the  Council  and  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs.' 

Minister  of  Interior,  Worship,  and  Instruction. 


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THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Minister  of  Marine. 
Minister  of  War. 
Minister  of  Finance. 
Minister  of  Justice. 

The  Ministers  of  Finance  and  Justice  are 
not  members  of  the  Cabinet. 

Kelieion.— The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Kingdom  are  adherents  of  the  Greek  Orthodox 
Church.  Before  the  census  of  1889  there  were  1,902,800 
belonging  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church ;  14,677  other 
Christians,  mainly  Roman  Catholics;  5,792  Jews;  and 
24,165  Mohammedans.  By  the  terms  of  the  Constitution, 
of  1864,  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church  is  declared  the  reli- 
gion of  the  State,  but  complete  toleration  and  liberty  of 
worship  is  guaranteed  to  all  other  sects.  Nominally, 
the  Greek  clergy  owe  allegiance  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  though  he  now  exercises  no  governing 
authority ;  he  is  elected  by  the  votes  of  the  bishops  and 
optimates  subject  to  the  Sultan ;  his  jurisdiction  ex- 
tends over  Thrace  and  other  countries,  including  Bosnia, 
as  well  as  the  greater  part  of  Asia  Minor.  The  real 
ecclesiastical  authority,  formerly  exercised  by  him  in 
Greece,  was  annulled  "by  the  resolutions  of  a'National 
Synod,  held  at  Nauplia  in  1833,  which  vested  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Orthodox  Church,  within  the  limits  of  the 
Kingdom,  in  a  permanent  council,  called  the  Holy 
Synod,  consisting  of  the  Metropolitan  of  Athens  and 
fourarchbishops  and  bishops,  who  must  during  their 
year  of  office  reside  at  the  seat  of  the  executive.  The 
Orthodox  Church  has  nine  archbishops  and  eight 
bishops  in  Northern  Greece;  six  archbishops  and  six 
bishops  in  the  Peloponnesus;  one  archbishop  and 
five  bishops  in  the  islands  of  the  Greek  Archipelago; 
and  five  archbishops  and  ten  bishops  in  the  Ionian 
Islands.  There  are  161  monasteries  and  nunneries,  with 
2,620  monks  and  485  nuns. 

Instruction. —  All  children  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  twelve  years  must  attend  school,  but  the  law  is 
not  well  enforced  in  country  districts.  Of  the  army  re- 
cruits 30  per  cent,  are  illiterate,  and  15  per  cent,  can  read 
only. 

There  are  (1892)  2,745  primary  schools,  295  secondary 
schools,  and  a  university.  The  total  number  of  teachers 
is  3,680,  and  of  pupils,  139,385,  of  whom  22, 1 00  are  females. 
There  are  2  agricultural  schools  in  Greece  with,  together, 
51  pupils.  In  1895  an  Industrial  and  commercial  school, 
with  40  teachers,  was  opened  at  Piraeus  to  give  instruc- 
tion in  the  industries  relating  to  wine,  spirits,  beer, 
soap,  perf umes,  dairy-keeping,  cattleand silkworm  rear- 
ing, and  in  the  duties  of  commercial  clerks.  In  1895  the 
University  of  Athens  had  2,987  students,  of  whom  967 
studied  medicine,  1,327  law,  516  philosophy,  51  theology, 
124  chemistry.  Of  the  total  number  604  were  from 
abroad,  chiefly  from  Turkey. 

ITALY. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Italy  is  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  "Statuto  fondamentale  del 
Regno,"  granted  on  March  4,  1848,  by  King 
Charles  Albert  to  his  Sardinian  subjects.  Ac- 
cording to  this  charter,  the  executive  power  of 
the  State  belongs  exclusively  to  the  Sovereign, 
and  is  exercised  by  him  through  responsible 
ministers  ;  while  the  legislative  authority  rests 
conjointly  in  the  King  and  Parliament,  the 
latter  consisting  of  two  Chambers — an  upper 
one,  the  Senato,  and  a  lower  one,  called  the 
"Camera  de'Deputati."  The  Senate  is  composed 
of  the  princes  of  the  royal  house  who  are  of 
age,  and  of  an  unlimited  number  of  members, 
above  forty  years  old,  who  are  nominated  by 
the  King  for  life  ;  a  condition  of  the  nomina- 
tion being  that  the  person  should  either  fill  a 
high  office,  or  have  acquired  fame  in  science, 
literature,  or  any  other  pursuit  tending  to  the 


benefit  of  the  nation,  or,  finally,  should  pay 
taxes  to  the  annual  amount  of  3,000  lire,  or 
120/.  In  1897,  there  were  372  senators.  By 
the  electoral  law  of  March  28,  1895,  electors 
for  deputies  to  the  Lower  House  are  all  citi- 
zens over  twenty-one  years  of  age  who  can  read 
and  write  and  who  possess  one  or  other  of  the 
following  qualifications :  they  must  have 
reached  a  certain  standard  in  elementary  edu- 
cation ;  or  must  pay  not  less  than  19.80  lire  in 
direct  (including  provincial)  taxation  ;  or,  if 
peasant  farmers,  must  pay  annually  at  least 
500  lire  of  rent,  or  be  managers,  with  a  share 
in  the  profits,  of  farms  on  which  direct  (in- 
cluding provincial)  taxes  of  not  less  than  80 
lire  are  paid  ;  or,  being  occupants  of  lodgings, 
shops,  etc.,  in  towns,  pay  an  annual  rent  rang- 
ing from  150  lire  in  communes  of  2,500  inhab- 
itants to  400  lire  in  communes  of  150,000 
inhabitants.  Non-commissioned  officers  and 
men  in  the  army  have  no  vote  while  under 
arms.  Members  of  academies,  professors,  per- 
sons who  have  served  their  country  underarms 
for  two  years,  and  numerous  other  classes  are 
qualified  to  vote  by  their  position.  The  num- 
ber of  deputies  is  508,  or  1  to  every  57,000 
of  the  population  (census  1881).  In  1896  the 
number  of  enrolled  electors  was  2,120,909, 
exclusive  of  the  electors  temporarily  disfran- 
chised on  account  of  military  service  (39,029 
in  1895).  At  the  general  election  in  March, 
1897,  the  number  of  those  who  voted  was 
1,241,486,  or  58.5  per  cent,  of  those  who  had 
the  right  to  vote.  For  electoral  purposes  the 
whole  of  the  Kingdom  is  divided  into  508 
electoral  colleges  or  districts,  and  these  again 
into  several  sections.  No  deputy  can  be. 
returned  to  Parliament  unless  he  has  obtained 
a  number  of  votes  greater  than  one  sixth  of 
the  total  number  of  inscribed  electors,  and  than 
half  the  votes  given.  A  deputy  must  be  thirty 
years  old,  and  have  the  requisites  demanded 
by  the  electoral  law.  Incapable  of  being 
elected  are  all  salaried  Government  officials,  as 
well  as  all  persons  ordained  for  the  priesthood 
and  filling  clerical  charges,  or  receiving  pay 
from  the  State.  Officers  in  the  army  and  navy, 
ministers,  under-secretaries  of  State,  and  vari- 
ous other  classes  of  functionaries  high  in  office, 
may  be  elected,  but  their  number  must  never 
be  more  than  forty,  not  including  the  minis- 
ters and  the  under-secretaries  of  State.  Neither 
senators  nor  deputies  receive  any  salary  or 
other  indemnity,  but  are  allowed  to  travel  free 
throughout  Italy  by  rail  or  steamer. 

The  duration  of  Parliament  is  five  years ; 
but  the  King  has  the  power  to  dissolve  the 
Lower  House  at  any  time,  being  bound  only  to 
order  new  elections,  and  convoke  a  new  meet- 
ing within  four  months.     It  is  incumbent  upon 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


99 


the  executive  to  call  the  Parliament  together 
annually.  Each  of  the  Chambers  has  the  right 
of  introducing  new  bills,  the  same  as  the  Gov- 
ernment ;  but  all  money  bills  must  originate  in 
the  House  of  Deputies.  The  ministers  have 
the  right  to  attend  the  debates  of  both  the 
Upper  and  the  Lower  House  ;  but  they  have  no 
vote  unless  they  are  members.  The  sittings 
of  both  Chambers  are  public  ;  and  no  sitting  is 
valid  unless  an  absolute  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers are  present. 

The  executive  power  is  exercised,  under  the 
King,  by  a  ministry  divided  into  11  depart- 
ments, as  follows  : 

1.  President  of  the  Council  and  Minister  of 
Interior. 

2.  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 

3.  Minister  of  the  Treasury. 
.'/.   Minister  of  Finance. 

5.  Minister  of  Justice  and  of  Ecclesiastical 
Affairs. 

6.  Minister  of  War. 

7.  Minister  of  Marine. 

8.  Minister  of  Commerce,  Industry,  and  Agri- 
culture. 

9.  Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 

10.  Minister  of  Public  Works. 

11.  Minister  of  Posts  and  Telegraphs. 

Local  Government. — The  two  principal  elective 
local  administrative  bodies  are  the  communal  councils 
and  the  provincial  councils.  According  to  the  law  of 
February  10.  1889,  each  commune  has  a  communal  coun- 
cil, a  municipal  council,  and  a  syndic.  Both  the  com- 
munal councils  and  the  municipal  councils  vary  accord- 
ing to  population,  the  members  of  the  latter  being 
selected  by  the  former  from  among  themselves.  The 
syndic  is  the  head  of  the  communal  administration,  and 
is  a  Government  official;  ha  is  elected  by  the  com- 
munal council  from  among  its  own  members,  by  secret 
vote,  in  all  the  chief  communes  of  provinces  and  dis- 
tricts, and  in  other  communes  having  more  than  10,- 
000  inhabitants.  In  other  communes  the  syndic  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  King  from  among  the  communal  coun- 
cilors. Each  province  has  a  provincial  council  and  a 
provincial  commission,  the  membi-rs  varying  according 
to  population.  The  council  elects  its  president  and 
other  officials.  The  provincial  commission  is  elected  by 
the  council  from  its  own  members.  It  conducts  the 
business  of  the  province  when  the  latter  is  not  sitting. 
Both  communal  and  provincial  councilors  are  elected  for 
rive  years,  one  fifth  being  renewed  every  vear.  The 
communal  council  meets  twice  and  the  provincial  once 
a  year  in  ordinary  session,  though  they  may  be  con- 
vened for  extraordinary  purposes.  All  communal  elec- 
tors are  eligible  to  the  council  except  those  having  an 
official  or  pecuniary  interest  in  the  commune.  Persons 
not  resident  in  the  province,  or  having  no  solid  interest 
in  it,  or  who  do  not  pay  taxes  on  movable  property,  as 
well  as  officials  in  anyway  interested  in  the  province, 
are  ineligible  to  the  provincial  councils.  Electors  must 
be  Italian  citizens,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  able  to 
read  and  write,  be  on  the  Parliamentary  electoral  list, 
orpay  a  direct  annual  contribution  to  tlie  commune,  of 
any  nature,  or  comply  with  other  conditions  of  a  very 
simple  character. 

Religion. —  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  is,  nominally, 
the  ruling  State  religion  of  Italy;  but  many  Acts  of  tlie 
Legislature,  passed  since  the  establishment  of  the 
Kingdom,  and  more  especially  since  the  suppression  of 
the  Supreme  Pontiff's  temporal  government,  have  su- 
bordinated the  power  of  the  Church  and  clergy  to  the 
authority  of  the  civil  government,  and  secured  freedom 
"f  worship  to  the  adherents  of  all  recognized  religions. 
However,  scarcely  any  other  positive  creed  as  vet  exists 
but  Roman  Catholicism.    At  the  census  of  1881,  of  the 


total  population  about  62,000  were  Protestants  and  38,- 
000  Jews.  Of  the  Protestants  22,000  belonged  to  the 
Waldensian  Church  ©f  Piedmont,  about  10,000  to  the 
other  evangelical  Italian  Churches,  and  30,000  to  foreign 
Protestant  bodies. 

Under  the  Roman  Pontiff,  the  Catholic  episcopal 
hierarchy  in  Italy  consists  of  49  archbishoprics  and  220 
bishoprics  besides  the  6  cardinal  bishoprics  near 
Rome.  Of  these  prelacies,  76  are  immediately  subject  to 
the  Apostolic  See,  12  being  archbishoprics.  Thus  there 
are  altogether  37  metropolitan  sees,  the  average  number 
of  suffragan  sees  to  each  metropolitan  being  about 4. 
Every  archbishop  or  bishop  is  appointed  by  the  Pope, 
on  the  advice  of  a  council  of  Cardinals;  but  the  royal 
exequatur  is  necessary  for  his  installation.  The  number 
of  parishes  in  1881  was  20,465;  of  churches  and  chapels, 
55,263 ;  of  secular  clergy,  76,560. 

The  immense  wealth  of  .he  Italian  clergy  has  greatly 
dwindled  since  the  year  1850,  when  the  Siccardi  bin, 
abolishing  external  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  cler- 
ical privileges,  passed  the  Sardinian  Chambers.  This 
law  was  extended,  in  1861,  over  the  whole  Kingdom,  and 
had  the  effect  of  rapidly  diminishing  the  numbers  as 
well  as  the  incomes  of  the  clergy. 

In  1865  there  were  in  Italy  2,382  religioushouses, of  which 
1,506  were  for  men  and  876  for  women.  The  number  of 
religious  persons  was  28,991,  of  whom  14,807  were  men 
and  14.184  women.  The  mendicant  orders  numbered 
8.2J9  persons,  comprised  in  the  above-mentioned  total. 
A  law  for  the  entire  suppression  of  all  religious  houses 
throughout  the  Kingdom  was  adopted  by  the  Italian 
Parliament  in  \VG.  This  law  provided  a  small  pension 
to  all  religious  persons  who  had  taken  regular  vows  be- 
fore January  18,  1864.  Several  monasteries  were  tem- 
porarily set  aside  for  such  monks,  friars,  or  nuns  as 
might  wish  to  continue  their  conventual  life,  the  in- 
mates, when  come  down  to  a  certain  number,  to  be 
drafted  off  to  another  house,  and  so  again,  until  all  fi- 
nally died  out.  All  collegiate  chapters  were  likewise 
dissolved.  The  lands  and  goods  of  these  suppressed 
bodies  were  appropriated  by  the  State. 

See  and  Church  of  Rome.— The  "  Statuto  fonda- 
mentale  del  Regno  "  enacts,  in  its  first  article,  that "  the 
Catholic,  Apostolic,  and  Roman  religion  is  the  sole 
religion  of  the  State."  By  the  Royal  decree  of  October 
9,  1870,  which  declared  that  "  Rome  and  the  Roman 
Provinces  shall  coustitute  an  integral  part  of  the  King- 
dom of  Italy,"  the  Pope  or  Roman  Pontiff  was  acknowl- 
edged supreme  head  of  the  Church,  preserving  his 
former  rank  and  dignity  as  a  sovereign  prince.  Fur- 
thermore, by  a  bill  that  became  law  May  13,  1871,  there 
was  guaranteed  to  His  Holiness  and  his  successors  for- 
ever, besides  possession  of  the  Vatican  and  Lateran 
palaces  and  the  villa  of  Castel  Gandolfo,  a  yearly  in- 
come of  3,225,000  lire  or  129,000?.,  which  allowance  (whose 
arrears  would  in  1899  amount  to  93,525,000  lire,  or  3,741,- 
000?.)  still  remains  unclaimed  and  unpaid. 

Supreme  Pontiff. —  Leone  XIII.  (Gioacchino  Pecci), 
born  at  Carpinetb  in  the  diocese  of  Anagni,  March  2, 
1810,  son  of  Count  Luigi  Pecci ;  consecrated  Archbishop 
of  Damiata,  1843;  Apostolic  Nuncio  to  Belgium,  1843-46 ; 
bishop  of  Perugia,  1846;  proclaimed  Cardinal,  Decem- 
ber 19, 1853 ;  elected  Supreme  Pontiff,  as  successor  of 
Pio  IX.,  February  20, 1878;  crowned,  March  3  following. 
He  is,  therefore,  now  88  years  old,  and  has  filled  the 
Pontifical  throne  for  20  years. 

The  election  of  a  Pope"ordinarily  is  by  scrutiny.  Each 
Cardinal  in  conclave  writes  on  a  ticket  his  own  name 
with  that  of  the  Cardinal  whom  he  chooses.  These 
tickets,  folded  and  sealed,  are  laid  in  a  chalice  which 
stands  on  the  altar  of  the  conclave  chapel;  and  each 
elector  approaching  the  altar  repeats  a  prescribed 
form  of  oath.  Thereupon  the  tickets  are  taken  from 
the  chalice  by  scrutators  appointed  from  the  electing 
body;  the  tickets  are  compared  with  the  number  of 
Cardinals  present,  and  when  it  is  found  that  any 
Cardinal  has  two  thirds  of  the  votes  in  his  favor  he  is 
declared  elected.  Should  none  have  received  the  need- 
ful number  of  votes,  another  process  is  gone  through, 
viz.,  access  —  so  called  because  any  Cardinal  may  accede 
to  the  choice  of  another  by  filling  up  another  ticket 
made  for  that  purpose.  The  present  Pontiff,  Leone 
XIII.,  was  chosen  almost  unanimously.  He  is  regarded 
as  the  ?63d  Pope  (or  thereabouts)  from  St.  Peter. 

The  rise  of  the  Roman  Pontificate,  as  an  avowed  tem- 
poral sovereignty,  dates  from  the  year  755,  when  Pepin, 
King  of  the  Franks,  gave  to  Pope  Stefano  III.  the  Ex- 
archate and  Pentapolis  (or  Romagna),  conquered  from 
the  Lombards,  to  which  Charles  the  Great  added  part  of 
Tuscany  and  Sabina ;  and  three  centuries  later  Countess 


100 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Matilda  of  Tuscany  bequeathed  to  the  Holy  See  her 
ample  territories.  Rome,  however,  with  the  Roman 
duchy,  came  practically  under  the  Pope's  civil  dominion 
in  the  days  of  Gregorio  the  Great  (590-604).  In  1860  the 
whole  Pontifical  State  comprised  an  area  of  about 
16,000  square  miles,  with  a  population  of  3,125,000  souls ; 
thenceforth,  until  1870,  about  5,000  square  miles  and 
692,000  souls. 

The  Bishop  of  Rome,  or  Pope,  by  Roman  Catholics 
accounted  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ  upon  earth,  and,  in  that 
office,  Successor  of  St.  Peter,  is  the  absolute  and  irre- 
sponsible ruler  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  regarded 
as  the  whole  Christian  Church  here  below.  His  ex  cathe- 
dra definitions  on  matters  of  faith  or  morals  are  held 
to  be  infallible,  and  against  his  judgments  there  is  no 
appeal.  Every  baptized  person  is  held  to  be  spiritually 
subject  to  him,  and  his  jurisdiction  over  such  to  be  im- 
mediate. The  Roman  Pontiff  has  for  advisers  and  coad- 
jutors the  Sacred  College  of  Cardinals  consisting,  when 
complete,  of  seventy  members,  namely,  six  cardinal- 
bishops,  fifty  cardinal-priests,  and  fourteen  cardinal- 
deacons,  but  hardly  ever  comprising  the  full  number. 
In  January  1899  the  Sacred  College  consisted  of  six  car- 
dinal-bishops, forty-five  cardinal-priests,  and  five  cardi- 
nal-deacons. 

The  central  administration  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  is  carried  on  by  a  number  of  permanent  com- 
mittees called  Sacred  Congregations,  composed  of  Car- 
dinals, with  Consultors  'and  Officials.  There  are  now 
twenty  sacred  Congregations,  viz. :  Inquisition  or  Holy 
Office^  Consistorial,  Apostolic  Visitation,  Bishops  and 
Regulars,  Council,  Residence  of  Bishops,  State  of  Regu- 
lars, Ecclesiastical  Immunity,  Propaganda,  Propaganda 
for  iSastern  Rite,  Index,  Sacred  Rites,  Ceremonial,  Reg- 
ular Discipline,  Indulgences  and  Sacred  Relics  Exam- 
ination of  Bishops,  Fabric  of  St.  Peter's,  Lauretana,  Ex- 
traordinary Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Studies. 

Instruction.— The  State  regulates  public  instruction, 
and  maintains,  either  entirely  or  in  conjunction  with 
the  communes  and  provinces,  public  schools  of  every 

grade.  Every  teacher  in  a  public  institution  maintained 
y  the  State,  or  by  any  other  public  body,  must  have  the 
qualifications  required  by  law  ;  and  in  all  public  insti- 
tutions not  belonging  to  the  State,  the  same  programme 
must  be  followed,  and  the  same  rules  observed.  No 
private  person  can  keep  a  school  without  having  ob- 
tained the  authorization  of  the  State. 

Justice. — In  Italy,  justice  in  penal  matters  is  admin- 
istered in  the  first  instance  by  the  Pretori,  by  the  penal 
Tribunals,  and  by  the  Courts  of  Assize ;  on  appeal,  by  the 
penal  Tribunals,  and  by  the  Courts  of  Appeal.  The 
highest  court  is  the  Court  of  Cassation,  which  confines 
itself  to  inquiring  whether  the  forms  prescribed  by  law 
have  been  observed. 

The  Pretori  have  jurisdiction  concerning  all  delicts 
(delitti)  punishable  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding 
three  months,  or  banishment  not  exceeding  one  year,  or 
by  fine  not  exceeding  1,000  lire  and  all  misdemeanors 
(contravenzioni).  The  penal  Tribunals  have  jurisdiction 
in  the  first  instance  in  offenses  (delitti)  (excepting  of- 
fenses for  which  the  Code  establishesa  minimum  of  five 
years)  punishable  by  imprisonment  from  ten  months 
to  ten  years,  or  by  fine  exceeding  1,000  lire.  The  Courts  of 
Assize,  which  in  most  cases  have  juries,  have  jurisdiction 
inallproceedingsconeerningseriousoft'enses(delitti)pun- 
ishable  by  imprisonment  for  life  (ergastolo)  or  by  Impris- 
onment from  ten  to  twenty-four  years,  or  bv  minimum 
imprisonment  exceeding  five  years.  They  have  exclu- 
sive jurisdiction  concerning  offenses  against  the  inter- 
nal and  external  security  of  the  State,  and  all  press  of- 
fenses. Appeal  is  allowed  to  the  penal  Tribunals  from 
the  sentences  of  the  Pretori,  and  to  the  Courts  of  Ap- 
peal from  those  of  the  penal  Tribunals.  The  Court  of 
Cassation  has  power  to  annul,  for  illegality,  sentences 
passed  by  the  inferior  Courts,  and  to  decide  questions 
of  jurisdiction  or  competency. 

Italy  is  divided,  for  the  administration  of  justice,  into 
twenty  appeal  court  districts,  each  of  which  is  sub- 
divided into  tribunal  districts,  162  in  all,  and  these 
again  into  in.mdamcuti,  each  with  its  own  magistracy 
(Pretura),  1,54* in  all. 

JAPAN. 

The  Japanese  claim  that  their  empire  was 
founded hy  the  first  Emperor  Jimmn  <><!<>  B.C., 
and  that  the  dynasty  founded  by  him  still 
reigns.     It  was  revived  in  the  year  1868,  when 


the  now  ruling  (de  jure)  sovereign  overthrew, 
after  a  short  war,  the  power  of  the  Shogun 
(the  de  facto  sovereign),  who  had  held  the 
ruling  power  in  successive  families  since  the 
twelfth  century ;  and  in  1871  the  feudal  sys- 
tem (Hoken  Seiji)  was  entirely  suppressed. 
The  sovereign  bears  the  name  of  Kotei,  or 
Emperor ;  but  the  appellation  by  which  he  is 
generally  known  in  foreign  countries  is  the 
ancient  title  of  Mikado,  or  "The  Honorable 
Gate." 

By  the  Imperial  House  Law  of  February 
11,  1889,  the  succession  to  the  throne  has 
been  definitely  fixed  upon  the  male  descen- 
dants. In  case  of  failure  of  direct  descen- 
dants, the  throne  devolves  upon  the  nearest 
Prince  and  his  descendants. 

The  system  of  government  of  the  Japanese 
Empire  was  that  of  an  Absolute  Monarchy. 
A  Constitution  was,' however,  promulgated  on 
February  11,  1889. 

By  this  Constitution  the  Emperor  is  the 
head  of  the  Empire,  combining  in  himself  the 
rights  of  sovereignty,  and  exercising  the  whole 
of  the  executive  powers  with  the  advice  and 
assistance  of  the  Cabinet  Ministers,  who  are 
responsible  to  him,  and  are  appointed  by  him- 
self. There  is  also  a  Privy  Council,  who  de- 
liberate upon  important  matters  of  State  when 
they  have  been  consulted  by  the  Emperor. 
The  Emperor  can  declare  war,  make  peace, 
and  conclude  treaties.  The  Emperor  exer- 
cises the  legislative  power  with  the  consent  of 
the  Imperial  Diet.  It  is  the  prerogative  of 
the  Emperor  to  give  sanction  to  laws,  to  con- 
voke the  Imperial  Diet,  to  open,  close,  and 
prorogue  it,  and  to  dissolve  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives. The  Imperial  Diet  consists  of 
two  Houses,  a  House  of  Peers  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  Every  law  requires  the  con- 
sent of  the  Imperial  Diet.  Both  Houses  may 
respectively  initiate  projects  of  law,  can  make 
representations  to  the  Government  as  to  laws 
or  upon  any  other  subject,  and  may  present 
addresses  to  the  Emperor. 

The  House  of  Peers  is  composed  of  (1)  male 
members  of  the  Imperial  family  of  the  age  of 
20  and  upwards  ;  (2)  princes  and  marquises 
of  the  age  of  25  and  upwards  (11  princes 
and  28  marquises)  ;  (3)  counts,  viscounts,  and 
barons  of  the  age  of  25  and  upwards,  and  who 
have  been  elected  by  the  members  of  their  re- 
spective orders,  never  to  exceed  one  fifth  of 
each  order  (80  counts,  355  viscounts,  2!)  bar- 
ons) ;  (1)  persons  above  the  age  of  30  years, 
who  have  been  nominated  members  by  the 
Emperor  for  meritorious  services  to  the  State 
or  for  erudition;  (.">)  persons  who  shall  have 
been  elected  in  each  Fu  and  Ken  from  among 
and  by  the   15    male   inhabitants   thereof,  of 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


101 


above  the  age  of  30  years,  paying  therein  the 
highest  amount  of  direct  national  taxes  on 
land,  industry,  or  trade,  and  have  been  nomi- 
nated by  the  Emperor.  The  term  of  member- 
ship under  (3)  and  (5)  is  seven  years ;  under 
(1),  (2),  and  (4)  for  life.  The  number  of 
members  under  (4)  and  (5)  not  to  exceed  the 
number  of  other  members.  The  entire  mem- 
bership of  the  House  of  Peers  is  to  be  about 
300. 

The  members  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives number  300,  a  fixed  number  being  re- 
turned from  each  election  district.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  number  of  members  to  the 
population  is  about  one  member  to  128,000. 
The  qualifications  of  electors  are  (1)  male 
Japanese  subjects  of  not  less  than  full  25  years 
of  age  ;  (2)  fixed  permanent  and  actual  resi- 
dence in  the  Fu  or  Ken  for  not  less  than  a 
year  ;  (3)  payment  of  direct  national  taxes  to 
the  amount  of  not  less  than  15  yen  for  one 
year  in  the  Fu  or  Ken,  and  in  case  of  income 
tax  for  three  years. 

The  qualifications  of  persons  eligible  for 
election  are  generally  the  same  as  those  of 
electors,  except  that  they  must  be  of  not  less 
than  30  years,  and  need  not  have  fixed  resi- 
dence in  the  Fu  or  Ken.  The  term  of  mem- 
bership is  four  years. 

Disqualified  for  members  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  are  officials  of  the  Imperial 
Household,  judges,  auditors,  officials  connected 
with  the  collection  of  taxes,  police  officials, 
officials  of  electoral  districts  within  their  own 
districts,  military  and  naval  officers,  and  priests 
or  ministers  of  religion.  The  President  and 
Vice-President  of  the  House  of  Peers  are  nomi- 
nated by  the  Emperor  from  among  the  mem- 
bers, and  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
House  of  Representatives  are  nominated  by 
the  Emperor  from  among  three  candidates 
elected  by  the  House.  The  Presidents  of  both 
Houses  receive  an  annual  salary  of  4,000  yen  ; 
Vice-Presidents,  2,000  yen;  elected  and  nomi- 
nated members  of  the  House  of  Peers  and 
members  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  800 
yen,  besides  traveling  expenses.  No  one  is 
allowed  to  decline  these  annual  allowances. 

The  Imperial  Diet  has  control  over  the 
finances  and  the  administration  of  justice. 
Voting  is  by  secret  ballot,  and  the  system  is 
that  of  scrutin  de  liste.  The  Diet  must  be  as- 
sembled once  every  year. 

At  the  head  of  local  administration  in  the 
provinces  are  the  governors,  one  of  them  re- 
siding in  each  of  the  M5  districts  (3  Fus  and 
43  Kens)  into  which  Japan  is  divided.  In 
1879,  city  and  prefecture]  assemblies  were 
created,  based  on  the  principle  of  election  ; 
their  power  is  confined  to  fixing  the  estimates 


of  the  local  rates,  subject  to  the  confirmation 
of  the  governors,  and  finally  of  the  Minister  of 
the  Interior.  Eligible  to  the  assembly  are  all 
male  citizens  25  years  of  age,  resident  in  the 
district  at  least  three  consecutive  years,  and 
paying  land  tax  of  more  than  ten  yen  annu- 
ally. The  franchise  is  conferred  on  all  male 
citizens  of  20  years  residing  in  the  district, 
and  paying  more  than  five  yen  land  tax.  An- 
nually, or  in  every  other  year,  governors  are 
summoned  to  the  Department  of  the  Interior 
to  deliberate  upon  matters  of  local  administra- 
tion. Each  district  is  subdivided  into  cities 
(ku),  and  counties  (guri),  each  with  its  chief 
magistrate  (c/jo),  who  manages  local  affairs. 
The  Island  of  Hokkaido  (Yezo)  has  a  governor 
and  a  special  organization. 

To  further  carry  out  the  principle  of  decen- 
tralization and  self-government  a  system  of 
local  administration  in  sJii  (municipality),  cho 
(town),  and  son  (village)  was  established  by 
Imperial  Rescript,  April  17,  1888,  which  came 
into  effect  April  1,  1889,  and  is  to  be  applied 
gradually  according  to  the  circumstances  and 
requirements  of  these  localities. 

Religion.— By  the  Constitution  absolute  freedom  of 
religious  belief  and  practice  is  secured,  so  lone  as  it  is 
not  prejudicial  to  peace  and  order,  The  chief  forms  of 
religion  are  —  (1)  Shintoism,  with  11  sects ;  (2)  Buddhism, 
with  12  sects  and  30  creeds.  There  is  no  State  religion, 
and  no  State  support.  The  principal  Shinto  temples 
are,  however,  maintained  bv  State  or  local  authorities. 
In  1895  —  Shinto  temples,  190,754 ;  priests,  14,927  ;  stu- 
dents, 1,939.  Buddhist  temples,  71,821 ;  priests,  53,275; 
students,  9,286.  There  are  also  numerous  Roman  Cath- 
olics, adherents  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  Protestants. 

Instruction.  Elementary  education  is  compulsory. 
The  number  of  children  of  school  age  (6-14)  on  December 
31,  1895,  was  7,670,837.  The  following  are  the  educa- 
tional statistics  for  1895 :  — 


Institutes. 


Elementary  schools. . 
Lower  middle  schools 

High  schools 

High  girls'  schools 

Normal  schools 

Technical  schools 

Special  schools 

University  schools  — 
Kindergarten  schools 


Number. 

Teaching 
Staff. 

26,631 
96 

7 

73,182 

1,324 

279 

15 

186 

49 

743 

97 

1,263 

3 

1,078 

3,250 

184 

220 

482 

Students 

and 
Pupils. 


3,670,345 

30,871 

3,580 

1,266 

7,734 

14,806 

64,948 

1,646 

17,481 


The  University  consists  of  a  University  Hall,  Colleges 
of  Law,  Science!  Medicine,  Literature,  Engineering,  and 
Agriculture.  It  is  supported  by  Government.  The  bulk 
of  the  elementary  ana  higher  schools  are  also  supported 
by  Government  and  by  local  rates.  One  of  the  normal 
schools  is  for  high  school  teachers. 

In  1895  there  were  25  libraries  in  Japan,  with  441,034 
volumes.  In  1895,  26,792  books  of  various  kinds,  and  753 
periodicals,  monthly,  weekly,  daily,  were  published. 
Of  the  periodicals  409,429,528  copies  were  issued. 

Justice.— A  system  of  justice  founded  on  modern 
jurisprudence  has  been  established.  Judges  are  irre- 
movable, except  by  way  of  criminal  or  disciplinary  pun- 
ishment. There  is  a  Court  of  Cassations  at  Tokio,  which 
takes  cognizance  of  civil  and  criminal  appeals.  There 
are  seven  courts  of  appeal  for  civil  and  criminal  cases 
decided  in  the  courts  of  first  instance.  There  are  49 
courts  of  first  instance,  one  in  each  Fu  or  Ken,  with 
branch  courts  in  some  Fus  and  Kens  having  unlimited 
original  civil  jurisdiction.    As  criminal  courts  they  try 


102 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


and  decide  all  lesser  crimes,  and  also  make  preliminary 
examination  of  serious  crimes.    Justice  of  Peace  Courts 

f  01),  established  in  principal  towns  and  villages  of  every 
u  and  Ken,  take  cognizance  of  all  petty  offenses.  Once 
in  three  months  criminal  courts  are  constituted  in  courts 
of  appeal,  and  sometimes  in  courts  of  first  instance,  a 
president  and  four  judges,  to  try  serious  crimes. 

A  few  judges  of  high  rank  are  directly  appointed  by 
the  Emperor,  and  some  are  appointed  by  him  on  nomina- 
tion by  the  Minister  of  Justice. 

MEXICO. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Mexico  bears 
date  February  5,  1857,  with  subsequsnt  modi- 
fications down  to  May,  1896.  By  its  terms 
Mexico  is  declared  a  federative  republi  c,  divided 
.into  States  —  19  at  the  outset,  but  at  present 
27  in  number,  with  2  territories  and  the 
Federal  District  —  each  of  which  has  a  right 
to  manage  its  own  local  affairs,  while  the 
whole  are  bound  together  in  one  body  politic 
by  fundamental  and  constitutional  laws.  The 
powers  of  the  supreme  Government  are  divided 
into  three  branches,  the  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial.  The  legislative  power  is  vested 
in  a  Congress  consisting  of  a  Houso  of  Rep- 
resentatives and  a  Senate,  and  the  executive 
in  a  President.  Representatives  elected  by 
the  suffrage  of  all  respectable  male  adults,  at 
the  rate  of  one  member  for  40,000  inhabit- 
ants, hold  their  places  for  two  years.  The 
qualifications  requisite  are,  to  be  twenty-five 
years  of  age,  and  a  resident  in  the  State.  The 
Senate  consists  of  fifty-six  members,  two  for 
each  State,  of  at  least  thirty  \ears  of  age, 
who  are  returned  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
deputies.  The  members  of  both  Houses  re- 
ceive salaries  of  3,000  dollars  a  year.  The 
President  is  elected  by  electors  popularly 
chosen  in  a  general  election,  holds  office  for 
four  years,  and,  according  to  an  amendment 
of  the  Constitution  in  1887,  may  be  elected 
for  consecutive  terms.  Failing  the  President 
through  absence  or  otherwise,  whether  the 
disability  be  temporary  or  permanent,  Con- 
gress has  power  to  elect  an  acting-president  who 
shall  discharge  the  functions  of  President 
temporarily  or,  if  necessary,  to  the  end  of  the 
constitutional  period.  Congress  has  to  meet 
annually  from  April  1  to  May  30,  and  from 
September  16  to  December  15,  and  a  per- 
manent committee  of  both  Houses  sits  during 
the  recesses. 

The  administration  is  carried  on,  under  the 
direction  of  the  President  and  a  Council,  by 
seven  Secretaries  of  State,  heads  of  the  De- 
partments of  : — 1,  Foreign  Affairs;  2,  In- 
terior; 3,  Justice  and  Public  Instruction;  4, 
Foinento,  Colonization  and  Industry  ;  5,  Com- 
munications and  Public  Works;  6,  Financial 
and  Public  Credit;  7,  War  and  Marine. 

Local  Government.— -Kadi  separate  State  has  its  own 
internal  constitution,  government,  and  laws;  but  inter- 
state customs  duties  are  not  permitted.    Each  has  its 


governor  and  legislature  popularly  elected  under  rules 
similar  to  those  of  the  Federatio'n ;  and  the  civil  and 
criminal  code  in  force  in  the  Federal  District  prevails, 
with  few  exceptions  (Vera  Cruzandthe  State  of  Mexico), 
in  the  different  States. 

Religion,  Instruction,  and  Justice.  The  prevail- 
ing religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  the  Church  is 
independent  of  the  State,  and  there  is  toleration  of  all 
other  religions.  In  1889  there  were  10,112  Roman  Catho- 
lic churches  and  chapels,  and  119  Protestant  churches  in 
the  Republic.  No  ecclesiastical  body  can  acquire  landed 
property.  On  August  12, 1890,  there  were  in  the  munic- 
ipality of  Mexico  320,143  Catholics  and  2,623  Protestants. 

In  almost  all  the  States  education  is  free  and  compul- 
sory, but  the  law  has  not  been  strictly  enforced.  In  the 
municipality  of  Mexico  there  were"  in  181)0,15.268  per- 
sons who  could  read  only,  and  176,692  persons  who  could 
neither  read  nor  write.  Primary  instruction  is  mostly 
at  the  expense  of  the  states  and  municipalities,  but  the 
Federal  Government  makes  frequent  grants,  and  many 
schools  are  under  the  care  of  beneficent  societies. 
Higher  education  is  carried  on  in  secondary  schools 
and  seminaries,  and  in  colleges  for  professional  instruc- 
tion, including  schools  of  law.  medicine,  engineering, 
mining, finearts, agriculture, commerce,  arts. and  trades, 
music.  In  1896  the  number  of  schools  supported  by  the 
States  was  5,852,  and  by  the  municipalities,  8.218;  the 
number  of  teachers  in  both  was  13,352:  there  weivi  >  6301 
enrolled  pupils,  and  an  average  attendance  of  413,790. 
The  cost  of  these  schools  for  the  year  was  5,463,350  dol- 
lars. The  private  and  clerical  schools  numbered  2,442, 
with  101,641  enrolled  pupils,  and  an  average  attendance 
of  76,956.  The  total  number  of  schools  was  thus  11,512, 
with  7<,7,942  enrolled  pupils,  and  an  average  attendance 
of  490.746.  Of  the  average  attendance,  o00,272  were  boys 
and  190  501  were  girls.  There  are  also  one  military  and 
one  naval  college.  The  number  attending  the  higher 
schools  is  stated  at  21.000. 

In  1896  there  were  in  the  Republic  the  National  Li- 
brary, with  159,000  volumes,  and  102 other  public  libraries. 
There  were  in  that  year  17  museums  for  scientific  and 
educational  purposes,  and  3  meteorological  observato- 
ries. The  number  of  newspapers  published  was  531,  of 
which  7  were  in  Knglish,  5  in  .Spanish  and  English,  2  in 
French,  and  1  in  German. 

The  judicial  power,  which  is  entirely  distinct  from 
and  independent  of  the  executive,  consists  of  the  Su- 
preme Court,  with  15  judges  chosen  for  a  period  of  six 
years,  Circuit  Courts,  with  3  judges,  and  District  Courts, 
with  32  judges. 

Thr  ( Ordinary, Civil,  Criminal,  and  Correctional  Courts 
are  controlled  by  the  Department  of  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction. 

NETHERLANDS  (THE). 

The  first  Constitution  of  the  Netherlands 
after  its  reconstruction  as  a  kingdom  was  given 
in  1815,  and  was  revised  in  1848  and  in  1887. 
According  to  this  charter  the  Netherlands  form 
a  constitutional  and  hereditary  monarchy. 
The  royal  succession  is  in  the  direct  male  line 
in  the  order  of  primogeniture  ;  in  default  of 
male  heirs,  the  female  line  ascends  the  throne. 
In  default  of  a  legal  heir,  the  successor  to  the 
throne  is  designated  by  the  Sovereign  and  a 
joint  meeting  of  both  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment (each  containing  twice  the  usual  number 
of  members),  and  by  this  assembly  alone  if 
the  case  occurs  after  the  Sovereign's  death. 
The  age  of  majority  of  the  Sovereign  is  eighteen 
years.  During  his  minority  the  royal  power  is 
vested  in  a  Regent —  designated  bylaw  — and 
in  some  cases  in  the  State  Council. 

The  executive  power  of  the  State  belongs 
exclusively  to  the  Sovereign,  while  the  whole 
legislative  authority  rests  conjointly  in  the 
Sovereign  and  Parliament,  the  latter  —  called 
the  States-General  —  consisting  of  two  Cham- 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


103 


hers.  The  Upper  or  First  Chamber  is  com- 
posed of  50  members,  elected  by  the  Provincial 
States  from  among  the  most  highly  assessed 
inhabitants  of  the  eleven  provinces,  or  from 
among  some  high  and  important  function- 
aries, mentioned  by  law.  Members  of  the 
First  Chamber  not  residing  in  the  Hague, 
where  the  Parliament  meets,  are  allowed  10 
guilders  (16s.  Sd.)  a  day  during  the  session  of 
the  States-General.  The  Second  Chamber  of 
the  States-General  numbers  100  deputies,  who 
are  elected  directly. 

The  Government  and  the  Second  Chamber 
only  may  introduce  new  bills ;  the  functions 
of  the  Upper  Chamber  being  restricted  to  ap- 
proving or  rejecting  them,  without  the  power 
of  inserting  amendments.  The  meetings  of 
both  Chambers  are  public,  though  each  of 
them,  by  the  decision  of  the  majority,  may 
form  itself  into  a  private  committee.  The 
ministers  may  attend  at  the  meetings  of  both 
Chambers,  but  they  have  only  a  deliberative 
vote,  unless  they  are  members.  Alterations  in 
the  Constitution  can  be  made  only  by  a  bill 
declaring  that  there  is  reason  for  introducing 
those  alterations,  followed  by  a  dissolution  of 
the  Chambers  and  a  second  confirmation  by 
the  new  States-General  by  two  thirds  of  the 
votes.  Unless  it  is  expressly  declared,  the 
laws  concern  only  the  realm  in  Europe,  and 
not  the  colonies. 

The  executive  authority,  belonging  to  the 
Sovereign,  is  exercised  by  a  responsible  Council 
of  Ministers.  There  are  eight  heads  of  depart- 
ments in  the  Ministerial  Council,  namely  :  — 

The  Mi /titter  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  President 
of  the  Ministerial  Council. 

The  Minister  of  the  Interior. 

The  Minister  of  Finance. 

The  Minister  of  Justice. 

The  Minister  of  the  Colonies. 

The  Minister  of  Marine. 

The  Minister  of  War. 

The  Minister  of  Public  Works  and  Commerce. 

Each  of  the  above  Ministers  has  an  annual 
salary  of  12,000  guilders,  or  1,0001. 

There  is  a  State  Council — "  Raad  van 
State" — of  14  members,  appointed  by  the 
Sovereign,  of  which  the  Sovereign  is  president, 
and  which  is  consulted  on  all  legislative  and  a 
great  number  of  executive  matters. 

Local  Oovernmen*. —  The  territory  of  the  Nether- 
lands is  divided  into  11  provinces  and"l,123  communes. 
Each  province  has  its  own  representative  body,  "the 
Provincial  States."  The  members  are  elected  for  6 
years,  directly  from  anions;  the  nale  Dutch  inhabitants 
of  the  province  who  are  25  years  of  age.  one  half  of  the 
number  being  subject  to  re-election  or  renewal  every 
three  years.  Except  that  they  must  be  inhabitants  of 
the  province,  the  electors,  as  well  as  the  mode  of  voting, 
are  the  same  as  for  the  Second  Chamber.  The  number 
of  members  varies  according  to  the  population  of  the 
province,  from  80  for  Holland  (South)  to  35  for  Drenthe. 
The  Provincial  States  are  entitled  to  make  ordinances 


concerning  the  welfare  of  the  province,  and  to  raise 
taxes  according  to  legal  precepts.  All  provincial  ordi- 
nances must  be  approved  by  the  King.  The  Provincial 
States  exercise  a  right  of  control  over  the  municipali- 
ties. They  also  elect  the  members  of  the  First  Cham- 
ber of  the  States-General.  They  meet  twice  a  vear,  as  a 
rule  in  public.  A  permanent  commission  composed  of 
six  of  their  members,  called  the  "  Deputed  States,"  is 
charged  with  the  executive  power  in  the  province  and 
the  daily  administration  of  its  affairs.  This  commit- 
tee has  also  to  see  the  common  law  executed  in  the 
province.  Both  the  Deputed  as  well  as  the  Provincial 
States  are  presided  over  by  a  Commissioner  of  the  Sov- 
ereign, who  in  the  former  assembly  hasa  deciding  vote, 
but  in  the  latter  named  onlv  a  deliberative  vote.  He  is 
the  chief  magistrate  in  the  province.  Only  the  members 
of  the  Deputed  States  receive  an  allowance. 

The  communes  form  each  a  Corporation  with  its  own 
interests  and  rights,  subject  to  tliegeneral  law.  In  each 
commune  is  a  Council,  elected  for  six  years  directly,  by 
the  same  voters  as  for  the  Provincial  States,  piovided 
they  inhabit  the  commune  :  one  third  of  the  Council 
retiring  every  two  years.  All  the  male  Dutch  inhabi- 
tants 23  years  of  age  are  eligible,  the  number  of  mem- 
bers varying  from  7  to  41,  according  to  the  population. 
The  Council  has  a  right  of  making  and  enforcing  by- 
laws concerning  the  communal  welfare.  The  Council 
may  raise  taxes  acording  to  rules  prescribed  by  com- 
mon law  ;  besides,  each  commune  receives  from  the 
State  Treasury  an  allowance  proportioned  to  the  total 
number  of  its  inhabitants  and  to  the  share  which  its 
non-contributing  inhabitants  have  failed  to  pay  toward 
local  taxes.  All  by-laws  may  be  vetoed  by  the  Sover- 
eign. The  Municipal  Budget  and  the  resolutions  to 
alienate  municipal  property  require  the  approbation 
of  the  Deputed  States  of  the  province.  The  Council 
meets  in  public  as  often  as  may  be  necessary,  and  is  pre- 
sided over  by  a  Mayor,  appointed  by  the  Sovereign  lor 
six  years.  The  executive  power  is"  vested  in  a  college 
formed  by  the  Mayor  and  2,  3,  or  4  Aldermen  (wetbou- 
ders)  elected  by  and  from  the  Council  ;  this  college  is 
also  charged  with  the  execution  of  the  common  law. 
Municipal  Police  is  under  the  authority  of  the  Mayor  ; 
as  a  State  functionary  the  Mayor  supervises  the  actions 
of  the  Council  ;  he  may  suspend  their  resolutions  for  30 
days,  but  is  bound  to  inform  the  Deputed  States  of  the 
province. 

Religion.— According  to  the  terms  of  the  Constitu- 
tion, entire  liberty  of  conscience  and  complete  social 
equality  are  granted  to  the  members  of  all  religious  con- 
fessions. The  royal  family  and  the  majority  of  the  in- 
habitants belong'to  the  Reformed  Church.  The  salaries 
of  several  British  Presbyterian  ministers,  settled  in  the 
Netherlands,  and  whose" churches  are  incorporated  with 
the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  are  ]  aid  out  of  the  public 
funds.  The  State  Budget  contained  fixed  allowances 
for  the  different  churches;  for  Protestant  Churches, 
1.370.85' guilders;  for  Roman  Catholics,  578,035;  and  for 
Jews,  12, 775. 

Instruction. — Public  instruction  (primary)  is  given 
in  all  places  where  needed,  but  education  is  liot  compul- 
sory nor  necessarily  free ;  religious  convictions  are  re- 
spected. 

From  the  beginningof  this  century  elementary  schools 
have  been  more  or  les-s  under  State"  regulation"  a:id  in- 
spection. In  1806,  and  more  expressly  in  1848,  secular 
instruction  was  separated  from  religious  or  sectarian 
instruction.  Elementary  education  is  now  regulated  by 
the  Primary  Instruction  Act,  passed  in  1857,  supple- 
mented by  an  Act  of  1878,  and  again  considerably  altered 
by  the  Act  of  December  1880.  By  the  last  Act  public  in- 
struction is  diminished  and  a  greater  share  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  youths  left  to  private  instruction,  which  is 
now  supported  by  the  State.  According  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  present  Act  the  cost  of  public  primary  in- 
struction is  borne  jointly  by  the  State  and  the  csim- 
munes,  tliejSJjjite  contributing  to  the  salaries  of  the 
teachers  an^peing  responsible  for  25  per  cent,  to  the 
costs  of  founding  or  purchasingschools.  There  are  four 
universities— Leyden.  Grongingen,  Utrecht,  a:id  Am- 
sterdam— attended  by  over  3  000  students;  1.278  private 
and  higher  schools;  aid  2.0C3  public  elementary  schools. 
Justice.— Justice  is  administered  by  the  High  Court 
of  the  Netherlands  (Court  of  Cassation),  by  5  courts  of 
justice  (Courts  of  Appeal},  1  y  23  district  tribunals,  and 
by  106  cantonal  courts ;  trial  by  jury  is  unknown  ia  Hol- 
land. All  Judges  are  appointed  for  life  by  the  King 
(the  Judges  of  the  High  Court  from  a  list  prepared  by 
the  Second  Chamber).  They  can  be  removed  only  by  a 
decision  of  the  High  Court. 


104 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


RUSSIA. 

Constitution  and  Government. — The 

government  of  Russia  is  an  absolute  hereditary 
monarchy.  The  whole  legislative,  executive, 
and  judicial  power  is  united  in  the  Emperor, 
whose  will  alone  is  law.  There  are,  however, 
certain  rules  of  government  which  the  sover- 
eigns of  the  present  reigning  house  have 
acknowledged  as  binding.  The  chief  of  these 
is  the  law  of  succession  to  the  throne,  which, 
according  to  a  decree  of  the  Emperor  Paul,  of 
the  year  1797,  is  to  be  that  of  regular  descent, 
by  the  right  of  primogeniture,  with  preference 
of  male  over  female  heirs.  This  decree  an- 
nulled a  previous  one,  issued  by  Peter  I.,  Feb- 
ruary 5,  1722,  which  ordered  each  sovereign 
to  select  his  successor  to  the  throne  from 
among  the  members  of  the  imperial  family, 
irrespective  of  the  claims  of  primogeniture. 
Another  fundamental  law  of  the  realm  pro- 
claimed by  Peter  I.  is  that  every  sovereign  of 
Russia,  with  his  consort  and  children,  must  be 
a  member  of  the  orthodox  Greek  Church.  The 
princes  and  princesses  of  the  imperial  house, 
according  to  a  decree  of  Alexander  T.,  must 
obtain  the  consent  of  the  Emperor  to  any  mar- 
riage they  may  contract ;  otherwise  the  issue 
of  such  union  cannot  inherit  the  throne.  By 
an  ancient  law  of  Russia,  the  heir-apparent  is 
held  to  be  of  age  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth 
year,  and  the  other  members  of  the  reigning 
family  with  the  completed  twentieth  year. 

The  administration  of  the  Empire  is  en- 
trusted to  four  great  boards,  or  councils,  pos- 
sessing separate  functions.  The  first  of  these 
boards  is  the  Council  of  the  State,  established 
in  its  present  form  by  Alexander  I.,  in  the 
year  1810.  It  consists  of  a  president  —  the 
Grand  Duke  Mikhail  since  1882 — and  an 
unlimited  number  of  members  appointed  by 
the  Emperor.  In  1894  the  Council  consisted 
of  62  members,  exclusive  of  the  ministers,  who 
have  a  seat  ex  officio,  and  six  princes  of  the 
imperial  house.  The  Council  is  divided  into 
three  departments,  namely,  of  Legislation,  of 
Civil  and  Church  Administration,  and  of 
Finance.  Each  department  has  its  own  presi- 
dent, and  a  separate  sphere  of  duties ;  but 
there  are  collective  meetings  of  the  three  sec- 
tions. The  chief  function  of  the  Council  of 
the  Empire  is  that  of  examining  into  the  proj- 
ects of  laws  which  are  brought  afcefore  it  by 
the  ministers,  and  of  discussing  the  budget  and 
all  the  expenditures  to  be  made  during  the 
year.  But  the  Council  has  no  power  of  pro- 
posing alterations  and  modifications  of  the 
laws  of  the  realm  ;  it  is,  properly  speaking,  a 
consultative  institution  in  matters  of  legisla- 
tion. A  special  department  is  intrusted  with 
the  discussion  of  the  requests  addressed  to  the 


Emperor  against  the  decisions  of  the  Senate. 
The  second  of  the  great  colleges  or  boards 
of  government  is  1 1 1 « -    Ruling  Senate,  or  •'  Pra- 

vitelstvuyusehiy  Senat,"  established  by  Peter  1. 
in  the  year  1711.  The  functions  of  the  Senate 
are  partly  of  a  deliberative  and  partly  of  an 
executive  character.  To  be  valid  a  law  must 
be  promulgated  by  the  Senate.  It  is  also  the 
high  court  of  justice  for  the  Empire.  The 
Senate  is  divided  into  nine  departments  or 
sections,  which  all  sit  at  St.  Petersburg,  two 
of  them  being  Courts  of  Cassation.  Each 
department  is  authorized  to  decide  in  the  last 
resort  upon  certain  descriptions  of  cases.  The 
senators  are  mostly  persons  of  high  rank,  or 
who  fill  high  stations ;  but  a  lawyer  of  emi- 
nence presides  over  each  department,  who 
represents  the  Emperor,  and  without  whose 
signature  its  decisions  would  have  no  force. 
In  the  plenum,  or  general  meeting  of  several 
sections,  the  Minister  of  Justice  takes  the 
chair.  Besides  its  superintendence  over  the 
courts  of  law,  the  Senate  examines  into 
the  state  of  the  general  administration  of 
the  Empire,  and  has  power  to  make  remon- 
strances to  the  Emperor.  A  special  depart- 
ment consisting  of  seven  members  is  intrusted 
with  judgments  in  political  offenses,  and 
another  (six  members)  with  disciplinary  judg- 
ments against  officials  of  the  crown. 

The  third  college,  established  by  Peter  I.  in 
the  year  1721,  is  the  Holy  Synod,  and  to  it  is 
committed  the  superintendence  of  the  religious 
affairs  of  the  Empire.  It  is  composed  of  the 
three  metropolitans  (St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
and  Kieff),  the  archbishops  of  Georgia  (Cau- 
casus), and  of  Poland  (Kholm  and  Warsaw), 
and  several  bishops  sitting  in  turn.  All  its 
decisions  run  in  the  Emperor's  name,  and  have 
no  force  till  approved  by  him.  The  President 
of  the  Holy  Synod  is  the  Metropolitan  of  Nov- 
gorod and  St.  Petersburg. 

The  fourth  board  of  government  is  the  Com- 
mittee of  Ministers.  It  consists  of  all  the  min- 
isters, who  are : — 

I.  The  Ministry  nf  tin  Imperial  II oust  mih 
Imperial  Domains, 

S.  Tin-  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  Assist- 
ant Minister, 

■  !.    The  Ministry  bf  War. 

Jf.    Tin    Ministry  of  the  Xary. 

5.  The  Ministry  of  the  Interior. 

6.  The  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction, 

7 .  The  Ministry  of  Finance. 

8.  The  Ministry  of  Justice. 

9.  The  Ministry  of  Agriculture  and  State 
Domains. 

10.  The  Ministry  of  Public  Works  and  Hail 
ways. 

II.  The  Department  of  General  Control 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


105 


12.  The  Procurator-General  of  the  Holy 
Synod. 

Besides  the  Ministers,  four  Grand  Dukes, 
and  six  functionaries,  chiefly  ex-ministers, 
form  part  of  the  Committee,  of  which  Actual 
Privy  Councilor  Durnovo  is  President. 

Minister  and  State  Secretary  for  Finland. 

Most  of  the  above  heads  of  departments 
have  assistant  ministers  who  supply  their  place 
on  certain  occasions.  They  all  communicate 
directly  with  the  sovereign. 

The  Emperor  has  two  Private  Cabinets,  one 
of  which  is  occupied  with  charitable  affairs, 
and  the  other  is  devoted  to  public  instruction 
of  girls  and  to  the  administration  of  the  insti- 
tutions established  by  the  late  Empress  Maria, 
mother  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  I.  Besides, 
there  is  the  Imperial  Head-Quarters  (Glavnaya 
Kvartira),  and  a  Cabinet,  which  is  entrusted 
also  with  the  reception  of  petitions  presented 
to  the  Emperor,  formerly  received  by  a  special 
Court  of  Requests  (abolished  in  1884).  Ac- 
cording to  a  law  of  May  19,  1888,  a  special 
Imperial  Cabinet  having  four  sections  (Admin- 
istrative, Economical,  Agricultural  and  Man- 
ufacturing, and  Legislative)  has  been  created, 
instead  of  the  same  departments  in  the  Minis- 
try of  Imperial  Household.  According  to  the 
law  of  May  22,  1894,  a  special  chief  for  the 
protection  of  the  Imperial  residences  and  trains 
has  been  appointed  under  the  title  of  "  General 
in  Service  at  the  Emperor'  (Dezhurnyi  General), 
General  Aide-de-Camp  Tcherevin  holding  this 
position. 

Local  Government. — The  Empire  is  divided  into  {gen- 
eral governments,  or  vice-royalties,  governments,  and 
districts.  There  are  at  present  in  European  Russia  (in- 
cluding  Poland  and  Finland)  68  governments,  with  635 
districts  (uyezcl),  2  otdyels,  and  1  okrug,  also  considered 
as  separate  governments.  Some  of  them  are  united  into 
general  governments,  which  are  now  those  of  Finland, 
Poland,  Wilna,  Kieff,  and  Moscow.  The  Asiatic  part  of 
the  Empire  comprises  5  general  governments:  Caucasus, 
Turkestan,  Stepnoye(of  the  Steppes),  Irkutsh,  and  of  the 
Amur,  with  10  governments  (giiberniya).  17  territories 
(oblasts),  and  3  districts  (okrug,  or  btdyel:  Zakatalv, 
Chernomorsk,  and  Sakhalin).  At  the  head  of  each  gen- 
eral government  is  a  governor-general,  the  representa- 
tive of  the  Emperor,  who  as  such  has  the  supreme  con- 
trol and  direction  of  all  affairs,  whether  civil  or  mili- 
tary. In  Siberia  the  governors-general  are  each  assisted 
byacouncil,  which  has  a  deliberative  voice.  A  civil  gov- 
ernor assisted  by  a  council  of  regency,  to  which  all  meas- 
ures must  be  submitted,  is  established  in  each  govern- 
ment, and  a  military  governor  in  twenty  frontier  prov- 
inces. A  vice-governor  is  appointed  to  fill  the  place  of 
the  civil  governor  when  the  latter  is  absent  or  unwell. 
There  is  also,  in  each  government,  a  council  of  control 
under  the  presidency  of  a  special  officer,  depending  di- 
rectly on  the  Department  of  Control.  Each  government 
is  divided  into  from  8  to  15  districts,  having  each  sev- 
eral administrative  institutions.  A  few  districts  (okrug 
or  otrlyel)  in  Siberia,  in  the  Caucasus,  in  Turkestan,  and 
in  the  Transeaspian  region  are  considered  as  indepen- 
dent governments.  So  also  the  townships  (grarioimcli- 
ulatrin  of  St.  Petersburg,  Odessa,  Kertch,  Sebastopol, 
and  Taganrog:  Cronstadt,  Vladivostok,  and  Nfkolaev&fe 
are  under  separate  military  governors.  In  1894,  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Warsaw  has  been  increased  by  one  district 
of  Plock  and  one  district  of  Lonija." 

In  European  Russia  the  government  of  the  parish,  in 
so  far  as  the  lands  of  the  peasantry  are  concerned,  and 


part  of  the  local  administration,  is  entrusted  to  the 
people.  For  this  purpose  the  whole  country  is  divided 
into  communes  (107,676  in  European  Russia,  exclusive  of 
the  three  Baltic  provinces),  which  elect  an  elder  (Sta- 
rosta),  or  executive  of  a  commune,  as  also  a  tax-collector 
or  superintendent  of  public  stores.  All  these  officers  are 
elected  at  communal  assemblies  ("  Mir  "  —  which  means 
both  "  the  village  "  and  "  the  world  ")  by  the  peasants, 
and  from  among  themselves.  The  communal  assemblies 
are  constituted  by  all  the  householders  in  the  village, 
who  discuss  and  decide  all  communal  affairs.  These 
communal  assemblies  are  held  as  business  requires.  The 
communes  are  united  into  cantons,  or  "  Voloste,"  each 
embracing  a  population  of  about  2,000  males  (10,530  in 
European  Russia).  Each  of  the  cantons  is  presided  over 
also  by  an  elder  "  Starshina,"  elected  at  the  cantonal  as- 
semblies, which  are  composed  of  the  delegates  of  the  vil- 
lage communities  in  proportion  of  one  man  to  every  ten 
houses.  The  canton  assemblies  decide  the  same  class  of 
affairs  as  do  the  communal  assemblies,  but  concerning 
each  its  respective  canton.  The  peasants  have  thus  spe- 
cial institutioncof  their  own,  which  are  submitted  also  to 
special  colleges  "for  peasants' affairs,"  instituted  in  each 
government.  In  Poland  the  "  Voloste  "  is  replaced  by 
the  "  Gmina,"  the  assemblies  of  which  are  constituted 
of  all  landholders  —  nobility  included,  the  clergy  and 
the  police  excluded  —  who  have  each  but  one  voice,  what- 
ever the  area  of  land  possessed.  The  "  Gmina  "  has, 
however,  less  autonomy  than  the  "  Voloste,"  being  sub- 
ject directly  to  the  "  Chief  of  the  District."  In  conjunc- 
tion with  the  assemblies  of  the  Voloste  and  Gmina  are 
cantonal  tribunals,  consisting  of  from  four  to  twelve 
judges  elected  at  cantonal  assemblies.  Injuries  and  of- 
fenses of  every  kind,  as  well  as  disputes  relating  to 
property  between  the  peasants,  not  involving  more  than 
a  hundred  roubles,  come  under  the  jurisdiction  of  these 
popular  tribunals.  Affairs  of  more  importance,  up  to 
300  roubles,  are  judged  by  Judges  of  Peace,  elected  in 
Central  Russia,  and  nominated  elsewhere ;  appeal  against 
their  judgments  can  be  made  to  the  "  Syezd,''  or  gath- 
ering of  judges  of  the  district,  and  further  to  the  Sen- 
ate. In  1889  an  important  change  was  made  in  the  above 
organization.  Justices  of  Peace  have  been  replaced  in 
twenty  provinces  of  Central  Russia  by  Chiefs  of  the  dis- 
trict (uyezdnyi  nachalnik),  nominated  by  the  adminis- 
tration from  among  candidates  taken  from  the  nobility, 
recommended  by  the  nobility,  and  endowed  with  wide 
disciplinary  powers  against  the  peasants;  in  the  cities, 
except  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow,  and  Odessa,  special 
"town  magistrates"  (gorodskoi  sudia),  nominated  in 
the  same  way,  are  to  take  the  place  of  the  former  Jus- 
tices of  Peace.  As  to  the  peasants'  tribunals  (volostnoi 
sud),  jhey  are  placed  in  direct  subjection  to  the  "  Chiefs 
of  the  Districts."  The  same  measure  has  been  extended 
in  1890  and  1891  over  all  the  provinces  endowed  with 
provincial  institutions  (zemstvos). 

Religion. — The  established  religion  of  the  Empire  in 
the  Graeco-Russian,  officially  called  the  Orthodox-Cath- 
olic Faith.  It  has  its  own  independent  synod,  but  main- 
tains the  relations  of  a  sister  Church  with  the  four  patri- 
archates of  Constantinople,  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and 
Alexandria.  The  Holy  Synod,  the  hoard  of  government 
of  the  Church,  was  established  with  the  concurrence  of 
the  Russian  clergy  and  the  four  Eastern  patriarchs. 

The  Emperor  is  head  of  the  Church ;  ne  appoints  to 
every  office  in  the  Church,  and  is  restricted  only  so  far 
as  to  leave  to  the  bishops  and  prelates  the  privilege  of 
proposing  candidates;  and  he  transfers  and  dismisses 
persons  from  their  offices  in  certain  cases.  But  he  has 
never  claimed  the  right  of  deciding  theological  and 
dogmatic  questions.  Practically,  the  Procurator  of  the 
Holy  Synod  enjoys  wide  powers  in  Church  matters. 

The  points  in  which  the  Graeco-Russian  Church  differs 
from  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  are,  its  denying  the 
spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  its  not  enforcing  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  its  authorizing  all  individ- 
uals to  read  and  study  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular 
tongue.  With  the  exception  of  the  restraints  laid  on  the 
Jews,  all  religions  may  be  freely  professed  in  the  Em- 
pire. The  dissenters  have  been  and  are  still,  however, 
severely  persecuted,  though  recently  some  liberty  has 
been  extended  to  those  of  the  "  United  Church."  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  more  than  12,000,000  dissenters 
in  Great  Russia  alone.  The  affairs  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  are  entrusted  to  a  Collegium,  and  those  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  to  a  Consistory,  both  settled  at  St, 
Petersburg.  Roman  Catholics  are  most  numerous  in  the 
former  Polish  provinces,  Lutherans  in  those  of  the  Bal- 
tic, and  Mohammedans  in  Eastern  and  Southern  Russia, 
while  the  Jews  are  almost  entirely  settled  in  the  towns 


106 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


and  larger  villages  of  the  western  and  southwestern  ] 
provinces* 

Instruction.— Most  of  the  schools  in  the  Empire  are 
under  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  Em-  j 
pire  i3  divided  into  11  educational  districts  (.St.  Peters-  | 
burg.  Moscow,  Kazan,  Orenburg,  Kharkoff,  Odessa, 
Kiert,  Vilna,  Warsaw,  Dorpat,  Caucasus,  Turkestan, 
West  Siberia,  and  East  Siberia).  However,  many  spe- 
cial schools  are  under  separate  Ministries.  The  total 
contribution  for  education  from  the  various  Ministries 
in  1894  was  3'.).336,096  roubles;  of  this,  7,294,473  roubles 
was  for  universities,  19,570,208  roubles  for  middle-class 
schools,  and  7,403,612  roubles  for  primary  schools. 

Justice.— The  organization  of  justice  was  totally  re-  | 
formed  by  the  law  of  1864;  but  the  action  of  that  law 
has  not  yet  been  extended  to  the  governments  of  Olo-  ; 
nets,  Vologda,  Astrakhan,  It  fa,  and  Orenburg,  and  has 
been  applied  but  in  a  modified  form  (in  1889)  to  the  Bal-  ! 
tic  Provinces  and  the  government  of  Arkhangelsk.    In  j 
the  above-named  governments  the  Justice  of  Peace  has 
been  introduced,  but  the  other  tribunals  remain  in  the 
old  state.     No  juries  are  allowed  in  Poland  and  the 
Caucasus ;  the  justices  of  peace  are  nominated  by  the 
Gox'ernment  in  the  provinces  which  have  no  zemstvos. 
In  Poland  there  are  judges  of  peace  in  the  towns  only, 
their  functions  in  the  villages  beinrr  performed  by  Gmina 
courts,  elected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Gmina.    Siberia 
has  maintained  thetribunals  of  old ;  in  the  Steppe  Prov- 
inces there  are  district  judges,  while  courts  of  higher 
instance  are  represented  by  the  Justice  Department  of 
the  provincial  f.dministration. 

There  were  in  1891, 2 appeal  departments  of  the  Senate, 
10  high  courts,  85  courts  of  first  instance.  There  were 
besides  — 1.280  Inquiry  judges, and  1,345  notaries;  2,126 
actual,  and  3  652  honorary  justices  of  peace.  In  the  un- 
reformed  tribunals  there  were  604  judges,  129  public 
prosecutors,  and  156  inquiry  judges. 

By  a  law,  dated  June  21,  1889,  the  functions  of  the 
juries  were  limited  to  some  extent,  especially  as  regards 
the  crimes  committed  by  the  representatives  of  nobility 
in  their  elective  functions. 

By  a  law  of  April  6,  1891,  reformed  courts  as  well  as 
chiefs  of  districts  have  been  introduced  in  the  prov- 
inces of  the  Kirghize  Steppes.  In  Siberia,  the  reformed 
Courts  and  triafby  jury  were  introduced  in  1897,  and  in 
Turkestan  in  1898. 

SPAIN. 

The  present  Constitution  of  Spain,  drawn 
up  by  the  Government  and  laid  before  a  Cortes 
Constituventes,  elected  for  its  ratification, 
March  27,  1876,  was  proclaimed  June  30, 
1876.  It  consists  of  89  articles  or  clauses.  ' 
The  first  of  them  enacts  that  Spain  shall  be  a 
constitutional  monarchy,  the  executive  resting 
in  the  King,  and  the  power  to  make  laws  "  in 
the  Cortes  with  the  King."  The  Cortes  are 
composed  cf  a  Senate  and  Congress,  equal  in 
authority.  There  are  three  classes  of  senators 
—  first,  senators  by  their  own  right,  or  Sena- 
dores  de  derecho  propio;  secondly,  100  life  sen- 
ators nominated  by  the  Crown — these  two 
categories  not  to  exceed  180  ;  and  thirdly,  ISO 
senators,  elected  by  the  Corporations  of  State  — 
that  is,  the  communal  and  provincial  states, 

the  church,  the  universities,  academies,  etc 

and  by  the  largest  payers  of  contributions. 
Senators  in  their  own  right  are  the  sons,  if 
any,  of  the  King  and  of  the  immediate  heir  to 
the  throne,  who  have  attained  their  majority  ; 
Grandees  who  are  so  in  their  own  right  and 
who  can  prove  an  annual  renia  of  60,000 
pesetas,  or  2,400/.  ;  captain-generals  of  the 
army  ;  admirals  of  the  navy  ;  the  patriarch  of 
the  Indias  and  the    archbishops  ;    the  presi- 


dents of  the  Council  of  State,  of  the  Supreme 
Tribunal,  of  the  Tribunal  of  Cuentas  delReino, 
and  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  War  and  of  the 
Navy,  after  two  years  of  office.  The  elective 
senators  must  be  renewed  by  one  half  every 
five  years,  and  by  totality  every  time  the  Mon- 
arch dissolves  that  part  of  the  Cortes.  The 
Congress  is  formed  by  deputies  "  named  in  the 
electoral  Juntas  in  the  form  the  law  deter- 
mines," in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  50,- 
000  souls  of  the  population.  According  to  the 
law  of  June  26,  1890,  the  electoral  qualifica- 
tion is  held  by  all  male  Spaniards,  25  years  of 
age,  who  enjoy  full  civil  rights,  and  have  been 
citizens  of  a  municipality  for  at  least  two 
years.  Members  of  Congress  must  be  25  years 
of  age  ;  they  are  re-eligible  indefinitely,  the 
elections  being  for  5  years.  Deputies,  to  the 
number  of  10,  are  admitted  who,  although  not 
elected  for  any  one  district,  have  obtained  a 
cumulative  vote  of  more  than  10,000  in  several 
districts.  Deputies  to  the  number  of  88  are 
elected  by  scrutin  de  liste  in  26  large  districts, 
in  which  minorities  may  be  duly  represented. 
There  are  in  all  431  deputies.  The  deputies 
cannot  take  State  office,  pensions,  and  salaries  ; 
but  the  ministers  are  exempted  from  this  law. 
Both  Congress  and  Senate  meet  every  year. 
The  Monarch  has  the  power  of  convoking 
them,  suspending  them,  or  dissolving  them  ; 
but  in  the  latter  case  a  newr  Cortes  must  sit 
within  three  months.  The  Monarch  appoints 
the  president  and  vice-presidents  of  the  Senate 
from  members  of  the  Senate  only  ;  the  Con- 
gress elects  its  own  officials.  The  Monarch 
and  each  of  the  legislative  chambers  can  take 
the  initiative  in  the  laws.  The  Congress  has 
the  right  of  impeaching  the  ministers  before 
the  Senate. 

The  Constitution  of  June  30,  1876,  further 
enacts  that  the  Monarch  is  inviolable,  but  his 
ministers  are  responsible,  and  that  all  his  de- 
crees must  be  countersigned  by  one  of  them. 
The  Cortes  must  approve  his  marriage  before 
he  can  contract  it,  and  the  King  cannot  marry 
anyone  excluded  by  law  from  the  succession 
to  the  crown.  Should  the  lines  of  the  legiti- 
mate descendants  of  the  late  Alphonso  XII. 
become  extinct,  the  succession  shall  be  in  this 
order  —  first,  to  his  sisters;  next  to  his  aunt 
and  her  legitimate  descendants ;  and  next  to 
those  of  his  uncles,  the  brothers  of  Fernando 
VII.,  "unless  they  have  been  excluded."  If 
all  the  lines  become  extinct,  "the  nation  will 
elect  its  Monarch." 

The  executive  is  vested,  under  the  Monarch, 
in  a  Council  of  Ministers,  as  follows,  March 
4,   1899:  — 

President  of  the  Council. 

Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 


GOVERNMENT  AND   LAW. 


107 


Minister  of  Jusiice. 

Minister  of  Finance. 

Minister  of  the  Interior 

Minister  of  War. 

Minister  of  Marine. 

Jfinister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  and  of 
Public    Worts. 

The  Ministry  of  the  Colonies  was  abolished 
February  10,  1899. 

Local  Government.— The  various  provinces  and 
communes  of  Spain  are  governed  by  the  provincial  and 
municipal  laws.  Every  commune  has  its  own  elected 
Ayuntamiemo.  consisting  of  from  five  to  thirty-nine 
Regidores,  or  Concejales,  and  presided  over  by  the  Al- 
calde, at  whose  side  stand,  in  the  larger  towns,  several 
Tenientes  Alcaldes.  The  entire  municipal  government, 
with  power  of  taxation,  is  vested  In  the  Ayuntamientos. 
Half  the  members  are  elected  every  two  years,  and  they 
appoint  the  Alcalde,  the  executive  functionary,  from 
their  own  body.  In  the  larger  towns  he  may  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  King.  Members  cannot  be  re-elected  un- 
til after  two  years.  Each  province  of  Spain  has  its  own 
Parliament,  the  Diputacion  Provincial,  the  members  of 
which  are  elected  by  the  constituencies.  The  Diputa- 
ciones  Provinciales  i-icet  in  annual  session,  and  are  per- 
manently represented  by  t'.ie  Commission  Provincial,  a 
committee  elected  every  year.  The  Constitution  of  1876 
secures  to  the  Diputaciones  Provinciales  and  the  Ayun- 
tamientos the  government  and  administration  of*  the 
respective  provinces  and  communes.  Neither  the  na- 
tional executive  nor  the  Cortes  have  the  right  to  inter- 
fere in  the  established  municipal  and  provincial  admin- 
istration, except  in  the  case  of  the  action  of  the  Dipu- 
taciones Trovinciales  and  Ayuntamientos  going  beyond 
the  locally  limited  sphere  to"  the  injury  of  general  and 
permanent  interests.  In  the  Basque  provinces  self- 
government  has  been  almost  abolished  since  the  last 
civil  war,  and  they  are  ruled  a3  the  rest  of  Spain.  Not- 
withstanding the  provisions  of  the  Constitution,  pres- 
sure is  too  frequently  brought  to  bear  upon  the  local 
elections  by  the  Central  Government. 

Religion. — The  national  Church  of  Spain  is  the  Ro- 
man Catholic,  and  the  whole  population  of  the  Kingdom 
adhere  to  that  faith,  except  (in  1887)  6  654  Protestants, 
401  .Tews,  9.645  Rationalists.  510  of  other  religions,  and 
13,175  of  religion  not  stated.  There  were  in  1884  in 
Spain  32.4:;")  priests  in  the  62  dioceses  into  which  the 
country  Li  divided;  1  6.°4  monks  resident  in  161  monas- 
tic houses,  and  14,5f2  nuis  in  1,027  convents.  The  num- 
ber of  cathedrals  was  65,  of  religious  colleges  30,  of 
churches  18,501,  and  of  convents,  religious  houses,  sanc- 
tuaries, and  other  buildings  of  a  reliirious  character  11.- 
202.  According  to  Article  12  cf  the  Constitution  of  1876, 
a  restricted  liberty  of  worship  is  allowed  to  Protestants, 
but  it  has  to  be  entirely  in  private,  all  public  announce- 
ments of  fie  same  being  strictly  forbidden.  The  Con- 
stitution likewise  enacts  that  "  the  nation  binds  itself  to 
maintain  the  worship  and  ministers  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic religion."  Resolutions  of  former  legislative  bodies 
not  repealed  in  the  Constitution  of  1876,  settled  that  the 
clergy  of  the  Established  Church  are  to  be  maintained 
bv  the  State.  On  the  other  hand,  bv  two  decrees  of  the 
Cortes,  passed  July  83,  1835,  and  March  9,  1836,  all  con- 
ventual establishments  were  suppressed,  and  their 
property  confiscated  for  the  benefit  of  1  he  nation.  These 
decrees  gave  rise  to  a  long  dispute  with  the  head  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  ended  in  the  sovereign 
pontiff  conceding  the  principle  of  the  measure.  By  a 
concordat  with  Rome  concluded  in  August,  1^59,  the 
Spanish  government  was  authorized  to  sell  the  whole 
ecclesiastical  property,  except  churches  and  parsonages, 
in  return  for  an  equal  amount  of  untransferable  public 
debt  certificates  bearing  interest  at  the  rate  of  3  per 
cent. 

Instruction.— The  latest  census  returns  show  that  a 
large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  illiterate.  In 
1860  20.0  per  cent,  of  the  population  cou'd  read  and 
write  ;  4.6  per  cent,  could  read  only;  and  75.3  per  cent, 
could  neither  read  nor  write.  In  i»89.  out  of  a  popula- 
tion of  17. 5">2,346  accounted  for,  5,004,460  (3.317..' 55  males. 
and  1,686.615  females'),  cr  2 '.5  per  cent,  could  read  and 
write  ;  608.005  (221,613  males,  and  380.3P2  females),  or  3  4 
percent,  could  read  only;  and  11,945,871  (5,067,098  males, 
and  6,878,773  females),  or  68. 1  per  cent,  could  neither 
read  nor  write. 


By  a  law  of  1857  an  elaborate  system  of  primary  edu- 
cation was  ordained:  education  was  to  be  compulsory, 
there  was  to  be  a  primary  school  for  every  600  inhabi- 
tants, and  instruction  was  to  be  on  a  rigidly  uniform 
plan.  Compulsion  has  never  been  enforced,  and,  partly 
from  political  causes  and  partly  from  the  wretched 
pay  of  most  of  the  elementary  teachers  (inl.  to  201.  per 
annum),  education  is  very  inefficient.  In  1881,  how- 
ever, several  improvements  -were  introduced.  Under 
the  Minister  of  Public  Works  there  i3  a  Director-General 
of  Public  Instruction,  with  a  council ;  there  are  ten  ed- 
ucational districts,  with  the  universities  as  centers,  49 
inspectoral  districts,  aud  numerous  local  educational 
authorities.  The  public  and  primary  schools  are  sup- 
ported mainly  by  the  municipalities,  the  total  sum  spent 
in  each  of  the  last  three  years  on  primary  education,  in- 
cluding a  small  contribution  bv  Government,  being 
about  1,000,000/.    Most  of  the  children  are  educated  free. 

TURKEY. 

The  present  sovereign  of  Turkey  is  the  thirty- 
fourth,  in  male  descent,  of  the  house  of  Oth- 
man,  the  founder  of  the  empire,  and  the 
twenty-eighth  Sultan  since  the  conquest  of 
Constantinople.  By  the  law  of  succession 
obeyed  in  the  reigning  family,  the  crown  is 
inherited  according  to  seniority  by  the  male 
descendants  of  Othman,  sprung  from  the  Im- 
perial Harem.  The  Harem  is  considered  a 
permanent  State  institution.  All  children 
born  in  the  Harem,  whether  offspring  of  free 
women  or  of  slaves,  are  legitimate  and  of  equal 
lineage.  The  Sultan  is  succeeded  by  his  eldest 
son,  but  only  in  case  there  are  no  uncles  or 
cousins  of  greater  age. 

The  fundamental  laws  of  the  empire  are 
based  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  The  will  of 
the  Sultan  is  absolute,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not  in 
opposition  to  the  accepted  truths  of  the  Ma- 
hometan religion  as  laid  down  in  the  sacred 
book  of  the  Prophet.  Next  to  the  Koran,  the 
laws  of  the  "  Multeka,"  a  code  formed  of  the 
supposed  sayings  and  opinions  of  Mahomet, 
and  the  sentences  and  decisions  of  his  imme- 
diate successors,  are  binding  upon  the  Sov- 
ereign as  well  as  his  subjects.  Another  code 
of  laws,  the  "  Cahon  nameh,"  formed  by  Sultan 
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  from  a  collection  of 
"  hatti-sheriffs,"  or  decrees,  issued  by  him  and 
his  predecessors,  is  held  in  general  obedi- 
ence, but  merely  as  an  emanation  of  human 
authority. 

The  legislative  and  executive  authority  is 
exercised,  under  the  supreme  direction  of  the 
Sultan,  by  two  high  dignitaries,  the  "Sadr- 
azam,"  or  Grand  Vizier,  the  head  of  the  tempo- 
ral Government,  and  the  "  Sheik-ul-Islam," 
the  head  of  the  Church.  Both  are  appointed 
by  the  Sovereign,  the  latter  with  the  nominal 
concurrence  of  the  "  Ulema,"  a  body  compris- 
ing the  clergy  and  chief  functionaries  of  the  law, 
over  which  the  "  ShoTk-ul- Islam  "  presides, 
although  he  himself  does  not  exercise  priestly 
functions.  Connected  with  the  "  Ulema  ' '  are 
the  "Mufti,"  the  interpreters  of  the  Koran. 
The    Ulema    comprise    all   the    great   judges, 


108 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


theologians,  and  jurists,  and  the  great  teachers 
of  literature  and  science,  who  may  be  sum- 
moned by  the  Mufti.  The  principal  civic 
functionaries  bear  the  titles  of  Effendi,  Bey, 
or  Pasha. 

Forms  of  constitution,  after  the  model  of 
the  West  European  States,  were  drawn  up  at 
various  periods  by  successive  Ottoman  Gov- 
ernments, the  first  of  them  embodied  in  the 
"  Hati-Humeyoun"  of  Sultan  Abdul-Medjid, 
proclaimed  February  18,  1856,  and  the  most 
recent  in  a  decree  of  Sultan  Abdul-Hamid  EL, 
of  November,  1876.  But  the  carrying  out  of 
these  projects  of  reform  appears  entirely  im- 
possible in  the  present  condition  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire. 

The  Grand  Vizier,  as  head  of  the  Govern- 
ment and  representative  of  the  Sovereign,  is 
assisted  by  the  Medjliss-i-Hass,  or  Privy  Coun- 
cil, which  corresponds  to  the  British  Cabinet. 
The  Medjliss-i-Hass  consists  of  the  following 
members:  1,  The  Grand  Vizier;  2,  The 
Sheik-ul-Islam  ;  3,  The  Minister  of  the  Inte- 
rior;  4,  The  Minister  of  War  ;  5,  The  Minis- 
ter of  Evkaf  (Worship)  ;  6,  The  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  ;  7,  The  Minister  of  Public 
Works ;  8,  President  of  Council  of  State ;  9, 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs ;  10,  Minister  of 
Finance;  11,  Minister  of  Marine  ;  12,  Minis- 
ter of  Justice  ;  13,  Minister  of  Civil  List. 

The  whole  of  the  empire  is  divided  into 
thirty  Vilayets,  or  governments,  and  sub- 
divided into  Sanjaks,  or  provinces,  Kazas,  or 
districts,  Nahie's,  or  subdistricts,  and  Kane's, 
or  communities.  A  Vali,or  governor  general, 
who  is  held  to  represent  the  Sultan,  and  is 
assisted  by  a  provincial  council,  is  placed  at 
the  head  of  each  Vilayet.  The  provinces,  dis- 
tricts, etc.,  are  subjected  to  inferior  authori- 
ties (Mutesarifs,  Caimakams,  Mudirs  and 
Muktars)  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
principal  governor.  The  division  of  the  country 
into  Vilayets  has  been  frequently  modified  of 
late  for  political  reasons.  For  similar  reasons 
six  of  the  Sanjaks  of  the  empire  are  governed 
by  Mutesarifs  appointed  directly  by  the  Sultan, 
and  are  known  as  Mutessarifats.  All  subjects, 
however  humble  their  origin,  are  eligible  to, 
and  may  fill,  the  highest  offices  in  the  State. 

Under  the  capitulations  foreigners  residing 
in  Turkey  are  under  the  laws  of  their  respect- 
ive countries,  and  are  amenable  for  trial  ( in 
cases  in  which  Turkish  subjects  are  not  con- 
cerned) to  a  tribunal  presided  over  by  their 
consul.  Foreigners  who  own  real  property 
are  amenable  to  the  Ottoman  civil  courts  in 
questions  relative  to  their  landed  property. 
Cases  between  foreign  and  Turkish  subjects 
are  tried  in  the  Ottoman  courts,  a  dragoman 
of  the  foreign  consulate   being  present  to  see 


that  the  trial  be  according  to  the  law  ;  the 
carrying  out  of  the  sentence,  if  against  the 
foreigner,  to  be  through  his  consulate.  Cases 
between  two  foreign  subjects  of  different  na- 
tionalities are  tried  in  the  court  of  the 
defendant. 

Religion  and  Education.— Mahometans  form  the 
vast  majority  of  the  population  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  but 
only  one  half  of  the  population  in  European  Tiirkev. 
Recognized  by  the  Turkish  Government  are  the  adher- 
ents of  seven  non-Mahometan  creeds  —  namely :  1. 
Latins,  Franks,  or  Catholics,  who  use  the  Roman  Lit- 
urgy, consisting  of  the  descendants  of  the  Genoese 
and  Venetian  settlers  in  the  empire,  and  proselytes 
among  Armenians  ;  Bulgarians,  and  others;  2,  Greeks ; 
3,  Armenians;  4,  Syrians  and  United  Chaldeans;  5, 
Maronites,  under  a  Patriarch  at  Kanobin  in  Mount  Leb- 
anon; 6,  Protestants,  consisting  of  converts  chiefly 
among  the  Armenians  ;  7,  Jews.  These  seven  religious 
denominations  are  invested  with  the  privilege  of  pos- 
sessing their  own  ecclesiastical  rule.  The  Bishops  and 
Patriarchs  of  the  Greeksand  Armenians, and  the  "  Chac- 
ham-Baschi,"  or  high-rabbi  of  the  Jews,  possess,  in  con- 
sequence of  those  functions,  considerable  influence. 

The  Mahometan  clergy  are  subordinate  to  the  Sheik- 
id-Islam.  Their  offices' are  hereditary,  and  they  can 
only  be  removed  by  Imperial  irade\  A  "priesthood",  how- 
ever, in  the  strict  sense  of  a  separate  class,  to  whom 
alone  the  right  of  officiating  in  religious  services  be- 
longs, cannot  be  said  to  exist  in  Turkey. 

The  Koran  and  Multeka encourage  public  education, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  public  schools  have  been  long  es- 
tablished in  most  considerable  Turkish  towns;  while 
"medresses,"  or  colleges,  with  public  libraries,  are  at- 
tached to  the  greater  number  of  the  principal  mosques. 
But  the  instruction  afforded  by  these  establishments  is 
rather  limited. 

The  number  of  mosques  in  the  Turkish  Empire  is 
2,120,  of  which  379  are  in  Constantinople.  The  number 
of  the  clergy  is  11,000.  Connected  with  the  mosques  are 
1,780  elementary  schools,  where  education  is  supplied 
gratis.  The  private  revenue  of  the  Evkaf  (church),  pre- 
vious to  the  war  of  1878,  was  30,200,000  piastres  (250,000/.') 
per  annum,  but  they  have  now  been  reduced  to  20,000,000 
piastres  (166. 000?. ).  The  expenses  are  reckoned  at  15,000,- 
000  piastres  (125,000?.).  The  stipend  of  the  Sheik-ul-Islam. 
7,031 ,520piastres(59,000?.),  and  thoseof  the  Naibs  and  Muf- 
tis, 7,876,646  piastres(66,ooo/.).  are  paid  bv  the  State.  The 
principal  revenues  of  the  Evkar  are  derived  from  the 
sale  of  landed  property  which  has  been  bequeathed  it. 
and  which  is  known  under  the  name  of  Yaeouf.  Three 
fourths  of  the  urban  property  of  the  empire  is  sup- 
posed to  belong  to  the  vacouf.  Purchasers  of  property 
of  this  description  pay  a  nominal  annual  rent  to  the 
Evkaf :  but  should  they  die  without  direct  heirs  the 
property  reverts  to  the  Church. 

CIVIL  LISTS  OF  EUROPEAN  SOV- 
EREIGNS. 

Austria-Hungarv,  Emperor  of,  $3.H7.r>.uoo. 

Bavaria,  King  of,  $1,412,000. 

Belgium,  King  of,  §660,000. 

Denmark,  King  of,  §227,775;  and  Crown  l'rince,  $33,390. 

Greece,  King  of,  $260,000,  including  920,000  a  year  each 
from  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia. 

Italy,  King  of,  §2,858,000,  of  which  £180,000  for  family. 

Netherlands,  King  of,  $250,000,  also  a  large  revenue 
from  domains,  and  §62.500  for  royal  family,  courts, 
and  palaces. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  Kiiiir  of,  $675,526, 

Portugal,  King  of,  $634,4*0. 

Prussia,  King  of ,  §3,852,770 ;  also  a  vast  amount  of  pri- 
vate property,  castles,  forests,  and  estates,  out  of 
which  the  court  expenditure  and  royal  family  are 
paid. 

Roumania,  King  of,  §237,000. 

Russia,  Czar  of,  has  private  estates  o I"  more  than  1,000,000 
square  miles  of  cultivated  land  and  forests,  besides 

fold  and  other  mines  in  Siberia.    The  annual  income 
as  been  estimated  at  about  $12,000,000. 
Saxon v,  King  of,  §735,000. 
Servia,  King  of,  §240,000. 

Spain,  King  of,  $1,400,000.  besides  $600,000  for  family. 
Wurtemtvjrg.  King  of,  $449,050, 

—Barker's  Facts. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW.  108 

HEADS  OF  THE  GOVERNMENTS  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Country. 


Official  Head. 


Title. 


Bora. 


Acceded. 


Abyssinia Menelik  II jEmi>eror 1>4 3  March  12.  1889 

Afghanistan Abdur  Rahman  Khan Ameer 1846  July     22,  1880 

Annam Bun-Can Kin^ 1879  Jan.     30,  1889 

Argentine  Republic Julio  A.  Boca President |Oct.     12,  1898 

Austria-Hungarv Francis  Joseph Emperor Aug.    18,  1830Dec.       2,  1848 

Baluchistan Mir  Mahmud Khan | August,     1888 

Belgium Leopold  II King April     9,  1835' Dec.     10,  1865 

Bokhara Seitl  Abdul  Ahad Ameer 1864  Nov.     12,  1885 

Bolivia Seiior  Severo  Fernandez  Alonzo President 189C 

Borneo Hasim  Jalilal  A  lam  Akamaldin Sultan jMay,  1885 

Brazil Seiior  Campos  Salles President |October,    1898 

Bulgaria Ferdinand , jPrince Feb.     26,  1861  Aug.    11,  1887 

Central  America,  IT.  S.  of (Confederation  dissolved) 

Chile Frederico  Errazuriz President |Sept.    18, 

China Kuang  Hsu  (Dowager  Kmpress  rules).  Emperor Aug.      2,  1872  Jan.      12, 

Colombia General  Quinto  Calderon President ' 

Congo  Free  State Leopold  (King  of  the  Belgians) (Sovereign April     9,  1835  April  M, 

Costa  Rica Rafael  Iglesias President 1864  May       8, 

Dahomev Guthili King Jan.     15, 

Denmark ChristianIX King April     8,  1818  Nov.     15, 

Dominican  Republic General  Ulises  Heureaux President I Sept.     1, 

Ecuador General  Eloy  Alfaro President I Sept., 

Egypt Abbas  Pacha Khedive July     14,  1874  Jan.       7. 

France Francois  Felix  Faure President Jan.     31,  1841  Jan. 

Germany..  William  II Emperor \  Jan      27,  Wjune 


Prussia William  II King. 

Bavaria Otto King 

Saxony 

WUrteinberg 

Baden 

Hesse 

Lippe-Detmoid 


April   27,  1848  June 
April  23,  1828  Oct. 
Feb.     25,  1848  Oct. 
Sept.      9,  1826  Sept. 
Nov.     25,  1868  March  13, 
1859! 
Antialt Frederick Duke   April   29,  1831  May     22, 


Albert King 

William  II King 

Frederick Grand  Duke. 

(Ernst  Louis  V Grand  Duke. 

Adolphus Prince. 


Brunswick Prince  Albrecht Regent May 


Mecklenburg-Schwerin Frederick  Francis  1 V.  (A  Regency). . .  Grand  Duke. 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz Frederick  William Grand  Duke. 

Oldenburg Peter Grand  Duke. 

Saxe-Altenburg Ernest I  Duke. 

Saxe-Coburg  and  <  totha  . . .  Alfred  (I  >uke  of  Edinburgh) IDuke  . 


George  II Duke 

Karl  A lexander Grand  Duke. 

Frederick I  Prince 

Edward  vii jKing. 

George IKing 

Manuel  Estrado  Cain-era President 

General  Tiresias  Simon  Sam !  President 

President 

Empress 


Saxe-Meiningen 

Saxe-Weimar 

Waldeck-Pyrmont 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

Greece 

Guatemala 

Hayti 

Honduras Terencio  Sierra 

India  (British) Victoria 

Italy Humbert |King  , 

Japan Mutsuhito Mikado 

Khiva Seiil  Mehomed  Rahim Khan 

Korea Li  Hsi Emperor 

Liberia !  William  David  Coleman President 

Luxemburg |  Adolphus  (Duke  of  Nassau) Grand  Duke. 

Mexico General  Porririo  Diaz President. 


Monaco Albert Prince 

Montenegro —  Nicholas Prince 

Morocco Muley  Abdul  Azziz  Sultan 

Nepaul Surendra  Bikram  Slmmslier  Jang Maharaja 

Netherlands Wilhelmina Queen : 

Nicaragua 'General  Jose  Santos  Zclaya President ,.. 

Oman Seyyid  Feysal  bin  Turkee Sultan 

Orange  Free  State M.  t .  Stevh President.; 

Paraguay General  Egusguiza President 

Persia  ..". Muzafer  edDin Shah 

Peru General  Nicola  Pierola President 

Portugal Carlos !King 

Roumania Charles IKing 

Russia Nicholas  II Emperor 

Salvador General  Gutierrez  (deposed) President 

Samoa | '. King 

Sarawak Sir  Charles  Johnson  Brooke I  Raja 

Servia Alexander King 

Siani Khoulalongkorn King 

Spain AlphonsoXIII.  (a  minor) King 

Sweden  ami  Norway Oscar  II IKing 

Switzerland ;E.  Ruffy i  President 

Transvaal (S.  African  Rep.)..  Stepharius  J.  Paul  Kriiger President 

Sidi  Ali  Pasha Bev 

Abdul  Hamid  II ISuItan 

William  McKinley President 

Jose  Cuestas  (ad  interim) President 

General  Andrade President 

Hamoud  Bin  Mohamed Sultan  (Seyvid). 


8,  1837  Oct.      21 

9,  1882  April   10, 
17.  1819  Sept.      6, 

8,  1827 1  Feb. 
16,  1826|Aug. 

6,  1844  Aug. 

2.  1826  Sept 
24,  1818  July 
20,  1865  May 

9,  184l!.Tan. 
24,  1845|Oct. 
24    1856 

15|  1835  March  31, 
Nov.    19, 

May  24,  1819  Jan.  1, 
March  14,  1844  Jan.  9, 
Nov.      3,  1852  Feb 

1845 
July     25,  1851 


April 

Oct. 

July 

Sept. 

Aug. 

April 

June 

Jan. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

May 


July     24,  1817 


Nov. 
Oct. 


Aug. 


13,  1848 

7,  1841 

1878 

1874 

31,  1880 


Sept.  28,  1863 
April  20,  1839 
May     18,  1868 


June 

Aug. 

Sept. 

May 

Jan. 


3,  1829 
14,  1876 

21,  1853 
17,  1886 
21,  1829 


Tunis. 

Turkey 

United  States  of  America  . 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Zanzibar 


Oct. 
Oct. 
Sept. 
Jan. 


10,  1825 
5,  1817 
22,  1842 
29,  1843 


1844 


Jan., 
Nov. 
Nov. 
Dec. 
Sept. 
Aug. 
June 


Nov. 

Oct., 

June 

Feb. 

Nov. 

May 

Aug. 

Oct. 

March  26, 

Nov.      2, 

June     5, 


1896 
1875 
1896 
1885 
1898 
1894 
1863 
1886 
1895 
1892 
1895 

1888 

1886 
1873 
1891 
1858 
1892 
1895 
1871 
1885 
1897 
1860 
1853 
1853 
1893 
1866 
1858 
1893 
1901 
1863 
1892 
1896 
1898 
1877 
1878 
1867 
1865 
1864 
1896 
1890 
1896 
1889 
1860 
1894 
1884 
1890 
1893 
1888 
1896 
1894 
1896 
1895 
1889 
1881 
1894 
1894 


June    11. 
March   6, 


Oct. 

Mav 

Sep't. 

Dec. 

Feb., 

Oct. 

Aug. 

March  4, 

August, 


1868 
1889 
1868 
1886 
1872 
1897 
1898 
1882 
1876 
1897 
18K 
1897 
189C 


110 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


STATISTICS    OF    THE    COUNTRIES    OF    THE   AVORLI). 


Populati'n. 


Sq.  Miles. 


China 

British  Empire 

Russian  Empire... 

United  States 

United  States  and 

Colonies 

Philippines 

Porto  Rico 

Hawaii 

Sulus,  Carolines, 

Guam 

France  and    Colo- 
nies   

France 

Colonies 

Algeria 

Senegal,  etc 

Tunis 

Cayenne 

Cambodia 

Cochin-China 

Tonquin  

New  Caledonia.. 

Tahiti 

Sahara  

Madagascar 

German  Empire.-. . 

Prussia 

Bavaria 

Saxony 

WUrtemberg i 

Baden 

Alsace-Lorraine . 

Hesse 

Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin 

Hamburg 

Brunswick. . . 

Oldenburg 

Sax  e- Weimar 

Anhalt 

Saxe-Meiningen . 
Saxe-Coburg- 

Gotha 

Bremen 

Saxe-Altenburg  . 

Lippe 

Reuss     (younger 

line) 

Meckle  nbu  r  g- 

Strelitz 

Schwarzburg-Ru- 

dolstadt 

Sch  warzburg- 

Sondershausen 

LUbeck 

Waldeck 

Reuss  (elder  line) 
Schaumburg- 

Lippe 

German  Africa.. 
Austria-Hungarian 

Empire 

Japan 

Netherlands 

Netherlands  and 

Colonies 

Borneo 

Celebes 

Java 

Moluccas 

New  Guinea 


402,680,0001 

381.037.874j 

129  211,113, 

76,000.000 

85,000,000 

8,000.000 

900.000 

109,029 

2,600 

63.166,967 

38.517.975 

21.44  <064 

3,870.000 

183  237 

1,500  000 

26  502 

1.500.000 

1.223  000 

12,000  000 

62  752 

12  800 

1,100.000 

3,500.000 

52.279  901 

31,855.123 

5  589.382 

3  500  513 

2,035  443 

1.656  817 

1,603.987 

956,170 

575.140 
6J2.530 
372  580 
341  250 
313  668 
247.603 
214,697 

198717 
180  443 
161.129 
123,250 

112,118 

98,371 

83,939 

73,623 
76  485 
56.565 
53,787 

37,204 
5,950,000 

41.827,700 

41.089,940 

4,450,870 

33,042.238 

1,073. 500 

2.000.000 

21,974  161 

353.000 

200,000 


4,218,401 
11,335,806 
8,641,100 
3,602,990 

3,756  380 

143,000 

3,600 

6,740 

50 

3.357,856 
204  177 

2,923  679 
260  000 
580.000 

45  000 

46  697 
32,254 
13,692 
60.000 

7,624 

462 

1,550.000 

230.000 

2U.K8 

134,467 

29.291 

5.789 

7.531 

5  803 

5.602 

2,965 

5,137 

158 

1.425 

2.479 

1,387 

906 

953 

760 

99 

511 

472 

319 

1,131 

363 

333 
115 
433 
122 

131 

822,000 

201,591 
147,669 
12,680 

778.187 
203714 
72.000 
50.848 
42,420 
150,755 


Capitals. 


Peking 

London 

St.  Petersburg 

Washington 

Washington 

Manila 

San  Juan 

Honolulu 


Paris 
Paris 

Algiers 

St.  Louis! 

Tunis1 

Cayenne 

Saigon 

Hanoi 
Noumea 


Antananarivo 

Berlin 

Berlin 

Munich 

Dresden 

Stuttgart  ■ 

Karlsruhe' 

Strasburg 

Darmstadt  j 

Schwerin' 

Brunswick  I 

Oldenburg 

Weimar! 

Dessau, 

Meiningenj 

Gotha 

Altenbure' 
Detmoldi 

Gera 

Neu  Strelitz 

l:  u  ili  ilst  adt 

Sondershausen' 

Arolsen' 
Greiz 

Buckeburg 


Vienna 

Tokio 

The  Hague 

The  Hague 


Batavia 
Amboyna 


C'orsTRlES.  jPopulati'n     Sq.  Miles.  Capitals. 


Sumatra 

Surinam 

Turkish  Empire... 
European  Turkey- 
Asiatic  Turkey.'. 

Tripoli 

Bulgaria 

Egypt 

Italy 

Italy    and    Colo- 
nies   

Abyssinia 

Eritrea 

Somal  Coast 

Spain 

Spanish  Africa . . 

Spanish  Islands. . 

Brazil 

Mexico 

Korea 

Congo  State 

Persia 

Portugal 

Portugal       and 
Colonies 

Portu  guese 
Africa 

Portuguese  Asia. 
Sweden   and    Nor- 
way   

Sweden 

Norway 

Morocco 

Belgium 

Sin  1 1 1 

Roumania 

Argentine    Repub- 
lic  

Colombia 

Afghanistan 

Chile 

Peru 

Switzerland 

Bolivia 

Greece     

Denmark 

Denmark      and 
Colonies 

Iceland 

Greenland 

West  Indies 

Venezuela 

Servia 

Nepaul 

Cuba 

Oman 

Guatemala 

Ecuador 

Liberia 

Hayti 

Transvaal 

Salvador 

Uruguay 

Khiva 

Paraguay    

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Dominican  Repub- 
lic  

Montenegro 

Costa  Rica 

Orange  Free  State. 


2,750,000 
57,141 

33,559.787 
4,790.000 

16,133  900 
1,000,000 
3,154.375 
9.700,000 

29,699,785 

34,970,785 

4.500.000 

660.000 

210  000 

17,550  216 

437.000 

127.172 

18.000.000 

12  570,195 

10,519.000 

8,000.000 

7.653.600 

4,708,178 


5,416.000' 
847,503; 

6,786,898 

4  784  981 
2.000.917 
6,500.000 
6,030.043 
5,700,000 
5,376,000 

4  042,990 
4  600.000 
4.000,000 
3  503  000 
2.800  000 
2,933  331 
2,300  000 
2  433.806 
2,172,205 

2,288.193 

72.445 

9,780 

33.763 

2.323  988 

2.n%  043 

2.000.000 

1.600  000 

1.600.000 

1.47C.000 

1,300  000 

1,050  000 

950.0(0 

800  000 

816.000 

850  000 

700.000 

476  000 

450  000 

400,000 

350,000 

245. 380 ! 
265.000 
133,518 


170,744 

46,060  Paramaribo 
1,652  533  Constantino'le 

63,850| 
729  170 

398  873  Tripoli 

37  860  Sofia 

400.000  Cairo 

110,665  Rome 


425,765 
189.000 

56.100 

70,000 

196  173 

203.767 

1,957 

3.219  000 

767  316 

85.000 
802.000 
636.000 

34,038 


11,073,681    951,785 


841,025 
7,923 

297.321 
172.876 
124,445 
314  000 

11,373 
280.550 

46,314 

1,095,013 

331. 4.20 

279,000 

256  860 

405  040 

15,981 

472  000 

24  977 

14,780 

101,403 

39,756 

46,740 

118 

566.159 
18,757 
56,800 
41,6£5 
81,0i0 
46,774 

144,000 
14,000 
29,830 

110.193 

7.228 

7.',  112 

22  320 

145.000 
42,658 
51.660 
20,596 


Rome 


C.  Rio  Janeiro 

City  of  Mexico 

Seoul 

Teheran 
Lisbon 

Lisbon 


Stockholm 

Christiania 

Fez 

Brussels 

Bangkok 

Bucharest 

Buenos  Ayres 

Bogota 

Cabul 

Santiago 

Lima 

Berne 

La  l'az 

Athens 

Copenhagen 

Copenhagen 
Rejkjavik 
Godthaab 

Caracas 

Belgrade 

Khatmandu 

Havana 

Muscat 

N.  Guatemala 

Quito 

Monrovia 

Port  au  Prince 

Pretoria 

San  Salvador 

Montevideo 

Khiva 

Asuncion 

Tegucigalpa 

Managua 

San  Domingo 


3.486  Cettinje 

19.985  San  Jose 

41,484     Bloemfontein 


AUSTRALIAN  FEDERATION. 


Colonies. 


New  South  Wales. 

Victoria 

South  Australia... 

Queensland 

Western  Australia 


Sq.rMilens.     PoP^tion. 


310.700 
87,884 
903,<"90 
668.497 
903,690 


1,132.234 

1,140,405 

320,431 

393,718 

49,782 


Colonies. 


Tasmania 

New  Zealand 

Fiji 

British  New  Guinea 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 


26.215 

104,032 

7,423 

234,768 


Total |    3,246,729 


Population. 


146,667 
626,658 
125,402 
350,000 


4,285,297 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


Ill 


DIVISION  OF  AFRICA 

AMONG  THE  EUROPEAN  POWERS. 


Area. 


British  Africa  :  Basutoland, 
Bechuanaland  Protectorate, 
Cape  Colony,  Central  Africa, 
East  Africa  Protectorate, 
Uganda  Protectorate,  Zanzi- 
bar Protectorate,  Mauritius, 
Natal,  Niger  Coast  Protect- 
orate, Territory  of  the  Royal 
Niger  Company,  South  Af- 
rica, West  Africa,  Zululand 
and  Islands* 

FitENCH Africa  :  Algeria, Sen- 
egal, French  Soudan  and  the 
Niger,  Gaboon  and  Guinea 
Coast,  Congo  Region,  Somali 
Coast,  Madagascar  and  Isl- 
ands  


2,587,755 


1,232,454 


Population. 


41,133,953 


18,073,890 


German  Africa:  Togoland, 
Cameroons,  South  West  Af- 
rica, East  Africa 

Italian  Africa:  Eritrea, 
Somaliland 

PortugueseAfrica  :  Angola, 
the  Congo,  Guinea,  East  Af- 
rica and  Islamist 

SPANISH  Africa  :  Rio  de  Oro, 
Adrar,  Fernando  Po  and  Isl- 
lands 

Turkish  Africa  :  Tripoli  and 
the  Mediterranean  Coast, 
Egypt* 

Congo  Independent  State. 
(Under  the  sovereignty  of  the 

King  of  the  Belgians 

Total 


Area. 

Population. 

920,920 

10,200,0)0 

278,500 

850,000 

735,304 

4,431,970 

243,877 

136,000 

798,738 

8,117,265 

900,000 

30,000,000 

7,697,548 

113.243.070 

*  Egypt  and  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  although  nominally  under  the  suzerainty  of  Turkey,  are  really  controlled 
by  Great  Britain,  and  ic'is  only  a  matter  of  time  as  to  when  they  will  be  incorporated  into  the  British  Empire. 
Adding  Egypt  and  the  Soudan  to  the  Empire  would  increase  the  figures  above  given  to  2,987.755  square  miles  and 
47.951.218  population,  t  Negotiations  have  bsen  concluded  between  Great  Britain  and  Germany  on  the  one  part 
and  Portugal  on  the  other,  by  which  the  latter  sells  and  disposes  of  all  her  African  possessions  to  the  two  former, 
which  divide  the  purchases  batween  them.  Th3  details  are  not  yet  made  public  further  than  that  Great  Britain 
gets  l)3la<roa  Bay,  thus  hemming  in  the  South  African  Republic  from  the  sea,  save  through  British  territory. 

The  remaining  territory  of  Africa  unoccupied  is  a  part  of  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara  and  the  Independent 
States  of  Abyssinia  and  Liberia.  Even  this  territory,  except  the  last,  is  destined  to  pass  under  the  power  of  the 
Europeans.    The  tubular  figures  are  from  "  The  Statesman's  Year-Book." 

Egyptian  (British)and  French  territory  in  the  Soudan,  according  to  British  claims,  touches  along  the  line  of 
the  27th  degree  of  latitude.  Prior  to  the  revolt  of  the  Mahdi  in  1882.  Egypt  claimed  Darfar,  Kordofan,  Senaar, 
Taka,  the  Equatorial  Province,  and  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  Province.  Though  authority  over  these  was  lost  by  the 
success  of  the  Mahdi,  Egypt  did  not  relinquish  her  claim,  and  her  full  authority  was  resumed  by  the  victories  of 
General  Kitchener  i.i  1898.  Tha  French  were  disposed  to  dispute  these  claims  and  assert  a  right  to  territory  as 
far  east  as  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  thus  covering  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  Province.  Hence  the  appearance  of  Major 
Marchand  at  Fashoda  on  the  Nile,  many  miles  south  of  Khartoum.  But  this  position  the  French  have  now 
abandoned. 

INDEBTEDNESS    OF    NATIONS. 

COMPILED  FROM  THE    ELEVENTH   UNITED   STATES   CENSUS,   1890. 


Countries 


Debt  Less 

Sinking 

Fund,  1890. 


Debt  per 
Capita. 


Argentine  Republic S2«4,867,069 

Austria-Huugarv  and  Hung. .  2,866.339 .539 

Belgium * 38). 504.099 

Bolivia 14  763.367 

Brazil 585.345.927 

Chile 85  19  .339 

Colombia 63  451 ,583 

Denmark 33  004  7'.2 

France *  1,446,793.398 

German  Empire 77,577,719 

Alsace-Lorraine 3,837.373 

Baden 71.165.252 

Bavaria 335  503  1<>5 

Bremen 16,217,400 

Brunswick 4,876.174 

Hamburg 59.202  946 

Hesse 7.562  763 

Liibeck 3.295.709 

Oldenburg 9.211  095 

Prussia 1,109,384.127 

Saxony 143,897.747 

Saxe-Colmrg-Gotha 955  311 

Saxe-Meiningen 2,550,698 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 743  800 

"              Sondershausen  842  631 

Waldeck 568  200 

W iirtemberg 107.735  500 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 3,350.719.563 

India 8*1.003.592 

Cape  of  Good  Hope 110.817,720 

Natal 22,028,424 


$70.40 
70  84 

as.  10 

12.38 
41.80 
31.96 
16  36 
15  66 
116  35 

157 

2.39 
42.95 
60.03 
89  94 
12.10 
94  85 

7.60 
43  10 
25.95 
37  03 
41.11 

4.63 
11.39 

8  67 
11.16 

992 
52.93 
CT  79 

3  27 
77  56 
45.76 


Countries. 


Debt  Less 

Sinking 

Fund,  1890. 


Canada 

New  South  Wales . 

New  Zealand 

Queensland 

South  Australia... 

Tasmania 

Victoria 

Western  Australia 

Greece 

Guatemala -. 

Hayti  

Honduras 

Italy 

Japan  

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Roumania 

Russia 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  

Egypt 

United  States 

Venezuela , 


Debt  per 
Capita. 


§237,533,212 

233  289,245 

184.898.305 

129.204.750 

102,177.500 

22.235  345 

179.614,005 

6,509.736 

107.306.518 

10,825  836 

13,500,000 

63.394,267 

2,324  826.3.9 

305.727.816 

113.606.675 

430.589  858 

1,711  206 

13.973.752 

19,633  013 

382,175  C55 

180,145.800 

3,491,018,074 

60,811,330 

1,251.453.606 

64,220,807 

10,912.925 

821.000.000 

517.278.200 

915,962.112 

22,517,437 


$47.51 

214.87 

298.01 

333.46 

321.00 

147.46 

161.63 

15''.23 

49  06 

7.59 

14  06 

146.77 

76.06 

7.83 

9.98 

95.56 

4.28 

7.13 

59.56 

145.77 

32.75 

30.79 

30.20 

73.85 

13.53 

3.72 

37.20 

75.88 

14.63 

11  00 


*  Inclusive  of  floating  debt,  but  exclusive  of  annuities,  whose  capitalized  value  is  estimated  by  good  authority 
to  be  not  less  than  $2,000,000,000. 

The  national  debts  of  the  larger  nations  in  1896  or  1897  were  as  follows :  Austria-Hungary,  1897,  $3,225,405,000; 
France,  1896,  S6.218.851.34S;  German  Empire.  1896.  $510,006,120;  Prussia.  1897,  $1,625,000,000 ;  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  1897,  $3,203,868,395;  Italy,  1897,  $1,182,471,200;  Spain.  1897,  $1,415  230,000;  Russia,  1890.  $3,307.512,500 ;  United 
States.  1898.  $1,964,837,130 


112 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


RATES  OF  POSTAGE. 

Letters. — Prepaid  by  stamps,  2  cents  each 
'ounce  or  fraction  thereof  to  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada ;  forwarded  to  an- 
other post  office  without  charge  on  request  of 
the  person  addressed ;  if  not  called  for,  re- 
turned to  the  writer  free,  if  indorsed  with  that 
request.  If  the  stamp  is  omitted  the  letter  is 
forwarded  to  the  Dead-Letter  Office  and  re- 
turned to  the  writer.  For  registering  letters 
the  charge  is  8  cents  additional.  Drop  let- 
ters at  letter-carrier  offices,  2  cents  per  ounce 
or  fraction  thereof ;  at  other  offices,  1  cent  per 
ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  On  insufficiently 
prepaid  matter  mailed  in  Canada,  3  cents  per 
\  ounce  or  fraction  thereof.  Stamped  postal 
cards,  furnished  only  by  government,  1  cent 
each  ;  if  anything  except  a  printed  address  slip 
is  pasted  on  a  postal  card,  or  anything  but  the 
address  written  on  the  face,  letter  postage  is 
charged.  Postage  on  all  newspapers  and  peri- 
odicals sent  from  newspaper  offices  to  any  part 
of  the  United  States,  to  regular  subscribers, 
must  be  paid  in  advance  at  the  office  of  mailing. 

Second-Class  Matter. —  Periodicals  issued  at 
regular  intervals,  at  least  four  times  a  year, 
and  having  a  regular  list  of  subscribers,  with 
supplement,  sample  copies,  1  cent  a  pound ; 
periodicals,  other  than  weekly,  if  delivered  by 
letter  carrier,  1  cent  each  ;  if  over  2  ounces,  2 
cents  each.  When  sent  by  other  than  publish- 
ers, for  4  ounces  or  less,  1  cent. 

Third  -  Class  Matter  (not  exceeding  four 
pounds). — Printed  matter,  books,  proof-sheets, 
corrected  or  uncorrected,  unsealed  circulars, 
inclosed  so  as  to  admit  of  easy  inspection 
without  cutting  cords  or  wrappers,  1  cent  for 
each  2  ounces. 

Fourth-Class  Matter. —  Not  exceeding  four 
pounds,  embracing  merchandise  and  samples, 
excluding  liquids,  poisons,  greasy,  inflammable 
or  explosive  articles,  live  animals,  insects,  etc., 
1  cent  an  ounce.  Postage  to  Canada  and  British 
North  American  states,  2  cents  per  ounce  ;  must 
be  prepaid  ;  otherwise,  6  cents. 

Postage  Rales  to  Foreign  Countries. —  To  the 
countries  and  colonies  which,  with  the  United 
States,  comprise  the  Universal  Postal  Union, 
the  rates  of  postage  are  as  follows  :  Letters, 
per  15  grams  (£  ounce), pre-payment  optional, 
5  cents ;  postal  cards,  each,  2  cents  ;  news- 
papers and  other  printed  matter,  per  2  ounces, 

1  cent.  Commercial  papers — First  10  ounces 
or  fraction  thereof,  5  cents  ;  every  additional 

2  ounces,  1  cent.  Samples  of  merchandise 
—  First  4  ounces,  2  cents ;  every  additional  2 
ounces,  1  cent.  Registration  fee  on  letters  or 
other  articles,  10  cents.  Ad  correspondence 
other  than  letters  must  be  prepaid  at  least 
partially. 


Printed  matter  other  than  books  received  in 
the  mails  from  abroad  under  the  provisions  of 
postal  treaties  or  conventions  is  free  from 
customs  duty. 

Dutiable  books  forwarded  to  the  United 
States  from  the  Postal  Union  are  delivered  to 
addresses  at  post  offices  of  destination  upon 
payment  of  the  duties  levied  thereon. 

Postal  Money  Orders. —  The  limit  of  a  single 
money  order  is  $100,  instead  of  $50,  as  for- 
merly. The  fees  charged  are  as  follows  :  For 
orders  not  exceeding  $10,  8c.  ;  $10  to  $15,  10c.  ; 
$15  to  $30,  15c.  ;  $30  to  $40,  20c.  ;  $40  to  $50, 
25c.  :  $50  to  $60,  30c.  ;  $60  to  $70,  35c.  ;  $70 
to  $80,  40c. ;  $80  to  $100,  45c. 

To  Switzerland,  Germany,  Belgium,  Portu- 
gal, Canada,  Newfoundland,  Italy,  France, 
Algeria,  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  Tasma- 
nia, New  Zealand,  Jamaica  :  Fees,  for  not  ex- 
ceeding $10,  15  cents;  $10  to  $20,  30  cents; 
$20  to  $30,  45  cents ;  $30  to  $40,  60  cents ; 
$40  to  $50,  75  cents.  To  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  adjacent  islands  :  Fees,  for  not 
exceeding  $10,  25  cents  ;  $10  to  $20,  50  cents  ; 
$20  to  $30,  70  cents ;  $30  to  $40,  85  cents ; 
$40  to  $50,  $1 .  To  British  India :  Fees,  for 
sums  not  exceeding  $10,  35  cents  ;  not  exceed- 
ing $20,  70  cents ;  not  exceeding  $30,  $1  ;  not 
exceeding  $40,  $1.25  ;  not  exceeding  $50,  $1.50. 

THE  NATIONAL  BANK  LAW. 

The  National  bank  act  provides  for  a  limit 
of  capital  in  establishment  of  the  national 
banks  proportioned  to  the  importance  of  their 
locality.  To  start  a  bank  in  a  town  of  6,000 
population  or  less  requires  a  capital  of  not  less 
than  $50,000.  In  a  town  between  6,000  and 
50,000  people,  the  capital  of  the  bank  must 
be  $100,000,  while  not  less  than  $200,000  is 
required  in  a  town  of  more  than  50,000  in- 
habitants. Each  bank  must  deposit  with  the 
United  States  Treasury  bonds  to  the  extent 
of  at  least  one  third  of  its  entire  capital  as 
security  for  its  creditors.  The  Government 
then  issues  to  the  bank  90  per  cent,  of  the 
deposits  in  blank  notes,  which,  when  properly 
filled  and  signed,  become  the  circulation  of  the 
bank.  Each  bank  must  report  its  condition 
quarterly  to  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency, 
and  must  at  all  times  have  on  hand  in  lawful 
money  of  the  United  States  an  amount  equal 
to  at  least  25  per  cent,  of  its  circulation  and 
deposits.  The  notes  issued  by  the  national 
banks  are  thus  secured,  but  depositors  run  the 
same  risk  of  loss  through  dishonesty  or  mis- 
management of  funds  as  with  other  banks. 
The  act  originally  provided  that  the  whole 
amount  of  notes  was  not  to  exceed  $300,000,- 
000  ;  but  even  this  limit  to  paper  inflation  has 
not  afforded  complete  immunity  against  crises. 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


113 


PARLIAMENTARY    LAW    CON- 
DENSED. 

Letters  refer  to  Rules  below. 

Modifying  or  amending. 

8.  To  amend  or  to  substitute,  or  to 

divide  the  question K 

To  refer  to  committee. 

7.  To  commit,  (or  recommit)   ...  D 

Deferring  action. 

6.  To  postpone  to  a  fixed  time   .  .  C 

4.  To  lay  on  the  table AEG 

Suppressing  or  extending  debate. 

5.  For  the  previous  question  ....  AEM 
To  limit,  or  close,  debate  ....  AM 
To  extend  limits  of  debate  ...  A 

Suppressing  the  question. 

Objection    to  consideration    of 

question A  II  M  N 

9.  To  postpone  indefinitely   ....  D  E 
4.   To  lay  upon  the  table AEG 

To  bring  up  a  question  the  second  time. 
To  reconsider  debatable    ques- 
tion      DEFI 

To  reconsider  undebatable  ques- 
tion      A  E  F  I 

Concerning  Orders,  Rules,  etc. 

3.  For  the  orders  of  the  day  ....  A  E  II  N 
Tp  make  subject  a  special  order.  M 

To  amend  the  rules M 

To  suspend  the  rules A  E  F  M 

To  take  up  a  question  out  of  its 

proper  order A  E 

To  take  from  the  table AEG 

Questions  touching  priority  of 

business A 

Questions  of  privilege. 

Asking  leave  to  continue  speak- 
ing after  indecorum A 

Appeal   from   chair's   decision 

touching  indecorum A  E  II  L 

Appeal   from  chair's    decision 

generally E  II  L 

Question  upon  reading  of  papers  A  E 

Withdrawal  of  a  motion   ....  A  E 

Closing  n  meeting. 

2.   To  adjourn  (in  committees,  to 
rise),  or   to  take  a  recess, 

without  limitation A  E  F 

1.   To  fix  time  to  which  to  adjourn  B 

Order  of  Precedence. —  The  motions  above 
numbered  1  to  9  take  precedence  over  all  others 
in  the  order  given,  and  any  one  of  them,  ex- 
cept to  amend  or  substitute,  is  in  order  while 
a  motion  of  a  lower  rank  is  pending. 

Rule  A.  Undebatable,  but  remarks  may 
be  tacitly  allowed. 

Rule  B.  Undebatable  if  another  question 
is  before  the  assembly. 


Rule  C.  Limited  debate  allowed  on  pro- 
priety of  postponement  only. 

Rule  D.  Opens  the  main  question  to  de- 
bate. Motions  not  so  marked  do  not  allow  of 
reference  to  main  question. 

Rule  E.  Cannot  be  amended.  Motion  to 
adjourn  can  be  amended  when  there  is  no 
other  business  before  the  house. 

Rule  F.     Cannot  be  reconsidered. 

Rule  G.  An  affirmative  vote  cannot  be 
reconsidered. 

Rule  II.  In  order  when  another  has  the 
floor. 

Rule  I.  A  motion  to  reconsider  may  be 
moved  and  entered  when  another  has  the  floor, 
but  the  business  then  before  the  house  may 
not  be  set  aside.  This  motion  can  only  be  en- 
tertained when  made  by  one  who  voted  orig- 
nally  with  the  prevailing  side.  When  called 
up  it  takes  precedence  of  all  others  which  may 
come  up,  excepting  only  motions  relating  to 
adjournment. 

■Rule  K.  A  motion  to  amend  an  amend- 
ment cannot  be  amended. 

Rule  L.  When  an  appeal  from  the  chair's 
decision  results  in  a  tie  vote,  the  chair  is  sus- 
tained. 

Rule  M.  Requires  a  two-thirds  vote  unless 
special  rules  have  been  enacted. 

Rule  N.     Does  not  require  to  be  seconded. 

General  Rules. — No  motion  is  open  for 
discussion  until  it  has  been  stated  by  the  chair. 

The  maker  of  a  motion  cannot  modify  it  or 
withdraw  it  after  it  has  been  stated  by  the 
chair,  except  by  general  consent. 

Only  one  reconsideration  of  a  question  is 
permitted. 

A  motion  to  adjourn,  to  lay  on  the  table,  or 
to  take  from  the  table,  cannot  be  renewed  un- 
less some  other  motion  has  been  made  in  the 
interval. 

On  motion  to  strike  out  the  words.  "  Shall 
the  words  stand  part  of  the  motion?  "  unless  a 
majority  sustains  the  words,  they  are  struck 
out. 

On  motion  for  previous  question,  the  form 
to  be  observed  is,  "Shall  the  main  question 
be  now  put?  "     This,  if  carried,  ends  debate. 

On  an  appeal  from  the  chair's  decision, 
"  Shall  the  decision  be  sustained  as  the  ruling 
of  the  house?  "  the  chair  is  generally  sus- 
tained. 

On  motion  for  orders  of  the  dayt  "  Will  the 
house  now  proceed  to  the  orders  of  the  day?  " 
This,  if  carried,  supersedes  intervening  mo- 
tions. 

When  an  objection  is  raised  to  considering 
questions,  ' '  Shall  the  question  be  considered?  ' ' 
objections  may  be  made  by  any  member  before 
debate  has  commenced,  but  not  subsequently. 


114 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Draco's  Laws. —  Draco,  an  Athenian 
lawgiver  and  archon,  was  the  author  of  the 
first  written  code  of  laws  at  Athens,  which  he 
is  supposed  to  have  published  in  the  fourth 
year  of  the  39th  Olympiad,  621  B.  C.  He 
was  of  distinguished  birth,  honored  for  his 
severe  manners  and  his  large  experience  in 
public  affairs,  and  the  people  of  Athens,  a 
prey  to  anarchy,  besought  him  to  give  them  a 
code  of  laws.  These,  however,  effected  little 
change  in  the  form  of  the  state,  but  by  being 
committed  to  writing  put  an  end  to  the  arbi- 
trary administration  of  justice  on  the  part  of 
the  archons,  and  resulted  in  the  establishment 
of  a  court  of  appeals — that  of  the  Ephetae. 
The  system  which  he  proposed  linked  together 
civil  and  moral  duties.  He  took  the  citizen 
at  the  moment  of  his  birth,  prescribed  the 
manner  in  which  he  should  be  nourished  and 
educated,  and  followed  him  with  directions 
through  the  different  epochs  of  life.  His  leg- 
islation had  a  beneficial  and  permanent  effect 
upon  the  political  development  of  Athens. 
The  extraordinary  severity  of  these  laws,  how- 
ever, which  punished  the  slightest  theft,  or 
even  laziness,  with  death,  no  less  than  sacri- 
lege, murder,  and  treason,  caused  them  to  be 
often  neglected,  and  made  them  so  hated  that 
Solon  was  appointed  to  draw  up  a  new  code. 
Solon,  though  he  softened  their  severity  in 
some  instances,  retained  that  law  which  pun- 
ished a  murderer  with  death.  Draco,  at  a 
later  period,  went  to  ^gina,  where,  after 
having  introduced  his  laws,  he  is  said  to  have 
been  stifled  in  the  theater  by  the  garments 
thrown  upon  him  as  a  mark  of  respect  by  the 
people.  Extremely  severe  and  sanguinary 
laws  are  still  called  Draconic,  and  in  ancient 
Greece  it  was  commonly  said  that  Draco's 
laws  "  were  written  in  blood." 

Trial  by  Jury.  —  The  form  of  trial  by 
jury  is  generally  conceded  to  be  derived  from 
the  institutions  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
There  was  a  custom  in  the  ancient  city  of 
Athens  whereby  a  certain  number  of  freemen, 
selected  by  lot,  heard  and  decided,  under  the 
direction  of  a  presiding  judge,  every  case  to 
be  tried  at  law,  each  case  being  heard  and 
determined  by  a  different  set  of  men.  A  sim- 
ilar system  was  adopted  in  Rome  ;  and  as  the 
Romans  always  introduced  their  laws  and  in- 
stitutions into  all  their  provinces,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  their  mode  of  judicial  procedure  was 
established  among  the  Britains.  Another  form, 
called  the  trial  by  compurgation,  was  in  use 
among  the  Saxons.  In  this,  each  party  to  a 
suit  appeared,  with  certain  of  his  friends,  who 
swore  with  him  to  the  truth  of  his  case.  As 
the  number  of  the  compurgators  was  usually 
six  on  each  side,  it  is  supposed  by  some  that 


we  have  here  the  origin  of  the  number  of  the 
modern  jury.  Witnesses  were  first  brought  in 
to  aid  the  jury  during  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  but  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne  that  the  law  provided  that  those  who 
had  evidence  to  give  could  not  serve  as  jurors. 
In  Scotland  the  jury  system  was  established 
at  a  very  early  date,  but  was  soon  after  discon- 
tinued in  civil  cases.  A  jury  in  that  country 
consists  of  fifteen,  and  a  majority  may  render 
a  verdict.  The  jury  in  civil  cases  was  re- 
introduced in  the  time  of  George  III.  In 
Ireland  the  jury  is  substantially  the  same  as  in 
England  ;  but  the  Repression-of-Crime  bill, 
passed  in  1882,  provided  for  the  trial  of  cer- 
tain cases  without  juries.  In  France  a  jury  is 
only  allowed  in  cases  of  felony,  where  a  ma- 
jority of  the  jurors  can  render  a  verdict.  In 
Germany,  trial  by  jury  in  criminal  cases  was 
introduced  early  in  the  century.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  Prussia  in  1819,  and  again  by  the 
Constitution  of  1848  ;  but  in  1851  political 
offenses  were  withdrawn  from  its  operation. 
The  system  wras  adopted  by  Austria  in  1850, 
by  Greece  in  1834,  and  by  Portugal  in  1837. 
It  has  also  been  introduced  in  recent  times 
into  Italy,  into  Brazil,  and  finally  into  Russia, 
where  the  first  trial  by  jury  was  held  Augusts, 
1886.  In  each  of  these  last-named  countries 
a  verdict  can  be  rendered  by  the  majority. 
The  jury  system  has  existed  in  Belgium  since 
that  country  separated  from  Holland,  and  in- 
cludes within  its  operations  political  offenses 
and  those  of  the  press.  In  Switzerland  all 
crimes  against  the  Confederation  are  tried  by 
jury,  and  for  other  crimes  each  canton  has  its 
own  machinery.  The  form  of  trial  by  jury 
was  brought  from  England  to  America  by  the 
colonists,  and  is  protected  by  mention  in  the 
Federal  Constitution  and  in  the  Constitutions 
of  most  of  the  states.  It  is  also  in  use  in  the 
South  American  republics.  The  origin  of  the 
institution  as  found  in  England  is  also  ascribed 
by  some  to  the  establishment  of  Norman  law 
there  by  William  the  Conqueror,  as  the  Nor- 
mans had  a  form  of  trial  by  jury  much  more 
like  that  of  modern  times  than  any  legal 
usage  of  the  Saxons. 

Chinese  Immigration  Law.  —  Ac- 
cording to  the  law  passed  by  both  houses  of 
Congress  and  approved  by  the  President  in 
1882,  and  amended  in  May,  1884,  Chinese 
laborers  are  forbidden  to  come  to  the  United 
States  under  penalty  of  being  returned.  The 
law  further  declares  that  any  master  of  any 
vessel  who  shall  knowingly  land  any  Chinese 
laborer  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  misde- 
meanor, and  for  every  Chinese  brought  shall 
be  fined  a  sum  not  exceeding  $500,  and  may 
also   be    imprisoned  for   one  year.       Chinese 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


115 


persons  who  are  not  laborers  desiring  to  visit 
this  country  are  obliged  to  bring  with  them 
from  the  Chinese  Government  (or  any  other 
Government  of  which  they  may  at  the  time  be 
subjects)  certificates  of  identification,  giving 
their  names  in  full,  description,  statement  of 
business,  place  of  residence,  etc.,  the  certifi- 
cates to  be  also  indorsed  by  the  American 
diplomatic  representative  in  the  country  where 
issued,  and  the  forgery  or  substitution  of  any 
name  for  the  correct  one  in  such  certificates 
shall  render  the  perpetrator  thereof  liable  to 
a  fine  of  $1,000  and  an  imprisonment  of  five 
years.  A  master  of  any  vessel  bringing  into 
a  United  States  port  any  such  Chinese  per- 
sons, not  laborers,  is  required  to  give  a  list  of 
them  to  the  Collector  of  Customs  of  the  port. 
Any  master  of  a  vessel  who  violates  any  of 
these  provisions  against  admitting  the  Chinese 
forfeits  his  vessel  to  the  Government,  and  any 
person  aiding  or  abetting  a  Chinaman  not 
lawfully  entitled  to  visit  this  country  to  land 
here  renders  himself  liable  to  a  fine  of  $1,000 
and  one  year's  imprisonment.  Further,  any 
Chinese  person  found  traveling  in  the  United 
States  without  a  proper  certificate  shall  be  re- 
moved to  the  country  from  whence  he  came  at 
the  cost  of  the  United  States,  any  person  who 
may  have  been  instrumental  in  bringing  such 
Chinese  to  the  United  States  being  liable  for 
all  the  expenses  of  his  removal ;  and  all  peace 
officers  of  the  several  States  and  Territories 
are  invested  with  the  powers  of  a  United 
States  marshal  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
law  into  effect.  The  only  Chinese  persons  ex- 
empted from  the  action  of  this  law  are  diplo- 
matic officers  traveling  on  the  business  of  their 
Government,  their  retinue  of  servants,  and 
Chinamen  who  arrived  within  ninety  days 
after  the  passage  of  the  act.  The  law  also  re- 
quires  Chinese  already  established  in  the  coun- 
try to  take  out  certificates,  if  they  leave  the 
United  States,  in  order  to  prove  their  identity 
in  the  event  of  return. 

Massachusetts  Blue-Laws.  —  In  re- 
gard to  the  so-called  "  blue- laws  "  of  Massa- 
chusetts it  is  difficult  to  determine  just  where 
the  line  between  fact  and  fancy  is  to  be  drawn. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  founders  of  Connecticut 
borrowed  most  of  their  laws  and  judicial  pro- 
ceedings from  Massachusetts.  Many  of  these 
laws  were  enacted  previous  to  1640,  and  a 
number  were  the  orders  and  sentences  of  the 
Massachusetts  Court  of  Assistants  and  Gen- 
eral Court.  For  instance,  one  order  we  find 
is  as  follows:  "It  is  ordered,  that  all  Rich. 
Clough's  strong  water  shall  presently  be  seazed 
upon,  for  his  selling  greate  quantytie  thereof 
to  several  men  servants,  which  was  the  oc- 
casion of  much  disorder,  drunkenes,  and  mis- 


demeanor." Another  record,  in  March,  1631, 
is  to  the  effect  that  "  Nich.  Knopp  is  fyned  5£ 
for  takeing  upon  him  to  cure  the  scurvey,  by  a 
water  of  noe  worth  nor  value,  which  he  solde 
att  a  very  deare  rate,  to  be  imprisoned  till  hee 
pay  his  fine  or  give  securitye  for  it,  or  else  to 
be  whipped;  and  shal  be  lyable  to  any  man's 
action  of  whome  he  hath  receved  money  for 
the  said  water."  In  September,  1634,  a  num- 
ber of  restrictions  regarding  the  fashions  of 
dress  were  enacted.  One  of  them  was  as  fol- 
lows :  "  The  court,  takeing  into  consideration 
the  greate,  superflous,  and  unnecessary  ex- 
penses occasioned  by  reason  of  some  newe  and 
immodest  fashions,  as  also  the  ordinary  weare- 
ing  of  silver,  golde,  and  silke  laces,  girdles,  hat- 
bands, etc.,  hath  therefore  ordered  that  noe 
person,  either  man  or  woman,  shall  hereafter 
make  or  buy  apparell,  either  woollen,  silke  or 
lynnen,  with  any  lace  on  it,  silver,  golde,  silke, 
or  threed,  under  the  penalty  of  forfecture  of 
such  cloathes."  That  there  was  restraint  put 
upon  the  tongue  is  shown  by  the  following, 
under  date  of  September,  1636:  "Robert 
Shorthose,  for  swearing  by  the  bloud  of  God, 
was  sentenced  to  have  his  tongue  put  into  a 
cleft  stick,  and  to  stand  so  by  the  space  of 
haulfe  an  houre."  And  here  is  one  against 
cakes  and  buns  :  "  It  is  ordered,  also,  that  no 
person  shall  sell  any  cakes  or  buns,  either  in 
the  markets  or  victualing  houses,  or  elsewhere, 
upon  paine  of  10s.  fine  ;  provided  that  this 
order  shall  not  extend  to  such  cakes  as  shal 
be  made  for  any  buriall,  or  marriage,  or  such 
like  spetiall  occasion." 

Prohibitory  Laws. —  The  first  actual  pro 
hibitory  law  was  enacted  in  Maine  in  1 851 .  This 
was  the  famous  Maine  Liquor  Law,  and  it  is  still 
in  force  in  that  State,  and  in  1884  its  specifica- 
tions were  put  in  the  form  of  a  constitutional 
amendment,  and  adopted  by  a  large  popular 
majority.  Vermont  enacted  a  prohibitory  law 
in  1852,  its  provisions,  however,  being  much 
less  stringent  than  those  of  the  Maine  law.  It 
was  strengthened  by  the  passage  in  1869  of  a 
civil-damage  act,  which  provided  that  damages 
might  be  collected  from  the  liquor  seller  for 
injuries  inflicted  by  his  customers,  while  in  a 
state  of  intoxication,  upon  themselves  or 
others.  A  mild  prohibitory  law  was  also 
passed  by  New  Hampshire  in  1855,  which  has 
been  strengthened  by  enactments  since  adopted. 
Damages  are  assessed  on  the  liquor  seller  for 
the  acts  of  drunkards  in  that  state  also,  by  an 
act  passed  in  1870.  In  Massachusetts  the 
temperance  excitement  of  1852  resulted  in  the 
passage  of  a  prohibitory  law  by  the  legislature, 
but  the  courts  decided  the  law  was  unconstitu- 
tional, and  in  1853  it  was  repealed.  In  1855 
the  Know  Nothing  party  being  in  power  in  the 


116 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


Assembly,  another  prohibitory  law  was  passed. 
This  was  on  trial  for  several  years  before  the 
courts,  but  at  length  its  constitutionality  was 
affirmed.  In  1868  this  law  was  repealed  be- 
cause of  great  popular  dissatisfaction  with  its 
manner  of  working.  A  milder  law  was  passed 
in  1869,  but,  being  even  more  unsatisfactory, 
was  abolished  in  1875,  and  replaced  by  a 
license  law,  which  still  exists.  In  Rhode 
Island,  as  in  Massachusetts,  a  law  passed 
during  the  excited  state  of  public  feeling  in 
1852  was  declared  unconstitutional  the  follow- 
ing year.  The  law  was  then  amended  so  as 
not  to  conflict  with  the  constitution,  and  the 
question  of  its  adoption  being  submitted  to  the 
people,  it  was  approved  by  a  small  majority. 
In  1863,  however,  the  law  was  repealed.  In 
1874  a  similar  law  was  passed,  only  to  be 
abolished  in  the  next  year,  when  a  license  law 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  liquors  to  minors  and 
drunkards,  and  also  on  Sundays,  and  providing 
for  the  collection  of  damages  from  the  liquor 
dealer,  was  passed.  An  amendment  was  offered 
to  the  people  in  1886,  which  was  not  adopted, 
but  in  the  next  year  a  stringent  prohibitory 
law  was  passed.  Connecticut  passed  a  prohibi- 
tory law  in  1854,  but  owing  to  some  defect  in 
the  law,  or  to  the  indifference  of  the  people,  it 
could  not  be  enforced,  and  became  virtually  a 
dead  letter.  About  1870,  therefore,  it  was 
superseded  by  the  present  license  law,  which 
has  the  local  option  feature.  This  has  given 
opportunity  to  a  large  number  of  towns  and 
districts  to  positively  forbid  the  sale  of  liquor 
in  their  localities,  so  that  nearly  half  of  the 
State  is  under  practical  prohibition.  Michi- 
gan, in  1853,  adopted  a  prohibitory  law  which 
was  repealed  almost  immediately.  A  similar 
law,  however,  was  adopted  in  1855,  which 
continued  on  the  statute  books  for  about 
twenty  years.  As  it  had  become  inoperative 
through  popular  indifference,  it  was  replaced 
by  a  license  law  in  1875.  This  latter  was 
strengthened  in  1883  by  the  adoption  of  a 
damage  clause.  In  1885  New  York  passed  a 
prohibitory  law,  which  shared  the  fate  of  many 
similar  enactments,  being  declared  unconsti- 
tutional, and  was  repealed  the  following  year. 
In  1861  efforts  had  been  made  to  secure  prohi- 
bition in  the  Revised  Constitution,  but  the 
result  was  a  failure.  The  extent  of  New  Jer- 
sey's prohibition  is  a  law  passed  in  1797,  and 
still  in  force,  forbidding  the  distribution  or 
sale  of  liquors  at  a  public  auction.  Pennsyl- 
vania once  had  a  prohibitory  statute  on  its 
books  for  a  few  months.  It  was  adopted  in 
1855  and  repealed  in  1856.  This  law  bad  been 
preceded bya  "no-license  act  "  which  bad  been 
enacted  by  the  Legislature  in  1846,  and  had 
been  pronounced  unconstitutional  by  the  Su- 


preme Court.  In  1872  a  law  was  passed  giving 
local  option  to  the  counties,  and  sixty-seven  of 
them  voted  against  licensing  the  traffic.  In 
two  years  that  law  was  repealed  and  a  license 
law  adopted,  which  is  still  in  force.  The  pro- 
hibition issue  was  squarely  before  the  people 
in  the  spring  elections  of  this  year  (1889),  and 
was  defeated  by  a  large  popular  majority. 
Delaware  has  tried  prohibition  twice.  The 
first  law  was  passed  in  1847,  only  to  be  re- 
pealed in  1848.  The  second  law  was  made  in 
1885  ;  but  it  was  in  a  few  years  displaced  by 
a  license  law,  which  is  still  in  existence.  Three 
other  States  —  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa  — 
adopted  prohibitory  laws  in  1855.  That  of 
Indiana  was  declared  void  soon  after,  and  has 
never  been  reenacted.  The  legislative  enact- 
ment of  Illinois  was  submitted  to  the  people 
and  rejected  by  them.  Since  then  no  effort 
has  been  made  to  make  the  State  prohibitory, 
but  a  high  license  law  was  passed  by  the  Leg- 
islature of  1882-'83.  This  law  has  been  de- 
clared constitutional  by  the  courts,  and  has 
been  generally  successful  in  its  operation.  The 
Iowa  law  has  stood,  with  some  modifications, 
and,  where  public  opinion  has  supported  it, 
has  been  generally  executed.  In  1882  a  pro- 
hibitory clause  was  put  into  the  Constitution 
by  popular  vote.  This  amendment  has  been 
declared  void  by  the  Supreme  Court  on  account 
of  certain  technical  errors  in  drawing  it  up. 
In  1884  a  prohibitory  law  was  passed.  Ohio 
put  a  "no-license"  clause  in  its  constitution 
in  1851,  and  the  sale  of  liquors  has  been  vir- 
tually free  throughout  the  State.  Attempts 
have  been  made  at  several  times  to  regulate 
the  traffic  by  law,  but  all  have  failed.  Two 
of  the  States  adopted  prohibitory  laws  while 
they  were  still  under  territorial  organization  — 
Minnesota  in  1352  and  Nebraska  in  1855.  In 
both  cases  the  law  was  modified  to  make  it  fit 
public  sentiment  more  nearly,  and  both  States 
now  have  high  license  laws.  Kansas  adopted 
a  modified  prohibitory  law  in  1866.  In  1880 
the  popular  vote  added  an  amendment  to  the 
Constitution  prohibiting  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  in  the  State  "ex- 
cept for  medical,  scientific,  and  mechanical 
purposes."  In  Georgia,  ninety-five  counties 
have  suppressed  the  sale  of  liquor  through  the 
privilege  of  local  option.  Similar  laws  are 
made  somewhat  effective,  also,  in  Texas, 
Arkansas,  and  Florida.  Other  States  have 
laws  forbidding  the  sale  of  liquor  within  a  cer- 
tain distance  of  a  school,  or  to  minors,  to 
persons  of  notoriously  intemperate  habits,  etc. 
Tho  Law  of  Subscriptions. —  1.  Sub- 
scription is  the  placing  of  a  signature  under  a 
written  or  printed  engagement.  By  such  an 
act  a  person  contracts,  in  writing,  to  pay  a 


GOVERNMENT  AND  LAW. 


117 


•um  of  money  for  a  specific  purpose  ;  as  a  sub-  | 
scription    to    a  charitable  institution,  a   sub- 
scription for  a  book,  etc. 

2.  "  The  law  on  the  subject  of  these  sub- 
scription papers, "  says  Parsons,  "and  of  all 
voluntary  promises  of  contribution,  is  substan- 
tially this :  No  such  promises  are  binding 
unless  something  is  paid  for  them,  or  unless 
some  party  for  whose  benefit  they  are  made 
(and  this  party  may  be  one  or  more  of  the 
subscribers),  at  the  request,  express  or  implied, 
of  the  promisor,  and  on  the  faith  of  the  sub- 
scription, incurs  actual  expense  or  loss,  or 
enters  into  valid  contracts  with  other  parties 
which  will  occasion  expense  or  loss.  As  the 
objection  to  these  promises,  or  the  doubt  about 
them,  comes  from  the  want  of  consideration, 
it  may  be  removed  by  a  seal  to  each  name,  or 
by  one  seal,  which  is  declared  in  the  instru- 
ment to  be  the  seal  of  each." 

3.  A  person  subscribing  for  a  book  is  bound 
to  take  it  when  delivered  by  the  agent,  pro- 
vided it  corresponds  with  the  sample  copy 
shown  him  when  the  subscription  was  given. 
The  agent  or  publisher  may  recover  at  law  the 
price  of  the  book  should  the  subscriber  refuse 
to  take  it  when  presented  to  him. 

4.  There  is  no  postal  law  regulating  the 
transactions  between  publishers  and  subscrib- 
ers. The  ordinary  rules  of  contract  govern 
all  relations  between  the  parties  concerned, 
and  the  post  office  has  no  part  except  to  deliver 
the  article,  or  return  it  when  ordered  to  do  so. 

5.  If  the  publisher  of  any  paper  or  periodi- 
cal sends  his  paper  or  magazine,  the  post- 
master must  deliver  it,  if  the  person  to  whom 
it  is  sent  will  take  it.  If  he  will  not  take  it, 
the  postmaster  must  notify  the  publisher. 

6.  If  a  person  subscribes  for  a  periodical 
for  a  given  period,  say  one  year,  and  the  pub- 
lisher sends  it  accordingly,  the  subscriber  can- 
not terminate  the  contract  by  stopping  his 
paper  at  any  time  during  the  year.  But  at 
the  end  of  the  year  the  subscriber  may  stop 
his  paper  even  without  paying  the  subscription 
due.  He  is  under  no  legal  obligation  to  take 
the  paper  another  year.  The  fact  that  he  has 
not  paid  for  the  expired  year's  subscription 
does  not  bind  him  to  continue  taking  the 
paper.  He  can  stop  taking  it  at  the  end  of  the 
year  and  the  publisher  can  sue  for  and  collect 
his  year's  subscription  only. 

7.  If  at  the  end  of  the  year  the  publisher 
continues  to  send  his  paper  and  the  subscriber 
to  receive  it,  the  sending  is  the  offer  of  another 
year's  subscription  at  the  same  price,  and  the 
receiving  of  the  paper  is  an  acceptance.  The 
implied  contract  from  such  action  is  a  renewal 
of  the  subscription  ;  and  the  publisher  can 
send  the  paper  for  the  renewed  term  of  one 


year  and  collect  the  subscription  price  for  that 
year  as  well  as  the  preceding. 

8.  If  the  publisher  advertises  terms  of  sub- 
scription, all  parties  taking  the  paper  under 
these  conditions  will  be  held  according  to  the 
conditions. 

RIGHTS    ANT>    OBLIGATIONS    OF 
PARENTS  AND  CHILDREN. 

In  ancient  domestic  life  the  father  ruled  as 
absolute  monarch  over  the  family.  So  it  is 
still  in  oriental  countries.  Christian  civiliza- 
tion has  greatly  modified  this  and  laws  have 
been  enacted  that  set  forth  the  relation  of  par- 
ent and  child,  defining  the  duties  and  obliga- 
tions of  each. 

Rights  of  Parents. —  1.  As  long  as  a 
child  is  under  age  he  is  subject  to  the  control 
of  the  parents,  who  have  all  reasonable  au- 
thority to  enforce  obedience.  As  long  as  a 
child  is  properly  treated  by  the  parents  no  one 
has  a  right  to  interfere  nor  to  take  away  and 
retain  a  child  against  their  wishes. 

2.  Adopting  a  Child.  When  a  child  is 
adopted  by  another  family  its  parents  lose 
their  claim  upon  it  and  the  adopting  persons 
take  their  place.  A  child  cannot  be  adopted 
without  the  consent  of  its  parents,  but  if  con- 
sent is  once  given  it  cannot  be  revoked. 

A  child  over  fourteen  must  himself  consent 
to  the  adoption.  The  Court  has  in  all  cases 
the  right  to  consent  to  or  refuse  the  adoption. 

Application  must  therefore  be  made  at  the 
County  Court  and  the  Judge  will  consider  it 
and  pass  upon  it. 

3.  Punishment.  Parents  have  a  right  to 
punish  their  minor  children  providing  they  are 
not  guilty  of  cruelty.  Brutality  is  severely 
punished  by  law  as  a  crime.  The  punishment 
must  be  reasonable,  leaving  no  bruises  nor  in- 
juring the  health  of  the  child. 

4.  Claims  upon  Earnings.  While  the  child 
is  a  minor  parents  have  a  right  to  all  his  earn- 
ings. They  can  claim  them  of  his  employer. 
Parents,  however,  may  free  the  child  and  allow 
him  to  collect  and  use  his  own  wages.  When 
this  is  once  made  public  the  parents  cannot 
thereafter  collect  the  child's  wages. 

5.  A  Runaway  child.  A  child  has  no 
right  to  leave  home  without  permission  of  the 
parents  ;  if  he  does  he  can  be  brought  back  by 
force.  Relations  or  others  who  would  keep 
him  can  be  forced  by  law  to  give  him  up  un- 
less it  can  be  shown  that  the  father  is  brutal 
in  his  treatment  of  the  child  or  is  not  capable 
because  of  drunkenness  or  other  causes  to 
properly  care  for  the  child. 

Obligations  of  Parents. —  Obligation  to 
Support.  The  law  requires  that  parents  shall 
support  their  minor  children.     A  child  having 


118 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


property  of  his  own  does  not  relieve  the  par- 
ents from  supporting  him.  They  can,  how- 
ever, by  applying  to  the  Court,  get  permission 
to  use  a  part  or  all  of  the  income  from  the 
child's  property  for  his  support.  Beyond  this 
the  parents  have  no  claim  upon  or  control  over 
the  child's  property. 

Children's  Bights  and  Ohligations. 
—  1.  A  child  can  own  property  over  which 
the  parents  have  no  control,  except  the  use  of 
the  income  of  the  same  for  the  support  of  the 
child,  as  stated  above. 

2.  Where  it  is  shown  that  parents  are  un- 
able to  support  themselves  the  child  is  under 
legal  obligations  to  support  and  care  for  them, 
at  least  do  what  he  can  toward  such  support. 

3.  If  a  child  commits  a  premeditated  crime 
he  is  personally  liable  ;  parents  cannot  be  held 
responsible  for  crimes  committed  by  their  minor 
children. 

4.  Guardian.  A  guardian  may  be  ap- 
pointed over  an  orphan  child,  or  the  child 
may  choose  his  own  guardian,  who  in  a  legal 
sense  exercises  all  the  authority  of  a  parent. 

LAW  OF  APPBENTICESHIP. 

An  apprentice  is  a  minor,  male  or  female, 
bound  by  due  form  of  law  to  leain  some  art, 
trade,  or  business,  and  when  so  bound  is  un- 
der obligation  to  serve  the  master  during  the 
time  of  the  apprenticeship. 

The  Contract  should  be  signed  by  the  ap- 
prentice and  his  father,  or  in  case  of  death  or 
incapacity  of  the  latter,  by  the  mother  or 
legally  constituted  guardian.  It  is  executed  in 
duplicate,  one  copy  going  to  the  master,  the 
other  to  the  apprentice.  The  minor  cannot  be 
bound  for  a  longer  time  than  until  he  becomes 
of  age.  Without  the  consent  of  the  parent  or 
guardian,  the  contract  would  not  be  binding 
upon  the  minor. 

Consent  of  Minor.  The  minor  cannot  be 
bound  without  his  consent,  which  consent  must 
be  stated  in  the  contract. 

Duties  of  the  Master.  It  is  made  the  master's 
duty  by  the  contract  to  teach  the  apprentice 
the  trade  or  business  which  he  himself  follows, 
to  provide  him  with  suitable  food,  clothing, 
and  shelter.  He  has  no  right  to  employ  the 
apprentice  in  menial  labors  not  connected  with 


the  trade  or  business  which  he  undertook  to 
tpach  him.  If  he  corrects  for  misbehavior, 
the  punishment  must  be  moderate  and  reason- 
able. 

'Duties  of  the  Apprentice .  He  is  under  obliga- 
tion to  serve  his  master  faithfully  and  well ; 
to  obey  all  lawful  commands;  to  guard  his 
master's  property  and  interests,  and  to  faith- 
fully endeavor  to  learn  the  business,  and  to 
perform  what  is  required  of  him  in  the  con- 
tract. 

Termination  of  Apprenticeship.  His  time  of 
service  ends  when  he  becomes  of  age,  or  in 
case  his  master  dies,  unless  the  contract  in- 
cludes the  master's  executors  and  administra- 
tors. 

If  the  apprentice  runs  away,  and  enters  the 
employment  of  another,  the  master  is  not 
bound  to  take  him  back,  but  is  entitled  to 
whatever  lie  may  earn,  provided  he  can  prove 
that  the  new  employer  was  aware  of  the  ex- 
istence of  the  apprenticeship. 

The  apprentice  cannot  be  compelled  to  leave 
the  State,  nor  can  he  be  assigned  to  anyone  else. 

BILLS  OF  LADING. 

A  bill  of  lading  is  a  document  delivered  by 
a  master  or  owner  of  a  vessel,  or  the  officer  of 
a  transportation  company,  and  signed  by  such 
parties  as  an  acknowledgment  that  the  goods 
have  been  received  for  transportation. 

The  bill  constitutes  the  contract  between  the 
shipper  and  the  carrier.  Three  copies  of  the 
bill  are  made  out,  one  is  kept  by  the  shipper, 
another  by  the  party  transporting  the  goods, 
and  the  third  is  sent  to  the  person  to  whom 
the  goods  are  directed. 

Bills  of  Lading  are  transferable  and  assign- 
able, and  the  assignee  may  sue  for  the  recovery 
of  the  goods. 

If  the  goods  perish  without  fault  of  the 
master  of  a  ship,  the  freight  must  be  paid, 
otherwise  the  master  or  owner  of  a  ship  ia 
liable  for  damages. 

Railroad  companies,  as  common  carriers, 
are  subject  to  the  common  State  laws  regula- 
ting such  business  ;  their  bill  of  lading  usually 
states  as  to  how  far  they  hold  themselves  re- 
sponsible for  the  safe  transportation  of  the 
goods. 


WILLIAM  SHAKESPEARE. 


Book  II 


Language  and  Literature. 


Language  and  Literature. 


LITERATURE, 

In  the  general  sense  of  the  word,  comprises 
the  entire  results  of  knowledge,  and  mental 
activity,  expressed  in  writing;  but  in  a  nar- 
rower sense,  it  is  used  to  denote  the  depart- 
ment of  elegant  letters,  excluding  works  of 
abstract  science  and  mere  erudition.  In  this 
limited  view  it  comprehends  languages,  par- 
ticularly Greek  and  Latin,  grammar,  etymol- 
ogy, logic,  rhetoric,  poetry,  history,  criticism, 
bibliography,  and  a  description  of  ths  attain- 
ments of  the  human  mind  in  every  sphere  of 
research  and  invention.  The  history  of  liter- 
ature represents  the  development  and  success- 
ive changes  of  civilization,  so  far  as  these  are 
exhibited  in  written  works,  and  embraces  the 
history  of  the  literature  of  special  ages  or 
countries,  and  of  the  separate  branches  of  lit- 
erature, as  poetry,  rhetoric,  philology,  and  so 
forth. 

LANGUAGES. 

The  classification  of  the  different  languages 
of  the  earth  into  a  few  great  families  is  due  to 
the  science  of  comparative  philology,  and  is  of 
recent  origin.  Till  the  latter  end  of  the  last 
century  the  preference  as  to  the  antiquity  of 
language  was  usually  given  to  the  Hebrew,  but 
a  striking  improvement  of  linguistic  study  is 
dated  from  the  discovery  of  the  Sanskrit,  the 
ancient  language  of  the  northern  parts  of  Hin- 
dustan, in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  century. 
A  belief  in  an  affinity  in  languages  and  a  sep- 
aration of  them  into  certain  great  groups  or 
families  then  arose. 

The  languages  of  the  world  are  divided  into 
four  great  branches  ;  viz.,  the  Aryan,  or  Indo- 
European,  the  most  important ;  the  Semitic, 
the  Turanian,  and  the  Dravidian. 

The  Turanian  family,  called  also  the  Ta- 
taric  or  Altaic,  includes  the  numerous  and 
widely  different  languages  of  the  Manchoos, 
the  Mongols,  the  Turks  (in  Asia  and  Europe), 
the  Magyars  (in  Hungary),  the  Finns  (in  Rus- 
sia), and  a  multitude  of  other  tribes. 

The  Dravidian  includes  the  Tamil  and  the 
dialects  in  Ceylon  and  the  islands  off  Asia,  etc. 

The  Semitic  includes  the  Hebrew,  Syriac, 
Arctic  and  Ethiopic,  Basque  (in  the  Pyrenees), 
etc. 

The  Indo-European,  to  which  extensive 
family  the  English  language  belongs,  is  divided 
into  six  principal  branches. 

I.  The  Indian  branch,  represented  by  the 
Sanskrit,  which  has  now  ceased  to  be  spoken, 
but  is  the  mother  of  the  Hindustani,  Bengali, 


Mahratti,  and  the  other  numerous  dialects  of 
modern  India. 

II.  The  Merfo-Persic  branch,  at  the  head 
of  which  is  the  Zend,  in  which  the  Zend-Avesta 
is  composed,  and  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of 
Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Xerxes.  Next  follow  the 
Pehlevi,  of  the  Sarsanian  dynasty;  the  Parsee, 
in  which  the  national  poem  of  Ferdusi  is  writ- 
ten (A.  D.  1000),  and  lastly  the  modern  Per- 
sian. 

III.  The  Celtic  branch,  divided  into  two 
dialects,  the  Gaelic  and  the  Cymric  ;  the  former 
comprising  the  Irish  or  Erse,  the  Scottish 
Gaelic  or  Highland-Scotch,  and  the  Manx  of 
the  Isle  of  Man  ;  and  the  latter  Welsh,  the 
Cornish  (now  extinct)  and  the  Armorican  of 
Britanny. 

IV.  The  Grccco-Latin  branch,  comprising 
the  two  ancient  classical  languages,  and  the 
so-called  Romanic  languages,  derived  from  the 
Latin,  which  are  six  in  number;  namely,  the 
French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Walla- 
chian,  and  the  Koumanish  or  Romanese  spoken 
in  the  Grisons  in  Switzerland. 

V.  The  Teutonic  branch,  which  comprises  all 
the  different  German  and  Scandinavian  dia- 
lects. 

VI.  The  Slavonic  branch,  divided  into  three 
principal  classes  :  1.  The  Lettic,  comprising 
the  Lithuanian,  the  Old  Prussian  (now  extinct), 
and  the  Lettish,  the  language  of  Kurland  and 
Livonia.  2.  The  Western  Slavonic,  compris- 
ing the  Polish ;  the  Bohemian  or  Tchechian, 
spoken  in  Bohemia;  the  Slovakian,  spoken  by 
the  Slovaks  in  Hungary,  and  the  Wendian, 
spoken  in  Lusatia.  3.  The  Eastern  Slavonic, 
comprising  the  Old  Slavonic,  preserved  in  the 
translations  of  the  Bible  made  by  Cyrillus  in 
the  ninth  century,  and  its  derivate.  dialect,  the 
Bulgarian  ;  the  Russian,  Servian,  Croatian,  and 
Slovinian. 

The  Teutonic  branch  of  the  Indo-European 
family  of  languages  is  divided  into  two  great 
branches,  the  German  and  Scandinavian. 

The  German  is  divisible  into  three  principal 
dialects,  the  Mceso-Gothic,  the  Low  German, 
and  the  High  German,  the  two  latter  being  so 
called  because  the  Low  German  is  spoken  by 
the  inhabitants  of  the  low  or  flat  country  near 
the  shores  of  the  German  Ocean,  while  the 
High  German  belongs  to  the  higher  country  in 
the  interior. 

1 .  The  Mceso-Gothic,  the  most  easterly  of 
all  the  German  dialects,  has  long  ceased  to  be 
spoken,  but  is  preserved  in  the  translation  of 
the  gospels  by  Ulfilas. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


121 


2.  The  Low  German  comprised  the  follow- 
ing dialects  :  (1)  Anglo-Saxon,  which  was  cul- 
tivated with  great  success  in  England,  and  in 
which  the  second  most  ancient  specimens  of 
the  Germanic  language  are  preserved.  (2)  The 
Old  Saxon,  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  in  England,  formerly  spoken  in 
Westphalia.  (3)  The  Frisian,  now  confined 
to  a  small  district  in  Holland.  (4)  The  Dutch, 
the  present  language  of  Holland.  (5)  The 
Flemish,  spoken  in  many  parts  of  Belgium. 

3.  The  High  German  comprises  the  Old 
High  German,  from  the  seventh  to  the  eleventh 
century;  the  Middle  High  German,  from  the 
twelfth  century  to  the  Reformation,  and  the 
New  High  German,  which  since  Luther's  time 
has  been  the  literary  language  of  Germany. 

The  Scandinavian  branch,  of  which  the 
most  ancient  language  is  the  Old  Norse,  the 
language  of  Norway,  is  represented  by  the  Ice- 
landic, which  was  carried  into  Iceland  by 
the  Norse  colonists  in  the  ninth  century  and 
which  continues  to  be  spoken  on  that  island 
with  little  alteration.  On  the  Continent  the 
Old  Norse  is  represented  by  the  Swedish, 
Danish,  and  Norwegian,  of  which  the  last  has 
now  become  a  mere  patois. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  relation- 
ship of  the  different  Teutonic  languages  :  — 

fl.  Mrvso-Gothic. 
j  2.  Ltnp  German. 
(i)  Anglo-Saxon. 

English, 
(ii)  Old  Saxon, 
(hi)  Frisian. 
(iv)  Dutch. 
(v)  Flemish. 
Hiqh  German. 
(i)  Old  High 
German 
(ii)  Middle  High 

German, 
(iii)  New  High 
German. 
Old  Scandinavian. 
(i)  Icelandic. 
(ii)  Ferroic. 
Modern 

Scandinavian. 
(i)  Danish. 
(ii)  Swedish, 
(iii)  Norwegian. 

The  English  Language  is  the  descend- 
ant and  representative  of  the  Anglo-Saxon. 
It  has  lost  very  much  of  the  inflection  and 
very  many  of  the  words  which  belong  to  the 
.parent  language ;  and  on  the  other  hand  it 
has  borrowed  words  largely,  to  the  extent 
even  of  half  its  vocabulary,  from  other  lan- 
guages, especially  the  French  and  the  Latin. 
Yet  all  the  inflections  that  remain  in  it,  and 
most  of  its  formative  endings,  the  pronouns 
and  particles,  and  in  general  the  words  which 
are  in  most  frequent  and  familiar  use,  have 
come  to  it  from  the  Anglo-Saxon.  All  the  j 
constituents  of  the  English  Language  as  it  now  | 
exists  are  presented  in  a  condensed  form  as  j 
follows :  — 


Teutonic 


I.  German 


II.  Scandinavian 


1st.  Saxon  and  Danish  words,  of  Teutonic  ami  Gothic 
origin. 

2d.  British  or  Welsh,  Cornish  and  Anuuric.  of  Celtic 
origin. 

3d.    Norman,  a  mixture  of  French  and  Gothic. 

4th.    Latin. 

5th.    The  French,  chief]  v  Latin  corrupted. 

Gth.    Greek. 

7th.  A  few  words  directly  from  the  Italian,  Spanish 
German,  and  other  Continental  languages  of  Europe. 

8th  A  few  foreign  words  introduced  by  commerce 
or  by  political  and  literary  intercourse. 

Capital  Letters.  —  Begin  with  a  capi- 
tal :  — 

1.  Every  sentence  and  every  line  of  poetry. 
Examples.—  Forget  others'   faults.    How  bright  the 

day  !    What  is  lame?    Custom  forms  us  all. 
"  Time  is  the  warp  of  life ;  oil !  tell 
The  young,  the  fair,  to  weave  it  well." 

2.  All   proper  nouns,    and   titles   of  office, 

honor,  and  respect. 

Examples.  —  Henry  the  Fowler,  Emperor  of  Ger 
many;  Robert  Roe,  Esquire,  His  Honor  the  Mavor: 
Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning;  the  Red  kiver;  I'nion 
Square;  the  Superior  Court  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

3.  All  adjectives  formed  from  proper  names. 
Examples.—  African,  Italian,  Welsh,  Ciceronian. 

Also  adjectives  denoting  a  sect  or  religion. 
Examples. —  Methodist,  Puritan,  Catholic. 

4.  Common  nouns,  where  personified  in  a 
direct  and  lively  manner ;  not  where  sex  is 
merely  attributed  to  an  inanimate  object. 

Examples  —Then  War  waves  his  ensanguined  sword, 
and  fair  Peace  flees  sighing  to  some  happier  land.  But, 
the  sun  pursues  bis  fiery  course;  the  moon  sheds  her 
silvery  beams. 

5.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity.  The  per- 
sonal pronouns  Thou  and  He  standing  for  His 
name  are  sometimes  capitalized. 

Examples.— The  Almighty;  the  King  of  kings;  the 
Eternal  Essence;  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Being;  our 
Father. 

In  the  standard  editions  of  the  Bible,  the 
pronouns,  when  referring  to  Cod,  are  never 
capitalized,  not  even  in  forms  of  direct  address 
to  the  Deity. 

6.  The  first  word  of  a  complete  quoted  sen- 
tence not  introduced  by  that,  if,  or  any  other 
conjunction. 

Examples. —  Thomson  says,  "Success  makes  villains 
honest."  But,  Thomson  says  that  "  success  makes  vil- 
lains honest." 

7.  Every  noun,  adjective,  and  verb  in  the 
title  of  books  and  headings  of  chapters. 

Examples.—  Butler's  "Treatise  on  the  History  of 
Ancient  Philosophy  "  ;  Cousins'  "  Lectures  on  the  True, 
the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good." 

8.  Words  that  denote  the  leading  subjects 
of  chapters,  articles  or  paragraphs. 

A  word  defined,  for  instance,  may  com- 
mence with  a  capital.  Do  not  introduce  cap- 
itals too  freely  under  this  rule.  "When  in 
doubt  use  a  small  letter. 

9.  The  pronoun  /and  the  interjection  0. 

10.  Words  denoting  great  events,  eras  of 
history,  noted  written  instruments,  extraordi- 
nary physical  phenomena  and  the  like. 

Examples. —  The  Creation,  the  Confusion  of  Lan- 
guages, the  Restoration .  the  Dark  Ages,  the  Declara- 
tion   f  Independence ;  the  Aurora  Borealis. 


122 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


11.  Letters  standing  for  words  are  generally 
written  as  capitals. 

Examples. —  A.  D.  for  Anno  Domini,  the  year  of  our 
Lord. 

12.  The  months  of  the  year,  and  the  days 
of  the  week.  The  names  of  the  seasons, 
however,  should  not  generally  be  capitalized, 
although  it  is  customary  with  some  authors. 

13.  The  words  North,  South,  East,  and  West, 
and  their  compounds,  as  Northwest,  when  they 
signify  a  section  of  country.  Also  adjectives 
derived  therefrom.  This  class  of  words  should 
not  be  capitalized,  however,  when  merely  de- 
noting direction. 

Punctuation  Points.  —  The  Punctua- 
tion Points  are  as  follows  :  — 


Period 

Colon 

Semicolon 

Comma 

Interrogation  Point 

Exclamation  Point 

Dash 

Parentheses 

Brackets 

Hyphen 

Quotation  Marks 

Apostrophe 


Ellipsis 

Caret 
Index 


*    #    *  * 


Paragraph 

Brace 

Acute  Accent 

Grave  Accent 

Circumflex  Accent 

Tilde,  or  Circumflex 

The  Long,  or  Macron 

The  Short,  or  Breve 

Diaeresis 

Cedilla 

Asterisk 

Dagger,  or  Obelisk 

Double  Dagger 

Section 

Parallel 


Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  com- 
position by  points  or  stops  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  more  clearly  the  sense  and  relation 
of  the  words,  and  of  noting  the  different 
pauses  and  inflections  required  in  reading. 

The  usage  of  to-day  is  not  that  of  the  past 
and  will  not  be  that  of  the  future. 

The  following  rules  are  the  most  important 
and  are  compiled  from  the  best  modern  au- 
thorities :  — 

The  Period  must  be  placed  after  every 
declarative  and  imperative  sentence  and  every 
abbreviated  word. 

Examples. —  Obey  your  parents.  Virtue  is  the  only 
nobility.  We  write  Jas.  for  James,  N.  Y.  for  New  York, 
No.  for  number,  George  I.  for  George  the  First. 

After  all  abbreviations. 

Example. —  Mdse. —  Amt. —  Ph.  D. —  LL.  D. 

After  numberswritten  in  the  Roman  notation. 

Example. —  XIX. —  Psalm  XC. 

A  nickname  which  is  not  really  an  abbrevi- 
ation is  not  followed  by  a  period. 

Examples. —  Dave  Bidwell ;  Sam  Slick. 

A  Colon  is  placed  after  a  sentence  which 
formally  introduces  a  distinct  quotation. 

Example. —  We  are  often  reminded  of  this  remark  of 
Marshal  Lannes  :  "  Know,  Colonel,  that  none  but  a 
poltroon  would  boast  that  he  was  never  afraid." 

The  colon  may  be  used  to  separate  the  great 
parts  of  a  long  complex  sentence  when  the 
minor  sentences  therein  are  separated  by  the 
semicolon. 

The  colon  is  passing  out  of  use,  its  place 
being  taken  by  the  dash,  the  semicolon,  and 
the  period. 


A  Skmkoi.ox  is  placed  before  as,  to  wit, 
riz.,  namely,  and  that  is  when  they  introduce 
examples  or  illustrations. 

Example. — Every    solid     has     three    dimensions; 

namely,  length,  breadth,  and  thickness. 

Place  a  semicolon  at  the  close  of  a  sentence 
which  by  its  terms  promises  another  sentence. 

Example.— "  Tic-tac,  tic-tac,  go  the  wheels  of 
thought ;  our  will  cannot  stop  them ;  they  cannot  stop 
themselves ;  sleep  cannot  still  them ;  madness  only 
makes  them  go  faster;  death  alone  can  break  into  the 
case." 

A  semicolon  may  be  used  to  separate  short 
sentences  which  have  but  a  slight  connection 
with  each  other. 

Example. —  He  was  a  poor  boy ;  he  had  no  showy 
accomplishments ;  he  had  no  influential  friends ;  but 
he  was  rich  in  youth,  courage,  and  honesty  of  purpose. 

Comma. —  Set  off  by  the  comma  an  explana- 
tory modifier  when  it  does  not  restrict  -the 
modified  term. 

Example. —  The  order,  to  lire,  was  given. 

Set  off  by  the  comma  a  word  or  phrase  that 
is  independent. 

Example. —  To  tell  the  truth,  he  was  not  at  home. 

Set  off  by  the  comma  a  phrase  that  is  out  of 
its  natural  order. 

Example. —  Shifting  his  burden,  he  hurried  on. 

Set  off  by  the  comma  a  particle  used  as  an 
adjective. 

Example. —  The  water,  expanding,  burst  the  pipe. 

Set  off  by  the  comma  connected  words  and 
phrases  unless  the  conjunctions  are  all  ex- 
pressed. 

Example. —  "From  the  mountain,  from  the  river, 
from  the  hill,  and  from  the  plain,  we  are  sweeping  to 
the  rescue." 

A  comma  is  used  before  a  direct  quotation 
unless  it  is  formally  introduced.  Greeley  said, 
"  The  way  to  resume  is  to  resume." 

Set  off  by  commas  all  parenthetical  expres- 
sions and  the  following  words  when  used  as 
such ;  however,  that  is,  indeed,  of  course, 
finally,  again,  first,  second,  also,  therefore, 
yes,  no,  too,  etc. 
Example.  —  He  is,  indeed,  worthy. 

Use  the  comma  after  as,  viz.,to-wit,  namely, 
and  that  is,  when  they  introduce  examples. 

Example.— "We  will  promote  the  man;  that  is,  if  he  Is 
worthy. 

The  parts  of  a  complex  sentence  should  be 
separated  by  a  comma  when  the  auxiliary  pre- 
cedes the  principal  sentence. 

Exam  pis.—  If  the  messenger  calls,  give  him  the  letter. 
Separate  by  the  comma  a  phrase  or  sentence 
used  as  a  subject  and  its  verb. 

Example  -  "  That  all  men  are  created  equal,  is  a  self- 
evident  truth." 

Words    used    in    direct    address    should    be 
separated  by  the  comma. 
Example—  "  Stranger,  I  am  Roderick  Dim." 

The  Interrogation  Point  must  be  placed 
after  every  interrogative  sentence,  member, 
and  clause  ;  also  after  the  interjections  eh  and 
hey  implying  a  question. 


Language  and  literature. 


123 


Example. — Has  the  air  weight  ?  Air  has  weight;  do 
you  not  believe  it  ?    You  thought  it  would  rain,  eh  ? 

An  interrogation  inclosed  in  parentheses  de- 
notes doubt.  v 

J.. i  ample. —  Your  friend  (?)  told  ine  this. 
The  Exclamation  Point  should  be  placed 
after   every    exclamatory   sentence,     member, 
clause,  and  expression. 

Examples. —  How  disgusting  is  vice !  Life  is  short ; 
how  careful  we  should  be  to  use  it  aright !    For  shame ! 

An  exclamation  point  placed  in  parentheses 
denotes  peculiar  surprise. 

A  Dash  is  usually  placed  before  the  answer 
to  a  question  when  both  are  in  the  same  para- 
graph. 

l.i  a  mple. —  Are  you  acquainted  with  the  defendant? — 
I  am. 

A  dash  is  often  used  in  place  of  the  paren- 
theses. 

Example. —  With  a  firm  step — for  he  was  brave  —  he 
advanced. 

Use  the  dash  where  there  is  an  omission  of 
such  words  as,  namely,  that  is,  as,  introducing 
equivalent  expressions  and  when  letters  or 
figures  are  omitted. 

E i  ,i mple. —  "  Some  wit  has  divided  the  world  into  two 

classes —  the  wise  and  the  otherwise."  General  M 

was  present. 

Use  the  dash  when  there  is  a  sudden  transi- 
tion. 

Example. —  We  have  learned  the  bitter  lesson  — let  us 
bury  the  past. 

Parentheses.  Marks  of  Parenthesis  are 
used  to  inclose  words  which  explain,  modify, 
or  add  to  the  main  proposition,  when  so  in- 
troduced as  to  break  the  connection  between 
dependent  parts  and  interfere  with  the  har- 
monious flow. 

Ei  majile.—  The  Saxons  (for  they  descended  from  the 
ancient  Sacae)  retained  for  centuries  the  energy  and 
morality  of  their  ancestors. 

Brackets.  Brackets  are  used  principally 
in  quoted  passages,  to  inclose  words  improperly 
omitted  or  added  byway  of  correction,  observa- 
tion, or  explanation. 

Example. —  She  is  weary  with  [of]  life. 
In  regard  to  the  use  of  points  before  and 
after  the  brackets,  and  the  punctuation  of  any 
sentence  or  clause  within  the  brackets,  the 
same  rules  apply  that  have  been  given  in  re- 
gard to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

The  Apostrophe  denotes  the  omission  of  a 
letter  or  letters,  and  the  possessive  case  of  nouns. 

E  i  maples.—  'Tis  for  it  is  ;  e'en  for  even  ;  don't  for  do 
not;  o'clock  for  on  [the]  clock.  So  in  the  possessive : 
hero's,  Charles',  men's,  heroes',  children's. 

Pronouns  never  take  the  apostrophe  in  the 
possessive  case. 

The  Hyphen  is  used  to  connect  the  elements 
of  a  compound  word,  when    each  retains  its 
own  accent. 
Example.—  Castle-builder,  father-in-law. 

The   hyphen  is   also  used  after  a  complete  I 
syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line,  to  connect  the 
parts  of  a  divided  word  ;  also  to  denote  that  J 


the  final  vowel  of  a  prefix  does  not  form  a 
diphthong  with  the  first  vowel  of  a  primitive  ; 
but  in  this  latter  case  a  mark  of  diaeresis  is 
more  appropriate. 

Example. —  Pre-engagement,  re-establish  [preengage- 
ment,  reestablish.] 

Quotation    Points    are    used    to    inclose 
words  quoted  from  an  author  or  speaker,  or  rep- 
resented in  narrative  as  employed  in  dialogue. 
Example.—'1  Remember  now  thy  Creator  in  the  davs 
of  thy  youth." 

When  the  substance  merely  is  given,  and 
not  the  exact  words,  quotation  points  are  un- 
necessary. 

Matter  within  quotation  points  is  to  be 
punctuated  just  as  if  it  stood  in  any  other 
position. 

When  quotation  points  are  needed  at  the  end 
of  a  sentence,  they  come  after  whatever  other 
point  is  required  there  if  this  point  applies  to 
the  quotation  alone,  but  before  this  point  if  it 
applies  to  the  whole  sentence  and  not  ex- 
clusively to  the  quotation. 

Example.—  Pilate  asked,  "What  is  truth?"  Where 
now  is  the  "  man  of  destiny"? 

When  a  quotation  incloses  within  it  another 
quotation,  the  external  quotation  has  the 
double  marks,  and  the  one  included  has  only 
the  single  marks. 

Example. —  It  has  been  well  said,  "The  command, 
'  Thou  shalt  not  kill,'  forbids  many  crimes  besides  that 
of  murder." 

If  the  inclosed  or  secondary  quotation  ends 
a  sentence,  three  apostrophes  will  there  come 
together,  of  which  the  first  will  belong  to  the 
inclosed  quotation,  and  the  other  two  to  the 
original.  When  an  inclosed  quotation  itself 
contains  words  or  phrases  that  are  quoted, 
those  words  or  phrases  have  the  double  marks. 

Example. —  "French  says, '  What  a  lesson  the  word 
"  diligence"  contains !' " 

When  the  sentence  becomes  more  involved 
than  this,  the  additional  marks  of  quotation 
would  create  confusion,  and  may  therefore  be 
omitted. 

The  Paragraph  is  used  to  indicate  a  new 
subject  of  remark.  The  sign  is  retained  in 
the  Holy  Scripture  but  in  ordinary  composi- 
tion is  indicated  to  the  eye  by  beginning  a  lit- 
tle to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line  of  the  page. 

Accent  Marks  are  used  to  denote  the 
proper  pronunciation  of  words.     They  are  :  — 

The  Acute  [  '  ],  which  marks  the  syllable 
which  requires  the  principal  stress  in  pronun- 
ciation ;  or  to  denote  a  rising  inflection  of  the 
voice,  or  a  close  or  short  vowel. 

The  Grave  [ '  ]  is  used  in  opposition  to  the 
acute  to  distinguish  an  open  or  long  vowel,  or 
to  denote  the  falling  inflection  of  the  voice. 

The  Circumflex  [ "  ]  generally  denotes  a 
broad  sound  or  a  combination  of  the  acute 
and  grave. 


124 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


would 
Example. — James  said  he  a  be  home  to-night. 

The  Index  or  Hand  ftSP3'!  points  out   some- 
The  Macron  [  -  1  is  used  to  denote  either  an    ...  ...  Lu\,  J.c  j        i      u 

,         L    J,,  i ,      £■,  .-.  thing  remarkable,  or  what  the  reader  should 

open  vowel  or  a  syllable  of  long  quantity 


The  Breve   [v]    is  used  to  denote  either  a 
close  vowel  or  a  syllable  of  short  quantity 


The  Diasresis  [  ]  is  placed  over  the  latter  of 
two  vowels  to  show  that  they  are  to  be  pro- 
nounced in  separate  syllables,  as  atrial.  In  Ger- 
man this  character  is  called  the  Umlaut,  and 
denotes  a  modification  of  the  sound  of  a  vowel 
over  which  it  is  placed,  peculiar  to  the  Ger- 
manic languages. 

The  Cedilla  [  ,  ]  is  placed  under  the  letter  c 
to  give  it  the  sound  of  s  before  a  or  o ;  as  in 
the  words  facade,  Alencon. 

The  Tilde  [  ]  is  placed  over  the  letter  n  in 
Spanish  words  to  give  it  the  sound  of  ny ;  as, 
senor,  minon. 

Other  Marks. — The  Ellipsis  or  Suppression 
denotes  the  omission  of  some  letters  or  words. 


g,   for    King;    G   *  *  *  *  m,    for 
,   for    Adams;    H — m — hr — y,   for 


Examples. —  K 
Graham;  A  .  .  . 
Humphrey. 

The  Caret,  used  only  in  writing,  shows 
where  to  insert  words  or  letters  that  have 
been  accidentally  omitted. 


particularly  observe. 

The  Brace  [^ — .]  serves  to  unite  a  triplet, 
or  to  connect  several  terms  to  something  to 
which  they  are  all  related. 

Examples. — 

( Nominative.  fW.  Brown. 

Case  { Possessive.        committpe  J  H-  Jones- 
(  Objective.  Committee  <  R  Smlth 

I  ML  Mills. 


The  Section  [  §  ]  marks  the  smaller  divisions 
of  a  book  or  chapter,  and,  with  the  help  of 
numbers,  serves  to  abridge  references. 

The  Paragraph  [  IT  ]  denotes  the  commence- 
ment of  a  new  subject.  The  parts  of  discourse 
which  are  called  paragraphs  are  in  general  suf- 
ficiently distinguished  by  beginning  anew  line 
and  carrying  the  first  word  a  little  backwards. 

Leaders  [ ]  are   used   ia   contents 

and  indexes  of  books  and  similar  matter  to 
lead  the  eye  to  the  end  of  the  line  for  the 
completion  of  the  sense. 

Example. —  "Wharfage, S50. 

Marks  in  Proof  Reading. 


Vs  /  Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
'the  individual  by  wvjbm  the  art  of  printing  was   ~/ 
first  discovered;   yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter  Schoeffer   to  be  the  person J  ^L/^, 
.  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 

*  U|  the  art  -ef  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gu- 
';/  tenbergs/  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
«#  the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    The7/-/ 

following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,    fi 

*  /  by  ^Jo.  ^Fred.  ^Faustus,  ^of  ^Ascheffenburg : 

«er— I  ^'  Peter   Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving  ^^^a/^ 
"\y  his  master  Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
"a  f3esirouT\  ardently)  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by    the   good    providence  of  God)    the 
method  of  cutting  (ineidfMdi)  the  characters   *&•■ 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
*t]  singly  cast  J  instead  of  bieng  cut.     He   pri-"^_ 
«<^  vately  cut  matrices^  for  the  whole  alphabet: 
Faust  was  so  pleased  with   the  contrivanp 
^^at  he  promised  ^reter  to  give  him  hjg'only  X1u&. 
**     daughter   Christina    in    marriage,  sc  promise  I  ^    / 

which  he  soon  after  performed. 

""       IT 
no  l 


(  But    there 


4\ 


fifficulties  at    first 


' ad\    '   DUl    lIlcrc   were   many 
'     ...  A      ^ 

with  these  tetters,  as^there  had  been  before 


„    •   with  wooden  one 


HHM* 

the  metal  being  too  soft  3  'Y/   J 
to  support  th^ibrce  of  the  im  pression :  but ■  *"*> 
this  defeptr  was   soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

nee  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently"^ 
i  q  hardened  it/ 

.ema  umen  ne  «MM*  ntd  mtnte'et  Me 
tetietj  coat"  /ion  tA&e  matu'eej) 


Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  culling  the  letters  from  the 
Gutenbergs:  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  Ascheffenburg: 

'  Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet :  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difficulties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with 
a  substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  \\S 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


125 


A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by  drawing  a  short 
perpendicular  line  through  it,  and"  making  another 
short  line  in  the  margin,  behind  which  the  right  letter 
is  placed.  (See  No.  1.)  In  this  manner  whole  words  are 
corrected,  by  drawing  a  line  across  the  wrong  word  and 
making  the  right  one  In  the  margin  opposite. 

A  turned  letter  is  noted  by  drawing  a  line  through  it. 
and  writing  the  mark  No.  2  in  the  margin. 

If  letters  or  words  require  to  be  altered  from  one 
character  to  another,  a  parallel  line  or  lines  must  be 
made  underneath  the  word  or  letter;  viz.,  for  capitals, 
three  lines;  small  capitals,  two  lines;  and  italics,  one 
line ;  and,  in  the  margin  opposite  the  line  where  the 
alteration  occurs,  caps,  small  caps,  or  ital.  must  be 
written.    (See  No.  3.) 

"When  letters  or  words  are  set  double,  or  are  required 
to  be  taken  out,  a  line  is  drawn  through  the  superfluous 
word  or  letter,  and  the  mark  No.  4  placed  opposite  in  the 
margin. 

Where  the  punctuation  requires  to  be  altered,  the 
correct  point,  marked  in  the  margin,  should  be  en- 
circled. 

When  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  words  or  letters 
which  should  be  separated,  a  caret  must  be  made  where 
the  separation  ought  to  be  and  the  sign  No.  6  placed 
opposite  in  the  margin. 

No.  7  describes  the  manner  in  which  the  hyphen  and 
ellipsis  line  are  marked. 

When  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  a  caret  is  put  at  the 
place  of  omission,  and  the  letter  marked  as  No.  8. 

Where  letters  that  should  be  joined  are  separated,  or 
where  a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  the  mark  No.  9  must 
be  placed  under  them,  arid  the  correction  denoted  by  the 
marks  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  a  quadrangle  is 
drawn  in  the  margin,  and  a  caret  placed  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sentence.    (See  No.  10.) 

No.  11  shows  the  way  in  which  the  apostrophe,  Inverted 
commas,  the  star,  and  other  references,  and  superior 
letters  and  figures,  are  marked. 

Where  two  words  are  transposed,  a  line  is  drawn  over 
one  word  and  below  the  other,  and  the  mark  No.  12 
placed  in  the  margin;  but  where  several  words  require 
to  be  transposed,  their  right  order  is  signified  by  a 
figure  placed  over  each  word,  and  the  mark  No.  12  in  the 
margin. 

Where  words  have  been  struck  out,  that  have  after- 
ward been  approved  of,  dots  should  be  marked  under 
them,  and  stct  written  in  the  margin. 

Where  a  space  sticks  up  between  two  words,  a  hori- 
zontal line  is  drawn  under  it,  and  the  mark  No.  14  placed 
opposite,  in  the  margin. 

Where  several  words  have  been  left  out,  they  are 
transcribed  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  and  a  line  drawn 
from  the  place  of  omission  to  the  written  words  (see  No. 
15);  but  if  the  omitted  matter  is  too  extensive  to  be 
copied  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  Out,  see  copy,  is  written 
in  the  margin,  and  the  missing  lines  are  inclosed  be- 
tween brackets,  and  the  word  Out  is  inserted  in  the 
margin  of  the  copy. 

Where  letters  stand  crooked,  they  are  noted  by  a  line 
(see  No.  16);  but  where  a  page  hangs,  lines  are  drawn 
across  the  entire  part  affected. 

When  a  smaller  or  larger  letter,  of  a  different  font,  is 
improperly  introduced  into  the  page,  it  is  noted  by  the 
mark  No.  IT,  which  signifies  wrong  font. 

If  a  paragraph  is  improperly  made,  a  line  is  drawn 
from  the  broken-off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and 
A'o  1f  written  in  the  margin.    (See  No.  18.) 

Where  a  word  has  been  left  out  or  is  to  be  added,  a 
caret  must  be  made  in  the  place  where  it  should  come 
in,  and  the  word  written  in  the  margin.    (See  No.  19.) 

Where  a  faulty  letter  appears,  it  is  denoted  by  making 


!  a  cross  under  it,  and  placing  a  similar  mark  in  the  mar. 

:  gin  (see  No.  20) ;  though  some  prefer  to  draw  a  perpen- 
dicular line  through  it,  in  the  case  of  a  wrong  letter. 

Where  a  word  has  been  accidentally  separated  by  a 
space,  it  is  marked  as  in  No.  21. 


9 

□ 


*' 


o*  %, 


Turn  letter. 

Indent  line  one  em  quad. 

Take  out ;  expunge 

The  caret  shows  where  the  letter  or  word  is 

omitted. 
Insert  space. 
Less  space. 
Close  up  entirely. 

Remove  type,  and  insert  a  space  in  place  of 
q  what  is  removed. 

£-/*  v»L,  Take  out  type  and  close  up. 
Bad  type. 
Push  down  space. 
Plane  down  a  letter. 
No  paragraph. 

Placed  under  erased  words,  restores  them. 
Written    in    margin,   restores    a   canceled 
word  or  words  that  have  dots  under 
them. 
Begin  a  paragraph. 
Letters  stand  crooked. 
Should  be  a  compound  word. 
CotL  Remove  to  left. 
J  ct-_J  Remove  to  right. 

i 1  Elevate  a  letter,  word,  or  character  that  is 

sunk  below  the  proper  level. 

| |  Sink  or  depress  a  letter,  word,  or  character 

raised  above  the  proper  level. 
*  Three  lines,  beneath  writing,  denote  cap- 

itals. 
-  Two  lines,   beneath  writing,  denote  small 

capitals. 

One  line,  beneath  writing,  denotes  italics. 

yiur.  sir-.   Wrong  font. 
&1,       Transpose  letters,  words,  or  sentences. 
X-  .  <£. .    Lower  case,  or  small  letters. 
A-  ,  C  .  Small  capitals. 
0       Period. 
<T)   _  Colon. 


.    H 


<vt 


l  Calls  attention  to  some  doubtful  word  of 


sentence. 
e-v»£  a.c. Words  are  omitted  or  wanting,  see  copy. 


Famous  Poems  and  Their  Authors. 

"Elegy  "Written  in  a  Country  Churchyard"  is  the 
master  composition  of  Thomas  Gray  (1716-1771). 

"The  Minstrel"  is  the  production  of  James  Beattie 
(1735-1803). 

"  Rook  of  Ages"  is  from  the  pen  of  Augustus  Mon- 
tague Toplady  (1740-1778). 

"The  Farmer's  Bov"  was  written  by  Robert  Bloom- 
field  (1766-1823). 

"The  Bu  rial  of  Sir  John  Moore  "is  the  effort  of  Charles 
"Wolfe  (1791-1823). 

"Woodman,  Spare  that  Tree"  is  the  work  of  George 
P.  Morris  (1802- 1864). 

"The  Buccaneer"  was  composed  by  Richard  Henrv 
.Dana  (1789-1879). 


"  Star  Spangled  Banner"  was  written  by  Francis  Scott 
Kev  (1790-1843). 

"La  Marseillaise"  is  the  work  of  Rouget  de  L'Isle 
(1760-1836). 

"Home,  Sweet  Home"  is  by  John  Howard  Payne 
(1792-1852). 

"  From  Greenland's  lev  Mountains  "  is  the  composition 
of  Reginald  Heber  (1783^1826). 

"  Battle  Hvmn  of  the  Republic  "  was  written  by  Julia 
"Ward  Howe  (1819). 

"  Ben  Bolt "  is  from  the  pen  of  Thomas  Dunn  English 
(1819). 

"  Rocked  in  the  Cradle  of  the  Deep"  is  by  Emma  C. 
"Willard  (1847-1870). 

"Hail,  Columbia"  is  the  production  of  Joseph  Hop 
kinson  (1770-1842). 


12<J 


THE  CENTURF  BOOR  OF  FACTS. 


l/ 


FAMILIAR  ALLUSIOXS. 

Abderit/^Democritus,  the  original  laughing  philoso- 
pher, was  born  in  Abdera,  a  Thracian  city.  From  him 
ascoffer  or  person  given  to  continual  laughing  is  called 
an  Abderite. 

Abraham's  Bosom.    The  rest  of  the  blessed  dead. 

Abyla  and  Calpe,  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  the  exit 
from  the  Mediterranean. 

Academics.  Plato's  disciples  -were  so  called  from 
the  Academy. 

Academy.  (Academe.)  Plato  founded  his  school  in 
a  gymnasium  of  this  name  near  Athens,  368  B.  C. 

Academy,  The  French.  A  French  scientific  body 
limited  to  forty  members. 

Acadia.    Formerly  the  name  of  Nova  Scotia. 

Adam's  Apple.  A  part  of  the  throat  where,  it  is 
said,  a  piece  of  the  forbidden  fruit  lodged. 

Adntirable  Crichton,  The.  James  Crichton,  an 
accomplished  Scotchman  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Admiral.    The  highest  rank  in  the  Navy. 

.  1  lucid.    An  epic  poem  by  Virgil. 

Ages.  The  five  ages  of  the  world  according  to  He- 
siod,  are  the  Golden,  the  Silver,  the  Brazen,  the  Heroic, 
and  the  Iron. 

Alabama.  A  Confederate  privateer  built  in  Eng- 
land.   Sunk  by  the  Kearsarge  June  19, 1864. 

Aladdin's  Window,  To  Finish.  Trying  to  com- 
plete another's  work.  Aladdin's  palace  was  perfect 
except  one  window  left  for  the  Sultan  to  finish,  but  his 
treasure  failed  him. 

Albany  Regency.  Name  applied  sixty  years  ago  to 
some  Democrats  at  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Albino.  A  person  with  white  skin  and  hair  and  red 
eyes.    The  Portuguese  so  called  the  white  negroes. 

Albion.  England,  so  called  from  the  chalky  white 
cliffs. 

Aldine  Press.  Founded  by  Aldus  Manutius  at 
Venice  in  1496.  Editions  of  the  classics  issued  from 
this  press  were  called  the  Aldine  editions.  This  term  is 
now  applied  to  some  elegant  editions  of  English  works. 

Alexandrian  Library.  Was  founded  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus.  It  contained  700,000  volumes;  and  was 
burnt  47  B.C. 

Alexandrine  Age.  323-640,  when  Alexandria  was  the 
seat  of  the  highest  culture. 

Alhambra.  A  magnificent  palace  and  a  fortress 
built  by  the  Moors  at  Granada,  in  Spain. 

All-Hallows.    All  Saints'  day,  November  1st. 

Allah.    Arabic  name  of  God. 

Almacks.  Assembly  room  in  London  where  the  most 
exclusively  aristocratic  balls  were  given. 

Almighty  Dollar.  A  phrase  first  used  by  Irving  in 
his  Creole  Village,  and  which  has  become  quite  com- 
mon.   The  title  of  a  play. 

Alsatia.  A  quarter  in  London  where  criminals  take 
refuge. 

Alto-Relievo.  Figures  in  marble  or  castings  pro- 
jecting one  half  or  more  from  the  tablet. 

Ambrosia.    Food  of  the  Gods. 

Anachronism.    An  error  in  computing  time. 

Anacreontics.  Poems  composed  in  the  manner  of 
Anacreon,  a  great  poet  noted  for  his  exact  imitation  of 
nature. 

Ancien  Regime.  The  French  Government  previous 
to  the  revolution  of  173&.       J  *J  L  Q 

Angling,  The  Father  of.    IzaaM  Walton. 

Annus  Mirabilis.  (Wonderful  year.)  A.  D.  1666. 
Noted  for  the  great  fire  in  London,  the  Plague,  and  an 
English  victory  over  the  Dutch. 

Antoninus,  The  Wall  of.  Was  built  by  the  Romans 
in  A.  D.  140  across  Scotland  between  the  Clyde  and  the 
Frith  of  Forth  ;  an  embankment  of  earth. 

Apollo  Belvedere.  One  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
perfect  representations  of  the  human  form  is  the  statue 
of  Apollo  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  of  the  Vatican 
Palace  at  Rome. 

Appian  Way.  The  road  from  Rome  to  Capua.  The 
oldest  Roman  road. 

Apples  of  Sodom.  Beautiful  fruit,  but  full  of  ashes. 
Applied  figuratively  to  the  disappointment  of  sin. 

Apple,  Golden.  Prize  for  beauty  disputed  before 
Paris,  between  Juno,  Pallas,  and  Venus;  awarded  bv 
him  to  Venus. 

Arabesque.    Decoration  in  Moorish  style. 

Arcadian.  A  shepherd ;  a  Greek  grazing  country 
named  Arcadia  has  furnished  this  word  to  the  poets. 

Argo.  The  ship  in  which  Jason  and  his  nftv-four 
companions  sailed  when  going  to  Colchis  for  the  Golden 
Fleece. 


Argonauts.    The  adventurers  on  the  Argo. 

Argus-eyed.  Crafty,  watchful.  Argus  had  a  Hun- 
dred eyes ;  the  jealous  Juno  put  him  on  detective  duty 
over  Io. 

Armada,  The  Spanish.  A  fleet  of  130  ships  gath- 
ered by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  for  the  invasion  of  England 
in  1588.  Queen  Elizabeth  was  busy  preparing  for  resist- 
ance when  the  news  came  that  a  storm  had  completely 
wrecked  the  Armada. 

Artesian  Well.  Boring  in  the  earth  until  water  is 
reached  that  will  flow  spontaneously.  Their  first  use 
was  in  Artois,  France. 

Aryans.    The  stem  of  the  Indo-European  peoples. 

Astor  Library.  Founded  by  John  Jacob  Astor  in 
New  York  City. 

Athens,  The  Modern.    Boston. 

Augustan  Age.  As  the  most  flourishing  period  of 
the  Roman  literature  was  during  the  time  of  Augustus, 
that  name  is  given  to  any  age  wherein  literature  is  pre- 
eminent. 

Auld  Reekie.    Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

Avalon.    King  Arthur's  hurial  place,  Glastonburv. 

Ayrshire  Poet,  The.  Burns.  Born  1759,  died  1796. 
His  birthplace  was  near  Ayr  in  Scotland. 

Barnburners.  A  name  given  some  years  ago  to 
radical  Democrats,  a  leading  man  amongst  whom  was 
John  Van  Buren. 

Babylonish  Captivity.  The  seventy  years'  captivitv 
of  the  Jews  at  Babylon,  608-538  B.  C. 

Baconian  Philosophy.  The  inductive  philosophy 
of  Lord  Bacon. 

Balmoral  Castle.  A  Scotch  castle  owned  by  Queen 
Victoria,  where  she  spends  most  of  her  time  in  summer. 

Bank  of  England.    Founded  1694. 

Bard  of  Avon.  Shakespeare,  so  called  from  his  home 
being  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Barmecide's  Feast.  A  mockery,  a  delusion,  and  B 
sham.  Barmecide  asked  a  starving  beggar  to  dinner, 
and  seated  him  at  a  table  of  empty  dishes. 

Basilisk.  A  mythical  serpent  with  power  to  kill  by 
merely  looking  at'its  victim. 

Basso  Relievo.  Figures  in  marble  and  castings  that 
project  but  a  little  from  the  plane. 

Bastile.  French  prison  and  fortress.  People  were 
incarcerated  here  by  lettre  de  cachet,  without  notice  or 
trial.    Destroyed  by  a  mob,  1789. 

Battle  of  the  Books.  Satire  by  Dean  Swift  compar- 
ing ancient  and  modern  literature. 

Battle  of  the  Kegs.  A  practical  joke  on  the  British 
General  Loring.  Detailed  in  a  ballad  of  the  Revolution- 
ary War. 

Battery,  The.  A  park  in  New  York  City  adjoining 
the  river. 

Beacon  Street.  The  aristocratic  residence  street  of 
Boston. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast.  A  fairy  tale.  Beauty  lives 
with  the  Beast  to  save  her  father's  life.  By  her  love  she 
disenchants  the  Beast,  who  proves  to  be  a  great  Prince. 

Bedlam.    A  mad-house. 

Bee,  The  Attic.  Plato ;  so  called  from  his  honeyed 
style. 

Bee,  The  Busy.    An  example  of  communal  industry. 

Beelzebub.    A.  Philistine  deity. 

Begging  the  Question.  Assuming  as  true  what  you 
are  to  prove. 

Belle  France,  La.    Beautiful  France. 

Belgravia.    Fashionable  quarter  of  London. 

Bell  the  Cat.  In  a  convention  of  mice  it  was  pro- 
posed to  bang  a  bell  on  the  cat's  neck,  to  give  warning 
of  her  coming.    No  one  would  serve  on  the  committee. 

Bell,  The  Passing.  Rung  formerly  when  persons 
were  dying. 

Beloved  Disciple,  The.    St.  John. 

Bess,  Good  Queen.    Queen  Elizabeth. 

Bibliotheque  National.  (National  Library.)  At 
Paris  ;  contains  over  1,000,000  books,  150,000  MSS. 

Billingsgate.  Coarse  language.  Such  as  is  used  at 
the  fish  market  of  Billingsgate  in  London  ;  a  fishwife's 
tongue  being  said  to  be  remarkably  expressive. 

Black  Death.  A  plague  which  desolated  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Black  Friday.  Gold  panic  Sept.  24.  I860.  Immense 
fortunes  lost  and  won  same  day.  Investigation  could 
never  discover  the  true  cause  of  it. 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta.  Dark  prison  cell  wherein 
Surajah  Dowlah  shut  up  146  British  soldiers;  only  23 
lived  till  morning. 

I '.lack  Prince,  The.  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son 
of  Edward  IH. 


LANGUAGE  AND,  LITERATURE. 


127 


Black  Republicans.  The  Republican  party  of  IT.  8., 
so  called  when  opposing  the  extension  of  slavery. 

Blarney  Stone.  Its  supposed  virtue  when  kissed  is 
to  imparts  smooth  and  oily  tongue.  Profusion  of  com- 
pliments is  called  Blarney.  This  stone  is  in  Blarney 
Castle,  near  Cork,  Ireland. 

Bluebeard.    A  wife-killing  tyrant,  in  a  nursery  story. 

Blue  Laws.  Some  severe  New  England  statutes  were 
so  called. 

Blue  Stocking.  A  literary  society  at  Venice  in  1400, 
whose  members  wore  blue  stockings,  is  the  origin  of  this 
name  for  a  female  pedant. 

Bohemian.  As  opposed  to  Philistine,  an  artist  or 
literary  man  living  loosely  by  his  wits. 

Bois  de  Boulogne.    A  Parisian  promenade. 

Border,  Tbe.    Frontier  of  England  and  Scotland. 

Border  Minstrel,  The.    Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Border  States.  Maryland,  Delaware,  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, Missouri. 

Bourgeoisie.  A  class  of  the  people  of  France  mostly 
composed  of  traders  and  manufacturers. 

Boulevard.  A  wide  street  in  Paris,  in  the  place  of 
the  ancient  ramparts. 

Bourse.    Parisian  stock  exchange. 

Bow  Bells.  A  set  of  bells  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mary- 
le-Bow,  London.  One  "  born  within  sound  of  Bow 
Bells  "  is  a  Cockney. 

Bowery,  The.  "A  New  York  thoroughfare. 

Boycott.  To  refuse  to  have  anything  to  do  with  a 
person.  To  let  him  severely  alone.  A  trying  ordeal 
passed  through  by  Captain  Boycott  in  Ireland  in  1881. 
No  one  would  sell'  to  him,  buy  from  him,  work  for  him, 
or  speak  to  him. 

Brandy  Nose.    Queen  Anne  of  England. 

Breeches  Bible,  The.  Anedition  inwhich  "aprons" 
in  Gen.  iii.  7  is  rendered  "  breeches." 

Bride  of  the  Sea.    Venice. 

Bridge  of  Sighs.  In  Venice.  Connects  Doge's  Pal- 
ace and  State  Prison.  Over  this  bridge  the  condemned 
passed  when  on  their  way  to  be  executed. 

British  Museum.    Library  and  museum  in  London. 

Broadway.  The  principal  business  street  of  New 
York. 

Brook  Farm.  A  Socialistic  community  to  carry  out 
the  idea  of  Fourierism  ;  was  founded  at  West  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  1841. 

Brother  Jonathan.  America';  an  American.  Some 
doubt  as  to  its  origin,  but  it  is  said  to  come  from 
Gov.  Jonathan  Trumbull,  of  Connecticut,  in  speaking 
of  whom  Washington  would  say,  "We  must  consult 
Brother  Jonathan. 

Buncombe.  Clap-trap  speeches,  to  cajole  constitu- 
ents, more  than  for  immediate  effect.  Buncombe  is  in 
North  Carolina.  A  North  Carolina  member  said  a  fiery 
speech  was  not  delivered  to  the  House,  but  to  Bun- 
combe. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument.  An  obe'isk  of  granite 
marking  the  site  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  fought 
between  the  British  and  Americans,  June  17,  1775. 

Cachet,  Lettres  de.  (Sealed  letters.)  Blank  war- 
rants with  the  seal  of  the  French  King  already  affixed 
for  imprisoning  or  releasing  any  person  in  the  Bastile. 

Caledonia.    Scotland. 

Calumet.  An  Indian  pipe.  In  old  times  a  treaty  of 
peace  with  the  red  men  would  be  ratified  by  smoking 
the  calumet. 

Campagna.    The  plains  around  the  city  of  Rome. 

Carbonari.  A  secret  political  society  organized  in 
Italy,  1820. 

Carmagnole.  Song  and  dance  in  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. 

Cartesian  Philosophy.  From  Descartes,  "  I  think, 
therefore  I  exist." 

Castle  Garden.  At  New  York  City,  the  landing-place 
of  emigrants. 

Catacombs.  Subterranean  sepulchers.  About  three 
miles  from  Rome  in  the  Appian  Way  a  vast  number  of 
long  underground  passages  about  three  feet  wide  and 
ten  feet  high.  On  each  side  in  niches  were  deposited 
the  bodies  of  the  martyrs  and  early  Christians.  These 
niches  were  closed  with  tiles  or  slabs  of  marble  having 
proper  inscriptions  on  them.  During  the  persecutions 
the  Christians  concealed  themselves  in  these  caves. 

Cavalier  Servente.    The  escort  of  a  married  woman. 

Cecilia,  St.    A  martyr ;  patroness  of  music. 

Celestial  Empire.  China,  whose  first  emperors  were 
all  divinities. 

Central  Park.  The  great  park  of  New  York  City; 
contains  863  acres. 


Champs  de  Mars.  A  field  in  Paris  for  military 
manoeuvers. 

Champs  Elysees.    A  promenade  in  Paris. 

Charter  Oak.  A  tree  in  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  which 
the  Colonial  Charter  was  secreted  in  1(588.  It  was  blown 
down  in  1856. 

Chauvinism.  Patriotism  of  the  blatant  kind,  from 
Chauvin,  one  of  Scribe's  characters. 

Cheapside.    A  thoroughfare  in  London. 

Chiltern  Hundreds,  To  Accept  the.  A  member  of 
the  English  Parliament  cannot  resign,  and  cannot  hold 
office  during  membership.  If  he  wishes  to  leave,  he  can 
vacate  his  seat  by  accepting  the  office  of  Steward  of  the 
Chiltern  Hundreds. 

Chiltern  Hundreds.  A  tract  in  Buckinghamshire 
and  Oxfordshire,  England,  to  which  is  attached  the 
nominal  office  of  steward  under  the  crown. 

Christ  Church.  The  name  of  the  largest  college  in 
the  University  of  Oxford. 

Cid,  The.  The  Spanish  hero,  Don  Roderigo  Laynez, 
Count  of  Bivar. 

Cincinnati,  The.  Society  of  American  Revolution- 
ary officers. 

Citizen  King,  The.    Louis  Philippe  of  France. 

Cockagne,  Land  of.  An  imaginary  country  of  ease 
and  pleasure ;  usually  applied  to  London. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes.  A  brass  statue,  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world,  which  stood  astride  the  entrance 
to  the  port  of  Rhodes. 

Columbia.    Poetical  name  of  the  United  States. 

Column  of  Vendome.  A  stone  pillar  in  Paris 
erected  by  Napoleon,  commemorating  the  successes  of 
the  French  armies.  It  was  thrown  down  by  the  Com- 
munists in  1871.       • 

Confederate  States.  The  eleven  states  which  se- 
ceded in  1861,  Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  Mississippi,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Tennessee,  Texas,  and  Virginia. 

Congressional  Library.  At  Washington;  it  is  the 
largest  in  the  United  States. 

Consols.    English  public  securities. 

Copperheads.  Northern  sympathizers  with  the  South 
in  the  Civil  war. 

Corncrackers,  The.    Kentuckians. 

Corn  Law  Rhymer,  The.    Ebenezer  Elliott. 

Corso.    The  chief  thoroughfare  of  Rome. 

Crapaud  Johnny.    A  Frenchman. 

Credit  Mobilier.  An  authorized  stock  company. 
The  American  Credit  Mobilier  formed  for  raising  money 
for  the  Pacific  Railroad  raised  a  foul  odor  in  1873. 

Crocodile  Tears.  Counterfeit  sorrow.  A  fable  says 
the  crocodile  weeps  as  it  eats  its  victim. 

Cumberland.  A  United  States  vessel  sunk  by  the 
Confederate  ram  Merrimac  in  Hampton  Roads,  March 
8,  1862. 

Curfew  Bell.  At  8  o'clock,  the  ringing  of  the  curfew 
bell  i  n  old  times  in  England,  all  lights  were  extinguished, 
the  fires  raked  up  and  covered,  and  the  people  of  the 
Kingdom  retired  to  bed.  This  rule,  made  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  lasted  for  a  long  time,  and  even  vet  there 
is  some  sign  of  its  observance  in  the  nine  o'clock  bell 
rung  in  many  parts  of  New  England. 

Damocles'  Sword.  Damocles,  having  commented 
upon  the  happiness  which  the  tyrant  Dionysius  must 
enjov,  was  invited  by  him  to  a  feast  where,  whilst  dis- 
cussing the  good  tilings,  he  looked  up  and  discovered  a 
sword  lianging  by  a  single  hair  immediately  over  his 
head. 

Darby  and  Joan.    The  loving  couple. 

Darwinian  Theory.  An  explanation  of  the  origin 
of  species  in  animals,  that  they  come  from  one  or  a  few 
original  forms,  the  present  differences  resulting  from 
development  and  natural  selection. 

De  Prof undis.  The  130th  Psalm ;  part  of  the  burial 
service. 

Debatable  Ground.  Land  on  the  western  border  of 
Scotland,  disputed  between  England  and  Scotland. 

Defender  of  the  Faith.  Henry  VIII.  received  this 
title  from  Pope  Leo  X.,  and  his  successors  have  borne  it 
ever  since. 

Directory,  The  French.  By  the  Constitution  of 
1705  the  executive  power  was  vested  in  five  Directors; 
it  lasted  only  four  years. 

Dixie,  Tlie  Land  of.    The  Southern  States. 

Dizzy.  The  nickname  of  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of 
Beaconsfield. 

Doctors'  Commons.  The  place  where  the  Ecclesi- 
astical Court  sat  in  London. 

Doctrinaire.    A  cant  term  in  French  politics,  given 


128 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


to  the  proposer  of  an  impracticable  compromise  meas 
ure. 

Doe,  John.  The  fictitious  plaintiff  in  ejectment 
suits,  the  defendant  being  Richard  Roe. 

Doomsday  Book.  Compiled  by  order  of  William 
the  Conqueror.  It  contained  a  survey  and  an  estimate 
of  value  of  all  the  lands  in  England. 

Donnybrook  Fair.  A  once  celebrated  annual  fair 
near  Dublin. 

Douay  Bible,  The.  The  English  Bible  authorized  by 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  first  published  at  Douay, 
France. 

Downing  Street.  The  official  residence  of  the  Eng- 
lish Prime  Minister  since  the  time  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole 
is  in  Downing  Street,  London. 

Drury  Lane  Theater.  In  London;  was  opened  in 
1688. 

Dying  Gladiator.  An  ancient  statue  in  the  Capitol 
at  Rome. 

Eastern  States,  The.  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Connecticut. 

Ecce  Homo.  A  painting  by  Correggio  representing 
the  Saviour  crowned  with  thorns. 

I :<•<>!»■  Polytechnique.  A  Parisian  school,  the  grad- 
uates of  which  are  given  places  in  the  public  service. 

El  Dorado.  A  fabulous  region  in  South  America, 
surpassing  all  other  countries  in  the  production  of 
gems  and  precious  metals.  A  name  for  any  wealthy 
country. 

Elephant,  Seeing  the.    Seeing  the  world. 

Elgin  Marbles.  A  collection  of  Greek  sculptures 
made  by  Lord  Elgin.    Now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Escurial,  The.  A  royal  residence  built  by  Philip  II. ; 
it  is  the  largest  structure  in  Spain,  and  one  of  the  most 
splendid  buildings  in  Europe.  It  is  22  miles  from  Mad- 
rid and  contains  a  palace,  a  church,  a  monastery,  free 
schools,  and  a  mausoleum. 

Eternal  City,  The.    Rome. 

Eureka.  (I  have  found  it.)  Exclamation  of  Archi- 
medes when  he  discovered  the  method  of  proving  that 
the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  sides  of  a  right-angled 
triangle  equaled  the  square  of  the  hypotenuse. 

Evangelists,  Symbols  of  the.  Matthew  has  a  scroll 
before  him  and  holds  a  pen ;  Mark  sits  writing,  with  a 
winged  lion  by  his  side;  Luke  has  a  pen  and  a  scroll, 
near  him  is  an  ox ;  John  is  a  young  man,  behind  whom 
is  an  eagle.    . 

Exclusion,  Bill  of.  A  bill  which  passed  the  English 
House  of  Commons  in  1679,  proposing  to  exclude  the 
Duke  of  York  from  the  throne  because  ne  was  a  Roman 
Catholic. 

Expounder  of  the  Constitution,  The.  Daniel 
Webster. 

Fabian  Policy.  Delaying;  dilatory.  From  Quintus 
Fabius  Maximus,  the  Roman  General'who  successfully 
opposed  Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian,  by  avoiding  a  battle 
and  continually  harassing  him. 

Fabius,  The  American.    George  Washington. 

Fairmount  Park.  In  Philadelphia,  where  the  Cen- 
tennial Exhibition  of  1876  was  held;  contains  nearly 
3,000  acres. 

Faineants,  Les  Rois.  (Do-nothing  Kings.)  The  last 
twelve  Kings  of  the  Merovingian  Dynasty  were  so 
called.  For  about  100  years  previous  to  720,  when  Pepin 
dethroned  Childeric  III.,  they  were  mere  puppets,  and 
the  supreme  authority  was  exercised  by  the  mayors  of 
the  palace. 

Falernian.  A  celebrated  ancient  Italian  wine  grown 
at  Falernum. 

Faneuil  Hall.  In  Boston,  built  1742  ;  called  the 
"Cradle  of  Liberty,"  for  there  the  Revolutionary  pa- 
triots were  wont  to  assemble. 

Farmer  George.  George  III.  of  Engljfnd ;  so  called 
from  his  love  of  agriculture. 

Fata  Morgana.    A  mirage  in  the  Straits  of  Messina. 

Father  of  his  Country.    George  Washington. 

Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church.  St.  Ambrose  of 
Milan,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Bernard,  St.  Hilary,  St.  Jerome, 
Lactantius. 

Faubourg  8t.  Antoine.  The  part  of  Paris  where 
the  workingmen  live. 

Faubourg  St.  Germain.    Aristocratic  part  of  Paris. 

Fenians.  A  society  of  Irishmen  formed  in  the  United 
States  in  1865  to  free  Ireland. 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Plain  in  France  where 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  VIII.  met  on  a  mutual  visit.  It  is 
historical  on  account  of  the  gorgeous  display,  both  par- 
ties being  most  extravagant  in  their  outfit. 


Fifth  Avenue.  A  celebrated  residence  street  in  New 
York. 

Fighting  Joe.  The  American  General  Joseph  Hooker. 

First  Gentleman  in  Europe.  George  IV.  of  Eng- 
land. 

Five  Points.    A  once  notorious  locality  in  New  York. 

Flagellants.  Religious  fanatics  of  the  thirteenth 
century  who  went  about  naked  and  scourging  them- 
selves. 

Fleet,  The.    A  London  prison  taken  down  in  1845. 

Flowery  Kingdom,  The.     China. 

Flving  Dutchman.  A  specter  ship  cruising  about 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Forebodes  trouble  to  whoever 
sees  it. 

Forte.    Strong  point. 

Fort  Sumter.  In  the  harbor  of  Charleston,  S.  C. 
Here  were  heard  the  first  sounds  of  the  cannons'  thun- 
der in  the  late  Civil  War. 

Fourierism.  Charles  Fourier,  a  French  visionary, 
proposed  a  system  of  communism  in  which  the  world 
should  be  divided  into  "  phalansteries"  of  four  hundred 
families  who  were  to  live  and  work  in  common. 

Freshman.    A  student  in  his  first  year  at  college. 

Funk,  Peter.  A  mock  auction;  a  person  employed 
to  act  as  an  apparent  purchaser  and  bid  up  articles  for 
sale. 

Gadshill.  Near  Rochester,  in  Kent,  England.  Place 
where  Falstaff  met  so  many  men  in  buckram.  Charles 
Dickens'  residence  was  at  Gadshill. 

Genre  Painting.  Represents  ordinary  domestic  and 
rural  scenes. 

George,  St.,  and  the  Dragon.  St.  George,  the 
patron  saint  of  England,  is  said  to  have  slain  in  Libya  a 
hideous  dragon  whose  daily  food  was  a  virgin. 

Gerrymander.  The  geographical  apportionment  of 
districts  to  give  preponderance  to  one  political  party. 
Started  in  Massachusetts, and  named  from  its  Governor, 
Elbridge  Gerry.  Example,  a  shoestring  district  in  Mis- 
souri. 

Ghetto.  The  quarter  in  Rome  to  which  the  Jews  were 
formerly  restricted. 

Ghibelline.  One  of  a  faction  in  Italy  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  which  favored  the  German  Emperors, 
in  opposition  to  the  Guelphs,  adherents  of  the  Pope. 

Girondists;  The  Gironde.  Moderate  "Constitu- 
tional "  Republican  partv  iu  the  French  Revolution  in 
1798. 

Glencoe.  A  pass  in  Argyleshire,  Scotland.  Here, 
February  13,  1691,  were  massacred  thirty-eight  of  the 
McDonalds  by  one  hundred  and  twenty  soldiers  under 
Capt.  Campbell. 

Gobelins.  A  tapestry  and  carpet  manufactory  at 
Paris,  founded  by  Gobelin,  a  dyer,  about  370  years  ago. 

Godiva,  Lady.  Wife  of  Leofric,  Earl  of  Mercia.  who 
offered  to  remit  certain  exactions  to  his  tenants  if  she 
would  ride  naked  through  the  streets  of  Coventry.  She 
did  so,  all  the  people  closing  their  doors  and  keeping 
within  except  one,  "Peeping  Tom,"  who  was  struck 
blind  for  peeping  at  her. 

Golconda.  The  neighborhood  of  some  rich  diamond 
mines  in  India. 

Gold  Fever.    1849;  peopled  California. 

Golden  Age.  A  period  of  innocence  and  prosperity. 
Nearlv  alwavs  refers  to  some  past  age. 

Golden  Gate.  The  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  San 
Francisco. 

Golden  Horn.  The  estuary  of  the  Bosphorus,  upon 
whose  banks  Constantinople  is' built. 

Gordian  Knot.  A  difficulty  :  an  obstacle.  Gordius, 
King  of  Phrygia.  consecrated  to  Jupiter  a  wagon,  the 
beam  and  yoke  of  which  were  tied  together  by  such  an 
intricate  knot  that  no  one  could  unravel  it.  An  oracle 
having  foretold  that  he  who  could  untie  this  knot  would 
be  master  of  Asia,  Alexander  cut  it  asunder  with  his 
sword. 

Gordon  Riots,  The.  In  1780.  in  London,  the  bill 
passed  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  relief  oi  the 
Roman  Catholics  caused  so  much  ill  feeling  that  Lord 
George  Gordon,  a  fanatic,  incited  the  mob  to  try  to 
force  its  repeal.  Dickens  in  his  Barnaby  Rudge  gives  a 
vivid  description  of  these  riots. 

Gotham.  A  name  sometimes  applied  to  New  York 
Citv. 

Gotham,  The  Wise  Men  of.  Noted  for  their  folly. 
Gotham  was  an  English  village. 

Great  Commoner,  The.     William  Pitt. 

Great  Duke,  The.    Wellington. 

Great  Eastern.  The  largest  vessel  ever  launched. 
She  was  built  to  carry  1,000  passengers  and  5,000  tons  of 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


129 


cargo.  Her  chief  work  has  been  in  the  laying  of  ocean 
telegraph  cables. 

Great  Pyramid,  The.  Is  at  Geezeh,  Egvpt.  It  is 
484  feet  high. 

Greenbacks.  United  States  Treasury  notes.  So 
named  from  their  color. 

Green  Isle,  The.  Ireland.  Sometimes  also  called 
the  Emerald  Isle. 

Greenwood.    A  cemetery  in  Brooklyn,  X.  Y. 

Gregorian  Year.  1582;"  it  being  proved  that  the 
years  were  eleven  minutes  shorter  than  what  they  were 
counted  at,  Gregory  XIII.  took  ten  days  of  October  out 
of  that  year  and  advanced  the  dates  so  as  to  correct  the 
calendar.  The  reform  has  been  accepted  throughout 
Christendom,  except  in  Russia.  Example:  George 
Washington,  born  February  11,  O.  S. 

Gretna  Green.  A  Scotch  village  famous  for  runa- 
way matches. 

Grub  Street.  In  London;  used  to  be  noted  for  its 
literary  denizens. 

Guelphs.  The  adherents  in  the  thirteenth  century 
of  the  Papacy  against  the  German  Emperors.  They 
were  the  constant  opponents  of  the  Ghibellines,  and 
between  them  Italy  was  kept  in  turmoil. 

Guildhall.    The  London  town  hall. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  The.  A  plot  to  blow  up  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  in  its  House,  November  5, 1605.  A  cellar 
underneath  was  stored  with  gunpowder  intended  to  be 
touched  off  during  the  session  by  Guy  Fawkes.  The 
discovery  was  made  in  time  to  prevent  mischief.  To 
use  a  modern  but  inelegant  phrase,  the  plot  was  consid- 
ered by  some  people  to  be  "  a  put  up  job." 

Gyges'  King.  A  ring  which  made  the  wearer  in- 
visible. Gyges,  having  found  a  man's  corpse  in  a 
brazen  horse  that  he  discovered  in  a  cave,  took  a  ring 
from  the  finger  of  the  dead  that  rendered  him  invisible. 
By  using  this  ring  he  entered  unseen  the  chamber  of 
the  King  of  Lydia  and  murdered  him.  He  became 
King. 

Habeas  Corpus  Act,  The.  "Was  passed  in  the  time 
of  Charles  II.  and  provides  that  the  body  of  any  person 
restrained  of  his  liberty  must  on  proper  application  be 
brought  before  a  judge  and  the  reason  of  his  confine- 
ment stated.  The  judge  will  then  determine  the  amount 
of  bail  he  shall  furnish,  or  he  will  remand  him  to  prison 
or  allow  him  his  freedom,  as  the  case  may  require. 

Halcyon  Hays.  A  period  of  happiness ;  days  of 
peace  and  tranquillity.  The  halcyon,  as  the  kingfisher 
was  anciently  called,  was  said  to  lay  her  eggs  in  nests 
on  rocks  near  the  sea  during  the  calm  weather  about 
the  winter  solstice. 

Handicap.  Apportionment  of  the  weights  that  must 
be  carried  in  a  race  by  different  horses,  considering 
their  age  and  strength,  to  equalize  their  chances. 

Hansard.  Name  of  the  firm  which  prints  the  de- 
bates of  the  British  Parliament. 

Hanse  Towns.  In  the  twelfth  century  some  com- 
mercial cities  in  the  north  of  Germany  formed  an  asso- 
ciation for  the  protection  of  commerce.  To  these  other 
similar  cities  in  Holland,  England,  France,  Spain,  and 
Italy  acceded,  and  for  centuries  this  confederacy  com- 
manded the  respect  and  defied  the  power  of  kings. 

Hanseatic  League.  The  name  of  the  confederation 
of  Hanse  towns.  There  were  seventy-two  cities  in  the 
league,  and  they  held  triennial  conventions  called 
Hansa.  It  has  long  since  fallen  to  pieces.  Four  of  its 
members,  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Frankfort, 
are  called  free  cities,  but  are  really  part  of  the  German 
Empire. 

Hare,  Mad  as  a  March.  The  hare  is  wilder  than 
usual  in  March. 

Harpies.  Three  ravenous  and  filthy  monsters,  each 
having  a  woman's  face  and  the  body  of  a  vulture. 
Their  names  were  Aello,  Ocypete,  and  Celeno.  Juno 
sent  them  to  plunder  the  table  of  Phineus. 

Hari-Kari.  (Happy  dispatch.)  Japanese  official 
suicide. 

Harvest  Moon.  The  full  moon  at  or  nearest  the  fall 
equinox  ;  rises  for  a  number  of  days  about  sunset. 

Heathen  Chinee,  The.    A  poem. 

Heidelberg  Castle.  Ruins  near  Heidelberg,  Ger- 
many. 

Hegira.  The  date  of  Mohammed's  flight  from  Mecca, 
July  16,  622.  The  epoch  from  which  the  Mohammedans 
compute  their  time. 

High  Church.  The  more  conservative  portion  of 
the  Episcopal  Church. 

High  Seas,  The.  The  sea  beyond  three  miles  from 
the  coast. 


History,  The  Father  of.  Herodotus,  the  Greek 
historian. 

Hobson's  Choice.  Take  what  is  offered  or  go  with- 
out. Tobias  Hobson,  an  English  stable-keeper,  made 
whatever  customer  came  to  hire  a  horse  take  the  one 
nearest  the  door. 

Holborn.  A  street  in  London  by  which  criminals 
used  to  be  carried  out  to  execution  at  Tyburn. 

Holy  Alliance.  Formed  in  1816  by  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Russia. 

Holy  Family,  The.  The  name  of  pictures  repre- 
senting in  group  the  infant  Jesus,  St.  Joseph,  the 
Blessed  Virgin,  John  the  Baptist,  Anna,  and  St.  Eliza- 
beth. The  most  celebrated  are  by  Michael  Angelo  at 
Florence,  by  Raphael  in  London,  and  by  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  in  the  Louvre. 

Holy  Land,  The.    Palestine. 

Holy  League,  The.  The  alliance  of  Pope  Julius  II., 
France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  some  of  the  Italian  Re- 
publics in  1508,  against  Venice. 

Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense.  (Shame  to  him  who 
evil  thinks.)  Motto  of  the  highest  order  of  knight- 
hood in  Great  Britain,  that  of  the  Garter,  instituted 
by  Edward  III.  At  a  ball,  a  garter  of  the  Countess  of 
Salisbury,  having  fallen  off,  was  picked  up  by  the  King, 
who  expressed  himself  in  the  above  phrase  and  fastened 
it  around  his  own  knee.  This  incident  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  order. 

Honors  of  War.  Allowing  a  surrendered  enemy  to 
keep  his  arms. 

Hotel  de  Ville.  The  city  hall  in  French  and  Belgian 
cities. 

Houris.  Beautiful  virgins  of  Paradise ;  promised  by 
the  Koran  for  the  delight  of  the  true  believers. 

Hundred  Days,  The.  From  March  20,  1815,  when 
Napoleon  escaped  from  Elba,  to  June  22, 1815,  when  he 
abdicated. 

Iconoclast.    (Image-breaker.)    A  radical  reformer. 

Iliad.  A  Greek  epic  poem  by  Homer,  relating  the 
story  of  the  siege  of  Troy  by  the  Greeks. 

Independence,  Declaration  of.    Issued  July  4, 1776. 

Independence  Hall.  In  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  where 
Congress  met  and  adopted  the  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence. 

Index  Expurgatorius.  A  list  of  books  forbidden 
to  be  read  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 

Inns  of  Court.  The  four  London  law  societies  which 
have  the  sole  right  of  admitting  candidates  to  the  Bar. 
They  are  Gray's  Inn,  Lincoln's  Inn,  the  Inner  Temple, 
and  the  Middle  Temple. 

Inquisition.  A  tribunal  established  in  some  coun- 
tries to  try  heretics. 

Irish  Agitator,  The;    Daniel  O'Connell. 

Iron  City,  The.    Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Iron  Duke,  The.    The  Duke  of  Wellington. 

Iron  Mask,  The  Man  in  the.  A  mysterious  French 
state  prisoner. 

Jack  Ketch.  The  hangman.  The  name  of  an  Eng- 
lish hangman. 

Jack  Robinson.  Before  you  can  say  Jack  Robinson: 
at  once.  Jack  Robinson  was"  noted  for  the  shortness  of 
his  visits;  the  servant  had  scarcely  time  to  repeat  his 
name,  before  he  would  leave. 

Jack,  The  Giant  Killer.    A  nursery  hero. 

Jack,  The  American,  or  Union.  The  blue  ground 
of  the  American  flag  with  the  stars  but  without  the 
stripes. 

Jacobins.  A  revolutionary  club,  1789,  in  Paris,  held 
its  meetings  in  what  had  been  the  Jacobin  Monastery. 
They  were  violent  and  extreme  in  the  measures  they 
proposed.  Their  name  spread  to  all  similar  organiza- 
tions and  to  individuals  acting  with  them  throughout 
France. 

Jacobites.  Adherents  of  James  II.  of  England,  and 
of  the  Stuarts,  his  descendants. 

Jardin  des  Plantes.  Botanical  and  zoological 
garden  in  Paris. 

Jardin  Mabille.  Of  world-wide  notoriety.  A  Paris- 
ian resort  where  the  can-can  flourished.  Suppressed  in 
1882. 

Jericho,    Gone  to.    Disappeared ;  ruined. 

Jerusalem  Delivered.  An  Italian  epic  poem  by 
Torquato  Tasso. 

Jingo,  Jingoism.  Expression  applied  in  England 
to  those  who  wanted  the  English  Government  to  assume 
an  aggressive  foreign  policy,  1874-1880. 

John  Bull.   England.   Nickname  for  an  Englishman. 

John  Chinaman.    The  Chinese  in  America. 


130 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Johnny  Cakes.  Made  of  Indian  meal  baked  in  the 
ashes. 

Jubilee,  Tear  of.  Among  the  Jews  the  jubilee  came 
every  fiftieth  year,  which  was  the  year  after  one  week 
of  weeks  of  years  had  passed  (seven  times  seven).  All 
slaves  who  were  of  Hebrew  blood  were  freed,  all  debts 
were  canceled,  and  all  lands  returned  to  original  owners 
during  the  jubilee.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  it 
is  observed  every  twenty-fifth  year. 

Juggernaut.  A  Hindoo  god  who  has  a  famous 
temple  in  India.  There  is  an  immense  car  in  the  serv- 
ice of  this  god,  which,  when  moved  about  the  country, 
causes  the  greatest  excitement.  The  car  resembles  a 
large  building,  and  its  weight  is  very  heavy.  It  is 
dragged  along  by  the  multitude,  and  tneir  fanaticism 
is  so  great  that  crowds  of  devotees  cast  themselves 
under  the  wheels  and  are  crushed  to  death,  a  fate  which 
they  believe  insures  paradise. 

Julian  Era,  The.  A  method  of  reckoning  time 
from  46  B.C.,  when  Caesar  reformed  the  calendar. 

Junius,  Letters  of.  Some  remarkable  political  let- 
ters written  during  the  reign  of  George  III.  Their 
authorship  is  unknown. 

Kansas,  Bleeding.  So  called  by  Horace  Greeley 
during  the  Free  Soil  controversy. 

Kensington  Gardens.  A  London  Park  near  which 
Queen  "Victoria  was  born. 

Kilkenny  Cats,  The.  Disputing  people ;  from  the 
old  verse : 

There  once  were  two  cats  in  Kilkenny, 

Who  each  thought  there  was  one  cat  too  many, 

So  they  howled  and  they  fit,  and  they  scratched 

and  they  bit, 
Until  instead  of  two  cats  there  wasn't  any. 

King  can  do  no  wrong,  The.  Meaning  that  the 
Ministers  and  not  the  King  are  responsible  for  mistakes 
of  government. 

King  of  Yvetot.  The  Seigneur  of  Yvetot  was  made 
king  of  his  estate  by  the  King  of  France  as  a  recom- 
pense for  the  killing  of  his  father.  It  was  a  kingdom 
of  eight  square  miles. 

King  Cole.  A  legendary  king  of  Britain,  who  affected 
tobacco  and  spirits. 

King  Cotton.  A  name  given  to  the  great  Southern 
industry  before  the  war. 

King's  Evil.  The  scrofula.  So  called  from  the  belief 
that  a  king's  touch  would  cure  the  disease. 

King  Log.  A  good-for-nothing  ruler.  The  name 
comes  from  one  of  Esop's  fables,  wherein  Jupiter  puts 
a  log  to  rule  over  the  frogs. 

King-Maker,  The.  Richard  Nevill,  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  who  set  up  and  deposed  kings  at  his  will 
during  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

King  Stork.  A  tvrant.  The  sequel  to  the  Esop  fable 
mentioned  above,  the  frogs  grew  tired  of  King  Log, 
whereupon  King  Stork  was  Drought  in  at  their  request, 
who  devoured  the  whole  community. 

Kit  Kat  Club,  The.  A  London  club  founded  in 
1688.    It  had  many  eminent  members. 

Knickerbocker.  A  member  of  any  old  Dutch  family 
in  New  York.    Derived  from  Irving's  immortal  history. 

Knight  of  Malta.  A  chivalric  and  monastic  order 
founded  during  the  Crusades,  also  called  the  Knights 
Hospitallers  of  St.  John. 

Know-Nothings.  A  political  party  in  the  United 
States,  whose  cardinal  principle  was  opposition  to 
foreign  office-holders. 

Koh-i-Noor.  A  Golconda  diamond,  the  largest  in 
the  world,  now  one  of  the  crown  diamonds  of  England. 
Value,  $625,000. 

Koran,  The.    The  Mohammedan  Bible. 

Kremlin,  The.  The  Royal  Russian  residence  in 
Moscow. 

Labyrinth,  The.  A  celebrated  structure  built  by 
Minos,  King  of  Crete,  which  consisted  of  a  maze  out  of 
which  no  one  who  entered  could  find  the  way  back. 

Laconic.  Curt.  So  called  from  the  brief  speech  in 
fashion  in  old  Laconia,  afterwards  called  Sparta. 

Lacrymal  Christ  i.    An  Italian  wine. 

Lake  School,  The.  A  society  of  English  poets  con- 
sisting of  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  and  Sonthey. 

Land  of  Bondage,  The.     Egypt. 

Land  o'  Cakes,  The.    Scotland. 

Land  of  Nod,  The.    Sleep;  Dreamland. 

Land  of  Promise,  The.  Canaan,  the  goal  of  the 
Jewish  wanderings  in  the  wilderness. 

Lang  Syne.    Long  ago. 


Langue  d'Oc.  Provence,  a  part  of  France  so  called 
from  the  dialect  in  use. 

Langue  d'CEil.    All  of  France  except  Provence. 

Laocoon,  The.  A  celebrated  statue  in  the  Vatican 
representing  Laocoon  strangled  by  serpents. 

Laodicean.    A  person  lukewarm  in  religion. 

Lares  and  Penates.    The  household  gods. 

Last  Judgment,  The.  The  theme  of  a  number  of 
frescoes  of  the  Renaissance  period  in  Italy. 

Last  Supper,  The.  Similar  to  the  above.  Leonardo 
da  Vinci's  best  canvas  is  on  this  subject. 

Later  an  Palace,  The.  One  of  the  Papal  residences 
at  Rome. 

Laughing  Philosopher,  The.  Democritus  of  Ab- 
dera,  who  believed  that  life  was  only  to  be  laughed  at. 

Leaning  Tower,  The.  A  celebrated  structure  at 
Pisa.  Italy,  which  leans  fourteen  feet  out  of  the  perpen- 
dicular; 180  feet  high. 

Learned  Blacksmith,  The.    Elihu  Burritt. 

Leonine  Verses.  Verses  which  rhyme  at  the  middle 
and  the  end. 

Libby  Prison.  A  Confederate  jail  for  prisoners  of 
war  at  Richmond,  Va. 

Lilliput.    The  pigmy  land  in  Gulliver's  travels. 

Lingua  Franca.  A  dialect  of  French,  Italian,  and 
Arabic  spoken  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Lion  and  Unicorn.  The  supporters  of  the  British; 
royal  arms. 

Lion  of  the  North,  The.    Gustavus  of  Sweden,  the' 

freat  leader  of  the  Protestant  forces  during  the  Thirty 
earr'  War. 

Lion's  Share.  The  bigger  portion  in  a  division.  So> 
called  from  one  of  Esop's  fables. 

Little  Corporal,  The.    Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

Little  Giant,  The.    Stephen  A.  Douglas. 

Lloyds.    The  originators  of  marine  insurance. 

Lombard  Street.    The  financial  street  of  London. 

Lone  Star  State,  The.    Texas. 

Long  Parliament.  The  Parliament  which  sat  for 
thirteen  years  at  the  beginning  of  the  civil  war  in 
England.    It  sat  from  1640  to  1653. 

Lorelei.  A  malignant  but  beautiful  water-sprite  of 
the  Rhine. 

Lotus-Eaters,  The.  Homer  in  the  Odyssey  describes 
the  effect  of  eating  the  lotus  as  making  the  eater  forget 
his  home. 

Louvre,  The.    The  art  palace  of  Paris. 

Low  Church,  The.  A  part  of  the  Episcopal  Church 
which  is  opposed  to  ceremonials. 

Lusiad,  The.  The  Portuguese  epic  poem,  written  by 
Camoens,  describing  Vasco  da  Oama's  adventures. 

Lynch  Law.  Mob  law.  The  name  comes  from  a 
Virginia  farmer  who  instituted  the  first  vigilance  com- 
mittee in  America. 

Mab,  Queen.  The  queen  of  the  fairies.  So  called 
from  an  Irish  fairy  princess  named  Medh,  who  flourished 
in  the  night  of  time. 

Macadamize.  Paving  with  broken  stones.  So  called 
from  the  inventor,  Sir  John  MacAdam. 

Macaronic  Verse.  A  verse  made  by  mixing  different 
languages. 

Macchiavellism.    Political  trickery. 

Madam  Tussaud's  Exhibition.  A  famous  London 
wax-works  show. 

Mad  Poet,  The.  Nathaniel  Lee,  an  insane  English 
dramatist. 

Madman  of  Macedonia,  The.    Alexander  the  Great. 

Madman  of  the  North,  The.   Charles  111.  of  Sweden. 

Madonna.    The  Blessed  Virgin. 

Maecenas.  A  noted  patron  of  poets  during  the  reign 
of  Augustus  of  Rome. 

Magna  Charta.  The  charter  making  the  corner  stone 
of  English  liberty,  extorted  from  King  John  Lack-Land. 

Mahomet's  Coffin.  The  body  of  Mahomet  is  said  to 
hang  in  mid-air  over  Medina. 

Maid  of  Orleans.    Joan  of  Arc. 

Maid  of  Saragossa.  Augustlna  Zaragoza,  the  hero- 
ine of  the  sie^e  of  Saragossa  in  1808-9. 

Maiden  Queen,  The.    Elizabeth  of  England. 

Maine  Law.  A  prohibitory  law  first  adopted  in 
Maine. 

Malthusian  Doctrine,  The.  The  theory  that  the 
population  (if  the  world  is  growing  faster  than  the  food 
supply. 

Mammoth  Cave.  A  cave  near  the  Creen  River, 
Kentucky,  the  largest  cave  in  the  world. 

Man  in  the  Moon.  According  to  the  legend  the 
man  who  first  broke  the  Sabbath. 

Man  of  Destiny.    Napoleon  Bonaparte. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


131 


Man  of  Iron,  The.    Bismarck. 

Man  of  Straw.    An  irresponsible  person. 

Mare's  Nest.  A  matter  which  seems  of  importance 
but  turns  out  to  be  nothing. 

Marriage  a  la  Mode.  The  title  of  six  satirical  pic- 
tures by  Hogarth. 

Marseillaise.  The  French  national  air,  composed  by 
Rouget  de  Lisle. 

Martinet.  A  strict  disciplinarian.  So  called  from  a 
French  officer  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line.  The  north  boundary  of 
the  Slave  States,  dividing  Virginia  and  Maryland  from 
Pennsylvania. 

Mausoleum.  The  tomb  of  Mausolus,  built  by  Queen 
Artemisia,  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 

Mayfair.    The  west  end  of  London. 

Mercator's  Projection  (or  Mercator's  Chart)  is  so 
called  after  Gerarcf  Mercator,  a  Flemish  geographer  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  the  first  to  give  an  unbroken 
view  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  In  it  all  the 
meridians  are  straight  lines  perpendicular  to  the  equa- 
tor, and  all  the  parallels  parallel  to  the  equator,  the 
effect  being  to  greatly  exaggerate  the  polar  regions. 

Merry  Andrew.  A  buffoon,  from  Andrew  Borde,  the 
whimsical  physician  of  Henry  VIII.    . 

Merry  Monarch,  The.    Charles  II.  of  England. 

Mesmerism  takes  its  name  from  Mesmer,  a  German 
physician. 

Mezzo  Relievo.  Carved  or  cast  figures  projecting 
from  the  tablet  a  little  more  than  basso  relievo,  and 
something  less  than  alto  relievo,  are  called  mezzo  re- 
lievo. 

Middle  Ages,  The.  The  period  between  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  revival  of  learning 
in  Italy— 476  to  1500. 

Middle  States,  The.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  and  Delaware. 

Minnesingers.  (Love  singers.)  The  German  lyric 
poets  of  the  twelfth  .and  thirteenth  centuries. 

Miserere.    The  fifty-first  psalm. 

Mississippi  Bubble,  The.  A  hollow  financial  scheme. 

Missouri  Compromise,  The.  A  measure  that  pro- 
hibited slavery  north  of  36°  30'  north  latitude. 

Mistress  of  the  Seas.    England. 

Molly  Maguires.  A  secret  society  in  the  United 
States.  Many  crimes  were  attributed  to  it,  especially  in 
Pennsylvania. 

Monarch,  Le  Grand.    Louis  XIV.  of  France. 

Monroe  Doctrine.  The  United  States  is  not  to 
meddle  in  European  affairs,  nor  to  allow  European 
Governments  to  meddle  in  the  affairs  of  the  American 
Continent. 

Mont  de  Piete.    A  pawnbroker's  shop. 

Montmartre.    A  Parisian  cemetery. 

Monumental  City,  The.    Baltimore,  Md. 

Morey  Letter,  The.  A  forged  letter  attributing  to 
General  Garfield  anti-Chinese  sentiments,  1880. 

Morganatic  Marriage.  A  marriage  between  a  man 
of  high  rank  and  a  woman  of  a  lower  one.  She  does  not 
take  her  husband's  title. 

Mother  of  Presidents.  Virginia ;  having  produced 
seven  Presidents  of  the  United  States. 

Mother  Carey's  Chickens.    Stormy  Petrels. 

Mother  Goose.  She  lived  near  Boston,  and  was  a 
nursery  rhymer.  She  sang  rhymes  to  her  grandson, 
Thomas  Fleet,  who  printed  them  in  1819. 

Mount  Vernon.  The  home  of  Washington,  in  Vir- 
ginia. 

Muscular  Christianity.  An  expression  of  Charles 
Kingsley.    "  A  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body." 

Music  of  the  Spheres.  Order,  harmony.  Plato 
taught  that  each  planet  had  a  siren  whose  song  har- 
monized with  the  motion  of  our  sphere  and  with  that 
of  the  others. 

Namby-Pamby.  Childish.  A  term  used  for  poor 
literary  productions. 

Nantes,  Edict  of.  A  decree  issued  at  Nantes, 
France,  in  1598,  by  Henry  IV..  granting  toleration  to 
the  Protestant  religion.  Revoked  bv  Louis  XIV.,  Octo- 
ber 22, 1085. 

Nation  of  Shop-keepers.  The  name  given  to  the 
English  by  Napoleon. 

Natural  Bridge,  The.  A  natural  arch  over  Cedar 
Creek  near  James  River  in  Virginia.  It  is  two  hundred 
feet  high. 

Newgate.    A  London  prison. 

New  World.    The  Americas. 

Nibelungenlied.  A  German  epic  poem  of  the  thir- 
teenth century. 


Nine  Worthies,  The.  Joshua,  David,  Judas  Macca- 
baeus,  Hector,  Alexander,  Julius  Caesar,  Arthur,  Charle- 
magne, and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon. 

Noctes  Anibrosiana?.  The  title  of  a  work  by  Pro- 
fessor Wilson  (Christopher  North). 

Noel.    Christmas  day. 

Non-Conformists.  Dissenters  from  the  Church  of 
England. 

Northern  Giant,  The.    Russia. 

Notre  Dame.    The  Cathedral  of  Paris. 

Odyssey.  Homer's  narrative  poem  of  the  adventures 
of  Ulysses  on  his  voyage  from  Troy  to  Ithaca. 

Ogres.    Giants  who  feed  on  human  flesh. 

Oi  Polloi.    The  multitude. 

Old  Abe.    Abraham  Lincoln. 

Old  Bailey.    A  London  criminal  court. 

Old  Dominion,  The.    Virginia. 

Old  Guard,  The.  A  favorite  regiment  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte.  In  the  Chicago  Convention,  1880,  the 
friends  of  General  Grant  received  this  name. 

Old  Hickory.    Gen.  Andrew  Jackson. 

Old  Probs.  (Old  Probabilities.)  The  United  States 
Signal  Service. 

Old  Public  Functionary.  President  James  Bu- 
chanan. 

Old  South,  The.    A  famous  church  in  Boston,  Mass. 

Orangeman.  A  Protestant  Irishman.  Member  of 
an  organization  which  cherishes  the  memory  of  William 
Prince  of  Orange. 

Orange  Peel.    Sir  Robert  Peel. 

Ordinance  of  1787.  An  act  fixing  the  government 
of  the  Northwest  Territory  of  the  United  States. 

Orlando  Furioso.    An  Italian  poem  by  Ariosto. 

Ossian.  The  son  of  Fingal,  a  Scotch  bard.  Ossian's 
poems,  published  in  1760,  were  the  work  of  James 
McPherson,  a  gifted  Caledonian. 

Ostend  Manifesto.  Issued  by  the  United  States 
Ministers  to  England,  France,  and  Spain,  during 
Pierce's  administration,  declaring  that  Cuba  must  be- 
long to  the  United  States. 

Ostracism.  The  Athenians  expelled  every  public 
man  against  whom  a  sufficient  number  of  votes  were 
cast.    The  votes  were  written  on  oyster  shells. 

Palimpsest.  A  parchment  having  the  original  writ- 
ing erased  and  new  writing  substituted. 

Pall  Mall.    A  street  in  London. 

Palladium.  Something  that  affords  defense,  pro- 
tection, and  safety.  A  statue  of  Pallas  was  the  palla- 
dium of  Troy. 

Pantheon.  A  circular  building  in  Rome  erected  in 
the  time  of  Augustus.  It  is  now  a  church,  the  Rotunda. 

Paradise  Lost.  A  poem  by  John  Milton,  treating 
of  the  fall  of  man. 

Paradise  Regained.  Poem  by  Milton  on  the  temp- 
tation and  triumph  of  Jesus. 

Paris  of  America,  The.    Cincinnati. 

Parthenon.    A  temple  of  Minerva  in  Athens. 

Partington,  Mrs.  The  American  Mrs.  Malaprop. 
The  creation  of  B.  P.  Shillaber. 

Pasquinade.  A  lampoon  or  satirical  writing.  Po- 
litical squibs  used  to  be  posted  on  an  old  statue  that 
stood  in  Rome  near  the  house  of  a  sneering  old  cobbler 
named  Pasquin. 

Peeler.  A  policeman.  Sir  Robert  Peel  founded  the 
Irish  constabulary. 

Peninsular  "War.  The  war  between  England  and 
France  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  1808-1812. 

People's  William.    William  E.  Gladstone. 

Pere-la-Chaise.    A  cemetery  near  Paris. 

Philippic.  An  invective.  The  orations  of  Demos- 
thenes against  Philip  of  Macedon  originated  this  word. 

Philistine.  A  word  in  use  in  the  German  universi- 
ties for  a  person  below  caste. 

Philosopher's  Stone,  The.  A  substance  supposed 
to  have  the  property  of  turning  anything  else  into  gold. 

Phoenix.  A  mythical  bird,  without  a  mate,  renews 
itself  every  five  hundred  years  by  being  consumed  in  a 
fire  of  spices,  whence  it  rises  from  the  ashes  and  starts 
for  a  new  flight. 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  The.  Not  being  paid  for 
having  drawn,  by  the  sound  of  his  pipe,  the  rats  and 
mice  out  of  Hamelin  into  the  river,  he  piped  the  chil- 
dren of  the  town  into  Koppelberg  hill,  whece  130  of 
them  died. 

Pigeon  English.  A  mixture  of  English,  Chinese, 
and  Portuguese. 

Plon-Plon.    Prince  Napoleon  J.  C.  Bonaparte. 

Plumed  Knight,  The.  J.  G.  Blaine,  American 
statesman. 


132 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Plymouth  Rock.  The  rock  at  Plymouth,  Mass., 
where  the  pilgrims  landed  in  1620. 

Poet's  Corner.  A  corner  in  "Westminster  Abbey 
where  poets  are  buried^  The  poetical  column  in  a  news- 
paper. 

Pons  Asinornm.  (The  bridge  of  asses.)  Fifth  prop- 
osition, lirst  book  Euclid's  Geometry. 

Poor  Richard.    Benjamin  Franklin. 

Porkopolis.    Cincinnati. 

Prater,  The.    A  promenade  in  Vienna,  Austria. 

Protestant  Duke,  The.  The  Duke  of  Monmouth, 
natural  son  of  Charles  II.  of  England. 

Pyramids.  A  number  of  remarkable  old  structures 
in  Egypt. 

Quaker  City,  The.    Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Quaker  Poet,  The.    John  G.  Whittier. 
Quartier  Latin.    A  district  of  Paris  inhabited  prin- 
cipally by  students. 
Queen  of  the  Antilles.    The  island  of  Cuba. 

Ranz  des  Vaches.  The  air  the  Swiss  mountaineers 
play  on  the  Alpine  horns  when  tending  their  cattle. 

Railway  King,  The.  George  Hudson,  an  English- 
man. 

Rebellion,  The  Great.  The  war  between  Charles  I. 
of  England  and  Parliament. 

Red  Letter  Day.  A  fortunate  day.  In  old  calendars 
a  red  letter  was  used  to  mark  the  saints'  days. 

Red  Tape.    Official  routine. 

Reign  of  Terror.  The  time  during  the  French  Revo- 
lution between  the  overthrow  of  the  Girondists,  May 
31, 1793,  and  the  fall  of  Robespierre,  July  27, 1794. 

Reynard  the  Fox.  A  romance  of*  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Rialto,  The.  A  bridge  over  the  Grand  Canal, 
Venice. 

Rights,  Declaration  of.  An  instrument  securing 
annual  Parliaments,  trial  by  jury,  free  elections,  the 
right  of  petition,  and  denying  to  the  crown  the  privi- 
lege of  keeping  a  standing  army  or  of  levying  taxes,  was 
drawn  up  after  the  revolution  of  1689,  and  accepted  by 
William  and  Mary. 

Roost,  To  Rule  the.    To  take  the  leading  part. 

Robert  the  Devil.    The  first  Duke  of  Normandy. 

Robin  Goodfellow.    Puck,  a  celebrated  fairy. 

Roland  for  an  Oliver,  A.  Tit  for  tat.  Roland  and 
Oliver,  two  peers  of  Charlemagne.  So  many  romances 
were  related  of  these  knights  that  whenever  one  told 
an  improbable  story  to  match  one  that  had  been  told 
before,  it  was  called  givinga  Roland  for  an  Oliver. 

Rossius,  The  British.    David  Garrick. 

Rough  and  Ready.    Gen.  Zachary  Taylor. 

Round  Robin.  A  petition  or  remonstrance  signed 
by  the  names  in  a  circle,  so  as  to  conceal  who  signed  it 
first. 

Round  Table,  The.  King  Arthur's  knights  sat  at 
a  round  table  so  that  any  distinction  of  rank  was 
avoided. 

Roundheads.    The  Puritans,  who  wore  short  hair. 

Royal  Martyr,  The.    Charles  I.  of  England. 

Royal  Society,  The.  A  society  for  the  advancement 
of  natural  science,  founded  at  London,  1045. 

Rozinante.    The  horse  of  Don  Quixote. 

Rubicon,  To  Pass  the.  To  takean  irretrievable  step. 
When  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon  he  became  an  enemy 
of  the  Republic. 

Rule  Britannia.    An  English  song. 

Rump  Parliament,  The.  A  remnant  of  the  Long 
Parliament  broken  up  by  Cromwell. 

Rye  House  Plot.  A  conspiracy  in  1683  to  assassinate 
Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of  York.  Rye  House  was  the 
name  of  the  conspirators'  place  of  meeting. 

Sabbath  Day's  Journey.    About  one  mile. 

Sack,  To  Get  the.  To  be  discharged.  The  Sultan, 
when  he  wants  to  be  rid  of  one  of  his  harem,  hasherput 
into  a  sack  and  thrown  info  the  Bosphorus. 

Sadducees.  A  sect  of  the  ancient  Jews  who  denied 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead  and  the  expectation  of  a 
future  state. 

Sagas.  Scandinavian  books  containing  the  Northern 
legends. 

Saint  Bartholomew,  Massacre  of.  Massacre  of  the 
French  Huguenots  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  on  St. 
Bartholomew's  day,  1572. 

Sailor  King,  The.    William  IV.  of  England. 

Saint  Cloud.  A  once  famous  French  palace,  de- 
stroyed in  the  Franco-Prussian  war 


Saint  James,  The  Court  of.  The  English  court,  so 
called  from  the  Palace  of  St.  James  in  London,  formerly 
a  royal  residence. 

St.  Mark's.    Cathedral  of  Venice,  Italy. 

Saint  Paul's.  The  cathedral  of  London;  designed 
by  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Saint  Peter's.  At  Rome;  is  the  most  splendid 
church  building  in  the  world. 

Saint  Sophia.    A  mosque  in  Constantinople,  Turkey. 

Saint  Stephens.  A  Gothic  cathedral  in  Vienna, 
Austria. 

Salt  River.  Oblivion.  Gone  up  Salt  River  is  gen- 
erally taken  to  mean  political  defeat. 

Sambo.    Nickname  for  colored  man. 

Sanctum.    One's  private  office. 

Sandwich.  A  piece  of  meat  between  two  pieces  of 
bread. 

Sang  Azul.    Of  aristocratic  descent. 

Sanhedrim.    The  Jewish  court  of  seventy  elders. 

Sans-Culottes.  (Without  trousers.)  The  French 
revolutionists. 

Sans  Souci.  Palace  of  Frederick  the  Great,  at  Pots- 
dam, near  Berlin. 

Santa  Croce.  A  church  in  Florence,  Italy ;  the  burial 
place  of  Michael  Angelo,  Galileo,  Macliiavelli,  and 
others. 

Saturnalia.  A  festival  in  honor  of  Saturn  observed 
annually  by  the  Romans  by  giving  way  to  the  wildest 
disorders.  Unrestrained  license  for  all  classes,  even  to 
the  slaves,  ruled  the  city  for  three  days,  December  17, 
18,  and  19. 

Schoolmen.    The  mediaeval  theologians. 

Scotland  Yard.  The  headquarters  of  the  London 
police. 

Scourge  of  God,  The.    Attila,  King  of  the  Huns. 

Scratch,  Old.    The  Devil. 

Scylla.  (Avoiding  Scylla  he  fell  into  Charybdis.)  In 
trying  to  avoid  one  danger  he  fell  into  another.  Scylla 
and  Charybdis  were  the  two  dangers  in  the  Straits  of 
Messina,  Italy. 

Sea-girt  Isle,  The.    Great  Britain. 

Secessia.    The  seceding  Southern  States. 

Secular  Games.  Games  held  by  the  Romans  once 
in  a  century. 

Semiraniis  of  the  North.  Catherine  II.,  Empress  of 
Russia. 

September  Massacres.  The  massacre  of  the  French 
Royalist  prisoners  in  Paris,  September  2,  3,  and  4,  1792. 
About  8.000  were  killed. 

Septuagint.  A  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament 
prepared  bv  seventy  doctors. 

Seven-hilled  City.  The.    Rome. 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  AVorld.  The  pyramids  of 
Egypt;  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus;  the  hanging 
gardens  of  Babylon;  the  Colossus  at  Rhodes ;  the  Mau- 
soleum at  Halicarnassus ;  the  statue  of  Zeus  by  Phidias 
at  Olympus;  and  the  Pharos  (or  lighthouse)  of  Alexan- 
dria in  Egypt. 

Seven  Years'  War.  The  war  of  Frederick  the  Great 
against  France,  Austria,  and  Russia,  1756  to  1763. 

Shamrock.  The  emblem  of  Ireland.  St.  Patrick 
made  use  of  it  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

Shibboleth.  A  countersign.  The  password  of  a 
secret  society.  When  the  Ephraimites,  after  being 
routed  by  Jephthah,  tried  to  pass  the  Jordan,  they  were 
detected  by  not  being  able  to  pronounce  properly  the 
word  Shibboleth. 

Sick  Man,  The.    The  Ottoman  Empire. 

Sinews  of  War,  The.    Money. 

Single-Speech  Hamilton.  An  English  statesman  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  W.  G.  Hamilton.  He  never 
made  but  one  speech,  but  that  one  was  most  eloquent. 

Six  Hundred,  Charge  of  the.  At  the  battle  of 
Balaklava,  October  25,  1854,  by  a  mistaken  order,  the 
British  light  cavalry,  670  strong,  made  a  most  gallant 
charge  on  the  Russians. 

Sleeping  Beauty.  The.    A  fairy  tale. 

Smell  of  the  Lamp.  A  phrase  first  applied  to  the 
orations  of  Demosthenes,  showing  their  careful  and 
labored  preparation.  Demosthenes  studied  in  a  cave 
by  lamplight. 

Song  of  Roland.  An  old  French  poem  recounting 
the  deaths  of  Oliver  and  Roland  at  Roncesvalles. 

Sorbonne,  The.  A  university  in  Paris  founded  by 
Robert  de  Sorbonne  In  the  thirteenth  century. 

Sortes  Biblicae.  Fortune  telling  by  consulting  the 
Bible. 

South  Kensington  Museum.  A  collection  of  works 
of  art  and  manufactures  in  London. 

South  Sea  Bubble,  The.    A  company  formed  in  1710 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


133 


in  England  to  pay  the  national  debfc  and  to  have  in 
return  a  monopoly  of  the  South  Sea  trade.  This  com- 
pany lasted  about  ten  years, and  its  failure  was  the  ruin 
of  thousands. 

Spanish  Main.  The  southwestern  part  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

Sphinx.  An  emblem  of  silence  and  mystery.  A 
monument  near  Cairo,  Egypt ;  half  woman,  half  lion. 

Stabat  Mater.    A  Latin  hymn  on  the  Crucifixion. 

Stalwart.  A  member  of  the  Republican  party  of  the 
United  States  clinging  to  the  principles  and  practices 
of  the  party.  His  opposite,  a  "  Half-Breed,"  is  a  Re- 
publican unwilling  to  be  controlled  by  the  party 
leaders. 

Star  Chamber.  A  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction  in 
England  having  extensive  powers.  It  existed  from  the 
time  of  Henry  VIII.  until  that  of  Charles  I. 

"  Stonewall "  Jackson.  Gen.  Thomas  J.Jackson, 
Confederate  General. 

Strasburg  Cathedral.  At  Strasburg ;  Gothic ;  468 
feet  high ;  has  a  wonderful  clock. 

Swedish  Nightingale.  Jenny  Lind  (Mme.  Gold- 
schmidt). 

Tabooed.  Prohibited.  A  Polynesian  word  meaning 
consecrated;  used  for  what  is  but  of  date  or  in  bad 
taste. 

Tammany  Hall.  A  section  of  the  Democratic  party 
in  New  YorK  City,  named  from  their  place  of  meeting. 

Tammany  Ring,  or  the  "  Tweea  Ring,"  or  "  the 
Ring."  A  set  of  New  York  City  officials  which  absorbed 
large  sums  of  the  city  money.    Exposed  in  1871. 

Tammany,  Saint.'  Patron  saint  of  the  Democratic 
party  in  New  York.  He  was  an  Indian  chief,  whose 
name  was  really  Timenund. 

Tapis,  On  the.  On  the  carpet;  proposed  for  discus- 
sion.   Prom  the  tapis  or  cloth  on  a  council  table. 

Temple  Bar.  A  stone  house  in  London  over  which 
the  heads  of  traitors  used  to  be  exposed.  Torn  down 
in  1878. 

Termagant.  A  shrew.  Termagant  was,  according 
to  the  Crusaders,  the  wife  of  Mahomet. 

Terra  Firma.     Dry  land. 

Tertium  Quid.    A  third  somebody  not  to  be  named. 

Theatre  ITrancais.    A  theater  in  Paris. 

Theleme,  Abbey  of.  A  creation  of  Rabelais  in  his 
Gargantua.    Its  motto  was,  "Do  as  you  please." 

Thirty  Years'  War,  The.  Between  the  Catholics 
and  Protestants  in  Germany,  1618-1648. 

Thistle.  The  national* emblem  of  Scotland.  One 
night  when  the  Danes  were  attempting  to  surprise  an 
encampment  of  the  Scotch,  one  of  them  trod  upon  a 
thistle;  the  pain  caused  him  to  raise  an  alarm  and  the 
Scotch  defeated  them.  Ever  since  the  thistle  has  been 
the  insignia  of  Scotland. 

Thor.  The  god  of  war,  son  of  Odin,  the  Scandinavian 
Myth. 

Threadneedle  Street,  The  Old  Lady  of.  The  Bank 
of  England. 

Three  Estates  of  the  Realm.  The  nobility,  the 
clergy,  and  the  commonalty,  represented  in  the  two 
houses  of  Parliament. 

Thunderer,  The.    The  London  Times  (newspaper). 

Tick,  On.    On  credit. 

Tit  for  Tat.    An  equivalent ;  this  for  that 

Tom  Thumb.    Charles  A.  Stratton.    Also  a  fairytale. 

Tory.  The  name  of  an  English  political  party ,  oppo- 
site of  Whig. 

Tour,  The  Grand.  From  England,  through  France, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Germany,  and  home. 

Tower,  The.    The  citadel  of  London. 

Transfiguration,  The.  One  of  Raphael's  most  fa- 
mous pictures,  now  in  the  Yatican. 

Trimmer.  One  who  takes  a  moderate  course  in 
politics. 

Trinity  Church.  An  Episcopal  church  on  Broad- 
way at  the  head  of  Wall  street,  New  York.  The  richest 
church  in  America. 

Triple  Alliance,  The.  Alliance  between  Great  Brit- 
ain, Holland,  and  Sweden  against  France,  1668. 

Troubadours.  Provincial  poets  from  the  eleventh 
to  the  fourteenth  century. 

Trouveres.    Northern  French  poets  1100  to  1400. 

Trumpet,  To  Sound  One's  Own.  To  bQast.  The 
entrance  of  knights  into  a  list  was  announced  by  the 
heralds  with  a  nourish  of  trumpets. 

Tuft-Hunter.  A  toady.  At  Oxford  a  nobleman  was 
called  a  tuft  because  of  the  gold  tuft  on  his  college  cap. 

Tuileries.  A  French  royal  palace  burned  by  the 
Commune  in  1871. 


TuUp  Mania.  A  European  craze  of  the  seventeenth 
century  centering  in  Holland.  Everybody  was  buying 
tulip  bulbs,  which  ran  up  to  enormous  prices.  Many 
fortunes  were  sunk  in  their  acquisition. 

Tune  the  Old  Cow  Died  of.  Words  instead  of  alms. 
Old  song:  a  man  having  nothing  with  which  to  feed 
his  cow,  sings  to  her  of  the  grass  which  is  to  grow.  The 
expression  is  also  used  for  a  worn-out,  tiresome  tune. 

Tyburn.  Once  a  London  place  of  execution,  now  a 
wealthy  and  fashionable  quarter  called  Tyburnia. 

Ufflzi.  A  building  in  Florence  in  which  is  a  magnifi- 
cent art  collection. 

ritramontanes.  In  France,  the  more  extreme  ad- 
herents of  the  Pope. 

Underground  Railroad,  The.  Organization  of  the 
different  means  used  for  the  escape  of  runawav  slaves, 
about  the  middle  of  the  present  centurv. 

Under  the  Rose.    (Sub  rosa.)    Confidentially. 

UnUcked  Cub.  An  ill-bred  boy.  The  bear  cub  was 
believed  to  be  licked  into  shape  by"  its  dam. 

Unter  den  Linden.  A  street  in  Berlin  having  four 
rows  of  lime  trees. 

Unwashed,  The  Great.    The  mob. 

Up  the  Spont,  or,  more  elegantly,  "gone  where  the 
woodbine  twineth,"  or  "at  my  uncle"'s,"  means  in  pawn. 

Upas  Tree.  An  object  that  does  harm  and  should  be 
avoided.  The  upas  tree  is  common  in  Java ;  its  gum  fa 
poisonous,  and  fable  states  that  the  atmosphere  about 
it  is  as  deadly. 

Upper  Ten  Thousand.  The  aristocracy;  fashion- 
able society. 

Utilitarians.  Those  who  believe  that  the  fitness  of 
anything  to  promote  happiness  is  the  right  standard  of 
morality. 

Utopia.  An  ideal  commonwealth.  The  imaginary 
island,  scene  of  Sir  Thomas  More's  romance  of  Utopia. 

Valhalla.  The  palace  of  immortality,  where  the 
heroes  slain  in  battle  dwell.    (From  the  Saga  legends.) 

Vampire.  An  extortioner.  A  fabulous  bat  said  to 
suck  the  blood  of  persons  during  sleep. 

Yatican.    The  palace  of  the  Popes,  Rome. 

Vatican,  Council  of  the.  The  OScumenical  Council, 
1869,  promulgated  Papal  infallibility. 

Yedas,  The.  Revelations  of  Brahma  in  four  sacred 
books. 

Veni,  Yidi,  Yici.  (I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.)  Phrase 
used  by  Julius  Caesar,  announcing  his  victory  at  Zela. 

Venus  de  Medici.    A  Greek  statue  at  Florence. 

Venus  of  Milo.  A  Greek  statue  found  in  the  Island 
of  Melos,  1S20 ;  it  is  now  in  the  Louvre. 

Verbum  Sap.    A  word  to  the  wise. 

Veronica.    A  relic  at  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

A'ersaiUes.  A  palace  at  Versailles,  ten  miles  from 
Paris. 

Vespers,  The  Sicilian.  The  massacre  of  the  French 
in  Sicily,  March  30,  1282.  The  sounding  of  the  vesper 
bell  was  the  signal. 

Via  Dolorosa.  The  sorrowful  way  of  our  Lord  from 
the  Mount  of  Olives  to  Golgotha. 

Vinegar  Bible,  The.  Has  "vinegar"  for  "  vineyard  " 
in  the  head  line  of  Luke  xx.,  Oxford,  1617. 

Virgin  Queen,  The.    Queen  Elizabeth  of  England. 

Vitus  Dance,  St.  A  disease  anciently  supposed  to 
be  under  control  of  St.  Vitus. 

Wabash  Avenue.    A  street  in  Chicago. 

WaU  of  China,  The.  A  wall  1,200  miles  long  and  20 
feet  high,  built  as  a  protection  against  the  Tartars. 

Wall  Street.   The  great  financial  street  of  New  York. 

Wallack's.    A  theater  in  New  York. 

Walton,  An  Izaak.    An  angler. 

Wandering  Jew,  The.  A  legendary  personage  con- 
demned to  wander  over  the  world  until  the  day  of 
judgment. 

War  of  1812.  Between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  1812-1815. 

War  of  the  Roses.  The  English  civil  wars  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  between  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster. 

Ward,  Artemus.    C.  F.  Browne. 

Washington  Street.    A  street  in  Boston,  Mass. 

Wassail.  (What  hail !)  A  bowl  of  spiced  ale  used  on 
New  Year's  dav  is  the  W assail  bowl. 

"Waters,  The  Father  of.    The  Mississippi. 

Wrays  and  Means.  An  important  committee  of  the 
House  of  Representatives ;  is  charged  with  the  duty  of 
devising  ways  and  means  for  the  supply  of  the  Govern- 
ment expenses. 


134 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OE  FACTS. 


Wedding.  The  first  anniversary  of  a  wedding  is  the 
paper  wedding,  the  gifts  being  paper  articles ;  the  fifth, 
wooden;  the  tenth,  tin;  the  fifteenth,  glass;  twenty- 
fifth,  silver;  fiftieth,  golden;  seventv-fifth,  diamond. 

Well  of  St.  Keyne.  A  well  in  Cornwall.  The  first 
of  a  married  couple  to  taste  its  waters  will  "  wear  the 
breeches." 

Westminster  Abbey.  A  church  in  London  where 
many  of  the  illustrious  dead  of  England  are  buried. 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth.  Pseudonym  of  Miss  Susan 
Warner,  author  of  The  Wide,  Wide  World. 

Whig.    The  name  of  a  political  party  now  extinct. 

Whistle.  (To  pay  too  dearly  for  the  whistle.)  Dr 
Franklin's  story.    Cost  greater  than  benefit. 

■White  Feather,  To  Show  the.  A  display  of  cow- 
ardice. 

White  House.  The  Presidential  mansion  at  Wash- 
ington. 

Whiteboys.    A  secret  society  in  Ireland,  1789. 

Wild  Huntsman,  The.  A  spectral  huntsman  in  the 
Black  Forest.    German  legend. 

Windmills,  To  Fight  with.  To  oppose  imaginary 
objects.    Don  Quixote. 

Windsor  Castle.    A  royal  residence  near  London. 

Wise  Men  of  the  Fast,  The.  The  three  Magi 
guided  by  a  star  to  Bethlehem. 

Witch  of  Endor,  The.  The  soothsayer  who  foretold 
the  death  of  Saul. 

Witch-Hazel.  A  forked  twig  used  for  finding 
witches;  in  use  still  for  finding  water. 


Wooden  Horse.    A  ruse  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Woolsack,  To  Sit  on  the.  To  be  Lord  Chancellor 
of  England. 

Wyoming  Massacre.  The  Valley  <'f  Wyoming  was 
ravaged  by  Indians  in  1778. 

Xanthos.    The  prophetic  horse  of  Achilles. 
Xantippe.    The  scolding  wife  of  Socrates. 

Yahoo.  A  ruffian.  The  Yahoos  in  Gulliver's  Travels 
are  brutes  shaped  like  men. 

Yankee.  A  name  given  to  all  Americans.  In  America 
itself  the  name  is  only  used  for  natives  of  New  England. 

Yarmouth  Bloater.    A  red  herring. 

Yellow  Jack.    The  yellow  fever. 

Young  America.    The  growing  generation. 

Young  Chevalier.  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  the  sec- 
ond pretender  to  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.    (1720-88.) 

Young  Germany.   Heinrich  Heine  and  his  followers. 

Yosemite  Valley.  In  California.  Also  a  picture  by 
Bierstadt.         , 

Yule.    Christmas. 

Yule-log.  A  large  log  of  wood  burnt  on  the  hearth 
at  Christmas. 

Zend-Avesta,  The.  Persian  Scriptures  written  in 
the  Zend  language. 

Zollverein.  An  association  between  German  States 
for  the  maintenance  of  uniform  tariff  rates. 


THE  LORD'S  PRAYER. 


Latin. — Pater  noster,  qui  eslin  coelis,  sanctificeter 
nomen  tuum.  Adveniat  regnum  tuum.  Fiat  voluntas 
tua,  sicut  in  ccelo,  et  in  terra.  Panem  nostrum  quotidi- 
anum  da  nobis  hodie.  Et  remitte  nobis  debita  nostra, 
sicut  et  nos  remittimus  debitoribus  nostris.  Et  ne  nos 
inducas  in  tentationem,  sed  libera  nos  a  malo.  Tibi 
enim  est  regnum,  et  potentia,  et  gloria,  in  sempiternum. 
Amen. 

Italian. — Padre  nostro,  che  sei  ne'  cieli,  sia  santifi- 
cato  i'  tuo  nome.  II  tuo  regno  venga.  La  tua  volonta 
sia  fatta  in  terra  come  in  cielo.  Dacci  oggi  il  nostro 
pane  cotidiano.  E  rimettici  i  nostri  deb  it  i,  come  noi 
ancora  gli  rimettiamo  a'  nostri  debitori.  E  non  indurci 
in  tentazione,  ma  liberaci  dal  maligno.  Percioche  tuo 
e  il  regno,  e  la  potenza,  e  la  gloria,  in  sempiterno. 
Amen. 


French.  — Notre  Pere  qui  es  aux  cieux,  ton  nom  soit 
sanctifie.  Ton  regne  yienne ;  ta  volonte  soit  faite  sur  la 
terre.  comme  au  ciel.  Donne-nous  aujourd'hui  notre 
pain  quotidien.  Pardonne-nous  nos  peches,  comme  aussi 
nous  pardonnons  a  ceux  qui  nous  ont  offenses.  Et  ne 
nous  abandonne  point  a  la  tentation,  mais  delivre  nous 
du  malin.  Car  a  toi  appartient  le  regne,  la  puissance, 
et  la  gloire,  a  jamais.    Amen. 

German.—  Cnser  Vater  in  dem  Himmel,  dein  Name 
werde  geheiliget.  Dein  Reich  komine.  Dein  Wille 
geschehe  auf  Erden  wie  im  Himmel.  Unser  tagliches 
Brod  gieb  uns  heute.  Und  vergieb  una  unsere  Beholden, 
wie  wir  unsern  Sehuldigern  vergaben.  Und  fuhre  uns 
nicht  in  Versuchung,  sondern  erlese  uns  von  dem  Uebel. 
Denn  dein  ist  das  Reich,  und  die  Kidft,  und  die  Herr- 
lichkeit,  in  Ewigkeit.    Amen. 


Shelley  wrote  "  Queen  Mab  "  at  18. 

Mohammed  began  the  Koran  at  35. 

Keats  wrotehis  "Endymion"  at  22. 

Alexandre  Dumas  wrote  plays  a  1 22. 

Disraeli  wrote  "Vivian  Grey"  at 
21. 

Heine  published  his  first  songs  at 
23. 

Seneca  wrote  "  De  Beneficiis  "  after 
50. 

Swift  wrote  the  "Tale  of  a  Tub" 
at  37. 

Richardson  published  "Pamela" 
at  51. 

Racine  wrote  the  "Andromache" 
at  28. 

Paley  wrote  the  "  Horae  Paulinae  " 
at  47. 

Coleridge  published  "Christabel" 
at  44. 

Pliny  finished  the  "  German  War" 
at  31. 

Luther  wrote  his  ninety-five  theses 
at  34. 

Poe  wrote  "  The  Raven  "  in  his  36th 
year. 

Confucius  beganhisreligiousworks 
at  30. 

Butler  wrote  "  Hudibras"  after  he 
was  60. 

Shakespeare  wrote  his  first  play  at 
about  24. 

Sterne  published  "Tristram  Shan- 
dy "at  46. 

Owen  Meredith  published  "Lu- 
cille" at  29. 


GREAT  MEN'S  WORKS. 

Boileau   wrote  his   first   satirical 
poems  at  24. 

Corneille  wrote  "  Melite,"  his  first 
drama,  at  21. 

Calvin  published  his  "Psychopan- 
nychia"  at  25. 

Spenser    published    the    "Faerie 
Queene"  at  38. 

It  is  said  that  Horace  wrote  his 
first  odes  at  23. 

Sheridan  wrote   his    "School   for 
Scandal "  at  26. 

Machiavelli       completed       "  The 
Prince  "  at  45. 

Sir    Thomas    More     finished    his 
"Utopia"  at  73. 

Livy  is  said  to  have  finished  hi.s 
"Annals"  at  50. 

Goldsmith  finished  "  The  Deserted 
Village"  at  42. 

Josephus  published  his  "Wars  of 
the  Jews"  at  6(3. 

Lamartine's  poems  appeared  when 
the  poet  was  30. 

Perseus  is  thought  to  have  written 
his  satires  at  45. 

.  Thackeray  was  36  when  "Vanity 
Fair"  appeared. 

Lord   Bacon   wrote   the   "Novum 
Organum"  at  41. 

Tacitus  finished  the  first  part  of 
his  history  at  50. 

David  is  said  to  have  written  his 
first  psalm  at  1*. 

Homer  is  said  to  have  composed 
the  Iliad  after  60. 


Bryant  was  19  when  made  famous 
by  "Thanatopsis." 

Solomon  is  said  to  have  collected 
the  Proverbs  at  50. 

Baxter  wrote  the  "Saint's  Ever- 
lasting Rest"  at  34. 

Dante  finished  the  "  Divina  Corn- 
media"  at  about  51. 

Von  Ranke  finished  his  "History 
of  the  Popes  "  at  39. 

George  Eliot  was  39  when  "Adam 
Bede  "  was  printed. 

Fichte  wrote  the  famous  "  Wlasen- 
schaftslehre"  at  32. 

Robert  Browning  wrote  "The  Ring 
and  the  Book"  at  67. 

Samuel  Johnson  published  ••Lon- 
don "  when  he  was  29. 

The  Bucolics  of  Virgil  were  writ- 
ten between  43  and  47. 

Thomas  a-  Keinpis  wrote  the  "  Imi- 
tation of  Christ  "  at  34. 

Joseph  Addison's  first  essays  ap- 
peared, when  he  was  29. 

John  Bunyan  finished  the  "  Pil- 
grim's Progress  "  at  50. 

"The  Robbers,"  by  Schiller,  made 
the  author  famous  at  23. 

Hannah  More  wrote  "The  Search 
After  Happiness  "  at  28. 

Martial  is  said  to  have  written  epi- 
grams before  he  was  20. 

Voltaire's  first  tragedy  came  out 
when  the  author  was  22. 

Adam  Smith  published  "  The 
Wealth  of  Nations"  at  65. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


135 


THE  WORLD'S  BEST  BOOKS. 

Comprising  more  than  one  thousand  titles  based  upon  bibliographies  of  the  best  author- 
ities.    These  books  are  all  available  in  English  or  English  translation. 
List  of  publishers'  abbreviations  used  and  their  explanation  :  — 


Armstrong  — A.  C.  Armstrong  &  Sons,  New  York. 
Appleton  —  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Amsterdam  —  The   New   Amsterdam  Book  Co., 

New  York. 
Benziger  —  Benziger  Brothers,  New  York. 
Coates  —  Henry  T.  Coates  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Crowell  — T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Caldwell  — H.  I.l  Caldwell  Co.,  New  York. 
Clarendon  Press  — The  Oxford  University  Press, 

New  York. 
Cassell  — Cassell  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Century  — The  Century  Co.,  New  York. 
Dutton— E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Doubledav —  Doubledav  &  McClure  Co..  New  York. 
Dodd,  Mead  — Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Dana  Estes  —Dana  Estes  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Ginn — Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 


Harpers  —  Harper  &  Brothers,  New  York. 
Houghton  —  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Henry  Holt  — Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Lippincott — J.  B.  Lippincott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 
Little,  Brown —  Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Longmans  — Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Lee  &  Shepard  —  Lee  &  Shepard,  Boston. 
Merriam —  G.  &  C.  Merriam,  Springfield,  Mass. 
McKay— David  McKay,  Philadelphia. 
Macmillan  — The  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 
Page— L.  C.  Page  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Putnams  —  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 
Boutledge  — Geo.  Routledge  &  Sons,  New  York. 
Rand-McNallv— Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago. 
Scribners  — Chas.  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York. 
Stokes  — Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co.,  New  York. 
Williams— Williams  &  Northgate,  London. 


Reference   Books    and   Dictionaries. 

Encyclopedia  Britannica.    24v.  Little,  Brown 

Johnson's  Encyclopedia.    8v.  Appleton 

Webster's  International  Dictionary.    2v.  Merriam 

Indexed  Atlas  of  the  World.    2v.  Rand-McNally 

The  Century  Atlas  of  the  World.  Century 

Spiers  &  Surrenne's  French-English  Dictionary. 

Appleton 
Lewis,  Latin  Dictionary.  Harpers 

Roget,  Thesaurus  of  English  Words  and  Phrases. 

Longmans 
Adler,  German-English  Dictionary.  Appleton 

Lewis,  Harper's  Book  of  Facts.  Harpers 

Peck,  Dictionary  of  Classical  Antiquities.    2v.   Harpers 
Liddell  &  Scott,  Greek  Lexicon.    (Intermediate.) 

Harpers 
Haydn,  Dictionary  of  Dates.  Putnams 

Pfyfe,  Seven  Thousand  Words  Often  Mispronounced. 

Putnams 
Soule,  Dictionary  of  Synonyms.  Little,  Brown 

Wells,  Things  not  Generally  Known.  Appleton 

Brewer,  Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable.    2v.       Cassell 
Skeat,  Etymological  Dictionary.  Clarendon  Press 

Mulhall,  Dictionary  of  Statistics.  Routledge 

Brande,  Dictionary  of  Science,  Literature,  and  Art. 

3  v.  Longmans 

Addis  and  Arnold,  Catholic  Dictionary.  Benziger 

Cheyne,  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.    4v.  Macmillan 

Thomas,  Dictionary  of  Biographv.  Lippincott 

Johnson,  Dictionary  of  Geography.  Longmans 

Freeman,  Historical  Geography  of  Europe.     Longmans 
Kiepert,  Ancient  Geography.  Macmillan 

Language  and  Literature. 

Earle,  Introduction  to  English  Grammar.  Putnams 

Sweet,  New  English  Grammar.  Macmillan 

Brooke,  History  of  Early  English  Literature. 


Macmillan 
Macmillan 

Appleton 
Harpers 

Putnams 


Trench,  On  the  Study  of  Words. 

Hodgson,  Errors  in  the  Use  of  English. 

Hill,  The  Principles  of  Rhetoric. 

Tyler,  History  of  American  Literature.    4v. 

Mason,  Humorous  Masterpieces  from  American 

Literature.    3  v.  Putnams 

Bain,  Higher  English  Grammar.  Henry  Holt 

Lounsbury,  History  of  the  English  Language. 

Henry  Holt 
Earle,  English  Philology.  Henry  Holt 

Saintsbury,  A  History  of  19th  Century  Literature". 

Macmillan 
Taine,  History  of  English  Literature.  4v.  Henry  Holt 
Warren,  History  of  the  Novel.  Henry  Holt  j 

Genung,  The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric.  Ginn  i 

Morley,  English  Writers,    llv.  Cassell 

Mullef,  The' Science  of  Language.    2v.  Scribners 

Jevons,  A  History  of  Greek  Literature.  Scribners 

Cruttwell.  History  of  Roman  Literature.  Scribners 

Scherer,  History  of  German  Literature.    2v. 

Clarendon  Press 
Saintsbury,  History  of  French  Literature. 

Clarendon  Press  l 
Brunetiere,  History  of  French  Literature.  Crowell 

Lane,  Latin  Grammar.  Harpers  I 


Goodwin,  Greek  Grammar.  Ginn 

Whitney,  German  Grammar.  Henry  Holt 

Matzke,  Primer  of  French  Pronunciation.  Henry  Holt 
Dupuy,  Great  Masters  of  Russian  Literature.  Crowell 
Aston,  History  of  Japanese  Literature.  Appleton 

Frazer,  A  Literary  History  of  India.  Scribners 

Quackenbos,  History  of  Ancient  Literature.  Harpers 
Whitney,  French  Grammar.  Henry  Holt 

Thomas,  Practical  German  Grammar.  Henry  Holt 

Education. 

Davidson,  Rousseau  and  Education.  Scribners 

Davidson,  Aristotle  and  Ancient  Educational  Ideals. 

Scribners 
Williams,  History  of  Modern  Education.  Bardeen 

De  Garmo,  Herbart  and  the  Herbartians.  Scribners 

Hinsdale,  Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  Schools. 

Scribners 
Ascham,  The  Schoolmaster.  Lee  &  Shepard 

Fitch,  Thomas  and  Matthew  Arnold.  Scribners 

West,  Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  the  Christian  Schools. 

Scribners 
Compayre,  Abelard,  and  the  Origin  of  Universities. 

Scribners 
Hughes,  Loyola  and  the  Jesuits.  Scribners 

Bowen,  Froebel  and  Education  by  Self- Activity. 

Scribners 
Pinloche,  Pestalozzi,  and  Elementary  Education. 

Scribners 
Comenius,  The  Great  Didactic.  Macmillan 

Davidson,  the  Education  of  the  Greek  People. 

Appleton 
Payne,  Rousseau's  Emile.  Appleton 

Laurie,  Survey  of  pre-Christian  Education.  Longmans 
Hill,  The  True  Order  of  Studies.  Putnams 

Quick,  Education  Reformers.  Appleton 

Antiquities,  Art,  and  Music. 

Poynter,  Art  Handbooks.    9v.  Scribners 

Van  Dyke,  A  History  of  Painting.  Longmans 

Hamlin,  A  History  of  Architecture.  Longmans 

Marquand,  A  History  of  Sculpture.  Longmans 

Jameson,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  2v.  Longmans 
Evans,  Animal  Symbolism  in  Ecclesiastical 

Architecture.  Henry  Holt 

Lavignac,  Music  and  Musicians.  Henry  Holt 

Taine,  Lectures  on  Art.    2v.  Henry  Holt 

Van  Dyke,  Modern  French  Masters.  Century 

Ruskin,  Stones  0£  Venice.    3v.  Dana  Estes 

Ruskin,  Modern  Painters.    5v.  Dana  Estes 

Yon  Lutzow,  Art  Treasures  of  Italy.  2v.  Dana  Estes 
Fromentin,  Old  Masters  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 

Houghton 
Yon  Reber,  History  of  Ancient  Art.  Harpers 

Von  Reber,  History  of  Medieval  Art.  Harpers 

Didron,  Christian  iconography.    2v.  Macmillan 

Chesneau,  English  School  of  Painting.  Cassell 

Kugler,  The  Italian  School.    2v.  Little,  Brown 

Parry,  The  Art  of  Music.  Appleton 

Fergusson,  History  of  Architecture.  2v.  Dodd,  Mead 
Lubke,  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Art.  2v.  Dodd,  Mead 
Vasari,  Lives  of  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects. 

4v.  Scribners 


136 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Becker,  Charicles.  Longmans 

Becker,  Gallus.  Longmans 

De  La  Sizeranne,  English  Contemporary  Art.         Stokes 
Tolstoi,  What  is  Art  ?  Crowell 

History  and  Biography. 


Abbott,  The  Romance  of  Spanish  History. 
Abbott,  A  History  of  Greece.    4v. 
Abbott,  Heroes  of  the  Nations.    23v. 
Allen,  Christian  History  in  its  Great  Periods. 


Harpers 

Putnams 

Putnams 

3v. 

Little,  Brown 

Allen,  Outline  of  Christian  History.  Little,  Brown 

Adams  and  Cunningham.  The  Swiss  Confederation. 

Macmillan 
Boulger,  History  of  China.    3v.  W.  H.  Allen 

Brugsch-Bey,  The  True  Story  of  the  Exodus. 

Lee  &  Shepard 
Beha-ed-Din,  Life  of  Saladin.  Amsterdam 

Boswell,  Life  of  Johnson.  2v.  Crowell 

Brooks,  William  Ellery  Channing.  Little,  Brown 

Buckle,  History  of  Civilization.    3v.  Longmans 

Bourinot,  The  Story  of  Canada.  Putnams 

Borgeaud,  Amendments  of  Constitutions.       Macmillan 
Boutmy,  The  English  Constitution.  Macmillan 

Bax,  German  Society  at  Close  of  Middle  Ages. 

Macmillan 
Bonomi,  Nineveh  and  its  Palaces. 
Bryce,  The  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Bryce,  The  American  Commonwealth.     2v. 
Burgess,  The  Middle  Period . 
Burgess,  The  Civil  War  and  Reconstruction 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

2v. 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 


Besant  and  Palmer,  Jerusalem. 

Baird,  History  of  the  Huguenots.    2v. 

Bourget,  Antigone,  and  Other  Portraits. 

Curtius,  The  History  of  Greece.    5v. 

Crawford,  Ave  Roma  Immortalis. 

Channing,  The  United  States  of  America. 

Church,  The  Beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages, 

Creasy,  Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World.   Harpers 

Church,  Oliver  Cromwell — A  History.  Putnams 

Creighton,  History  of  the  Papacy.    6v.  Longmans 

Creasy,  History  of  the  Ottoman  Turks.  Henry  Holt 

Coppee,  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arab  Moors.  .  2v. 

Little,  Brown 
Church,  Life  of  St.  Anselm.  Macmillan 

Coulanges,  The  Ancient  City.  Lee  &  Shepard 

Carlyle,  The  French  Revolution.    3v.  Coates 

Craddock-The  Story  of  Old  Fort  Loudon.        Macmillan 
ClementjThe  Eternal  City,  Rome.    2v.  Dana  Estes 

Carlyle,  History  of  Frederick  the  II.    6v.  Harpers 

De  Coubertin,  Evolution  of  France.  Crowell 

Dobson,Four  French  Women.  Dodd,  Mead 

Duray-History  of  France.    2v.  Crowell 

Davis,  Egyptian  Book  of  the  Dead.  Putnams 

Duruy,  History  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Henry  Holt 

Duruy,  History  of  Modern  Times.  Henry  Holt 

Dicey,  Studies  in  Constitutional  Law.  Macmillan 

Davis,  The  Confederate  Government.    2v.  Appleton 

Eckstein,  Woman  Under  Monasticism.  Macmillan 

Emerton,  Introduction  to  the  Middle  Ages.  Ginn 

Emerton,  Medieval  Europe.  Ginn 

Eusebius,  Ecclesiastical  History.  Lippincott 

Froude,  Caesar.  Scribners 

Froude,  History  of  England.    12  v.  Scribners 

Fisher,  Outlines  of  Universal  History. 

American  Book  Co. 
Fiske-Irving,  Washington  and  his  Country.  Ginn 

Freeman,  The  Norman  Conquest.    Cv.    Clarendon  Press 
Fiske,  The  Discovery  of  America.    2v. 

Houghton,  Mifflin 
Fiske,  The  American  Revolution.  2v.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Fiske,  The  Critical  Period  of  American  History. 

Houghton,  Mifflin 
Fisher,  History  of  the  Reformation.  Scribners 

Fyffe,  History  of  Modern  Europe.    3v.  Cassell 

Freeman,  General  Sketch  of  History.  Henry  Holt 

Franklin,  Autobiography  of.  Putnams 

Frazer,  The  Story  of  British  Rule  in  India.         Putnams 
Fowler,  The  City  State  of  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Macmillan 
Freeman,  Comparative  Politics.  Macmillan 

Freeman,  History  of  Government  in  Greece  and  Italy. 

Macmiilan 
Freeman,  William  the  Conqueror.  Macmillan 

Fisher,  the  Colonial  Era.  Scribners 

Fisher,  The  Reformation.  Scribners 

Fisher,  The  Beginnings  of  Christianity.  Scribners 

Froude,  The  Spanish  Story  of  the  Armada.       Scribners 


Froissart,  Chronicles. 

Gibbon,  History  of  Rome.    7v. 

Guizot,  History  of  Civilization.    2v. 

Grote,  History  of  Greece.    12v. 

Green,  History  of  the  English  People.    4\ . 

Gindely,  History  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

Griesinger,  The  Jesuits.    2v. 

Gardiner,  History  of  the  Great  Civil  War. 


Macmillan 
Macmillan 

Appleton 
Harpers 
Harpers 
2v. 

Putnams 
Allen 
4v. 
Longmans 

Gardiner,  The  Puritan  Revolution.  Longmans 

Geiger.    History  of  Persia.  Clarendon  Press 

Gardiner,  The  Thirty  Years'  War.  Longmans 

Gower,  Last  Days  of" Marie  Antoinette.        Little,  Brown 
Griffls,  The  Mikado's  Empire.  Harpers 

Hale,  Lights  of  Two  Centuries.  American  Book  Co. 

Hume,  History  of  England.    6v.  Harpers 

Hallam  and  May,  Constitutional  History  of  England. 

4v.  Armstrong 

Hildreth.    The  History  of  the  United  States.    6v. 

Harpers 
Heilprin,  A  Chronological  Table  of  Universal  History. 

Appleton 
Hodgkin,  Charles  the  Great.  Macmillan 

Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders.  6v.  Clarendon  Press 
Hodgkin,  The  Dynasty  of  Theodosius.  Clarendon  Press 
Holden,  The  Mogul  Emperors  of  Hindustan.  Scribners 
Hallam,  History  of  Medieval  Europe.  2v.  Armstrong 
Higginson,  Tales  of  the  Enchanted  Isles 
Irving,  Columbus,  His  Life  and  Voyages, 
Irving,  History  of  Mahomet. 
Johnston,  American  Orations. 
Johnson,  Chief  Lives  of  the  Poets. 
James,  Life  of  Richard  Coeur  de  L-on.  2v.  Macmillan 
Jenks,  History  of  the  Australasian  Colonies.  Macmillan 
Josephus,  Histories  and  Miscellanies.  4v.  Armstrong 
Keary,  The  Dawn  of  History.  Scribners 

Keary,  Norway  and  the  Norwegians.  Scribners 

Keary,  Primitive  Belief  among  the  Indo-Europeans. 

Scrioucis 
Kossuth,  Memories  of  My  Exile.  Appleton 

Kinglake,  The  Invasion  of  Crimea.    6v.  Harpers 

Kingsford,  History  of  Canada.    3v.  Amsterdam 

Kitchen,  History  of  France.    3v.  Clarendon  Press 

Keary,  The  Vikings  of  Western  Christendom.    Putnams 
Lodge,  Life  of  Washington.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Leland,  The  Gypsies.  Houghton,  Mifliin 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  The  Empire  Tsars  and  Russians.    3v. 

Putnams 
Lecky,  History  of  European  Morals,    2v.  Appleton 

Lathrop,  Spanish  Vistas.  Harpers 

Lebon,  The  Story  of  Modern  France.  Putnams 

Lancelotts,  Queens  of  England  and  their  Times.    2v. 

Appleton 
Lyall,  Warren  Hastin 
Lightfoot,  Historical 
Lang,  Helen  of  Troy. 
Lenormont,  The  Beginnings  of  History. 
Lodge,  The  Story  of  the  Revolution.    2v. 
Lanfrey,  History  of  Napoleon.    4v. 
Mommsen,  The  History  of  Rome,    5v. 
Michelet,  The  Life  of  Luther. 
Machiavelli,  History  of  Florence. 
Mahaffy,  Social  Life  in  Greece. 
Moellef,  History  of  the  Christian  Church 


Macmillan 

Putnams 

Little,  Brown 

Putnams 

Henrv  Holt 


2v. 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

2v. 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 


Montesquieu,  Spirit  of  Laws 

Morley,  Life  of  Walpole. 

McMaster,  History  of  the  People  of  the  United 

States.    6v.  Appleton 

Montesquieu,  The  Grandeur  and  Decadence  of  Rome. 

Appleton 
Mueller,  Political  History  of  Recent  Times.  Harpers 
Macaulay,  History  of  England.    5v.  Harpers 

McCarthy,  A  History  of  Our  Own  Times.    3v.     Harpers 
Motley,  History  of  the  United  Netherlands.    4v. 

Harpers 
Motley,  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  3v.  Harpers 
Miller,  The  Story  of  the  Balkan  States.  Putnams 

Merivale,  History  of  the  Romans  Under  the 

Empire.    8v.  Longjnans 

Muir,  Life  of  Mohammed.  Scribners 

Mackenzie,  The  Nineteenth  Century.  Scribners 

Miehaud,  History  of  the  Crusades. '  3v.  Routledge 

Menzel,  History  of  Germany.    3v.  Macmillan 

Milman.  The  History  of  Latin  Christianity.  4v. 

Armstrong 
Maitland,  The  Dark  Ages.  Behziger 

Napier,  History  of  the  Peninsular  War.    3v.    Routledge 
Nadaillac,  Prehistoric  America.  Putnams' 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


137 


Newman,  The  Arians  of  the  4th  Century.  Longmans 
Nieolini,  History  of  the  Jesuits.  Maemillan 

Parton,  Princes,"  Authors,  and  Statesmen  of  Our  Time. 

Crowell 
Prescott,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.    3v.  McKay 

Prescott,  The  Reign  of  Charles  the  V.  3v.  Dana  Estes 
Prescott,  The  Reign  of  Philip  the  II.  3v.  Dana  Estes 
Parkman,  LaSalle  and  the  Discovery  of  the  Great  West. 

Little,  Brown 
Parkman,  The  Old  Regime  in  Canada.  Little,  Brown 
Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe.    2v.  Little,  Brown 

Prescott,  The  Conquest  of  Mexico.    3v.  McKay 

Prescott,  The  Conquest  of  Peru.    2v.  McKay 

Probyn,  Land  Tenures  in  Various  Countries.  Cassell 
Putnam,  Tabular  Views  of  Universal  History.  Putnams 
Parkman,  The  Jesuits  in  North  America.  Little,  Brown 
Powell,  Nullification  and  Secession  in  the  IT.  S. 

Putnams 
Plutarch,  Lives  (Dryden).    3v.  Coates 

Kenan,  History  of  the  People  of  Israel.    5v. 

Little,  Brown 
Kanke,  History  of  the  Popes.    3v.  Maemillan 

Rawlinson,  Ancient  Monarchies.    5v.  Dodd,  Mead 

Ranke,  Universal  History.  Amsterdam 

Rustor,  The  War  for  the  Rhine  Frontier.    3v. 

Blackwood 
Rambaud,  History  of  Russia.    2v.  Dana  Estes 

Rawlinson,  History  of  Phoenicia.  Longmans 

Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind.    3v.  Maemillan 

Roscoe,  Life  of  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  Maemillan 

Rawlinson,  Herodotus(Ed.  by  Grant.)  2v.  Scribners 
Rawlinson,  The  Origin  of  Nations.  Scribners 

Rawlinson,  Egypt  and  Babylon.  Scribners 

Sabatier,  Life  "of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi.  Scribners 

Stephens,  History  of  the  French  Revolution.    3v. 

Scribners 
Symonds,  Short  History  of  the  Renaissance.  Scribners 
Symonds,  Sketches  ancf  Studies  in  Italy  and  Greece.   3v. 

Scribners 
Stockton,  Buccaneers  and  Pirates  of  our  Coasts. 

Maemillan 
Suetonius,  Lives  of  the  Caesars.  Maemillan 

Southey,  Life  of  Nelson.  Cassell 

Schlegel,  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  History. 

Maemillan 
Stevens,  Sources  of  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S. 

Maemillan 
Southey,  Life  of  Wesley.  Maemillan 

Smith,  Cases  from  Roman  Law.  Maemillan 

Schiller,  The  Revolt  of  the  Netherlands.  Harpers 

Sismondi,  A  History  of  theltalian  Republics.  Harpers 
Stepniak,  Russian  Peasantry.  Harpers 

Sainte-Beuve,  Portraits  of  Celebrated  Women, 

Little,  Brown 
Seebohm,  English  Village  Community.  Longmans 

Seeley,  The  Expansion  of  England.    "  Maemillan 

Seeley,  Life  and  Times  of  Stem.  3v.  Maemillan 

Samuelson,  History  of  Bulgaria.  Amsterdam 

Stephens,  History  of  Portugal.  Putnams 

Sloane,  Life  of  Napoleon.    4v.  Century  Co. 

Schoolcraft,  Narrative  of  Exploration.  Lippincott 

Schoolcraft,  the  Myth  of  Hiawatha.  Lippincott 

Spence,  Cloister  Life  in  the  Days  of  Coeur  de  Lion. 

Lippincott 
Sybel,  Founding  of  the  German  Empire,  bv  William  I. 
7v.  Crowell 

Traill,  History  of  Social  Life  in  England.  6v.  Putnams 
Taine,  The  French  Revolution.    3v.  Henry  Holt 

Taine,  The  Ancient  Regime.  Henrv  Holt 

Thiers,  French  Revolution.    4v.  Appleton 

Tacitus,  The  Annals  and  History.    2v.  Maemillan 

Thierry,  History  of   the  Norman  Conquest.    2v. 

Maemillan 
Thucydides,  Athenian  History  (tr.  Jowett).    2v. 

Scribners 
Voltaire,  Age  of  Louis  the  XIV.  Scribners 

Voltaire,  History  of  Charles  the  XII.  Houghton,  Mifttin 
Vambery,  History  of  Hungary.  Scribners 

Wheeler,  History  of  India.    4v.  Amsterdam 

Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of  America.    8v. 

Houghton 
Warner,  Life  of  Capt.  John  Smith.  Henrv  Holt 

Wellhausen,  Sketch  of  the  History  of  Israel  and  Judah. 

Maemillan 
Xenophon,  Historical  Works  (tr.  Watson).    3v. 

Maemillan 

Religion,   Theology    and    Mythology. 


Arnold,  Literature  and  Dogma. 
Arnold,  God  and  the  Bible. 


Scribners 
Scribners 


Addis  and  Arnold,  Catholic  Dictionary.  Benziger 

Alger,  The  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life."  Little,  Brown 
Athanasius,  Against  the  Heathen.  Scribners 

Allen,  Christian  Institutions.  Scribners 

Brooks,  Influence  of  Jesus.  Dutton 

Beecher,  Evolution  and  Religion.  Fords,  Howard 

Buliinch,  The  Age  of  Fable.  Lee  and  Shepard 

Bulfinch,  The  Age  of  Chivalry.  Lee  and  Shepard 

Bulfinch,  Legends  of  Charlemagne.  Lee  and  Shepard 
Bushnell,  Vicarious  Sacrifice.  Scribners 

Brooks,  Essays  and  Addresses.  Dutton 

Butler,  Analogy  of  Religion.  Harpers 

Brinton,  Religions  of  Primitive  Peoples.  Putnams 

Bushnell,  Nature  and  the  Supernatural.  Scribners 

Briggs,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Scripture. 

Scribners 
Briggs,  The  Bible,  the  Church,  and  the  Reason. 

Scribners 
Bruce,  Apologetics.  Scribners 

Brooke,  Theology  of  the  English  Poets.  Amsterdam 

Collyer,  Things  New  and  Old.  Dutton 

Chahning,  Complete  Works.  4v.  Williams  &  Northgate 
Curtin,  Creation  Myths  of  Primitive  America. 

Little,  Brown 
Conway,  The  Sacred  Anthology.  Henry  Holt 

Chadwick,  The  Faith  of  Reason.  Little,  Brown 

Chatterji,  The  Bhagavad-Gita.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Cuckson,  Faith  and  Fellowship.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Cone,  Gospel  Criticisms  and  Historical  Christianity. 

Putnams 
Cone,  The  Gospel  and  Its  Earliest  Interpretations. 

Putnams 
Clodd,  The  Childhood  of  Religions.  Appleton 

Calvin,  Institutes  of  Christian  Religion.  2v.  Scribners 
Cone,  Life  of  St.  Paul.  Maemillan 

Caird,  Evolution  of  Religion.    2v.  Maemillan 

Cooke,  Religion  and  Chemistry.  Scribners 

Cruttwell,  Literary  History  of  "Early  Christianity.    2v. 

Scribners 
Dorner,  System  of  Christian  Ethics.  Scribners 

Dorner,  System  of  Christian  Doctrine.  4v.  Scribners 
Drummond,Philo  Judaeus.  2v.  Williams  &  Northgate 
D'Alviella,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Conception  of  God. 

Scribners 
Drummond,  Via,  Veritas,  Vita.  Scribners 

Davids,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion.  Scribners 

Driver,  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament.  Scribners 

Elmendors,  Elements  of  Moral  Theology.    (Aquinas.) 

Pott 
Feuerbach,  Essence  of  Christianity.  Amsterdam 

Figuier,  The  To-morrow  of  Death.  Little,  Brown 

Figuier,  Joys  Beyond  the  Threshold.  Little,  Brown 

Frothingha'm,  The  Religion  of  Humanity.  Putnams 

Fenelon,  Spiritual  Letters  to  Men  and  Women.    2v. 

Longmans 
Freemantle,  The  World  as  the  Subject  of  Redemption. 

Longmans 
Fouard,  St.  Peter  and  the  First  Years  of  Christianity. 

Longmans 
Farrar,  Critical  History  of  Free  Thought.  Appleton 

Farrar,  Life  and  Teachings  of  Christ. 

Doubleday  &  McClure 
Fraser,  Lyric  Poetry  from  the  Bible.  2v.  Maemillan 
Fiske,  The  Myths  of  Israel.  Maemillan 

Flint,  Theism.  Scribners 

Guyau,  The  Non-Religion  of  the  Future.  Henry  Holt 
Gratry,  Guide  to  the  Knowledge  of  God.  Little,  Brown 
Gordon,  the  Witness  to  Immortality.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Gould,  The  Meaning  and  the  Method  of  Life.  Putnams 
Gore,  Roman  Catholic  Claims.  Longmans 

Goulburn,  Thoughts  on  Personal  Religion.  Appleton 
Goulburn,  Pursuit  of  Holiness.  Appleton 

Gladstone,  The  Impregnable  Rock  of  Scripture. 

Scribners 
Hatch,  Greek  Influence  Upon  the  Christian  Church. 

Scribners 
Harris,  Self  Revelation  of  God.  Scribners 

Harnack,  History  of  Dogma.    3v.  Little,  Brown 

Hedge,  Ways  of  the  Spirit.  Little,  Brown 

Hatch,  Organization  of  the  Early  Christian  Churches. 

Longmans 
Hoole,  The  Apostolic  Fathers.  Longmans 

Hessey,  Sunday.    Its  Origin  and  History.  Cassell 

Hopkins,  the  taw  of  Love.  Scribners 

Julian,  Dictionary  of  Hymnology.  Scribners 

King,  Christianity  and  Humanity.  Houghton,  Mifflin 
Kempis,  Of  the  Imitation  of  Christ.  Longmans 

Knight,  Aspects  of  Theism.  Maemillan 

Kuenen,  National  and  Universal  Religion.  Scribners 
Liddon,  The  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  Rivington 


138 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Macmillan 

Harpers 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

Scribners 


Le  Gallienne,The  Religion  of  a  Literary  Man.  Putnams 
Lang,  Modern  Mythology.  Longmans 

Luckock,  The  History  of  Marriage.  Longmans 

Lang,  The  Making  of  Religion.  Longmans 

Legge,  The  Religions  of  China.  Scribners 

Manning,  Sermons  on  Ecclesiastical  Subjects.  Benziger 
Manning,  Sin  and  Its  Consequences.  Benziger 

Mansel,  Limits  of  Religious  Thought.  Scribners 

McCosh,  Method  of  Divine  Government.         Macmillan 
Miiller,  The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin.  Scribners 

Moxom,  From  Jerusalem  to  Nicaea.  Little,  Brown 

Moxom,  The  Religion  of  Hope.  Little,  Brown 

Mulford,  The  Republic  of  God.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Mill,  Nature,  The  Utility  of  Religion,  and  Theism. 

Longmans 
Maurice,  The  Conscience. 
Mills,  God  in  His  World. 
McGiffert,  The  Apostolic  Age. 
Murray,  Manual  of  Mythology. 
Mackail,  The  Eversley  Bible.    8v. 
Maurice,  The  Religions  of  the  World. 
Midler,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion. 
Monteflore,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion. 
Noble   Lectures  (Harvard   University). 

Houghton,  Mifflin 
Newman,  A  Grammar  of  Assent.  Longmans 

Newman,  The  Development  of  Christian  Doctrine. 

Longmans 
Neander,  Life  of  Jesus  in  its  Historical  Connection. 

Macmillan 
Oort  and  Hooykaas,  The  Bible  for  Learners.    3v. 

Little,  Brown 
Picard,  Christianity  or  Agnosticism.  Benziger 

Parker,  West  Roxbury  Sermons.  Little,  Brown 

Proctor,  History  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

Macmillan 
Paley,  Evidences  of  Christianity.  Scribners 

Pfleiderer,  Development  of  Theology.  Macmillan 

Philo.    Works.    4v.  Macmillan 

Prideaux,  Old  and  New  Testament  Connected.   Harpers 
Paine,  The  Age  of  Reason.  Putnams 

Percival,  The  Decrees  and  Canons  of  the  Seven  Councils. 

Scribners 
Pfleiderer,  Influences  of  Paul  on  Christianity. 

Scribners 
Rickaby,  Aquinas  Ethicus.    2v.  Benziger 

Reuss,  History  of  the  New  Testament  Scripture.    2 v. 

•Houghton 
Reville,  The  Devil,  His  Origin,  Greatness  and  Decadence. 

Williams 
Renan,  The  Apostles.  Little,  Brown 

Renan,  Anti-Christ.  Little,  Brown 

Renan,  Life  of  Jesus.  Little,  Brown 

Ramsay,  Regeneration.  Putnams 

Royce,  The  Conception  of  God.  Macmillan 

Ryle,  The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament.  Macmillan 

Robertson,  The  Human  Race  and  Other  Sermons. 

Harpers 
Ramsay,  St.  Paul,  the  Traveler  and  the  Roman  Citizen. 

Putnams 
Renouf ,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion.  Scribners 

Renan,  Hibbert  Lectures,  1880.  Scribners 

Reville,  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  Scribners 

Steenstra,  The  Being  of  God  as  Unity  and  Trinity. 

Houghton 
Schaff,  Creeds  of  Christendom.    3v. 
Shedd,  The  Confessions  of  St.  Augustine. 
Sanday,  Inspiration. 
Soderina,  Socialism  and  Catholicism. 
Smith,  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church. 

Appleton 
Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel.  Harpers 

Schaff,  Revised  Greek-English  New  Testament.^  Harpers 
Stevens,  Theology  of  the  New  Testament. 
St.  Augustine,  Works,    vols,  1  and  2. 
Schurman,  Belief  in  God. 
Smith,  The  Bible  and  Islam, 
Smyth,  Dorner  on  the  Future  State. 
Schleierraacher,  On  Religion. 
Schopenhauer,  Religion :  a  Dialogue. 
Smith,  Kinship  andMarriage  in  Early  Arabia. 

Macmillan 
Sayce,  Origin  and  Growth  of  Religion 
Smyth,  Christian  Ethics. 
Toy,  Judaism  and  Christianity. 
Tyler,  Bases  of  Religious  Belief. 
Van  Dyke,  The  Reality  of  Religion. 
Van  Dyke,  The  Gospel  for  an  Age  of  Doubt.   Macmillan 
Wilbelmand  Scannell,  Manual  of  Catholic 

Theology.    2v.  Benziger 


Harpers 
Draper 

Longmans 
Longmans 


Scribners 
Scribners 
Scribners 
Scribners 
Scribners 
Scribners 
Scribners 


Scribners 
Scribners 
Little,  Brown 
Putnams 
Scribners 


Wiseman,  Doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church.     Benziger 
Weizsacker,  The  Apostolic  Age.    2v.  Putnams 

Wescott,  History  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 

Macmillan 
Wace,  Christianity  and  Agnosticism.  ♦Appleton 

Fiction  and  Description. 

Auerbach,  On  the  Heights.  Caldwell 

Auerbach,  The  Villa  on  the  Rhine.    2v.  Henry  Holt 

Anderson,  The  Improvisatore.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Blackmore,  Lorna  Doone.  Crowell 

Barrie,  The  Little  Minister.  Coates 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Last  Days  of  Pompeii.  Caldwell 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Last  of  the  Barons.  Caldwell 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Rienza.  Caldwell 

Bulwer-Lytton,  Eugene  Aram.  Caldwell 

Bulwer-Lytton,  My  Novel.  Dana  Estes 

Bunyan,  Pilgrim's  Progress.  Century 

Boccaccio,  The  Decameron.    4v.  Lippincott 

Balzac,  Pere  Goriot.  Little,  Brown 

Balzac,  Caesar  Birotteau.  Little,  Brown 

Balzac,  Cousin  Bette.  Little,  Brown 

Barham,  Ingoldsby  Legends.    2v.  Coates 

Bellamy,  Looking  Backward.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Bjornson,  Novels  (Anderson).    3v.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Bazin,  The  Italians  of  To-day.  Henry  Holt 

Bremer,  The  Home ;  or  Life  in  Sweden.  Putnams 

Beaconsfleld,  Endymion.  Longmans 

Beaconsiield,  Lothair.  Longmans 

Beaconsfleld,  Vivian  Grey.  Longmans 

Beaconsfleld,  Coningsby.  Longmans 

Balzac,  Eugenie  Grandt.  Macmillan 

Balzac,  A  Gondreville  Mystery.  Macmillan 

Balzac,  Ursule  Mirouet.  Macmillan 

Balzac,  The  Country  Doctor.  Macmillan 

Balzac,  The  Quest  of  the  Absolute.  Macmillan 
Beckford,  Vathek:  An  Eastern  Romance.        Scribners 

Bronte,  Jane  Eyre.  Crowell 

Bourdillon,  Aucassin  and  Nicolette.  Macmillan 

Burnaby,  Khiva.  Cassell 

Cooper,  Deerslayer.  Rand,  McNally 

Cooper,  Last  of  the  Mohicans.  Rand,  McNally 

Cooper,  Pathfinder.  Rand,  McNally 

Cooper,  Pioneers.  Rand,  McNally 

Cooper,  The  Prairie,  Rand,  McNally 

Cooper,  The  Spy.  Coates 

Corelli,  Thelma.  Rand,  McNally 

Cervantes,  Don  Quixote.    2v.  Crowell 

Collins,  The  Woman  in  White.  Harpers 

Collins,  The  Moonstone.  Harpers 
Craddock,  The  Prophet  of  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains. 

Houghton 

Crane,  Italian  Popular  Tales.  Houghton 

Caird,  A  Romance  of  the  Moors.  Henry  Holt 
Cox,  Popular  Romances  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Henry  Holt 

Celiere,  Startling  Exploits  of  Dr.  Quies.  Harpers 

Clifford,  Mrs.  Keith's  Crime.  Harpers 

Coppee,  Ten  Tales.  Harpers 

Curtis,  Prue  and  I.  Harpers 

Cable,  Old  Creole  Days.  Scribners 

Crane,  The  Red  Badge  of  Courage.  Appleton 

De  Stael,  Corinne.  Crowell 

Dickens,  David  Copperfield.  Rand,  McNally 

Dickens,  Tale  of  Two  Cities.  Rand,  McNally 

Dickens,  Pickwick  Papers.  Rand,  McNally 

Dickens,  Old  Curiosity  Shop.  Coates 

Dumas,  Three  Musketeers.  Caldwell 

Dumas,  Twenty  Years  After,  Caldwell 

Dumas,  Count  of  Monte  Cristo.    2v.  Caldwell 

Doyle,  Micah  Clarke.  Rand,  MpNally 

Doyle,  The  White  Company.  Crowell 

De  Foe,  Robinson  Crusoe.  Rand,  McNaily 

Dumas,  Vicomte  De  Bragekmne.  Caldwell 

Dumas,  Louise  de  la  Valliere.  Caldwell 

Dumas,  The  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask.  Caldwell 

Deland,  John  Ward,  Preacher.  Houghton,  Mifflin 


Daudet,  The  Apostate, 

Daudet,  Port  Tarascon. 

De  Kay,  The  Vision  of  Nimrod. 

De  Kay,  The  Vision  of  Esther. 

Doyle,  The  Refugees. 

gu  Maurjer,  Peter  Ibbetson. 

Du  Maurier,  Trilby, 

Didier,  Would  Any  Man  ? 


Appleton 

Harpers 

Appleton 

Appleton 

Harpers 

Harpers 

Harpers 

Williams  &  Wilkins 


Daudet,  Sappho  ;  Parisian  Manners.  Macmillan 

Daudet,  Tartarin  on  the  Alps.  Macmillan 

Daudet,  The  Nabob.    2v.  Little,  Brown 

De  Berville,  The  Chevalier.  Scribners 

Ebers,  An  Egyptian  Princess.  Caldwell 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


139 


Ebers,  TTarda.  Caldwell 

Eckstein,  A  Monk  of  the  Aventine.  Little,  Brown 

Eliot,  Adam  Bede.  Rand,  McNally 

Eliot,  Middlemarcb.  Rand,  McNallv 

Eliot,  Mill  on  the  Floss.  Rand,  McNally 

Eliot,  Romola.  Rand,  McNally 

Fothergill,  The  First  Violin.  Caldwell 

Fielding,  Tom  Jones.  Caldwell 

Fawcett,  The  House  at  Highbridge.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Fawcett,  Tinkling  Cymbals.  Houfrhton,  Mifflin 

Fenelon,  Adventures  of  Telemachus.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Franzos,  For  the  Right.  Harpers 

Fouque,  I'ndine.  Macmillan 

Gaskell,  Cranford.  Putnams 

Griin,  The  Last  Night.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Gautier,  A  Winter  in  Russia.  Henry  Holt 

Gautier,  Constantinople.  Henry  Holt 

Gautier.  Chanson  de  Roland.  Henry  Holt 

Green,  That  Affair  Next  Door.  Putnams 

Galdos,  Dona  Perfecta  :  a  Story.  Harpers 

Goethe,  Select  Works.    Vols.  5,  7,  8,  9.  Macmillan 

Goldsmith,  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  Cassell 

Hugo,Les  Miserables.    2v.  Caldwell 

Hugo,  Toilers  of  the  Sea.  Crowell 

Hu£o,  Notre  Dame  de  Paris.  Crowell 
Hard  v,  Far  from  the  Madding  Crowd.      Rand,  McNally 

Hofobes,  The  School  for  Saints.  Stokes 
Hawthorne,  House  of  the  Seven  Gables. 


2v. 


Hawthorne,  The  Scarlet  Letter. 

Halevy,  Abbe  Constantin. 

Holmes,  Elsie  Venner. 

Howells,  A  Foregone  Conclusion. 

Howells,  The  Rise  of  Silas  Lapham. 

Howells,  A  Modern  Instance. 

Haggard,  King  Solomon's  Mines. 

Haggard,  Cleopatra. 

Hagpard,  She. 

Heyse,  The  Children  of  the  World. 

Hope,  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda. 

Hope,  Rupert  of  Hentzau. 

Howells,  A  Hazard  of  New  Fortunes 

Howells,  The  Quality  of  Mercy. 

Harland,  Some  Colonial  Homesteads. 

Harraden,  Ships  that  Pass  in  the  Night 

Hardy,  Tess  of  the  D'Urbervilles. 

Hardv,  The  Woodlanders. 

Banff,  The  Caravan,  the  Sheik,  etc. 

Heine,  Travel  Pictures    (Storr). 

Hale,  The  Man  Without  a  Country. 

Harris,  Evening  Tales. 

Holland,  The  Bay  Path. 

Holland,  Arthur  Bonnicastle. 

Hughes,  Tom  Brown  at  Oxford. 

Hughes,  Tom  Brown's  School  Days. 

Irving,  Alhambra. 

Erring,  The  Sketch  Book. 

Irving,  Tales  of  a  Traveler. 

Irvine:,  Old  Christmas. 

Ingraham,  Prince  of  the  House  of  David. 

Rand,  McNally 
James,  The  Portrait  of  a  Lady.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

James,  Roderick  Hudson, 
Jackson,  Ramona. 
James,  Daisy  Miller. 
Jokai,  The  Green  Book. 
Jokai,  Eyes  Like  the  Sea. 
James,  The  Bostonians. 
Jokai,  The  Nameless  Castle. 


Rand,  McNally 
Rand,  McNally  I 
Rand,  McNally  ] 
Houghton,  Mifflin 
Houghton,  Mifflin 
Houghton,  Mifflin 
Houghton,  Mifflin 
Cassell 
Longmans  j 
Longmans  i 
Henry  Holt 
Henry  Holt  ' 
Henry  Holt  ] 
Harpers  ' 
Harpers 
Putnams 
Putnams  ; 
Harpers 
Harpers  ! 
Macmillan 
Macmillan 
Little,  Brown 
Scribners 
Scribners  [ 
Scribners 
Rand,  McNallv 
Rand,  McNally 
Rand,  McNally 
Rand,  McNallv 
Croweil  , 
Macmillan 


Jacobs,  History  of  Reynard  the  Fox. 

Kompert,  Christian  and  Leah. 

Kipling,  Light  that  Failed. 

Kipling,  Soldiers  Three. 

Kipling,  Plain  Tales  from  the  Hills 

Kingsley,  Hypatia. 

KingsleV,  Westward.  Ho ! 

King,  The  White  Hills. 

Kipling,  The  Day's  Work 

Kinglake,  Eothen. 

Le  Sage,  Gil  Bias. 


Houghton,  Mifflin 

Little,  Brown 

Harpers 

Harpers 

Putnams 

Macmillan 

Doubleday  &  McClure 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Rand,  McNally 

Rand,  McNallv 

Rand,  McNallv 

Rand,  McNallv 

Rand,  McNally 

Dana  Estes 

Doubleday  &  McClure 

Scribners 

Caldwell 


Longfellow,  Complete  Prose  Works.    2v. 

Houghton,  Mifflin 
Lyall,  Hope  the  Hermit.  Longmans 

Lyall,  Doreen  ;  the  Story  of  a  Singer.  Longmans 

La  Farge,  An  Artist's  Letters  from  Japan.  Century 

Lagerlof ,  The  Story  of  GSsta  Berling.         Little,  Brown 
Lever,  Charles  O'Malley.  Rand,  McNally 

La  Quintana,  The  Cid  Campeador.  Longmans 

Laboulaye,  Abdallah.  Scribners 

Lang,  Arabian  Nights.  Longmans 


Meredith,  The  Egoist.  Scribners 

Maclaren,  Beside  the  Bonnie  Briar  Bush.      Dodd,  Mead 
Merimee,  Carmen.  Little,  Brown 

Meredith,  Diana  of  the  Crossways.  Rand,  McNally 

Mulocb,  John  Halifax,  Gentleman.  Rand,  McNallv 

Muhlbach,  Frederick  the  Great  and  his  Court.    Caldwell 
Mitchell,  Hugh  Wynne,  Free  Quaker.  Century 

Mitchell,  The  Adventures  of  Francois.  Century 

Morris,  The  Story  of  the  Glittering  Plain. 

Little,  Brown 
Muloch,  A  Life  for  a  Life.  Harpers 

Maartens,  God's  Fool.  Appleton 

Morier,  Adventures  of  Hajji  Baba  of  Ispahan*  - 

Macmillan 
Manzoni,  The  Betrothed.  Macmillan 

Marco  Polo,  Travels.    (Marsten.)  Macmillan 

Maundeville,  The  Marvellous  Adventures  of.  Macmillan 
Morell,  Tales  of  the  Genii.  Macmillan 

Mitford,  Our  Village.  Macmillan 

Mitchell,  Reveries  of  a  Bachelor.  Scribners 

Mitchell,  Dream  Life.  Scribners 

Morris,  Old  French  Romances.  Scribners 

Oliphant,  The  Makers  of  Florence.  Caldwell 

Oliphant,  The  Makers  of  Venice.  Caldwell 

Pickering,  Margot.  Putnams 

Porter,  Scottish  Chiefs.  Appleton 

Peacock,  Maid  Marion,  and  Crochet  Castle.    Macmillan 
Peronne,  The  Veil  of  Liberty.  Macmillan 

Page,  In  Old  Virginia.  Scribners 

Page,  Red  Rock.  Scribners 

Richardson,  Clarissa  Harlowe.  Routledge 

Rousseau,  Confessions.    4v.  Lippincott 

Reade,  It's  Never  too  Late  to  Mend.  Rand,  McNallv 

Reade,  The  Cloister  and  the  Hearth.  Crowell 

Roche,  The  Children  of  the  Abbey.  Rand,  McNally 

Rostand,  Cyrano  de  Bergerac.  Cassell 

Rousselet,  A  Tale  of  the  Indian  Mutiny.  Scribners 

Reade,  Put  Yourself  in  his  Place.  Scribners 

Sand,  Francois  the  Waif.  Little,  Brown 

Sand,  The  Devil's  Pool.  Little,  Brown 

Sand,  Fadette.  Little,  Brown 

Sand,  The  Master  Mosaic  Workers.  Little,  Brown 

Sand,  Consuelo.    2 v.  Caldwell 

Sue,  Mysteries  of  Paris.    2v.  Caldwell 

Sue,  The  Wandering  Jew.    2v.  Caldwell 

Stowe,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin.  Crowell 

Scott,  The  Antiquary.  Rand,  McNally 

Scott,  Ivanhoe.  Rand,  McNally 

Scott,  Kenilworth.  Rand,  McNally 

Scott,  Heart  of  Midlothian.  Rand,  McNally 

Scott,  Fair  Maid  of  Perth.  Rand,  McNally 

Scott,  Poems.  Rand,  McNally 

Stevenson,  Kidnapped.  Rand,  McNally 

Stevenson,  Master  of  Ballantrae.  Rand,  McNally 

Stevenson.  Treasure  Island.  Rand,  McNally 

Sand,  Mauprat.  Little,  Brown 

Sand,  Nanon.  Little,  Brown 

Schreiner,  The  Story  of  an  African  Farm. 

Little,  Brown 
Schreiner,  Dreams.  Little,  Brown 

Sterne,  The  Sentimental  Journey.  Longmans 

Sterne,  Tristram  Shandy.  Longmans 

Sienkiewicz,  Quo  Vadis.  Little,  Brown 

Sienkiewicz,  With  Fire  and  Sword.  Little,  Brown 

Sienkiewicz,  The  Deluge.    2v  Little,  Brown 

Santine,  Picciola.  Appleton 

Saint-Pierre,  Paul  and  Virginia.  Appleton 

Souvestre,  An  Attic  Philosopher  in  Paris.  Appleton 

Strachev,  Morte  de  Arthur.  Macmillan 

Smith,  Greek  Romances.  Macmillan 

Shorthouse,  John  Inglesant.  Macmillan 

Stepniak,  King  Stork  and  King  Log.    2v.  Scribners 

Steel,  Tales  of  the  Punjab.  Macmillan 

Sheridan,  The  School  for  Scandal  and  the  Rivals. 

Macmillan 
Saintsbury,  Marmontel's  Moral  Tales.  Macmillan 

Swan,  Gesta  Romanorum.  Macmillan 

Stevenson,  The  Black  Arrow.  Scribners 

Stevenson,  Dr.  Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde.  Scribners 

Stevenson,  St.  Ives"  Scribners 

Stimson,  King  Noanett.  Scribners 

Stimson,  Guerndale.  Scribners 

Stockton,  Rudder  Grange.  Scribners 

Trollope,  The  Warden.  Dodd,  Mead 

Trollope,  Barchester  Towers.    2v.  Dodd,  Mead 

Trollope,  Framley  Parsonage.    2v.  Dodd,  Mead 

Tolstoi,  Anna  Karenina.  Crowell 

Tolstoi,  War  and  Peace.    2v.  Crowell 

Theuriet,  Rustic  Life  in  France.  Crowell 

Thackeray,  Vanity  Fair.  Caldwell 


140 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Thackeray.  Henry  Esmond.  Caldwell 

Thackeray,  The  Newcomes.  Caldwell 

Thackeiay,  The  Virginians.    2v.  Dana  Estes 

Thackeray.  Pendennis.  Putnams 

Turgenev,  Rudin.  Macmillan 

Tugenev,  Dream  Tales.  Macmillan 

Valdes,  The  Marquis  of  Penalto.  Crowell 

Voltaire,  Zadig  et  Micromegas.  Routledge 

Voltaire,  Tales.  Macmillan 

Verne,  Michael  Strogoff.  Scribners 

Ware,  Zenobia.  Caldwell 

Ware,  Aurelian.  Dana  Estes 

Weyman,  The  Castle  Inn.  Longmans 

Wevman,  Under  the  Red  Robe.  Longmans 

Wallace,  Ben  Hur.  Harpers 

Ward,  Robert  Elsmere.  Macmillan 

Ward.  Helbeck  of  Bannisdale.    2v.  Macmillan 

Zangwill,  Dreamers  of  the  Ghetto.  Harpers 

Zola,  Paris.    2v.  Macmillan 

Zangwill,  Children  of  the  Ghetto.  Macmillan 

Zola,  Rome.    2v.  Macmillan 

Classics,  Poetry,  and  Drama. 

Houghton,  Mifflin 

Crowell 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Little,  Brown 

Little,  Brown 

Macmillan 


L'V. 


Aldrich,  Poetical  Works 
Arnold,  Poems. 

^Eschylus,  Dramas    (tr.  Swanwick). 
^Eschylus,  Tragedies    (tr.  Buckley). 
Alger,  The  Poetry  of  the  Orient. 
Arnold,  Collected  Poems.    2v. 
Ariosto,  Orlando  Furioso.    2v. 
Alfleri,  Tragedies.    2v. 
Aristophanes,  Comedies. 
Aristotle,  The  Poetics. 
Arnold,  The  Light  of  Asia. 
Bulwer-Lytton,  Richelieu  :  a  Drama 
Bryant,  Complete  Poetical  Works. 
Browning,  Poetical  and  Dramatic  Works 


Macmillan 

Routledge 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

Dodd,  Mead 

Stokes 

6v. 


Houghton,  Mifflin 
Bryant,  Homer's  Iliad.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Bryant,  Homer's  Odyssey.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Browning,  Mrs.,  Poetical  Works.  Crowell 

Burns,  Complete  Works.  Macmillan 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  Best  Plays.    2v.  Scribners 

Cicero,  the  Academics    (tr.  Reid).  Macmillan 

Cicero,  Nature  of  the  Gods.  Macmillan 

Cicero,  Officers,  Old  Age,  etc.  Macmillan 

Cicero,  Orations.    4v.  Macmillan 

Chaucer,  Canterbury  Tales    (Pollard).    2v.      Macmillan 
Camoens,  Luciad ;  or  The  Discovery  of  India. 

Macmillan 
Coleridge,  Poetical  Works.  Macmillan 

Cowper,  Poetical  Works.  Macmillan 

Dry  den,  Poems.  Crowell 

Dryden,  Works  in  Verse  and  Prose.    2v.  Harpers 

Dor6,  Dante's  Inferno.  Cassell 

Dor£,  Dante's  Purgatory  and  Paradise.  Cassell 

Dor£,  Milton's  Paradise  Lost.  Cassell 

De  Vere,  Select  Poems.  Macmillan 

Dutt,  Ancient  Ballads  and  Legends  of  Hindustan. 

Scribners 
Demosthenes,  Orations.    5v.  Macmillan 

Firdusi,  The  Epic  of  Kings.  Henry  Holt 

Goldsmith,  Comedies.  Stokes 

Goethe,  Faust    (tr.  Taylor).  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Goldsmith  and  Gray,  Poems.  Houghton,  Mifflin 

Gladstone,  Odes  of  "Horace.  Scribners 

Holmes,  Complete  Poetical  Works.      Houghton,  Mifflin 
Homer,  Iliad  and  Odyssey    (tr.  Pope).    2v.  Crowell 

Howells,  Modern  Italian  Poets.  Harpers 

Hesiod,  Callimachus,  Theognis.  Macmillan 

Hugo,  Dramatic  Works.  Macmillan 

Hapgood,  Epic  Songs  of  Russia.  Scribners 

Holland,  Bitter-Sweet.  Scribners 

Heine,  Poems  and  Ballads.  Scribners 

Hood,  Works  in  Prose  and  Verse.  Scribners 

Ibsen,  Prose  Dramas,    vols.  1,  4,  and  6.  Scribners 

Jackson,  Complete  Poems.  Little,  Brown 

Juvenal,  Thirteen  Satires    (Mayor).    2v.  Macmillan 

Keats,  Poetical  Works.  Crowell 

Khayyam,  Rubaiyat.  Page 

Longfellow,  Complete  Poetical  Works.  Houghton 

Longfellow,  The  Divina  Commedia  of  Dante.    3v. 

Houghton. 
Lowell,  Poetical  Works.  Houghton 

Lessing,  Nathan  the  Wise.  Henry  Holt 

Leasing,  Dramatic  Works.    St.  Macmillan 

Lucan,  The  Pharsalia    (Conway).  Macmillan 

Lucian,  Dialogues  of  the  Gods.  Macmillan 

Lanier,  Poems.  Scribners 


Lettsom,  The  Fall  of  the  Niebelungs.  Scribners 

Macdonald,  Poems.  Dutton 

Milton,  Complete  Poetical  Works.    8T.  Crowell 

Morris,  Defence  of  Guenevere.  Little,  Brown 

Morris,  The  ^Eneids  of  Virgil.  Little,  Brown 

Morris,  The  Story  of  Sigurd  the  Volsung.  Little,  Brown 


Moliere,  Dramatic  Works.    3v. 

Milton,  Areopagitiea. 

Moore,  Prose  and  Verse    (Shepard) 

Marlowe,  Dramatic  Works. 

Norton,  Dante's  New  Life. 

( iman,  The  Great  Indian  Epics. 

Osaian,  Poems    (MacPherson). 

Ovid,  Works.    3v. 

Poe,  Complete  Works.    6v. 

Pope,  Complete  Poetical  Works.    2 

Pliny,  Letters    (Melmoth). 

Petrarch,  Sonnets,  Triumphs,  and  Other  Poems. 

Macmillan 
Pindar,  Works. 

Quintilian,  Institutes  of  Oratory.    L'v. 
Riley,  Poetical  and  Dramatic  Works. 
Rosetti,  Dante  and  His  Circle. 
Racine,  Dramatic  Works.    2v. 
Rossetti,  Complete  Poetical  Works. 
Shelley,  Complete  Poetical  Works.    2v 
Stedman,  Victorian  Poets. 
Swinburne,  Poems. 
Sheridan,  The  Rivals,  and  School  for  Scandal. 

Macmillan 
Schiller,  Dramatic  Works  and  Poems.    4v 
Sophocles,  (Edinus  Tyrannus    (Jebb). 
Sophocles,  Antigone    (Jebb). 
Sophocles,  Electra    (Jebb). 
Sallust,  The  Conspiracy  of  Catiline 


Macmillan 

Clarendon  Press 

Scribners 

Scribners 

Houghton 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Macmillan 

Armstrong 

Crowell 

Macmillan 


Macmillan 

Macmillan 

4v.        Scribners 

Little,  Brown 

Macmillan 

Little,  Brown 

Crowell 

Scribners 

Crowell 


Macmillan 
Macmillan 
Macmillan 
Macmillan 
(Pollard). 

Macmillan 

Scribners 

Crowell 

Houghton 

Macmillan 

Henry  Holt 


2v. 


Sidney,  Arcadia. 

Tennyson,  Complete  Poetical  Works. 

Taylor,  Poetical  Works. 

Tasso,  Poetical  Works. 

Tegner,  Frithiof's  Saga. 

Thomson,  The  Seasons,  and  Castle  of  Indolence 

Clarendon  Press 
Wordsworth,  Complete  Poetical  Works.  2v.  Crowell 
Whittier,  Poetical  Works.  Houghton 

Essays  and  Criticisms. 

Arnold,  Essays  and  Criticism.  Macmillan 

Adler,  Creed'and  Deed.  Putnams 

Bacon,  Advancement  of  Learning.  Clarendon  Press 

Bacon,  The  Essays.  Longmans 

Bacon,  Novum  Organum.  Clarendon  Press 

Blackie,  Four  Phases  of  Morals.  Scribners 

Blackie,  Natural  History  of  Atheism.  Scribners 

Browne,  Religio  Medici'.  Scribners 

Burton,  Anatomy  of  Melancholy.  Scribners 

Burke,  Works.    Vol.  l.  Macmillan 

Choate,  Addresses  and  Orations.  Little,  Brown 

Channing,  Self  Culture.  Crowell 

Carlyle,  Sartor  Resartus.  Stokes 

Ca  rlj  le,  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship.  Stokes 

Carlyle,  Past  and  Present.  Routledge 

Carlvle.Criticaland  Miscellaneous  Essays.  2v,  Houghton 
Clarke,  Self  Culture.  Houghton 

Chesterfield,  Worldly  Wisdom  (Hill).        Clarendon  Press 
Coleridge,  Aire  to  Reflection.  Macmillan 

Coleridge,  Table  Talk.  Macmillan 

De  Quincey,  Complete  Works.    6v.  Houghton 

Everett,  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty.  Houghton 

Emerson,  Works.    Vols."  2,  3,  4,  6,  7,  and  9. 

Houghton,  Mifflin 
Eliot,  American  Contributions  to  Civilization.  Century 
Epictetus,  Discourses,  Encheiridion,  etc.    2v. 

Little,  Brown 
Flake,  The  Unseen  World  and  Other  Essays.  Houghton 
Francke,  Social  Forces  in  German  Literature. 

Henry  Holt 
Fronde,  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects.  Scribners 

Haweis,  Music  and  Morals.  Scribners 

Hodgson,  Time  and  Space.  Putnams 

Hazlitr,  tin-  Spirit  of  the  Age.  Putnams 

Hamerton,  The  Intellectual  Life.  Little,  Brown 

Hamerton,  Human  Intercourse.  Little,  Brown 

Hamerton,  The  Quest  of  Happiness.        _  Little,  Brown 


Holmes,  The  Professor  at  the  Breakfast  Table 
Holmes,  The  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table. 
Hunt,  Men,  Women  and  Books. 


Houghton 

Houghton 
Scribners 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


141 


Hunt,  Table  Talk.  Scribners 

Kigginson,  Atlantic  Essays.  Putnams 

Higginson,  The  Procession  of  tlie  Flowers.         Putnams 
Higninson,  Outdoor  Papers.  Putnams 

Jessopp,  Random  Roamings  in  Time  and  Space. 

Putnams 
Jessopp,  Arcadv :  For  Better,  For  Worse.  Putnams 

James,  The  Will  to  Believe.  Putnams 

Jerrold,  The  Barber's  (hair.  Scribners 

King,  Substance  and  Show.  Houghton 

Le  Gallienne,  If  I  Were  God.  Crowell 

Lamb,  Some  Essays  of  Elia.  Appleton 

Longinus,  On  the  Sublime.  Macmillan 

Luther,  Table  Talk.  Macmillan 

Mazzini,  Essavs.  .  Macmillan 

Massey,  The  Natural  Genesis.         Williams  &  Northgate 
Macaiilay,  Complete  Essavs.    3v.  Armstrong 

Morris,  Hopes  and  Fears  for  Art.  Little,  Brown 

Pascal,  Thoughts,  Letters  and  Opuscules.        Houghton 
Pascal,  Provincial  Letters.  Houghton 

Phillips,  Speeches,  Lectures,  and  Letters.    2v. 

Lee  &  Shepard 
Palmer,  The  Glory  of  the  Imperfect.  Crowell 

Palmer,  Self  Cultivation  in  English.  Crowell 

Pater,  Marius,  the  Epicurean.  Macmillan 

Smiles,  Self  Help.  Harpers 

Schiller,  Essays.  Macmillan 

Smith,  Selections.  Putnams 

Sainte-Beuve,  English  Portraits.  Henry  Holt 

Selden,  The  Table  Talk.  Clarendon  Press 

Swift,  Selections  (Craik).    2v.  Clarendon  Press 

Smith,  Guess  a  t  the  Riddle  of  Existence.  Macmillan 

Thoreau,  Walden.  Houghton 

Taylor,  Diversions  of  the  Echo  Club.  Putnams 

Van  Dyke,  Little  Rivers ;  A  Book  of  Essays.      Scribners 

Philosophy  and  iEsthetics. 

Aquinas,  On  Universal*  (tr.  Dering).  Leamington 

Alden,  A  Study  of  Death.  Harpers 

Abbott,  Scientific  Theism.  Little,  Brown 

Allen,  Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  God.  Henry  Holt 

Aristotle,  Metaphysics  (tr.  McMahon).  Macmillan 

Aristotle,  Nichomachian  Ethics  (tr.  Peters).      Scribners 
Aristotle,  Organon.    2v.  Macmillan 

Baldwin,  Interpretations  in  Mental  Development. 

Macmillan 
Baldwin,  Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and  Psychology. 

Macmillan 
Berkeley,  Philosophical  Works.    3v.  Macmillan 

Boethius,  Consolations  of  Philosophy.  Macmillan 

Bradley,  Appearance  and  Reality.  Macmillan 

Bosanquet,  A  History  of  iEsthetics.  Macmillan 

Cobbe,  An  Essay  on  Intuitive  Morals. 

Williams  &  Northgate 
Clifford,  Lectures  and  Essays.  Macmillan 

Clifford,  Seeing  and  Thinking.  Macmillan 

Cousin,  The  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good. 

Macmillan 
Descartes,  Method  and  Meditations.  Scribners 

Erdmann,  History  of  Philosophy.    3v.  Scribners 

Everett,  Ethics  for  Young  People.  Ginn 

Fichte,  Doctrine  of  Religion  (tr.  Smith).        Amsterdam 
Frothingham,  Transcendentalism  in  New  England. 

Putnams 
Falckenberg,  History  of  Modern  Philosophy. 

Henry  Holt 
Fiske,  Outlines  of  Cosmic  Philosophy.  2v.  Houghton 
Fichte,  Science  of  Knowledge  (tr.  Smith).  Scribners 
Fichte,  Science  of  Rights,    (tr  Smith).  Scribners 

(Oilman,  Conduct  as  a  Fine  Art.  Houghton 

Green,  Prolegomena  to  Ethics.  Clarendon  Press 

Hyde,  Practical  Ethics.  Henry  Holt 

Hyde,  Practical  Idealism.  Macmillan 

Hegel,  Philosophy  of  Right  (tr.  Dyde).  Macmillan 

Hegel,  Logic  (tr.  Wallace).    2%.     '  Clarendon  Press 

Hegel,  Philosophy  of  Mind  (tr.  Wallace). 

Clarendon  Press 
Hume,  Treatise  of  Human  Nature.  Clarendon  Press 

Hume,  Enquiry  Concerning  Human  Understanding. 

Clarendon  Press 
Hegel,  Philosophy  of  Religion.    3v.  Scribners 

Janies,  Principles  of  Psychology.    2v.  Henry  Holt 

Jevons,  Studies  in  Deductive  Logic.  Macmillan 

Jevons,  The  Principles  of  Science.  Macmillan 

Janet,  Final  Causes.  Scribners 

Janet,  The  Theory  of  Morals.  Scribners 

Kant,  Principles  of  Politics.  Amsterdam 

Kant,  Philosophy  of  Law.  Scribners 

Kant,  Metaphysfc  of  Ethics.  Longmans 

Kant,  The  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  Macmillan 


Lessing,  Education  of  the  Human  Race. 
Lotze,  Microcosmos.    2v. 


Kant,  The  Critique  of  Judgment  (tr.  Bernard). 

Macmillan 
Kant,  Prolegomena  to  Philosophy  (tr.  Bax). 

Macmillan 
Amsterdam 
Scribners 
Leopardi,  Essays  and  Dialogues.  Amsterdam 

Lewis,  Biographical  History  of  Philosophy.  Appleton 
Le  Bon,  The  Crowd.  Macmillan 

Locke,  An  Essay  Concerning  Human  Understandinir. 

Clarendon  Press 
Lotze,  Logic  (tr.  Bosanquet).    2v.  Clarendon  Press 

Lotze,  Metaphysics  (tr.  Bosanquet).    2v. 

Clarendon  Press 
Ladd,  A  Theory  of  Reality.  Scribners 

Ladd,  Physiological  Psychology.  Scribners 

Maudsley,  Body  and  Will.  Appleton 

Mill,  A  System  of  Logic.  Longmans 

Mill,  Utilitarianism.  Longmans 

Mackenzie,  Introduction  to  Social  Philosophy. 

Macmillan 
Marshall,  Tain,  Pleasure,  and  ^Esthetics.  Macmillan 
Mercier,  The  Nervous  Svstem  and  the  Mind.  Macmillan 
Martineau,  Types  of  Ethical  Theory.  Clarendon  Press 
Mivart,  On  Truth  :  a  Systematic  Inquiry.  Benziger 

Nordau,  Degeneration.  Appleton 

Nash,  Genesis  of  the  Social  Conscience.  Macmillan 

Nitti,  Catholic  Socialism.  Macmillan 

Powell,  Our  Heredity  from  God.  Appleton 

Preyer,  Mental  Development  in  the  Child.  Appleton 

Paulsen,  Introduction  to  Philosophy.  Henry  Holt 

Paulsen,  Ethics  (tr.  Thilly).  Scribners 

"  Physicus,"  Theism.  Amsterdam 

Royce,  The  Spirit  of  Modern  Philosophy.  Houghton 
Royce,  The  Religious  Aspect  of  Philosophy.  Houghton 
Rosenkrantz,  Philosophy  of  Education.  '  Appleton 
Royce,  Studies  of  Good  and  Evil.  Appleton 

Rendall,  Marcus  Aurelius  to  Himself.  Macmillan 

Santayana,  The  Sense  of  Beauty.  Scribners 

Sidis,"The  Psychology  of  Suggestion.  Appleton 

Spencer,  First  Principles.  Appleton 

Spencer,  Principles  of  Biology.    2v.  Appleton 

Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociology.    3v.  Appleton 

Spencer,  Principles  of  Ethics.    2v.  Appleton 

Spencer,  Education.  Appleton 

Spencer,  Philosophy  of  Style.  Appleton 

Stirling,  The  Secret  of  Hegel.  .  Putnams 

Spinoza,  The  Philosophy  of.  Henry  Holt 

Spinoza,  Chief  Works.    2v.  Macmillan 

Smith,  Theory  of  the  Moral  Sentiments.  Macmillan 

Sigwart,  Logic.    2v.  Macmillan 

Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and  Idea.    3v. 

Scribners 
Schopenhauer,  On  Human  Nature.  Scribners 

Taylor,  Ancient  Ideals.    2v.  Putnams 

Ueberweg,  History  of  Philosophy.    2v.  Scribners 

Venn,  The  Logic  of  Chance.  Macmillan 

Voltaire,  Philosophical  Dictionary.    2v.  Truelove 

Von  Hartman,  The  Philosophy  of 'the  Uncon- 
scious.   2v.  Scribners 
Wundt,  Human  and  Animal  Psychology.         Macmillan 
Wundt,  The  Facts  of  the  Moral  Life.                Macmillan 
Wundt,  Ethical  Systems.                                    Macmillan  • 
Windelbrand,  History  of  Philosophy.               Macmillan 

Science  and  Travels. 

Audubon,  His  Journals.    2v.  Scribners 

Allen,  Physiological  ^Esthetics.  Appleton 

Amicis,  Constantinople.  Harpers 

Amicis,  Morocco :  Its  People  and  Places.  Harpers 

Agassiz,  Geological  Sketches.    2v.  Houghton 

Agassiz,  Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  History. 

Houghton 
Argyle,  Organic  Evolution  Cross  Examined. 

Henry  Holt 
Bastian,  The  Brain  as  an  Organ  of  Mind.  Appleton 

Barker,  Physics.  Henry  Holt 

Berdoe,  Origin  and  Growth  of  the  Healing  Art. 

Amsterdam 
Cajori,  The  History  of  Mathematics.  Macmillan 

Ch'rystal,  Algebra."  2v.  Macmillan 

Carpenter,  The  Principles  of  Mental  Physiology. 

Appleton 
Clifford,  The  Common  Sense  of  the  Exact  Sciences. 

Appleton 
Clodd,  Pioneers  of  Evolution.  Appleton 

Croll,  Climate  and  Time.  Appleton 

Dana,  Text  Book  of  Mineralogy,  Appleton 

Donaldson,  The  Growth  of  Brain.  Scribners 

Darwin,  Origin  of  Species.  Appleton 


142 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Darwin,  Descent  of  Man.  Appleton 

Darwin,  A  Naturalist's  Voyage  Around  the  World. 

Appleton 
Ellis,  Man  and  Woman.  Scnbners 

Finck,  Spain  and  Morocco.  Scribners 

Foster,  Text  Book  of  Phvsiology.    5v.  Macmillan 

Faradav,  Chemistry  of  a" Candle.  Harpers 

Friend,"  Flowers  and  Flower-lore.  Amsterdam 

Gummere,  Germanic  Origins.  Scribners 

Guyot,  The  Earth  and  Man.  Scribners 

Galton,  Hereditary  Genius.  Appleton 

Gray,  Anatomy.  Longmans 

Huxlev,  Man's  Place  in  Nature.  Appleton 

Holland,  The  Butterfly  Book.  Doubleday  and  McClure 
Hertwig,  Embrvology'of  Man  and  Mammals.  Macmillan 
Hertwig,  The  Biological  Problems  of  To-day. 

Macmillan 
Humboldt,  Cosmos.    5v.  Macmillan 

Haeckel,  The  History  of  Creation.    2v.  Appleton 

Haeckel,  The  Evolution  of  Man.    2v.  Appleton 

Huxley,  Physiography.  Macmillan 

Huxley,  Evolution  and  Ethics.  Appleton 

Huxley,  Science  and  Christian  Tradition.  Appleton 

Jordan,  Footnotes  to  Evolution.  Appleton 

Jones,  Logarithmic  Tables.  Macmillan 

Kingsley,  Natural  History.    6v.  Dana  Estes 

Kingsley,  Health  and  Education.  Appleton 

Kingsley,  Town  Geology.  Appleton 

Kelvin,  The  Constitution  of  Matter.  Macmillan 

Lyell,  Principles  of  Geology.    2v.  Appleton 

Lockyer,  Dawn  of  Astronomy.  Cassell 

Le  Conte,  Evolution  and  Religious  Thought.  Appleton 
Lubbock,  Origin  of  Civilization.  Appleton 

Lubbock,  The  Beauties  of  Nature.  Macmillan 

Letourneau,  Evolution  of  Marriage.  Scribners 

Manaceine,  Sleeo :  a  Study.  Scribners 

Mason,  The  Origins  of  Invention.  Scribners 

Mo8so,  Fear.  Longmans 

Muir,  The  Alchemical  Essence  and  the  Chemical 

Element.  Longmans 

Martin,  The  Human  Body.  Henry  Holt 

Maxwell,  Electricity  and  Magnetism.    2v. 

Clarendon  Press 
Meyer,  History  of  Chemistry.  Macmillan 

Maury,  Physical  Geography  of  the  Sea.  Amsterdam 

Newton,  Principia  (tr.  Main).  Macmillan 

Newcomb,  Popular  Astronomy.  Harpers 

Proctor,  Other  Worlds  Than  Ours.  Appleton 

Proctor,  Light  Science  for  Leisure  Hours.  Harpers 

Packard,  Textbook  of  Entomology.  Macmillan 

Quatrefages,  The  Natural  History  of  Man.  Appleton 
Quatrefages,  The  Human  Species.  Appleton 

Romanes,  Animal  Intelligence.  Amsterdam 

Reclus,  The  Earth.  Harpers 

Ribot,  Heredity.  Appleton 

Ribot,  Diseases  of  the  Memory.  Appleton 

Roemer,  Origins  of  the  English  People.  Appleton 

Romanes,  Mental  Evolution  in  Man.  Appleton 

Remsen,  Inorganic  Chemistry.  Henry  Holt 

Stewart  and  Tait,  The  Unseen  Universe.  Macmillan 

Scientific  Series  (International),  Vols.  1,  2,  3, 4,  7, 
16,  17,  21,  23,  31,  34,  36,  39,  40,  42,  44,  47,  50,  62, 
65,  66,  67.  Appleton 

Thudicum,  ATreatise  on  Wines.  Macmillan 

Tyndall,  Forms  of  Water.  Appleton 

Tyndall,  Heat  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.  Appleton 

Tyndall,  On  Sound.  Appleton 

Tyndall,  Fragments  of  Science.    2v.  Appleton 

Tyndall,  Six  Lectures  on  Light.  Appleton 

Tait,  Dvnamics.  Macmillan 

Tylor,  Primitive  Culture.    2v.  Henry  Holt 

Verne,  The  Exploration  of  the  World.  3v.  Scribners 
White,  Natural  History  of  Selbourne.  2v.  Appleton 
Wurtz,  History  of  Chemical  Theory.  Macmillan 

Weismann,  Essays  on  Heredity.  2v.  Clarendon  Press 
Winchell,  Sketches  of  Creation.  Harpers 

Williams,  Geological  Biology.  Henrv  Holt 

Whire,  The  Warfare  of  Science.    2v.  Appleton 

Whewell,  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences.    2v. 

Appleton 

Political    Science,    Economics,    And 
Law. 

Adams,  The  Science  of  Finance.  Henrv  Holt 

Ashley,  English  Economic  History  and  Theory.    2v. 

Putnams 
Aristotle,  Politics  (tr.  Jowett).  2v.  Clarendon  Press 
Burgess,  Political  Science   and   Constitutional 

Law.    2r.  Ginn 


Baldwin,  Modern  Political  Institutions.  Little,  Brown 
Bentham,  Theory  of  Legislation.  Amsterdam 

Blackstone,  Commentaries  on  English  Law.    2v. 

Lippincott 
Boehm,  Capital  and  Interest.  Macmillan 

Buckalew,  Proportional  Representation.  Phila 

Bax,  Ethics  of  Socialism.  Scribners 

Beaulieu,  The  Modern  State.  Scribners 

Bagehot,  Physics  and  Politics.  Scribners 

Bagehot,  The  English  Constitution.  Appleton 

Bentham,  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation. 

Clarendon  Press 
Bentham,  A  Fragment  on  Government. 

Clarendon  Press 
Bluntschli,  The  Theory  of  the  State.  Clarendon  Press 
Burke,  Thoughts  on  the  Present  Discontents. 

Clarendon  Press 
Burke,  Reflections  on  the  French  Revolution. 

Clarendon  Press 
Cairnes,  Principles  of  Political  Economy.  Harpers 

Curry,  Constitutional  Government  in  Spain.  Harpers 
Cossa,  Taxation:  its  Principles  and  Methods.  Putnams 
Crane  and  Moses,  Politics.  Putnams 

Coulanges,  Origin  of  Property  in  Land.  Scribners 

Cossa,  Introduction  to  Political  Economy.  Macmillan 
Dawson,  The  Federalist.  Scribners 

De  Tocqueville,  Democracy  In  America.  2v.  Century 
Dicey,  English  Constitutional  Law.  Macniillaii 

De  Laveleye,  Primitive  Property.  Macmillan 

Dunbar,  History  and  Theory  of  Banking.  Putnams 

Dawson,  The  Unearned  Increment.  Scribners 

De  Laveleye,  Elements  of  Political  Economy.  Putnams 
De  Laveleye,  Luxury.  Scribners 

Ely,  French  and  German  Socialism.  Harpers 

Fiske,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States. 

Houghton 
Ford,  Rise  and  Growth  of  American  Politics. 

Macmillan 
Goodnow,  Comparative  Administrative  Law.    2v. 

Putnam9 
Gneist,  History  of  the  English  Constitution.    2v. 

Putnams 
George,  The  Science  of  Political  Economy.  Doubleday 
George,  Piogress  and  Poverty.  Doubleday 

Giddings,  Principles  of  Sociology.  •         Macmillan 

Gaius,  Roman  Law  (tr.  Poste).  Clarendon  Press 

Holland,  Elements  of  Jurisprudence.  Clarendon  Press 
Holmes,  The  Common  Law.  Little,  Brown 

Hadley,  Economics.  Putnams 

Hearn,  The  Aryan  Household.  Longmans 

Hammond,  Political  Institutions  of  the  Greeks. 

Macmillan 
Hadley,  Roman  Law  :  Its  History  and  System. 

Appleton 
Hall,  International  Law.  Clarendon  Press 

Hyslop,  Democracy :    A  Study  in  Government. 

Scribners 
Jenks,  Law  and  Politics  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

Henry  Holt 
Johnston,  History  of  American  Politics.  Henry  Holt 
Justinian,  The  Institutes  (tr.  Sandars).  Longmans 

Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Law.    4v. 

Little,  Brown 
Knox,  United  States  Notes.  Scribners 

Lavisse,  Political  History  of  Europe.  Longmans 

Lafargue,  The  Evolution  of  Property.  Scribners 

Letourneau,  Property :    Its  Origin  and  Development. 

Scribners 
Lieber,  Civil  Liberty  and  Self  Government.  Lippincott 
Lincoln,  Political  Speeches  and  Writings.  Dodo,  Mead 
Lieber,  Political  Ethics.    2v.  Lippincott 

Mulford,  The  Nation.  Houghton 

Mayne,  Hindu  Law  and  Usage.  Stevens 

Mill,  The  Subjugation  of  Women.  Longmans 

Mill,  Principles  of  Political  Economy.  2v.  Appleton 
Mill,  Representative  Government.    *  Longmans 

Mulhall,  Industries  and  Wealth  of  Nations.  Macmillan 
Malthus,  The  Principle  of  Population.  Scribners 

Munro,  The  Constitution  of  Canada.  Macmillan 

Machiavelli,  The  Prince  (tr.  Thompson). 

Clarendon  Press 
More,  Utopia.  Clarendon  Press 

Maine,  Ancient  Law.  Hen ry  Holt 

Maine,  Early  History  of  Institutions.  Henry  Holt 

Maine,  Popular  Government.  Henry  Holt 

Mackenzie,  Introduction  to  Social  Philosophy. 

"Macmillan 
Plavfair,  Subjects  of  Social  Welfare.  Cassell 

Pollock  and  Maitland.    History  of  English  Law.    2v. 

Little,  Browr 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


148 


Paine.  The  Rights  of  Man.  Putnams 

Puehta,  Science  of  Jurisprudence.  Scribners 

Pollock,  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Politics. 

Macmillan 
Plehn,  An  Introduction  to  Public  Finance.  Macmillan 
Plato,  The  Republic  (tr.  Jowett).  Clarendon  Press 

Plato,  The  Dialogues.    4v.  Scribners 

Rousseau,  The  Social  Contract.  Putnams 

Richie,  The  Principlesof  State  Interference.     Scribners 
Richie,  Natural  Rights.  Macmillan 

Rae,  Contemporary  Socialism.  Scribners 

Rannie,  Outline  of  the  English  Constitution.    Scribners 
Stoddard,  Abraham  Lincoln.  Fords 

Shaw,  Municipal  Government  in  Great  Britain. 

Century 
Shaw,  Municipal  Government  in  Continental  Europe. 

Century 
Story,  Equity  Jurisprudence.  Little,  Brown 

Samuelson,  The  History  of  Drink.  Amsterdam 

Story,  The  Conflict  of  Laws.  Little,  Brown 

Story,  Constitution  of  the  United  States.  Harpers 

Shaw-Lefevre,  Agragrian  Tenures.  Cassell 

Shearman,  Natural  Taxation.  Doubleday 

Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations.    2v.  Clarendon  Press 

Sohm,  Institutes  of  Roman  Law.  Clarendon  Press 

Stubbs,  Constitutional  History  of  England.    3v. 

Clarendon  Press 
Stubbs,  Select  Charters.  Clarendon  Press 

Simon,  Government  of  M.  Thiers.    2v.  Scribners 

Thwing,  The  Family.  Little,  Brown 

Turner,  The  Germanic  Constitution.  Putnams 

Von  Hoist,  Constitutional  History  of  the  United 

States.  Scribners 

Ward,  Dynamic  Sociology.    2v.  Appleton 

Wells,  Recent  Economic  Changes.  Appleton 

Wallace,  Land  Nationalization.  Scribners 

Wieser,  Natural  Value  Macmillan 

Woolsey,  Political  Science.    2v.  Scribners 

Woolsey,  International  Law.  Scribners 

Woolsey,  Communism  and  Socialism.  Scribners 

Walker,  Political  Economy.  Henry  Holt 

Alphabets,  The  alphabets  of  different 
languages  contain  the  following  number  of  let- 
ters :  English,  26  ;  French,  23  ;  Italian,  20; 
Spanish,  27  ;  German,  26  ;  Slavonic,  27  ;  Rus- 
sian, 41  ;  Latin,  22  ;  Greek,  24  ;  Hebrew,  22  ; 
Arabic,  28;  Persian,  32;  Turkish,  33;  San- 
skrit, 50  ;  Chinese,  214. 

Early  Literature.  The  first  Greek  writ- 
ers were  Homer  and  Hesiod,  1000  B.  C,  Tyr- 
taeus  and  Archilochus,  700  B.  C,  and  Alcseus, 
Sappho,  and  Anacreon,  600.  The  first  Latin 
writers  were  Cluatua,  Ennius,  and  Terentius, 
200  B.  C.  The  first  British  writers,  Gildas, 
Nennius  and  Bede,  500  and  600  A.  D.  The 
first  German  writers,  Eginhard,  Wallafrid,  and 
Rabanus,  800  A.  D.  The  first  French  writers, 
Fort,  Gregory,  and  Maralfe,  500  A.  D.  The 
first  Spanish,  Anian,  Fulgentius,  and  Martin, 
500  A.  D.  The  first  Polish,  Yaraslof  and  Nes- 
tor in  1000  A.  D.  The  first  Italian,  Gracian, 
Falcand  and  Campanus  in  1100  A.  D. 

CHINESE  LITERATURE. 

The  antiquity  of  Chinese  literature  is  pro- 
portionate to  that  of  the  language,  and  its 
development  has  been  greatly  promoted  by 
the  early  invention  of  the  art  of  printing, 
which  has  been  known  in  China  for  at  least 
nine  hundred  years.  The  Chinese  language 
presents  a  remarkable  specimen  of  philological 
structure,  which  for  ingenuity  of  arrangement 
and  copiousness  of  expression,  is  not  surpassed 


in  any  written  literature.  It  belongs  to  that 
class  of  idioms  which  are  called  monosyllabic. 
Every  word  consists  of  only  one  syllable.  The 
roots  or  original  characters  of  the  Chinese  are 
only  214  in  number,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a 
minute  analysis  would  reduce  them  to  a  still 
smaller  amount.  Each  of  these  characters 
represents  one  word,  and  each  word  an  idea. 
Their  various  combinations  form  the  whole 
language.  Taken  singly,  they  express  the 
principal  objects  or  ideas  that  are  suggested  in 
the  common  intercourse  of  life  ;  and  combined, 
according  to  obvious  analogies,  they  are  made 
to  comprehend  the  entire  field  of  thought. 
Thus  the  character,  which  originally  repre- 
sents the  word  "  hand,"  is  so  modified  and 
combined  with  others,  as  to  denote  every  vari- 
ety of  manual  labor  and  occupation.  The 
Chinese  characters  are  written  from  top  to 
bottom,  and  from  right  to  left.  The  lines  are 
not  horizontal,  but  perpendicular  and  parallel 
to  each  other.  Much  importance  is  attached 
by  the  Chinese  to  the  graphic  beauty  of  their 
written  characters,  which  in  picturesque  effect, 
it  must  be  owned,  are  superior  to  most  forms 
of  alphabetic  symbols.  The  grammar  of  the 
language  is  very  limited.  The  nouns  and  verbs 
cannot  be  inflected,  and  hence  the  relation  of 
words  to  each  other  in  a  sentence  can  be  un- 
derstood only  from  the  context,  or  marked  by 
their  position. 

The  Chinese  literature  is  rich  in  works  in 
every  department  of  composition,  both  verse 
and  prose.  Their  scholars  are  fond  of  discus- 
sions in  moral  philosophy,  but  they  have  also 
numerous  books  of  history,  geography,  voy- 
ages, dramas,  romances,  tales,  and  fictions  of 
all  kinds.  The  labors  of  various  European 
travelers  and  students  have  given  us  specimens 
of  almost  every  description  of  Chinese  litera- 
ture. In  legislation,  we  have  a  translation  of 
the  Penal  Code  of  the  Empire  ;  in  politics  and 
morals,  the  sacred  books  of  Confucius,  and  his 
successor  Meng-Tsew  ;  in  philology  and  belles- 
lettres,  a  well-executed  dictionary  of  the  lan- 
guage ;  several  translations  and  abstracts  of 
history ;  and  selections  from  the  drama,  criti- 
cism, and  romance.  Among  the  most  success- 
ful explorers  of  the  field  of  Chinese  literature, 
we  may  mention  Staunton,  Davis,  Morrison, 
Klaproth,  and  Remusat,  who  have  followed  up 
the  earlier  researches  of  the  Jesuits  at  Pekin, 
and  elucidated  a  subject  which  had  been  sup- 
posed to  be  inaccessible. 

Chinese  literature  suffered  a  similar  mis- 
fortune to  that  of  the  West  in  the  destruction 
of  the  Alexandrian  brary  ;  for  their  Emperor, 
Chee-whang-tee,  ordered  all  writings  to  be 
destroyed,  that  everything  might  begin  anew 
from  his  reign  ;  consequently  their  books  and 


144 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OE  EACTS. 


records  were  recovered  with  great,  difficulty  by 
succeeding  emperors. 

GREEK  LITERATURE. 

The  language  which  we  call  Greek  was  not 
the  primitive  language  of  Greece,  for  that 
country  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Pelasgi, 
whose  language  had  become  extinct  in  the 
time  of  Herodotus.  With  regard  to  its  origin, 
there  is  a  diversity  of  opinion  among  the 
learned,  although  it  evidently  forms  a  branch 
of  the  extensive  family  of  languages  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Indo-Germanic.  It  has 
existed  as  a  spoken  language  for  at  least  three 
thousand  years,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Arabic  and  the  English,  has  been  more  widely 
diffused  than  any  other  tongue.  Out  of  Greece, 
it  was  spoken  in  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  of 
the  South  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  and  in  other 
regions  which  were  settled  by  Grecian  colonies. 
The  Greek  language  is  divided  into  four  lead- 
ing dialects,  the  iEolic,  Ionic,  Doric,  and  Attic, 
beside  which  there  are  several  secondary  dia- 
lects. The  four  principal  dialects  may,  how- 
ever, be  reduced  to  two,  the  Hellenic-Doric, 
and  the  Ionic- Attic,  the  latter  originally  spoken 
in  the  northern  part  of  Peloponnesus  and 
Attica,  the  former  in  other  parts  of  Greece. 
In  each  of  these  dialects,  there  are  celebrated 
authors.  To  the  Ionic  dialect,  belong  in  part 
the  works  of  the  oldest  poets,  Homer,  Hesiod, 
Theognis ;  of  some  prose  writers,  especially 
Herodotus  and  Hippocrates  ;  and  the  poems  of 
Pindar,  Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus.  The 
Doric  dialect  was  of  the  greatest  antiquity. 
We  have  few  remains  of  Doric  prose,  which 
consists  chiefly  of  mathematical  or  philo- 
sophical writings.  After  Athens  became  the 
center  of  literary  cultivation  in  Greece,  the 
works  of  iEschylus,  Sophocles,  Euripides, 
Aristophanes,  Thucydides,  Xenophon,  Plato, 
Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  and  so  forth,  were  re- 
garded as  standards  of  style,  and  made  the 
Attic  the  common  dialect  of  literature.  Poetry, 
however,  was  not  written  in  the  Attic  dialect. 
The  peculiarities  of  Homer  were  imitated  by 
all  subsequent  poets  except  the  dramatists, 
and  even  they  assumed  the  Doric  to  a  certain 
degree  in  their  choruses,  for  the  sake  of  the 
solemnity  of  expression  which  belonged  to  the 
oldest  liturgies  of  the  Greeks.  According  to 
the  general  tradition,  Cadmus  the  Phoenician 
was  the  first  who  introduced  the  alphabet  into 
Greece.  His  alphabet  consisted  of  but  six- 
teen letters  ;  four  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Palamedes  in  the  Trojan  war,  and 
four  more  by  Simonides  of  Ceos.  It  has  been 
maintained,  however,  by  some  persons,  that 
the  art  of  writing  was  practiced  by  the  Pe- 
lasgi before  the   time  of   Cadmus.       On  the 


other  hand,  many  of  the  most  sagacious  critics 
place  the  origin  of  writing  in  Greece  at  a  much 
later  period. 

The  origin  of  Greek  literature,  or  the  in- 
tellectual cultivation  of  the  Greeks,  by  written 
works,  dates  at  a  period  of  which  we  have 
few  historical  memorials.  The  first  period  of 
Grecian  cultivation,  which  extends  to  eighty 
years  after  the  Trojan  war,  is  called  the  ante- 
Ilomeric  period,  and  is  destitute  of  any  liter- 
ary remains  properly  deserving  the  name.  Of 
the  poets  previous  to  Homer,  nothing  satisfac- 
tory is  known.  The  most  ancient  was  Olen, 
who  is  mentioned  by  Pausanias.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Linus,  Orpheus,  Musseus,  and  others, 
but  the  poems  which  are  circulated  under  their 
names  cannot  be  regarded  as  their  genuine 
productions.  It  was  in  the  Greek  colonies  of 
Asia  Minor  that  the  first  great  impulse  was 
given  to  the  development  of  literature  ;  and 
among  them  we  find  the  earliest  authentic 
specimens  of  Greek  poetry  and  historical  com- 
position. Situated  on  the  borders  of  a  noble 
sea,  enjoying  a  climate  of  delicious  softness 
and  purity,  abounding  in  the  most  nutritious 
and  tempting  products  of  nature,  whose  fertil- 
ity was  not  inferior  to  its  beauty,  these  colo- 
nies possessed  a  character  of  refined  voluptuous- 
ness which,  if  not  favorable  to  the  perform- 
ance of  great  deeds,  allured  the  dreamy  spirit 
to  poetical  contemplations,  and  was  manifested 
in  noble  creations  of  the  fancy,  which  have 
not  been  surpassed  in  the  progress  of  cultiva- 
tion. Living  near  the  scene  of  the  Trojan 
war,  the  bards  devoted  their  first  poems  to  the 
celebration  of  Grecian  heroism.  With  them 
commenced  the  second  period  of  Greek  litera- 
ture, which  we  call  the  Epic  age.  Of  these, 
Homer  alone  has  survived.  We  have  from 
him  the  two  great  poems,  the  Iliad  and  Odys- 
sey, with  several  hymns  and  epigrams.  He 
gave  his  name  to  the  Ilomerida?,  an  Ionian 
school  of  minstrels,  who  preserved  the  old 
Homeric  and  epic  style,  and  who  are  probably 
the  authors  of  much  that  has  been  ascribed  to 
Horner  himself. 

Next  to  the  Homerida;,  come  the  Cyclic 
poets,  whose  works  embrace  the  whole  circle 
of  mythology  and  tradition,  describing  the 
origin  of  the  gods  and  of  the  world,  the  ad- 
ventures of  the  Heroic  times,  the  Argonautic 
expedition,  the  labors  of  Hercules  and  Theseus, 
the  principal  events  of  the  Theban  and  Trojan 
wars,  and  the  fortunes  of  the  Greeks  after  the 
fall  of  Troy.  A  transition  between  these  his- 
toric poets  and  the  later  school  of  Ionian  min- 
strelsy is  formed  by  Hesiod,  who  conducted 
poetry  back  from  Asia  Minor  into  Greece.  Of 
the  sixteen  works  ascribed  to  him,  we  have  the 
Theogony,  the  Shield  of  Hercules,  and    Works 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


145 


and  Days,  the  last,  an  agricultural  poem, 
interspersed  with  moral  reflections  and  pruden- 
tial maxims. 

The  third  period  commences  with  the 
growth  of  lyric  poetry,  of  apologues  and  phi- 
losophy, with  which  history  gained  a  new 
development  and  a  higher  degree  of  certainty. 
Lyric  poetry  sprung  up  on  the  decline  of  the 
Epic  school,  and  was  much  cultivated  from  the 
beginning  of  the  epoch  of  the  Olympiads  (77(3 
B.  C.)  to  the  first  Persian  war.  The  poems  of 
this  period  are  considered  among  the  most 
valuable  productions  of  Grecian  literature. 
Many  of  them  resembled  the  epic,  and  con- 
tained the  subjects  of  heroic  song.  They 
were  sung  by  bands  of  youths  and  maidens, 
accompanied  by  instrumental  music.  Among 
the  most  celebrated  of  the  lyric  poets  were 
Archilochus  of  Paros,  the  inventor  of  the 
Iambus;  Tyrtaeus,  Terpander,  and  Alcman, 
whose  martial  strains  enkindled  the  valor  of 
the  Spartans ;  Callimachus  of  Ephesus,  in- 
ventor of  the  elegaic  measure  ;  Simonides  and 
Anacreon  of  Ceos ;  the  impassioned  Sappho  of 
Mitylene  ;  Stesichorus,  Hipponax,  and  Pindar. 
Many  didactic  poems,  fables,  and  proverbs 
were  written  during  this  period,  and  served  to 
prepare  the  way  for  prose  composition. 

The  philosophy  of  this  age  was  marked  by 
its  constant  reference  to  practical  affairs. 
Among  its  expounders  we  may  consider  the 
seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  as  they  are  called 
(Periander,  or  according  to  some,  Epimenides 
of  Crete,  Pittacus,  Thales,  Solon,  Bias,  Chilo, 
and  Cleobulus),  of  whom  six  acquired  their 
fame,  not  by  the  teaching  of  speculative  ab- 
stractions, but  by  their  admirable  wisdom  in 
the  affairs  of  life,  and  their  skill  in  the  offices 
of  state.  Their  celebrated  sayings  are  the 
maxims  of  experience,  applied  to  the  practical 
relations  of  life.  But  with  the  progress  of 
intellectual  culture,  a  taste  for  speculative 
inquiries  was  unfolded.  This  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Ionic  philosophy  by 
Thales,  the  Italian,  by  Pythagoras,  and  the 
older  and  later  Eleatic.  With  the  develop- 
ment of  these  schools,  we  are  brought  to  the 
scientific  period  of  Greek  literature.  The 
Ionic  school  ascribed  a  material  origin  to  the 
universe.  Its  principal  followers  were  Phere- 
cydes,  Anaximander,  Anaxamines,  Anaxago- 
ras,  Diogenes  of  Apollonia,  and  Archilaus  of 
Miletus.  Of  the  Pythagorean  school,  which 
explained  the  organization  of  the  world  by 
number  and  measure,  were  Ocellus  Lucanus, 
Tima?usof  Locris,  Epicharmus,Theages,  Archy- 
tas,  Philolaus,  and  Eudoxus.  To  the  older 
Eleatic  school,  which  cherished  a  more  sub- 
lime, but  less  intelligible  conception  of  the 
origin  of  the  world,  assuming  the   fact  of   a 


pure  necessary  existence,  belonged  Xenophanes 
and  Parmenides  ;  to  the  later  Eleatic,  Melissus 
and  Diagoras.  Until  about  the  commence- 
ment of  the  90th  Olympiad,  the  philosophers 
and  their  disciples  were  dispersed  throughout 
the  various  Grecian  cities.  Athens  subse- 
quently became  their  chief  residence,  where 
the  class  of  men  called  Sophists  first  rose  into 
importance  as  public  teachers.  Of  these,  the 
most  distinguished  names  that  have  been  pre- 
served to  us  are  Gorgiasof  Leontium,  Protag- 
oras of  Abdera,  Hippias  of  Elis,  Prodicus  of 
Cos,  Trasimseus,  and  Tisias.  They  were 
especially  devoted  to  the  subjects  of  politics 
and  eloquence,  but  also  made  a  study  of  the 
natural  sciences,  mathematics,  the  theory  of 
the  fine  arts,  and  philosophy.  Professing  the 
art  of  logic  as  a  trade,  they  were  less  earnest 
in  the  pursuit  of  truth  than  in  the  construc- 
tion of  plausible  arguments.  Their  fallacious 
pretenses  awakened  the  honest  indignation  of 
Socrates,  who  not  only  became  their  zealous 
antagonist,  but  gave  a  vigorous  and  original 
impulse  to  the  progress  of  philosophy.  This 
shrewd  and  subtle  reasoner  opened  a  new 
direction  to  philosophical  research,  turning  it 
to  the  study  of  human  nature  and  of  the  laws 
of  psychology  and  ethics,  instead  of  barren 
speculations  and  theories.  Without  leaving 
any  written  record  of  his  genius,  he  is  known 
at  the  present  day  by  the  affectionate  and 
beautiful  memorials  which  have  been  conse- 
crated to  his  character  in  the  productions  of 
his  disciples. 

Among  these,  Plato  was  pre-eminent  by  the 
force  and  comprehensiveness  of  his  reason,  the 
marvelous  keenness  of  his  insight  in  the  region 
of  transcendental  ideas,  the  vigor  and  acuteness 
of  his  logical  faculties,  and  the  winning  sweet- 
ness and  grace  of  expression,  which  lend  a 
charm  to  his  writings  that  has  never  been 
equaled  in  philosophical  literature.  The 
masterly  conversations  of  Socrates,  in  which 
he  expounded  the  principles  of  his  philosophy 
in  the  streets  and  market  place  of  Athens,  are 
reproduced  with 'admirable  dramatic  effect,  in 
the  glowing  pages  of  his  eloquent  disciple. 

The  progress  of  history  kept- pace  in  Grecian 
cultivation  with  the  development  of  philosophy. 
Among  the  oldest  historical  prose  writers,  are 
Cadmus,  Dionysius,  and  Hecataeus  of  Mile- 
tus, Hellanicus  of  Mitylene,  Pherecydes  of 
Scyros.  After  them  appears  Herodotus,  who 
has  received  the  name  of  the  Homer  of  history. 
He  was  followed  by  Thucvdides,  the  grave, 
condensed,  and  philosophical  historian  of  the 
Pelopennesian  war.  Strongly  contrasted  with 
his  sternness  and  energy,  is  Xenophon,  whose 
limpid  narrative  flows  on  with  the  charming 
facility  of  a  graceful  stream,  presenting  a  de- 


146 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


lightful  specimen  of  the  tranquil  beauty  of 
Greek  prose  in  its  most  simple  form.  These 
three  historians  distinguished  the  period  from 
450  to  400  B.  C,  during  which  time  we  have 
to  notice  the  introduction  of  a  new  class  of 
poetical  creations. 

The  popular  festivals  which  were  celebrated 
after  the  vintage,  with  rude  songs  and  dances, 
led  to  the  gradual  creation  of  the  drama.  A 
more  artistic  form  was  given  to  the  wild 
choruses  in  honor  of  Bacchus ;  the  recitation 
of  fables  by  an  intermediate  speaker  was  intro- 
duced into  the  performances ;  and  soon  the 
games  of  the  vintage  festival  were  repeated  on 
other  occasions.  The  spirit  of  the  drama  was 
thus  cherished,  until  the  appearance  of  iEschy- 
lus,  who  may  be  deemed  the  author  of  the 
dramatic  art  in  Greece.  He  divided  the  story 
into  different  portions,  substituted  the  dialogue 
for  recitation  by  a  single  person,  and  assigned 
the  various  parts  to  skillful  actors.  The  three 
great  tragic  writers  are  iEschylus,  Sophocles, 
and  Euripides,  while  the  most  distinguished 
rank  in  comedy  is  held  by  Cratinus,  Eupolis, 
Crates,  and  especially  Aristophanes. 

During  this  period  we  find  several  didactic 
and  lyric  poets,  while  the  sister  art  of  elo- 
quence was  illustrated  by  the  names  of  Lysias, 
Demosthenes,  iEschines,  Antiphon,  Gorgias, 
and  Isocrates. 

The  succeeding  period,  which  is  usually 
called  the  Alexandrine,  was  characterized  by 
the  prevalence  of  a  critical  spirit ;  the  luxuriant 
bloom  of  the  earlier  Greek  literature  had  passed 
away ;  and  the  fresh  creative  impulses  of 
genius  were  made  to  yield  to  the  love  of  specu- 
lation and  the  influence  of  erudition.  The 
glowing  imaginative  philosophy  of  Plato  was 
succeeded  by  the  more  rigid  system  of  Aristotle, 
who  founded  the  Peripatetic  school,  and  gave 
order  and  precision  to  the  principles  of  reason- 
ing. With  the  passion  for  subtle  analysis, 
which  was  the  characteristic  of  his  mind,  he 
drew  a  sharp  line  of  distinction  between  logic 
and  rhetoric,  ethics  and  politics,  physics  and 
metaphysics,  thus  enlarging  the  boundaries  of 
philosophy,  and  establishing  a  system  which 
exercised  an  undisputed  supremacy  for  ages. 
The  dogmatic  tendencies  of  Aristotle  found 
their  counterpart  in  the  skeptical  principles  of 
which  Pyrrho  of  Elis  was  the  most  dis- 
tinguished advocate.  The  same  principles 
prevailed  to  a  certain  extent  in  the  Middle  and 
New  Academies  founded  by  Arcesilaus  and 
Carneades,  while  the  Socratic  philosophy  was 
modified  by  the  disciples  of  the  Stoic  school, 
established  by  Zeno,  and  of  the  Epicurean, 
which  bears  the  name  of  its  celebrated  founder. 
At  length  the  intellectual  scepter,  which  had 
been  so  long  wielded  by  the  philosophers   and 


poets  of  Greece,  passed  from  Athens  to  Alex- 
andria ;  the  nation  itself  was  absorbed  in  the 
progress  of  Roman  conquest ;  Greek  literature 
ceased  to  give  birth  to  original  productions  ; 
and  its  brilliant  career  became  the  subject  of 
history. 

HEBREW  LITERATURE. 

The  literature  of  the  ancient  Hebrews,  apart 
from  its  religious  character  and  claims,  pre- 
sents a  curious  and  important  subject  of  inves- 
tigation. It  is  the  oldest  literature  of  which 
any  remains  have  come  down  to  modern  times. 
With  a  rich  poetical  coloring,  a  profound 
sentiment  of  humanity,  and  a  lofty  religious 
faith,  it  sustains  a  most  intimate  relation  to 
the  development  of  the  intellect  and  the  moral 
and  political  history  of  the  race. 

The  Hebrew  language  is  one  of  the  oldest 
branches  of  the  numerous  family  of  languages 
which  have  received  the  name  of  Semitic,  on 
account  of  the  supposed  descent  of  the  nations 
by  which  they  were  spoken,  from  Shem,  the 
son  of  Noah.  These  are  the  Chaldaic,  the 
Aramaic,  the  Hebrew,  the  Syriac,  the  Arabic, 
the  Phoenician,  and  the  Ethiopian.  The  his- 
tory of  the  language  has  been  divided  by  many 
critics  into  four  periods.  I.  From  Abraham 
to  Moses.  II.  From  Moses  to  Solomon.  III. 
From  Solomon  to  Ezra.  IV.  From  Ezra  to 
the  end  of  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  when  it 
was  gradually  lost  in  the  modern  Aramaic  and 
became  a  dead  language.  The  differences, 
however,  which  can  be  traced  in  the  language 
are  so  slight,  that  a  sounder  division  would  be 
into  only  two  periods,  the  first  extending  from 
the  time  of  Moses  to  the  reign  of  Hezekiah, 
and  the  second  from  the  reign  of  Hezekiah  to 
its  final  extinction  as  a  spoken  language.  The 
written  characters  or  letters,  which  date  from 
the  time  of  Solomon,  were  the  same  as  the 
Phoenician.  During  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
the  Hebrews  received  from  the  Chaklees  the 
square  character  in  common  use,  and,  in  the 
time  of  Ezra,  the  old  Hebrew  manuscripts 
were  copied  in  these  characters.  The  punctu- 
ation of  the  language  was  not  settled  until  after 
the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian  era.  The 
accents,  vowels,  points,  and  divisions  into 
words  were  also  introduced  at  a  later  period. 

The  poetical  and  religious  sentiment  was 
the  foundation  of  Hebrew  literature.  Lyric 
poetry  received  a  rich  development  under 
David,  to  whom  are  ascribed  several  noble 
specimens  of  song  and  elegy.  The  fragments 
of  didactic  poetry  which  bear  the  name  of 
Solomon  are  stamped  with  a  character  of  prac- 
tical wisdom,  and  often  exhibit  an  energy  of 
expression,  which  authorizes  us  to  class  them 
among  the  most  extraordinary  productions  of 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


147 


ancient  literature.  After  the  division  of  the 
kingdom,  the  prophets  became  the  great 
teachers  of  the  people,  and  have  left  various 
collections  of  their  writings,  none  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us  with  completeness. 
Upon  the  return  of  the  exiled  people  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  the  remains  of  Hebrew 
literature  were  collected  by  a  college  of  learned 
men  under  the  direction  of  Ezra,  and  from 
their  labors  we  have  received  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  their  present  form. 

ROMAN  LITERATURE. 

The  language  of  the  ancient  Romans  is 
usually  called  Latin,  for,  though  Rome  and 
Latium  were  originally  separate  communities, 
they  always  appear  to  have  spoken  the  same 
language.  The  Latins,  as  far  as  we  can  de- 
cide on  such  a  question  at  the  present  day, 
seemed  to  have  formed  a  part  of  that  great  race 
which  overspread  both  Greece  and  Italy  under 
the  name  of  Pelasgians.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  Pelasgians  who  settled  in  Italy  originally 
spoke  the  same  language  with  the  Pelasgians 
who  settled  in  Greece.  The  Greek  and  Latin 
languages  accordingly  have  many  elements  in 
common,  though  each  has  its  own  distinctive 
character. 

The  history  of  Roman  literature  may  be 
divided  into  four  periods  :  I.  From  the  earliest 
times  till  Cicero.  II.  To  the  death  of  Augus- 
tus, A.  D.  14.  III.  To  the  death  of  Trajan. 
IV.  To  the  conquest  of  Rome  by  the  Goths. 
During  the  first  five  hundred  years  of  the 
Roman  history,  scarcely  any  attention  was 
paid  to  literature.  Its  earliest  attempts  were 
translations  and  imitations  of  the  Greek  models. 
The  Odyssey  was  translated  into  Latin  by 
Livius  Andronicus,  a  Greek  captive  of  Taren- 
tum,  and  the  earliest  writer  of  whom  we  have 
any  account.  His  tragedies  and  comedies  were 
taken  entirely  from  the  Greek.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Naevius,  who  wrote  an  historical 
poem  on  the  first  Punic  war,  by  the  two  tragic 
writers  Pacuvius  and  Attius,  and  by  Ennius, 
B.  C.  239,  the  first  epic  poet,  and  who  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  Roman  literature. 
Being  a  Greek  by  birth  he  introduced  the  study 
of  his  native  language  at  Rome,  and  had  among 
his  pupils,  Cato,  Scipio  Africanus,  and  other 
distinguished  citizens  of  that  day.  At  the 
same  time,  he  taught  the  Romans  the  art  of 
easy  and  graceful  writing  in  their  own  lan- 
guage, and  helped  to  inspire  them  with  a  love 
of  literature  by  his  refined  taste  and  elegant 
cultivation.  Contemporary  with  Ennius  was 
Plautus,  whose  dramatic  pieces,  in  imitation 
of  the  later  comedies  of  the  Greeks,  were 
remarkable  for  their  vivacity  of  expression  and 
their  genuine  comic  humor.     He  was  followed 


by  Cecilius  and  Terence,  of  whom  the  latter 
has  left  several  admirable  comedies,  fully  im- 
bued with  the  Grecian  spirit.  The  first  prose 
writers  were  Quintus  Fabius  Pictor  and  Lucius 
Cincius  Alimentus,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
the  second  Punic  war,  and  wrote  a  complete 
history  of  Rome.  Their  style  was  meager  and 
insipid,  aiming  only  at  brevity,  and  entirely 
destitute  of  ornament  or  grace. 

With  the  age  of  Augustus,  in  which  some 
earlier  writers  are  usually  reckoned,  a  new 
spirit  is  exhibited  in  Roman  literature.  In 
didactic  poetry,  Lucretius  surpassed  his  Gre- 
cian masters,  by  the  force  of  thought,  and  the 
splendor  of  diction,  which  characterize  his 
great  philosophical  poem  on  the  origin  of  the 
universe.  Catullus  attempted  various  styles 
of  poetry,  in  all  of  which  he  obtained  emi- 
nent success.  His  lyric  and  elegiac  poems,  his 
epigrams  and  satires,  are  marked  by  singular 
versatility  of  feeling,  frequent  flashes  of  wit, 
and  rare  felicity  of  expression.  Among  the 
elegiac  poets,  of  whose  genius  we  still  possess 
the  remains,  the  highest  distinction  was  gained 
by  Tibullus,  Propertius,  and  Ovid.  The 
former  of  these  poets  was  pronounced  by  Quin- 
tilian  to  be  the  greatest  master  of  elegiac 
verse ;  Ovid  possessed  an  uncommon  fertility 
of  invention  and  ease  of  versification  ;  while 
Propertius  tempers  the  voluptuous  cast  of  his 
writings  with  a  certain  dignity  of  thought  and 
vigorous  mode  of  expression.  The  great  lyric 
poet  of  the  Augustan  age  is  Horace,  whose 
graceful  and  sportive  fancy,  combined  with  I 
his  remarkable  power  of  delicate  and  effective^/ 
satire,  continues  to  make  him  a  favorite  withAy 
all  who  have  the  slightest  tincture  of  classical! 
learning.  * 

The  noblest  production  of  this  period,  how- 
ever, is  the  JEneid  of  Virgil,  which  with  his 
elaborate  poem  on  rural  affairs,  the  Georgics, 
and  his  sweet  and  tender  pastorals,  or  Ec- 
logues, fairly  entitles  him  to  the  position  which 
has  been  given  him  by  universal  consent,  of 
the  most  gifted  epic  and  didactic  poet  in 
Roman  literature. 

The  prose  writings  of  the  Latin  authors, 
taken  as  a  whole,  betray  a  higher  order  of 
genius  and  cultivation  than  the  works  of  the 
poets.  In  this  department,  the  preeminence 
belongs  to  Cicero,  whose  various  productions 
in  eloquence,  philosophy,  and  criticism  are 
among  the  most  valuable  treasures  of  antiq- 
uity. In  history,  Caesar,  Sallust,  and  Livy 
are  the  most  prominent  names,  who,  each  in 
his  own  peculiar  style,  have  left  models  of 
historical  composition  which  have  been  the 
admiration  of  every  subsequent  age.  The  lit- 
erature of  the  Augustan  period  partook  of  the 
general  character  of  the  Roman  people.     De- 


148 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


voted  to  the  realization  of  practical  objects, 
with  slight  tendencies  to  the  ideal  aspect  of 
things,  and  absorbed  in  the  exciting  game  of 
politics  and  war,  the  Romans  had  little  taste 
either  for  abstract  speculation  or  for  the  lofti- 
est flights  of  poetical  fancy.  Hence  no  new 
system  of  philosophy  was  produced  in  their 
literature ;  their  best  poets  were  essentially 
imitative  ;  and  of  all  branches  of  study,  those 
connected  with  popular  eloquence  were  held  in 
the  greatest  esteem. 

With  the  death  of  Augustus  commenced  the 
decline  of  Roman  literature.  Among  the 
poets  of  this  period  are  Phaedrus,  an  ingenious 
fabulist,  the  satirists,  Juvenal  and  Persius, 
whose  works  are  more  important  for  their 
illustrations  of  the  manners  of  the  age  than 
for  their  poetical  merit,  and  Lucan,  who  de- 
scribes the  wars  of  Caesar  and  Pompey  in  an 
insipid  historical  epic.  In  prose,  we  have  the 
somber  but  condensed  and  powerful  histories 
of  Tacitus,  and  the  quaint  and  artificial  trea- 
tises on  ethics  and  philosophy  by  Seneca.  Sub- 
sequent to  the  reign  of  Trajan,  we  meet  with 
no  writers  who  have  any  claim  upon  our  atten- 
tion, and  the  literature  of  Rome,  after  a  brief 
interval  of  splendor,  during  the  golden  age 
between  Cicero  and  Augustus,  passes  into 
unimportance  and  obscurity. 

SANSKRIT  LITERATURE. 

Until  the  close  of  the  last  century,  the  Sans- 
krit literature  was  almost  wholly  unknown  to 
the  learned  of  Europe.  The  Roman  Catholic 
missionaries  in  India  had,  to  a  certain  extent, 
engaged  in  the  study  of  the  language  at  an 
earlier  period,  but  it  is  only  since  the  year 
1790  that  it  has  attracted  the  attention  of 
eminent  scholars.  Among  those  who  have 
given  an  impulse  to  the  study  of  Sanskrit,  and 
who  have  themselves  pursued  it  with  distin- 
guished success,  are  Sir  William  Jones,  Wil- 
kins  Forster,  Colebrooke,  Wilson,  Haughton, 
Rosen,  Chezy,  Burnouf,  A.  W.  Schlegel, 
Oldenberg,  Max  Muller,  and  Bopp.  We  are 
indebted  to  their  labors  for  a  knowledge  of 
this  rich  and  curious  literature,  which,  on 
many  accounts,  may  be  considered  as  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  products  in  the  history  of 
intellectual  culture. 

The  Sanskrit  language  is  a  branch  of  the 
Indo-Germanic  family  of  languages,  and  is 
supposed  to  bear  the  greatest  resemblance  to 
the  primitive  type.  In  its  construction,  it  is 
in  the  highest  degree  ingenious  and  elaborate, 
and  the  variety  and  beauty  of  its  forms  are 
well  adapted  to  illustrate  the  laws*"of  the  for- 
mation of  language.  It  is  the  sacred  language 
of  the  Brahmans,  and  contains  the  Vedas,  the 
oldest  records  of  their  religion.     The  last  cen- 


tury before  the  Christian  era  was  the  period  of 
its  richest  blossoming,  although  it  extends 
back  to  a  far  more  remote  antiquity.  It  ap- 
pears in  its  most  ancient  form  in  the  Vedas, 
which  date  from  the  thirteenth  century  before 
Christ,  and  in  that  state  exhibits  many  strik- 
ing analogies  with  the  Zend,  the  ancient 
language  of  Persia.  These  writings  are  the 
foundation  of  Sanskrit  literature,  and  diffuse 
their  influence  through  the  whole  course  of  its 
development. 

The  Vedas  are  divided  into  four  classes,  the 
first  being  in  poetry,  the  second  in  prose, 
the  third  consisting  of  lyrical  prayers,  and 
the  fourth  of  devotional  pieces,  intended  to  be 
used  in  sacrifices  and  other  religious  offices. 
Each  Veda  is  composed  of  two  parts,  the 
prayers  and  the  commandments.  The  Sanskrit 
possesses  a  variety  of  other  works  in  sacred  lit- 
erature, which  contain  not  only  a  copious  ex- 
position of  religious  doctrines,  but  numerous 
discussions  of  philosophical  and  scientific  sub- 
jects, and  an  extensive  collection  of  poetical 
legends. 

The  two  oldest  and  most  interesting  epic 
poems  are  The  Jiamai/ana,  describing  the  sev- 
enth great  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  The 
Mahabharata,  devoted  to  the  wars  of  two  rival 
lines  descended  from  the  ancient  Indian  mon- 
arch, Bharata.  An  episode  from  this  work 
called  Bhagavat  Gila  has  been  translated  by 
Wilkins,  Herder,  Schlegel,  and  others,  and  has 
excited  no  small  interest  as  an  illustration  of 
the  early  oriental  philosophy. 

A  new  character  was  given  to  Sanskrit  poe- 
try about  one  hundred  years  before  the  Chris- 
tian era,  by  the  introduction  of  themes  con- 
nected with  courts  and  princes.  It  lost  the 
popular  and  national  tendency  which  appears 
in  the  two  great  epics,  alluded  to  above,  and 
assumed  a  more  artificial  form.  With  a  man- 
ifest improvement  in  the  mere  externals  of 
style,  the  new  poetry  shows  a  degeneracy  in 
point  of  thought,  and  an  entire  absence  of 
original  invention.  In  the  principal  works  of 
this  class  we  find  labored  descriptions  of  nat- 
ural objects,  and  many  curious  artifices  of 
composition,  but  they  are  destitute  both  of 
brilliancy  of  imagination  and  depth  of  reflec- 
tion. The  most  fertile  author  of  the  new 
school  is  undoubtedly  Kalidasa,  who  attempted 
almost  every  species  of  poetical  composition, 
and  whose  epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic  produc- 
tions must  be  allowed  to  possess  considerable 
merit.  His  best  descriptive  poem,  entitled 
^fcgha(hlta,  is  a  model  of  simplicity  and  ele- 
gance. It  exhibits  a  highly  ideal  character, 
tracing  out  the  spiritual  significance  of  visible 
phenomena,  and  striving  to  penetrate  into  the 
hidden  life  of  the  universe.     The  drama  called 


LANGUAGE  AND    LITERATI  Ilk. 


149 


Sukoontala  or  The  Fatal  liiny,  by  this  author, 
has  received  the  warmest  commendation  from 
modern  critics.  "  All  its  scenes,"  says  the 
genial  Herder,  ;<  are  connected  by  flowery 
bands,  each  grows  ont  of  the  subject  as  natu- 
rally as  a  beautiful  plant.  A  multitude  of  sub- 
lime as  well  as  tender  ideas  are  found  in  it, 
which  we  should  look  for  in  vain  in  a  Greek 
drama."  A  valuable  translation  of  this  poem 
has  been  made  by  Sir  William  Jones. 

The  influence  of  religious  speculation  in 
India  early  gave  birth  to  numerous  philosoph- 
ical writings.  With  the  love  of  contempla- 
tion, to  which  the  natives  are  so  strongly  in- 
clined, and  the  progress  of  thought  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  doctrines  of  the  Vedas,  a  variety  of 
philosophical  systems  was  the  natural  conse- 
quence. The  oldest  of  these  is  called  the  San- 
khya.  It  teaches  the  duality  of  matter  and 
spirit,  which  are  essentially  different  in  their 
nature,  though  found  in  such  intimate  union. 
The  problem  of  life  is  the  emancipation  of  the 
soul  from  the  dominion  of  the  senses,  and  the 
attainment  of  blessedness  by  the  supremacy  of 
the  intellect.  Another  system  of  transcenden- 
tal speculation  is  named  the  Nyaya.  This  is 
constructed  from  strict  logical  deductions, 
which  it  applies  to  the  interpretation  of  nature, 
and  arrives  at  a  theory  of  materialism,  the  re- 
verse of  the  Sankhya  ideality.  The  Nyaya 
school  has  produced  a  multitude  of  writings. 
Opposed  to  each  of  these  systems  is  the  Mim- 
ansa,  which  maintains  the  doctrines  of  the 
Yedas  in  their  original  strictness,  and  strives 
to  reconcile  them  with  the  suggestions  of  phi- 
losophy. 

The  Sanskrit  literature,  moreover,  abounds 
in  works  on  various  other  branches  of  learning. 
Its  philological  treatises,  especially,  are  of 
great  value.  The  Indian  grammarians  sur- 
pass those  of  any  other  ancient  people.  No 
less  important  are  the  Sanskrit  works  on  rhet- 
oric, criticism,  music,  astronomy,  and  juris- 
prudence. They  well  deserve  the  attention  of 
the  scholar,  not  only  on  account  of  their  in- 
trinsic character,  but  as  precious  memorials  of 
the  early  development  of  the  intellect,  and 
significant  illustrations  of  the  history  of  the 
race. 

ARABIC  LITERATURE. 

Literature,  after  its  decay  and  final  extinc- 
tion in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Roman  Em- 
pires, revived  first  among  the  Arabic  tribes  in 
the  East.  Even  before  the  era  of  Mahomet, 
there  were  renowned  poets  and  story-tellers  in 
Arabia.  In  the  fifth  century,  during  the  great 
fairs  of  Mecca,  poetical  contests  frequently 
took  place,  the  victorious  productions  being 
lettered  with  gold  and  hung  up  in  the  Caaba. 


Among  the  most  renowned  poets  of  this  period 
were  Amralkeis,  Tharafa,  and  Antar.  Their 
works  are  distinguished  by  imaginative  power, 
richness  of  illustration,  and  great  skill  in  de- 
picting the  passions  of  love  and  revenge.  With 
Mahomet  commenced  a  memorable  epoch  in 
Arabic  literature.  Through  the  Koran,  which 
was  arranged  from  Mahomet's  teachings,  by 
Abubekr,  the  first  caliph,  the  method  of  writ- 
ing and  the  literary  style  of  the  nation  were 
determined.  The  reigns  of  Haroun  Al-Raschid 
and  Al-Mamun  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 
turies were  the  most  enlightened  periods  of 
the  Arabic  dominion,  though  for  two  cen- 
turies afterwards  the  nation  produced  many 
eminent  geographers,  philosophers,  jurists,  and ^ 
historians.  Under  the  government  of  Al-^ 
Mamun,  excellent  universities  were  established 
at  Bagdad,  Bussora,  and  Bokhara,  and  exten- 
sive libraries  in  Alexandria,  Bagdad,  and 
Cairo.  The  dynasty  of  the  Abbassides  in 
Bagdad  emulated  that  of  the  Ommanides  in 
Spain  ;  during  the  tenth  century  the  University 
of  Cordova  was  almost  the  only  refuge  of 
literature  in  Europe.  The  labors  of  the  Arrbic 
scholars  and  travelers  contributed  greatly  to 
the  spread  of  geographical  knowledge.  Ibn 
Batuta,  who  in  the  thirteenth  century  visited 
Africa,  India,  China,  and  Russia,  ranks  with 
Marco  Polo  and  Rubruquis. 

In  the  twelfth  century  Abu'l  Kasein  wrote 
the  history  oi  tne  Arabs  in  Spain  ;  Bohaeddin, 
a  biography  of  Sultan  Saladin  ;  Ibn  Arabschah  [^ 
described  the  exploits  of  Tamerlane,  and 
Hadji  Khalfa,  in~later  limes,  nas  produced  an  j  " 
encyclopedia  of  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Turkish 
literature.  The  style  of  the  Arabian  historians 
is  clear,  concise,  and  unincumbered  with 
imagery.  The  most  renowned  philosopher  was 
Avicenna,  who  flourished  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. AA-errhoes,  whose  name  is  also  familiar 
to  scholars,  was  famous  as  an  expounder  of 
the  system  of  Aristotle.  In  the  departments 
of  medicine,  astronomy,  geometry,  and  arith- 
metic, there  are  many  Arabic  works  which  ex- 
hibit great  research  and  scientific  knowledge. 

The  number  and  variety  of  the  works  pro- 
duced by  the  Arabian  poets  is  most  remark- 
able, and  their  influence  on  the  modern  litera- 
ture of  Europe  was  greater  than  is  generally 
suspected.  In  picturesque  narration  they 
have  rarely  been  excelled,  and  the  Thousand 
and  One  Nights,  which  first  appeared  in  its 
collected  form  durirg  the  reign  of  Caliph  Man- 
sur,  in  the  ninth  century,  has  been  naturalized 
in  all  modern  languages.  Only  half  of  this, 
however,  is  Arabic,  the  remainder  having 
been  translated  from  the  Sanskrit  and  Persian. 
The  Arabian  poets  left  many  poetic  chronicles, 
the  most  celebrated  of  which  are  :      The  Deeds 


150 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


of  Antar,  The  Deeds  of  the  Warriors,  and  The 
Deeds  of  the  Heroes.  Of  late  years  several 
eminent  French  and  German  scholars  have 
given  their  attention  to  the  study  of  Arabic 
literature,  the  best  works  of  which  are  now  ac- 
cessible through  their  translations. 

PERSIAN  LITERATURE. 

The  modern  literature  of  Persia  succeeded 
that  of  Arabia.  After  the  conquests  of  the 
country  by  the  caliphs,  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventh  century,  the  arts  and  sciences  of  the 
Arabs,  together  with  the  religion  of  Mahomet, 
were  transplanted  upon  Persian  soil,  but  the 
fruits  of  this  new  culture  did  not  appear  for 
several  succeeding  generations.  The  first  Per- 
I  sian  books,  both  of  poetry  and  history,  were 
written  in  the  early  part  of  the  tenth  century, 
and  for  several  centuries  there  was  no  inter- 
ruption in  the  list  of  renowned  authors.  Lit- 
erature was  encouraged  and  rewarded,  what- 
ever might  be  the  political  convulsions  that 
affected  the  empire.  Persian  poetry  consists 
for  the  most  part  of  small  lyrics,  arranged  in 
divans,  or  collections.  There  are  also  several 
voluminous  historical,  romantic,  and  allegor- 
ical poems,  besides  legends  and  narratives  told 
in  a  mixture  of  prose  and  verse.  The  first 
Persian  poet  is  Rudegi,  who  flourished  about 
the  year  952.  Firdausi,  the  great  epic  poet  of 
Persia,  died  in  the  year  1030,  at  the  age  of 
seventy.  He  wrote  the  Shah  Nameh,  or  King's 
Book,  describing  the  deeds  of  the  Persian  rul- 
ers, from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the 
downfall  of  the  Sassanide  dynasty  in  632.  He 
was  thirty  years  in  the  composition  of  this 
work,  which  contains  sixty  thousand  verses. 
The  most  celebrated  portion  is  that  recounting 
the  adventures  of  the  hero  Rustem.  Nisami, 
at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  ex- 
tensive romantic  poems,  the  most  remarkable 
of  which  were  Medjnoun  and  Leila,  and  Iskan- 
der-Nameh,  an  epic  on  Alexander  the  Great. 
Chakani  was  a  celebrated  writer  of  odes  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  Saadi,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Persian  authors,  was  born  in  1175, 
and  lived  till  1263.  His  poems  are  principally 
moral  and  didactic,  but  rich  with  the  expe- 
rience of  a  fruitful  life,  and  written  in  a  very 
simple  and  graceful  style.  His  best  works  are 
the  Gulistan,  or  Garden  of  Roses,  and  the  Bos- 
tan,  or  Garden  of  Trees.  Hafiz,  the  oriental 
poet  of  love,  was  born  at  Schiraz  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century,  where  he  lived 
as  a  dervish  in  willing  poverty,  resisting  the 
invitations  of  the  caliphs  to  reside  in  Bagdad. 
In  the  year  1388  he  had  an  interview  with 
Tamerlane,  by  whom  he  was  treated  with  much 
honor.  His  poems  consisted  of  odes  and  ele- 
gies which  have  been  collected  into  a  Divan. 


His  lyrics,  devoted  to  the  praise  of  love  and 
wine,  are  full  of  fire  and  melody. 

Djami,  who  died  in  1492,  was  one  of  the 
most  prolific  of  Persian  writers.  His  life  was 
spent  at  Herat,  where,  in  the  hall  of  the  great 
mosque,  he  taught  the  people  the  precepts  of 
virtue  and  religion.  He  left  behind  him  forty 
works,  theological,  poetical,  and  mystical. 
Seven  of  his  principal  poems  were  united  un- 
der the  title  of  The  Seven  Stars  of  the  Bear. 
His  history  of  mysticism,  entitled  The  Breath 
of  Man,  is  his  greatest  prose  work.  Among 
the  later  Persian  poems  are  the  Schehinscheh- 
Nameh,  a  continuation  of  the  Book  of  Kings, 
and  the  George-Nameh,  an  account  of  the  con- 
quest of  India  by  the  British.  The  Persian 
is  the  only  Mahometan  literature  containing 
dramatic  poetry.  Its  dramas  strikingly  resem- 
ble the  old  French  mysteries.  Of  the  collec- 
tions of  tales,  legends,  and  fairy  stories,  the 
most  celebrated  are  the  Anicari  soheili,  or  Lights 
of  the  Canopy,  and  the  Beharidanisch,  or  Spring 
of  Wisdom.  The  historical  works  in  the  Per- 
sian language  are  very  numerous  and  valuable. 
They  embrace  the  history  of  the  Mahometan 
races  from  Mongolia  to  Barbary.  The  princi- 
pal works  are  the  Chronicles  of  Wassaf  a  his- 
tory of  the  successors  of  Genghis  Khan,  which 
appeared  in  1333  ;  the  Marrow  of  the  Chronicles, 
by  Khaswini,  in  1370,  and  the  Rauset  Essafa, 
a  great  universal  history,  of  which  modern  his- 
torians have  made  good  use.  It  was  written 
by  Mirchond,  about  the  year  1450.  In  the 
departments  of  ethics,  rhetoric,  theology,  and 
medicine,  the  Persian  scholars  are  only  second 
to  the  Arabic.  They  also  excelled  in  transla- 
tion, and  have  reproduced,  in  Persian,  nearly 
the  entire  literature  of  India. 

ITALIAN  LITERATURE. 

The  Italian  language  assumed  a  regular  and 
finished  character  at  the  Court  of  Roger  L, 
King  of  Sicily,  in  the  twelfth  century.  Sev- 
eral poets  arose,  who,  borrowing  the  forms  of 
verse  from  the  provencal  troubadours,  gave 
the  people  songs  in  their  native  language  in 
place  of  the  melodies  of  the  Moors  and  Ara- 
bians. The  Italian  soon  became  the  court 
language  of  Italy,  and  Malespina's  History  of 
Florence,  which  was  written  in  the  year  1280, 
is  scarcely  inferior  in  elegance  and  purity  of 
style  to  any  Italian  prose  works  which  have 
since  been  produced.  The  first  genuine  poet 
of  Italy,  however,  was  her  greatest,  and  one 
of  the  greatest  of  all  time.  Dante  commenced 
his  great  poem  of  the  Divina  Commedia  in  the 
year  1304,  just  before  his  exile  from  Florence, 
and  completed  it  during  his  many  years  of 
wandering  from  one  court  of  Italy  to  another. 
Out  of  the  rude  and  imperfect  materials  within 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


151 


his  reach,  he  constructed  an  epic  which 
places  his  name  beside  that  of  him  whom  he 
humbly  called  his  master,  Virgil.  Taking  the 
religious  faith  of  his  time  as  the  material,  he 
conducts  the  reader  through  the  sad  and  ter- 
rible circles  of  Hell,  the  twilight  region  of 
Purgatory,  and  the  fair  mount  of  Paradise, 
showing  him  all  forms  of  torture  and  punish- 
ment for  the  vile,  all  varieties  of  supreme  hap- 
piness for  the  pure  and  good.  The  poem  takes 
a  fierce  and  gloomy  character  from  the  wrongs 
and  persecutions  which  the  poet  endured  in  his 
life.  Dante  died  in  1321,  at  which  time  Pe- 
trarch, who  was  born  in  1304,  had  commenced 
those  studies  which  led  to  the  restoration  of 
classic  literature  to  Italy.  As  an  enthusiastic 
admirer  of  antiquity  he  imparted  to  his  con- 
temporaries that  passion  for  the  study  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  authors  which  preserved 
many  of  their  masterpieces  at  a  moment  when 
*hey  were  about  to  be  lost  to  the  world.  His 
songs  and  sonnets,  most  of  which  were  in- 
spired by  his  unfortunate  love  for  Laura  de 
Sade,  gave  him  a  worthy  place  after  Dante  in 
Italian  literature.  He  died  in  1374.  Con- 
temporary with  Petrarch  was  the  great  master 
of  Italian  prose,  Boccaccio,  who  was  born  in 
1313.  He  early  devoted  his  life  to  literature, 
and  in  1341  assisted  at  the  celebrated  examina- 
tion of  Petrarch,  previous  to  his  coronation  in 
the  capitol.  His  principal  work  is  the  De- 
cameron, a  collection  of  one  hundred  tales, 
which,  notwithstanding  the  impurities  with 
which  they  are  disfigured,  are  models  of  nar- 
ration and  exhibit  the  most  varied  powers  of 
imagination  and  invention.  Boccaccio  is  con- 
sidered as  the  inventor  of  romances  of  love  — 
a  branch  of  literature  which  was  wholly  un- 
known to  antiquity. 

For  a  century  following  the  death  of  Boc- 
caccio, the  literature  of  Italy  shows  no  great 
name,  though  several  scholars  distinguished 
themselves  by  their  attainments  and  the  aid 
which  they  rendered  to  the  cause  of  classic 
literature.  The  most  noted  of  these  were  John 
of  Ravenna ;  Leonardo  Aretino,  who  wrote  a 
history  of  Florence  in  Latin ;  Poggio  Brac- 
ciolini,  a  most  voluminous  writer,  who  enjoyed 
the  patronage  of  Cosmo  de'Medici,  at  Florence  ; 
Francesco  Fileflo  and  Lorenzo  Valla,  both 
men  of  great  erudition,  whose  labors  con- 
tributed to  bring  on  a  new  era  of  Italian  litera- 
ture. Lorenzo  de'Medici,  called  the  Magnifi- 
cent, towards  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, gave  the  first  impulse  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  Italian  tongue,  which  had  been  lost 
sight  of  in  the  rage  for  imitating  Latin  poets. 
Besides  being  the  author  of  many  elegant 
songs  and  sonnets,  his  court  was  the  home  of 
all  the  authors  of  that  period.     Among  these 


were  Politiano,  who  wrote  Orfeo,  a  fable 
formed  on  the  myth  of  Orpheus,  which  was 
performed  at  the  court  of  Mantua,  in  1483  ; 
Luigi  Pulci,  the  author  of  Morgante  Mctggiore, 
andBoiardo,  author  of  the  Orlando  Innamorato. 
Both  the  last  named  poems  are  chivalrous 
romances,  written  in  the  ottava  rima,  and  full 
of  a  quaint  humor  which  before  that  time  had 
only  appeared  in  the  prose  of  Boccaccio.  But 
the  master  of  the  gay  and  sparkling  poetic 
narrative  was  Ariosto,  who  was  born  in  1474, 
and  first  appeared  as  an  author  about  the  year 
1500.  Five  years  later  he  commenced  his 
Orlando  Furioso,  which  was  not  completed  till 
1516.  This  is  a  romantic  poem  in  forty-six 
cantos,  celebrating  the  adventures  of  Roland, 
the  nephew  of  Charlemagne.  It  is  one  of  the 
classics  of  Italy,  and  has  been  translated  into 
all  modern  languages.  After  the  death  of 
Ariosto  in  1533,  no  literary  work  of  any  prom- 
inence appeared  until  Torquato  Tasso  pub- 
lished his  Jerusalem  Delivered  in  1581.  Ala- 
manni,  Trissino  and  Bernardo  Tasso  flourished 
in  the  interval  and  produced  labored  poems, 
which  are  no  longer  read.  The  subject  of 
Tasso 's  poem  is  the  rescue  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
cher  from  the  Moslems,  by  the  Crusaders  under 
Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  The  wrongs  and  per- 
secutions heaped  upon  Tasso  clouded  his  mind 
and  shortened  his  days ;  he  died  in  Rome  in 
1595,  on  the  day  before  that  appointed  for  his 
coronation.  Three  other  Italian  authors  of 
the  sixteenth  century  are  worthy  of  mention  : 
Cardinal  Bembo,  the  most  finished  scholar  of 
his  day,  and  author  of  a  history  of  Venice ; 
Nicolo  Machiavelli,  whose  name  has  become 
synonymous  with  all  that  is  sinister  and  un- 
scrupulous in  politics,  from  his  treatise  en- 
titled The  Prince,  for  which,  after  his  death, 
an  anathema  was  pronounced  against  him  ; 
and  Pietro  Aretino,  one  of  the  most  infamous 
and  dissolute  men  of  his  time.  Machiavelli 
wrote  an  admirable  History  of  Florence,  which 
is  still  a  standard  work. 

In  the  half -century  following  the  death  of 
Tasso,  there  are  but  two  poets  who  have  at- 
tained any  renown :  Guarini,  the  author  of 
Pastor  Fido,  and  Tassoni,  who  wrote  the 
Secchia  Rapita  (Rape  of  the  Bucket).  Filicaja, 
whose  impassioned  lyrics  are  still  the  revolu- 
tionary inspiration  of  Italy,  belongs  to  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  he  died 
in  1707.  After  another  long  interval  arose 
Frugoni,  a  lyric  poet  of  some  celebrity,  who 
died  in  1768,  and  Metastasio,  the  author  of 
plays,  operas,  and  ballets  innumerable.  He  is 
remarkable  for  his  wonderful  command  of  the 
language,  and  the  free  and  spirited  movement 
of  his  dialogue.  He  died  in  Vienna  in  the 
year  1782.     During  this  same  period,  Italian 


152 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


dramatic  literature  received  a  new  accession  in 
Goldoni,  whose  comedies  are  still  the  glory  of 
the  Italian  stage.  He  had  a  rival  in  Count 
Gazzi,  whose  works,  nevertheless,  are  far 
inferior  to  Goldoni's  in  humor  and  brilliancy. 
What  Goldoni  did  for  comedy,  Alfieri  accom- 
plished* for  Italian  tragedy.  This  author  justly 
stands  at  the  head  of  modern  Italian  litera- 
ture. His  tragedies,  odes,  and  lyrics  exhibit 
an  eloquence  and  fervor  of  thought  which  are 
scarcely  reached  by  any  other  author.  His 
principal  works  are  Saul,  Myrrha,  Octavia, 
Brutus  the  Second,  and  Philip  II.  Since  the 
commencement  of  this  century,  Italy  has  not 
been  barren  of  authors.  Pindemonte,  who 
has  published  several  volumes  of  dramatic 
poetry  ;  Ugo  Foscolo,  author  of  a  poem  called 
The  Sepulchres ;  Manzoni,  who  wrote  /  Pro- 
messi  Sposi  (The  Betrothed),  a  charming 
romance  of  life  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Como  ; 
Silvio  Pellico,  whose  Le  Mie  Prigione  is  a  nar- 
rative of  his  sufferings  in  the  prison  at  Spiel- 
berg, and  Niccolini,  equally  celebrated  as  a 
poet  and  prose  writer.  Mazzini,  Triumvir  of 
Rome  during  the  brief  period  of  the  Republic, 
and  Gioberti  distinguished  themselves  as 
Italian  authors,  as  did  also  Leopardi. 

During  the  last  half-century  the  rapid  prog- 
ress of  political  events  in  Italy  seems  to  have 
absorbed  the  energies  of  the  people,  who  have 
made  little  advance  in  literature.  For  the 
first  time  since  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire 
the  country  has  become^  a  united  kingdom, 
and  in  the  national  adjustment  to  the  new 
conditions,  and  in  the  material  and  industrial 
development  which  has  followed,  the  new  lit- 
erature has  not  yet,  to  any  great  extent,  found 
voice.  Yet  this  period  of  natural  formation 
and  consolidation,  however,  has  not  been 
without  its  poets,  among  whom  a  few  may  be 
here  named.  Aleardo  Aleardi  (d.  1882)  is 
one  of  the  finest  poetical  geniuses  that  Italy 
has  produced  within  the  last  century,  but  his 
writings  show  the  ill  effects  of  a  poet  sacrific- 
ing his  art  to  a  political  cause,  and  when  the 
patriot  has  ceased  to  declaim,  the  poet  ceases 
to  sing.  Prati  (1815-1884),  on  the  other 
hand,  in  his  writings  exemplifies  the  evil  of  a 
poet  refusing  to  take  part  in  the  grand  move- 
ment of  his  nation.  He  severs  himself  from 
all  present  interests  and  finds  his  subjects  in 
sources  which  have  no  interest  for  his  contem- 
poraries. He  has  great  metrical  facility  and 
his  lyrics  are  highly  praised.  Carducci,  like 
Aleardi,  is  a  poet  who  has  written  on  political 
subjects ;  he  belongs  to  the  class  of  closet 
democrats.  His  poems  display  a  remarkable 
talent  for  the  picturesque,  forcible,  and  epi- 
grammatic. The  poems  of  Zanella  are  nearly 
all  on  scientific  subjects  connected  with  human 


feeling,  and  entitle  him  to  a  distinguished 
place  among  the  refined  poets  of  his  country. 
A  poet  of  greater  promise  than  those  already 
spoken  of  is  Arnaboldi,  who  has  the  endow- 
ment requisite  to  become  the  first  Italian  poet 
of  a  new  school,  but  who  endangers  his  posi- 
tion by  devoting  hi3  verse  to  utilitarian 
purposes. 

The  tendency  of  the  younger  poets  is  to 
realism  and  to  representing  its  most  material- 
istic features  as  beautiful.  Against  this  cur- 
rent of  the  new  poetry  Alessandro  Rizzi, 
Guerzoni,  and  others  have  uttered  a  strong 
protest  in  poetry  and  prose. 

Among  historians,  Capponi  is  the  author  of 
a  history  of  Florence ;  Zini  has  continued 
Farina's  history  of  Italy;  Bartoli,  Settembrini, 
and  He  Sanctis  have  written  histories  of  Italian 
literature  ;  Villari  is  the  author  of  able  works 
on  the  life  of  Machiavelli  and  of  Savonarola, 
and  Berti  has  written  the  life  of  Giordano 
Bruno.  In  criticism  philosophic,  historical, 
and  literary,  Fiorentino,  De  Sanctis,  Massa- 
rani,  and  Trezza  are  distinguished.  Barili, 
Farina,  Bersezio,  and  Giovagnoli  are  writers 
of  fiction,  and  Cossa,  Ferrari,  and  Giacosa  are 
the  authors  of  many  dramatic  works.  The 
charming  books  of  travel  by  De  Amicis  are 
extensively  translated  and  very  popular. 

SPANISH  LITERATURE. 

The  earliest  essay  In  Spanish  literature  is 
the  Chronicle  of  the  Cid,  which  is  supposed  to 
have  been  written  about  the  middle  of  the 
twelfth  century.  In  form  the  poem  is  suffi- 
ciently barbarous,  though  the  language  is 
remarkably  spirited  and  picturesque.  It  has 
been  the  fount  of  numberless  songs  and  legends 
through  the  later  centuries.  It  narrates  the 
adventures  of  Ruy  Diaz  de  Bivar,  the  Cid 
Campeador. 

In  the  following  century,  Gonzales  de  Berceo, 
a  monk,  wrote  nine  voluminous  poems  on  the 
lives  of  the  saints.  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile, 
whose  reign  terminated  in  1284,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  entitled  The  Philosopher's 
Stone,  besides  several  prose  works.  The  first 
author  of  the  fourteenth  century  was  Prince 
Don  John  Manuel,  who  wrote  a  prose  work 
entitled  Count  Lucanor,  a  collection  of  tales 
embodying  lessons  of  policy  and  morality. 
He  was  followed  by  Pedro  Lopez  de  Ayala  and 
Mendoza,  Marquis  de  Santillana ;  though  the 
latter  belongs  properly  to  the  next  century. 
He  produced  a  number  of  works,  both  prose 
and  poetry,  all  of  which  were  remarkable  for 
the  erudition  they  displayed.  Some  of  his 
lighter  poems  are  very  graceful  and  melodious. 

Under  the  reign  of  Charles  V.  Spanish  liter- 
ature first  reached  its  full  development.     After 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


153 


the  union  of  Arragon  and  Castile,  and  the 
transfer  of  the  seat  of  the  government  to 
Madrid,  the  Castilian  became  the  court  lan- 
guage, and  thus  received  a  new  polish  and 
elegance.  The  first  author  of  this  period  was 
Boscan,  an  imitator  of  Petrarch,  in  some  re- 
spects, but  a  poet  of  much  native  fervor  and 
passion.  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  the  friend  of 
Boscan,  surpasses  him  in  the  sweetness  of  his 
verses  and  in  their  susceptibility  and  imagina- 
tion, lie  was  a  master  of  pastoral  poetry,  and 
his  eclogues  are  considered  models  of  that 
species  of  writing.  His  life  was  actively 
devoted  to  the  profession  of  arms.  He  fought 
under  the  banner  of  Charles  XI.  in  Tunis, 
Sicily,  and  Provence,  and  was  finally  killed 
while  storming  the  walls  of  Nice.  Don 
Diego  de  Mendoza,  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated politicians  and  generals  of  that  pe- 
riod, is  generally  awarded  a  place  next  to 
Garcilaso.  He  was  a  patron  of  classical  liter- 
ature, and  the  author  of  a  history  of  the 
Moorish  Revolt  in  the  Alpuxarra,  and  a  His- 
tory of  the  War  of  Granada,  but  a  man  of 
cruel  and  tyrannical  character.  Montemayor, 
who  flourished  at  the  same  time,  attained 
much  celebrity  from  his  pastoral  of  Diana. 
These  authors  during  the  reign  of  Charles  V. 
gave  Spanish  poetry  its  most  graceful  and  cor- 
rect form,  and  have  since  been  regarded  as 
models  of  classic  purity.  The  great  masters 
of  Spanish  literature,  however,  were  reserved 
for  the  succeeding  generation.  Herrera  and 
Ponce  de  Leon,  lyrical  poets,  fill  the  interval 
between  the  age  of  Garcilaso  de  la  Yega  and 
Cervantes.  Herrera  is  considered  the  first 
purely  lyrical  poet  of  Spain.  Ponce  de  Leon, 
who  was  imprisoned  five  years  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion for  having  translated  the  Song  of  Solo- 
,mon,  was  the  author  of  several  volumes  of 
religious  poetry. 

Two  of  the  brightest  stars  of  Spanish  litera- 
ture, Cervantes  and  Lope  de  Vega,  were  con- 
temporaries, and  were  followed  in  the  next 
generation  by  the  third,  Calderon.  Cervantes 
was  born  in  1549.  He  traveled  throughout 
Italy,  lost  a  hand  at  the  battle  of  Lepanto, 
and  was  five  years  a  slave  in  Barbary.  He 
commenced  his  literary  career  by  the  writing 
of  comedies  and  tragedies,  the  first  of  which, 
Galatea,  was  published  in  1584.  Thirty  of  his 
comedies  have  been  entirely  lost.  His  great 
work,  Don  Quixote,  was  published  in  1G05,  and 
was  immediately  translated  into  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  From  this  time  until  his 
death  in  1616,  he  wrote  many  novels  and 
comedies.  The  tragedy  of  Xumantia  and  the 
comedy  of  Life  in  Algiers  are  the  only  two  of 
his  plays  which  have  been  preserved.  To  this 
same  period  belongs  Don  Alonzo  de   Ercilla, 


whose  epic  of  La  Aracuana  was  written  during 
the  hardships  of  a  campaign  against  the  Ara- 
cuanian  Indians  in  Chile.  Lope  de  Vega  was 
born  in  1562,  and  after  a  life  of  the  most  mar- 
velous performances  died  in  1635.  He  was  a 
prodigy  of  learning,  imagination,  and  lan- 
guage. Out  of  eighteen  hundred  dramas 
which  he  wrote,  one  hundred  were  each  pro- 
duced in  the  space  of  a  single  day.  His 
detached  poems  have  been  printed  in  twenty- 
seven  volumes  in  quarto.  Very  few  of  his 
plays  are  now  read  or  performed.  The  only 
remaining  authors  of  eminence  during  this 
period  are  Quevedo,  who  wrote  several  moral 
and  religious  works  and  three  volumes  of 
lyrics,  pastorals,  and  sonnets ;  Villegas,  an 
Anacreonic  poet ;  and  the  Je>*ats^Mariana, 
author  of  a  History  of  Spain.  The  life  of 
Calderon  de  la  Barca,  the  illustrious  head  of 
the  Spanish  drama,  extended  from  1600  to 
1687.  His  plays  are  of  four  kinds:  sacred 
dramas,  from  Scriptural  sources ;  historical 
dramas ;  classic  dramas ;  and  pictures  of 
society  and  manners.  The  most  celebrated 
are,  The  Constant  Prince,  El  Secreto  a  Voces 
and  El  Macjico  Prodigioso.  A  number  of 
small  dramatists  were  contemporary  with  Cal- 
deron, but  with  his  death  Spanish  literature 
declined,  and  has  since  producecLfew  eminent 
names.  Luyando,  councilor  of  state,  pub- 
lished two  tragedies  in  1750,  and  in  1758 
appeared  The  Life  of  Friar  Gerund,  by  Salazar 
—  a  work  in  the  style  of  Don  Quixote,  but 
directed  against  the  clergy  instead  of  the  chiv- 
alry. It  abounds  with  wit  and  satire,  and  is 
perhaps  the  best  Spanish  prose  work  of  the  last 
century.  Toward  the  close  of  the  century 
Iluerta  achieved  considerable  reputation  by 
his  attempts  to  revive  the  Spanish  drama. 
Tomas  de  Yriarte  published  in  1782  his  Lit- 
erary Fables,  and  a  few  years  later  Melendez 
appeared  as  the  author  of  two  volumes  of  idyls 
and  pastorals.  Both  of  these  authors  diplay 
considerable  lyric  genius. 

The  new  life  and  health  infused  into  litera- 
ture in  the  age  of  Charles  III.  was  checked  by 
the  French  revolutionary  wars  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  IV.,  and  afterwards  by  the  restoration 
of  civil  despotism  and  the  Inquisition,  brought 
again  into  the  country  by  the  return  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty  in  1814.  Amidst  the  vio- 
lence and  confusion  of  the  reign  of  Ferdinand 
VII.  (1814-1833),  elegant  letters  could  hardly 
hope  to  find  shelter  or  resting  place.  Nearly 
every  poet  and  prose  writer,  known  as  such  at 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  IV.,  became 
involved  in  the  fierce  political  changes  of  the 
time, — changes  so  varied  and  so  opposite,  that 
those  who  escaped  from  the  consequences  of 
one,  were  often,  on  that  very  account,  sure  to 


154 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


suffer  in  the  next  that  followed.  Indeed,  the 
.reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  was  an  interregnum 
in  all  elegant  culture,  such  as  no  modern 
nation  has  yet  seen, — not  even  Spain  herself 
during  the  War  of  the  Succession.  This  state 
of  things  continued  through  the  long  civil  war 
which  arose  soon  after  the  death  of  that  king, 
and  indeed,  it  is  not  yet  entirely  abated.  But 
despite  the  troubled  condition  of  the  country, 
even  while  Ferdinand  was  living,  a  movement 
was  begun,  the  first  traces  of  which  are  to  be 
found  among  the  emigrated  Spaniards,  who 
cheered  with  letters  their  exile  in  England  and 
France,  and  whose  subsequent  progress,  from 
the  time  when  the  death  of  their  unfaithful 
monarch  permitted  them  to  return  home,  is 
distinctly  perceptible  in  their  own  country. 

The  two  principal  writers  of  the  first  half  of 
the  century  are  the  satirist  Jose  de  Larra  (d. 
1837)  and  the  poet  Espronceda  (d.  1842)  ; 
both  were  brilliant  writers,  and  both  died 
young.  Zorrilla  (b.  1817)  has  great  wealth  of 
imagination,  and  F.ernan  Caballero  is  a  gifted 
woman  whose  stories  have  beenoiten  trans- 
lated. Antonio  de  Trueba  is  a  writer  of 
popular  songs  and  short  stories  not  without 
merit.  Campoamor  (b.  1817)  and  Bequer 
represent  the  poetry  of  twenty  years  ago.  The 
short  lyrics  of  the  first  named  are  remarkable 
for  their  delicacy  and  finesse.  Bequer,  who 
died  at  the  age  of  thirty,  left  behind  him 
poems  which  have  already  exercised  a  wide  in- 
fluence in  his  own  country  and  in  Spanish 
America  ;  they  tell  a  story  of  passionate  love, 
despair,  and  death. 

Perez  Galdds,  a  writer  of  fiction,  attacks  the 
problem  of  modern  life  and  thought,  and  rep- 
resents with  vivid  and  often  bitter  fidelity  the 
conflicting  interests  and  passions  of  Spanish 
life.  Valera,  a  minister  from  Spain  to  the 
United  States,  is  the  author  of  the  most  famous 
Spanish  novel  of  the  day,  Pepita  Jimenez,  a 
work  of  great  artistic  perfection,  and  his  skill 
and  grace  are  still  more  evident  in  his  critical 
essays.  Castelar  gained  a  European  celebrity 
as  an  orator  and  a  political  and  miscellaneous 
writer,  and  was  as  well  preeminent  in  the  field 
of  diplomacy.  The  works  of  these  authors,  and 
of  many  others  not  named,  show  clearly  that 
Spain  is  making  vigorous  efforts  to  bring  her- 
self socially  and  intellectually  into  line  with 
the  rest  of  Europe. 

Of  the  Spanish  colonies,  Cuba  has  produced 
some  writers  of  enduring  renown.  The  most 
distinguished  for  poetic  fame  is  Gertrude  de 
Ayelleneda ;  Heredia  and  Placido  may  also  be 
mentioned.  Tn  Venezuela,  Baralt  is  known 
as  a  historian,  poet,  and  classical  writer; 
Olmedo  as  a  poet  of  Bolivia,  and  Caro  a 
writer  of  the  United  States  of  Colombia. 


PORTUGUESE  LITERATURE. 

Portugal  first  acquired  its  position  as  an  in- 
dependent kingdom  after  the  battle  of  Ouri- 
gue,  in  1139.  The  date  of  the  origin  of  its 
literature  is  nearly  coeval  with  that  of  the 
monarchy,  Hermiguez  and  Moniz,  two  knights 
who  flourished  under  Alfonso  I.,  wrote  the  first 
ballads.  King  Dionysius,  who  reigned  from 
1279  to  1325,  and  his  son  Alfonso  IV.,  were 
both  renowned  as  poets ;  but  few  vestiges  of 
their  writings  remain.  It  was  not  until  the 
fifteenth  century,  however,  that  Portuguese 
literature  attained  any  considerable  merit. 
Macias,  a  Portuguese  knight  engaged  in  the 
wars  with  the  Moors  of  Granada,  was  called 
El  Enamorado,  on  account  of  the  tender  and 
glowing  character  of  his  amatory  poems.  The 
first  distinguished  poet  of  the  country  was 
Bernardin  Ribeyrc,  who  flourished  under  the 
reign  of  Emmanuel  the  Great,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  His  most  celebrated 
productions  are  his  eclogues,  the  scenes  of 
which  are  laid  on  the  banks  of  the  Tagus  and 
the  sea  shores  of  Portugal.  His  lyrics  of  love, 
the  origin  of  which  is  attributed  to  an  unholy 
passion  for  the  king's  daughter,  are  wonder- 
fully sweet  and  melodious.  The  first  prose 
work  in  Portuguese  worthy  of  note  is  a  romance 
entitled  The  Innocent  (Jbi,  which  appeared 
about  this  period.  Saa  de  Mirauda,  who  also 
attained  celebrity  as  a  Spanish  author,  was 
born  in  Coimbra  in  1495,  and  wrote  many 
sonnets,  lyrics,  and  eclogues  in  his  native 
tongue.  He  also  wrote  a  series  of  poetical  epis- 
tles, after  the  manner  of  Horace.  Antonio 
Ferreira,  who  was  born  in  1528,  followed  the 
example  of  Miranda  in  his  sonnets  and  eclogues, 
but  surpassed  him  in  entering  the  field  of 
dramatic  literature.  His  Inez  de  Castro, 
founded  on  the  tragic  story  of  that  lady,  dis- 
plays much  power  and  pathos  in  the  delinea- 
tion of  the  characters.  The  other  poets  of  this 
generation  were  Andrade  Caminha,  Diego 
Bernardes,  and  Rodriguez  de  Castro,  all  of 
whom  wrote  lyrics,  sonnets,  and  pastorals,  few 
of  which  have  survived  them. 

The  sole  star  of  Portuguese  literature,  who 
is  now  almost  its  only  representative  to  other 
nations,  was  Luis  de  Camoens,  who  was  born 
in  1525.  After  studying  at  Coimbra,  where 
he  was  coldly  treated  by  Ferreira,  he  embraced 
the  profession  of  arms,  and  lost  an  eye  in  the 
siege  of  Ceuta.  Sailing  for  India  in  1533,  he 
reached  Goa  in  safety,  participated  in  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  king  of  Cochin-China, 
spent  a  winter  in  the  islands  of  Ormuz,  and 
afterwards,  on  account  of  a  satire  entitled 
Follies  in  India,  directed  against  the  Portu- 
guese governor,  was  banished  to  Macao,  on  the 
coast  of  China.     During  his  residence  of  five 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


155 


years  in  that  place,  he  wrote  his  great  epic  of 
The  Lusiarl,  devoted  to  celebrating  the  passage 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  by  Vsraco  de  Gama, 
and  the  triumph  of  PoutugueseArms  and  com- 
merce in  the  Orient.  On  his  return  to  Por- 
tugal he  was  shipwrecked  on /he  coast  of  Cam- 
bodia, and  escaped  by  swwnming,  with  The 
Lusiad  in  his  hand,  held  above  the  waves.  He 
died  in  great  poverty  in  17f>9.  He  left  behind 
him  many  sonnets,  songs,  and  pastorals,  but 
most  of  them  are  penetrated  with  a  vein  of 
deep  and  settled  melancholy.  Among  the  suc- 
cessors of  Camoens,  the  most  noted  are  Gil 
Vicente,  a  dramatic  writer,  who  is  supposed 
to  have  served  as  a  model  to  Lope  de  Vega  and 
Calderon  ;  and  Rodriguez  Lobo,  who  was  at 
one  time  considered  a  rival  of  Camoens.  He 
wrote  the  Winter  Nights,  a  series  of  philo- 
sophical conversations,  Spring,  a  romance,  and 
numberless  pastorals.  Cortereal  also  described 
in  a  ponderous  epic  the  adventures  of  Manuel 
de  Sousa  Sepulveda,  a  distinguished  Portu- 
guese. 

The  age  of  Camoens  also  gave  rise  to  a  new 
branch  of  literature.  John  de  Barros,  born 
in  1498,  is  esteemed  by  his  countrymen  as  the 
Livy  of  Portugal.  He  commenced  his  career 
by  a  romance  entitled,  The.  Emperor  Clarimond, 
but  after  his  return  from  service  on  the  coast 
of  Guinea,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  grand  historical  work  on  the  Portu- 
guese empire.  Only  one-fourth  of  this,  en- 
titled Portuguese  Asia,  which  was  published 
in  1552,  appeared.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
comprehensive,  accurate,  and  interesting  his- 
torical works  of  that  age.  Alfonso  d'Albuquer- 
que,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  contem- 
poraries of  Barros,  wrote  a  series  of  Commen- 
taries, and  Couto  and  Castanheda  undertook  to 
complete  the  work  which  Barros  had  left  un- 
finished. Bernardo  de  Brito,  born  in  1570, 
designed  to  give  a  universal  history  of  Portugal, 
but,  commencing  with  the  Creation,  he  died 
by  the  time  he  reached  the  Christian  Era. 
Osorio,  Bishop  of  Sylvez,  who  died  in  1580, 
wrote  the  History  of  King  Emmanuel,  de- 
scribing the  religious  troubles  of  that  time  in  a 
most  liberal  and  enlightened  spirit.  Manuel 
de  Faria,  born  in  1590,  almost  rivaled  Lope  de 
Vega  in  the  amount  of  his  works  ;  his  disserta- 
tions on  the  art  of  poetry  are  held  in  most 
value.  He  also  wrote  a  History  of  Portugal 
and  a  Commentary  on  Camoens.  After  the 
subjugation  of  Portugal  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain, 
the  literature  of  the  country  declined,  and 
presents  no  distinguished  name  for  nearly  a 
century  following.  The  first  author  of  the 
last  century  is  the  Count  of  Ericeyra,  born  in 
1673.  He  was  a  general  in  the  army,  and  a 
scholar   of  splendid   attainments.     His   chief 


work  was  the  Henrique'ide,  an  epic  poem  de- 
scribing the  adventures  of  Henry  of  Burgundy, 
the  foundor  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  last  century,  Antonio 
Garcao  and  the  Countess  de  Vimieiro  acquired 
some  celebrity  by  their  dramatic  productions. 
The  only  Portuguese  authors  of  note  whom 
the  present  century  has  brought  forth  are 
Antonio  da  Cruz  e  Silva,  who  imitated  Pope 
and  other  English  poets,  and  J.  A.  da  Cunha, 
an  eminent  mathematician  and  elegiac  poet. 
The  Portuguese  colonies  have  produced  a  few 
writers,  the  most  noted  of  whom  are  Vascen- 
cellos  and  Claudio  Manuel  da  Costa. 

FRENCH  LITERATURE. 

The  literature  of  France  was  later  in  its  de- 
velopment than  that  of  the  other  nations  of 
Southern  Europe.  It  was  necessary  to  wait 
the  decline  of  the  two  romance-tongues  of 
Normandy  and  Provence  before  the  language 
could  take  a  settled  form,  and  a  still  further 
time  elapsed  before  it  was  sufficiently  matured 
for  the  purpose  of  the  scholar  and  the  author. 
During  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries 
the  kingdom  produced  many  romances,  in 
which  the  influence  of  the  literature  of  the 
Trouveres  and  Troubadours  was  manifest. 
Gilbert  de  Montreuil,  Castellan  de  Coucy,  and 
some  others  were  noted  for  this  species  of 
composition ;  many  sacred  dramas  and  mys- 
teries were  written  in  the  north  of  France,  and 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  sev- 
eral romantic  epics  appeared.  The  only  re- 
markable name  of  this  early  period  is  the  re- 
nowned chronicler,  Froissart,  who  was  born  in 
1337,  and  in  the  course  of  his  travels  and  so- 
journ at  all  the  courts  of  Europe,  was  witness 
of  many  of  the  chivalrous  events  he  describes 
in  his  "  Chronicles  of  France,  Spain,  Italy, 
England,  and  Germany."  Philip  de  Comines, 
who  died  in  1509,  passed  his  life  in  the  service 
of  Louis  IX.,  and  left  behind  him  the  "  Mem- 
oirs "  of  his  time.  The  latter  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century  produced  many  small  writers 
of  satires,  odes,  songs,  etc.,  among  whom, 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  takes  the  first  rank. 
The  sacred  mysteries,  the  first  attempt  at 
theatrical  representation,  gradually  gave  place 
to  a  rude  form  of  drama  and  comedy,  and  a 
very  successful  comedy  of  French  life  appeared 
in  1475. 

With  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  the  study  of 
the  classics  became  popular  in  France,  and  from 
that  time  until  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  the  prog- 
ress of  French  literature  was  rapid  and  un- 
interrupted. The  sixteenth  century  produced 
a  few  great  names.  Scaljger  and  Casaubon 
were  renowned  for  their  scholastic  acquire- 
ments ;  Clement  Marot    and   Theodore  Beza 


'VU^r 


156  THE  C^TURY  BOOK 

cultivated  poetry  under  Francis  'I.,  whose 
sister,  Margaret  of  Valrns,  published  a  collec- 
tion of  novels,  called  the  Heptameron ;  Ron- 
sard  was  the  first  French  poet  who  showed 
strong  original  genius,  and,  with  Regnier,  gave 
the  national  poetry  a  freer  and  more  character- 
istic tone.  The  drama  was  improved  by 
Etienne  Jodelle,  who  imitated  the  Greek 
tragedians  ;  Claude  de  Seyssel  wrote  the  His- 
tory of  Louis  XII.  ;  and  Brantome  and  Agrippa 
d_'Aubignd  left  behind  them  many  memoirs 
and  historical  essays.  But  the  boast,  of  the 
age  is  the  names  of  Malherbe,  Rabelais,  and 
Montaigne.  Malherbe,  born  in  1554,  is  con- 
sidered the  first  French  classic,  in  poetry ;  his 
language  is  most  inflexibly  pure  and  correct. 
Rabelais  was  born  in  1483,  and  his  romance  of 
Gargantua  and  Pantagruel  was  first  published 
in  1533.  Notwithstanding  its  grossness  it  is 
one  of  the  most  lively,  humorous,  and  brilliant 
books  in  the  language.  It  satirizes  the  clerical 
and  political  characters  of  his  time.  Mon- 
taigne, whose  life  extended  from  1533  to  1592, 
wrote  three  volumes  of  essays,  on  moral,  polit- 
ical, and  religious  subjects,  which  on  account 
of  their  elegant  style  no  less  than  the  treasures 
of  thought  they  contain,  have  always  held  their 
place  among  French  classics. 

The  seventeenth  century  is  the  glory  of 
French  literature.  Under  the  auspices  of 
Richelieu,  Colbert,  and  Louis  XIV.  all  de- 
partments of  letters,  science,  and  art  reached  a 
height  unknown  before.  The  French  Academy 
was  founded  by  Richelieu  in  1635,  and  the 
language,  at  that  time  unrivaled  in  clearness, 
perspicacity,  and  flexibility,  gradually  became 
the  polite  tongue  of  Europe.  Dramatic  poetry, 
especially,  founded  on  the  principles  of  the 
Greek  theater,  attained  a  character  it  has  never 
since  reached.  Corneille,  born  in  1606,  was 
the  father  of  the  classic  French  drama.  His 
first  play,  The  Cid,  belongs  rather  to  the 
romantic  drama,  but  through  the  influence  of 
the  Academy  his  later  works,  the  most  eminent 
of  which  are  Les  Horaces,  Cinna,  Polyeucte, and 
Mort  de  Pompee,  are  strictly  classical.  His 
dramatic  works  amount  to  thirty-three.  Ra- 
cine, who  was  born  in  1639,  brought  the 
classic  drama  to  perfection.  His  language  is 
the  most  elegant  and  melodious  of  all  French 
dramatists,  while  he  is  inferior  to  none  in  his 
knowledge  of  nature  and  his  command  of  the 
sentiments  and  passions.  His  plays,  though 
constructed  on  the  classic  model,  are  not  con- 
fined strictly  to  classic  subjects.  The  most 
celebrated  are  Andromaque,  Bajazet,  Mithri- 
date,  Phedre,  Esther,  and  Athalie.  After  these 
two  authors  ranks  Moliere,  the  father  and 
master  of  French  comedy.  His  Tartuffe  has  a 
universal  celebrity.     He  died  in  1673.     Cr6bil- 


tflhhc^. 


OF  FACTS.  Q;,^ 

Ion,  sometimes  called  the  French  iEschylus, 
was  a  writer  of  tragedies.  Legrand,  Regnard, 
and  Scarron  distinguished  themselves  as  drama- 
tists of  secondary  note.  To  this  age  belong 
Le  Sage,  the  author  of  Gil  Bias  ;  La  Fontaine, 
the  greatest  i"abulist"sm"ce  vEsop  ;  and  Boileau, 
the  satirist  and  didactic  poet,  whose  Art  Poe't- 
ique  and  Lutrin  or  "  Battle  of  the  Books  "  have 
been  made  classic.  Mademoiselle  de  Scudery 
wrote  many  chivalrous  romances,  and  Perrault's 
fairytales  soon  became  household  words.  The 
Telemaque  of  Fe'nelon  was  also  produced  during 
this  period.  This  author,  with  Bourdaloue, 
Bossuet,  and  Massillon,  were  celebrated  as 
theological  writers  and  pulpit  orators.  Madame 
de  Sevigne^s  letters  are  unsurpassed  as  speci- 
mens of  graceful  and  spirited  epistolary  writ- 
ing. As  historian s^^Rollin^  is  the  most  dis- 
tinguished, but  Mezeray,  author  of  the  national 
Chronicles,  the  Jesuit  D'Orleans,  author  of 
Histories  of  Revolutions  in  England  and 
Spain,  and  Bossuet's  theological  histories  are 
worthy  of  notice. 

During  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  lit- 
erature of  Spain,  Italy,  and  Portugal  were  on 
the  decline,  and  England  and  Germany  re- 
mained stationary,  France  still  maintained  her 
supremacy.  In  1694  was  born  Voltaire,  who 
in  the  course  of  his  life  made  himself  master 
of  nearly  every  department  of  literature.  His 
first  play,  CEdipe.  was  successfully  performed 
in  1718,  though  his  epic  of  the  Henriade,  writ- 
ten at  the  same  time,  was  not  published  till 
1729.  Many  of  his  succeeding  plays  were  un- 
successful, and  his  satires  and  philosophical 
essays  produced  only  banishment.  His  prin- 
cipal plays  are  Zaire,  Alzire,  Brutus,  Oreste, 
Mahomet,  and  Tancrede.  After  his  return  from 
Germany,  he  settled  at  Ferney  on  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  wThere  for  twenty  years  he  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  His  principal  works  are 
History  of  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  ;  History  of 
Russia  under  Peter  The  Great ;  Pyrrhonisme  de 
VHistoire,  Droits  de  V Homme  and  the  Dictionnaire 
Philosophique .  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  born  in 
1712,  exercised  scarcely  less  influence  on  French 
literature,  than  Voltaire.  His  first  work,  a 
dissertation  on  Modern  Music,  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1743,  about  which  time  he  wrote  sev- 
eral comedies  and  tragedies  and  composed  an 
opera.  His  romance  entitled  Nouvelle  Heloise 
was  published  in  1760,  and  his  Contrat  Social 
and  Emile  in  1762.  His  most  remarkable 
work,  the  Confessions,  was  completed  in  1770, 
and  he  died  in  1778.  As  bold  and  independ- 
ent as  Voltaire  in  his  philosophical  views,  he 
had  nothing  of  his  cynicism.  His  works,  the 
style  of  which  is  absolutely  fascinating,  express 
a  sincere  sympathy  with  humanity.  Montes- 
quieu, whose  Spirit  of  Laws  is  a  standard  work 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


157 


on  jurisprudence,  belongs  to  the  first  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  Among  the  historians 
contemporary  with  Voltaire,  were  Condorcet, 
author  of  a  History  of  Civilization,  and  Barth£- 
lemy,  who  also  wrote  the  Voyage  de  Jeune  An- 
acharsis.  La  Bruyere,  La  Harpe,  and  Madame 
d'Epinay  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
didactic  and  epistolary  writings.  The  most 
noted  novelists  were  Marmontel,  Bernardin  de 
St.  Pierre,  author  of  Paul  and  Virginia,  and 
Louvet.  Marivaux  attained  distinction  as  a 
writer  of  comedies,  and  Beaumarchais  as  a 
dramatist  and  writer  of  operas.  The  well- 
known  Barber  of  Seville  is  from  his  pen. 
France  produced  few  lyric  poets  during  the 
last  century.  Lebrun,  Delille,  and  Joseph 
Chenier  are  the  most  worthy  of  mention,  but 
the  Marseillaise  of  Rouget  de  Lisle  is  the  finest 
yric  of  the  century,  if  not  of  all  French  litera- 
ture. Mirabeau,  Barnave,  Sieyes,  and  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Revolution  gave  a  new  and  splendid 
character  to  French  oratory,  toward  the  close 
of  the  century. 

Chateaubriand,  De  Stael,  and  Be>anger  con- 
nect the  age  of  Rousseau  and  Voltaire  with  the 
modern  literature  of  France.  Chateaubriand 
was  born  in  1769,  and  published  his  first  work, 
the  Essay  on  Revolutions,  in  London,  in  1797, 
while  in  exile.  His  Atala,  the  subject  of  which 
was  derived  from  his  adventures  among  the 
Natchez  tribe  of  Indians,  on  the  Mississippi, 
appeared  in  1801,  and  his  Genie  du  Christian- 
isme  in  1802.  He  also  published  Les  Martyrs  in 
1807,  and  an  account  of  his  travels  in  the  East. 
He  filled  many  diplomatic  stations  under  the 
Bourbons,  and  was  made,  peer  of  France. 
After  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1848,  his 
autobiography  was  published,  under  the  title 
of  Mi'moires  d'outre  Tombe.  Madame  de 
Stael,  the  daughter  of  M.  Neckar,  afterwards 
minister  under  Louis  XVI.,  was  born  in  1766, 
and  first  appeared  as  an  author  in  1788,  when 
she  published  a  series  of  letters  on  the  life  and 
writings  of  Rousseau.  During  the  French 
Revolution  she  remained  in  Switzerland  and 
England,  where  she  wrote  several  political 
pamphlets,  dramas,  and  essays  on  life  and 
literature.  Her  romance  of  Corinne  was  pub- 
lished in  1807,  and  her  De  I'Allemagne,  which 
directed  attention  to  the  literature  of  Ger- 
many, in  1810.  Her  work  entitled  Ten  Years 
of  Exile,  was  written  in  Sweden  ;  she  died  in 
Paris  in  1817.  B6ranger  is  the  first  song- 
writer of  France.  Many  of  his  lyrics  and 
ballads  have  become  household  words  with  the 
common  people.  Casimir  Delavigne,  who 
died  in  1843,  was  among  the  first  restorers  of 
that  lyric  school,  which  Lamartine,  Victor 
Hugo,  and  Alfred  de  Musset  have  since  carried 
to  a  high  degree  of  perfection.       The  most  re- 


nowned names  in  recent  French  literature  are, 
as  poets,  Alphonse  de  Lamartine,  author  of 
Meditations  Poetinues,  Harmonies  Poetiques  and 
La  Chute  d'un  Ange :  Victor  Hugo,  author  of 
three  volumes  of  lyrical  romances  and  ballads  ; 
Alfred  de  Musset ;  Jean  Reboul,  a  disciple  of 
Lamartine  ;  and  Auguste  Barbier,  who  mingles 
with  his  poems  a  vein  of  keen  satire.  Jasmin,) 
ajiiarber  oj  A  gen,  has  obtained  much  celebrity 
by  his  poems  in  the  Gascon  dialect.  The  new 
school  of  French  romance  has  infected  tpe 
modern  literature  of  all  countries.  Balzac, 
who  died  in  1850,  is  unequaled  as  a  painter 
of  society  and  manners  ;  Eugene  Sue,  whose 
Mysteries  of  Paris  and  Wandering  Jew  have 
been  so  widely  read,  delights  in  exciting  sub- 
jects and  the  most  intricate  and  improbable 
plots ;  Alexander  Dumas,  best  known  by  his 
Count  of  Monte  Crista,  and  his  romances  of^ 
trayeL^is  a  master  of  picturesque  narrative  ; 
Ytctor  Hugo  is  best  known  as  a  novelist  by  his 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris,  a  brilliant  historical 
fiction,  and  Les  Mise'rables :  and  Paul  de  Kock, 
as  a  lively  though  unscrupulous  painter  of 
Parisian  life,  enjoys  a  remarkable  popularity. 
The  most  striking  and  original  writer  of 
fiction  is  Madame  Dudevant,  better  known  as 
"  George  Sand,"  whose  Andre,  Lettres  d'un 
Voyageur,  and  Consuelo,  have  placed  her  in  the 
first  rank  of  French  authors.  It  is  somewhat 
remarkable  that  the  excellence  of  this  group  of 
novelists  has  been  maintained  by  a  new  gen- 
eration of  writers,  Murger,  About,  Feuillet, 
Flaubet,  Erckmann-Chatrian,  Droz,  Daudet, 
Cherbulliez,  Gaboriau,  Dumas,  fls,  Zola, 
Merimee,  and  others.  As  dramatists,  Scribe, 
Leon  Gozlan,  Etienne  Arago,  Germain  Dela- 
vigne, Sardou,  and  Felix  Pyat  have  distin- 
guished themselves.  The  most  prominent 
historical  and  political  writers  are  Lamartine, 
Thiers,  Michelet,  Guizot,  Louis  Blanc,  De 
Tocqueville  and  Thibaudeau ;  while  Cousin 
and  Comte  are  the  founders  of  the  new  schools 
of  philosophy.  French  oratory  now  occupies 
a  higher  position  than  ever  before  ;  its  most 
illustrious  names  are  Guizot,  Thiers,  Berryer, 
Lamartine,  Odilon  Barrot,  Victor  Hugo,  La- 
cordaire,  Pere  Hyacinthe,  and  Coquerel. 
Renan  is  a  prominent  name  in  theological 
writing,  and  Montalembert  a  historian  with 
strong  religious  tendencies.  The  great  master 
of  criticism  is  Sainte-Beuve  (1804-1869),  who 
possessed  a  rare  combination  of  great  and  ac- 
curate learning,  compass  and  profundity  of 
thought,  and,  above  all,  sympathy  in  judgment. 
Henri  Taine,  whose  works  on  English  litera- 
ture are  among  the  best  we  have,  Theophile 
Gautier,  Arsene  Houssaye,  Jules  Janin,  Sarcy, 
and  others,  are  distinguished  in  this  branch 
of  letters. 


158 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


GERMAN  LITERATURE. 

The  first  period  of  German  literature  com- 
menced with  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  in  the 
eighth  century,  and  extends  to  the  time  of  the 
Suabian  emperors,  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century.  The  first  learned  society  was  in- 
stituted by  Alcuin,  the  greatest  scholar  of 
Charlemagne's  time.  In  the  succeeding  period, 
Einhard,  Rithard,  and  Lambert  von  Aschaf- 
fenburg  distinguished  themselves  as  historical 
and  theological  writers.  About  this  time  also 
originated  those  epic  ballads  and  fragments 
which  were  afterwards  collected  under  the 
title  of  the  Nibelungen-Lied,  or  "Lay  of  the 
Nibelungen,"  and  the  "  Song  of  Hildebrand." 
The  Nibelungen-Lied,  which  has  been  called 
the  German  Iliad,  received  its  present  form 
about  the  year  1210.  Its  subject  is  the  history 
of  Siegfried,  son  of  the  King  of  the  Nether- 
lands, his  marriage  with  Chriemhild,  sister  of 
Gtinther,  King  of  the  Burgundians,  and  the 
revenge  of  Brunhild,  Queen  of  Ireland,  who 
married  Gtinther. 

The  second  period  terminates  with  the  close 
of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  includes  the  Min- 
nesingers, or  German  Troubadours,  who  were 
the  result  of  the  intercourse  of  Germany  with 
Italy  and  France,  which  made  German  schol- 
ars acquainted  with  the  amatory  literature  of 
Provence.  The  most  renowned  Minnesingers 
were  Wolfram  von  Eschenbach,  who  wrote 
Percival ;  Walter  von  der  Vogelweide,  the 
most  graceful  and  popular  of  all,  and  Hein- 
rich  von  Ofterdingen.  Otto  von  Friesingen 
achieved  renown  for  his  histories,  which  were 
written  in  Latin. 

The  third  period,  dating  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  fifteenth  century,  at  which 
time  the  German  language  was  fully  developed 
and  subjected  to  rule,  extends  to  the  present 
time.  It  has  been  sub-divided  by  German  critics 
into  three  parts,  viz.  :  1,  to  the  commencement 
of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;  2,  to  Klopstock  and 
Lessing;  3,  to  our  own  day.  The  progress  of 
the  Reformation  in  the  fifteenth  century 
operated  very  favorably  upon  German  litera- 
ture. Melanchthon,  Luther,  Ulric  von  Hutten, 
and  the  other  leaders  of  the  movement  were 
also  distinguished  scholars.  The  celebrated 
Paracelsus  ;  the  naturalist  Gesner  ;  the  painter 
Albert  Durer,  and  the  astronomers  Kepler  and 
Copernicus,  flourished  also  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  The  most  distinguished  poet  of  this 
period  was  Hans  Sachs,  the  shoemaker  poet  of 
Nuremberg.  He  was  the  master  of  a  school 
or  guild  of  poetry,  which  was  then  considered 
as  an  elegant  profession.  In  the  number  of 
his  works  he  rivals  Lope  de  Vega,  as  he  is 
said  to  have  written  6048,  208  of  which  were 
comedies  and   tragedies.     He   died  in   1576. 


Martin  Opitz,  who  marks  the  commencement 
of  a  new  era  in  German  poetry,  was  born  in 
1597.  He  first  established  a  true  rhythm  in 
poetry,  by  measuring  the  length  of  the  sylla- 
bles, instead  of  merely  counting  them,  as  for- 
merly. His  principal  poems  are  Ve&uritis, 
Judith,  and  a  number  of  lyrics.  He  was  fol- 
lowed by  Paul  Flemming  and  Simon  Dach, 
who  wrote  in  the  low  German  dialect.  As 
prose  writers  of  the  seventeenth  century,  Puf- 
fendorf,  a  writer  on  jurisprudence  and  inter- 
national law,  Leibnitz,  the  distinguished 
philosopher,  and  the  Brothers  Baumgarten, 
are  most  prominent.  There  is  no  great  name 
in  German  literature,  however,  from  Opitz  till 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  Gellert, 
Gessner,  Klopstock,  and  Hagedorn  were  the 
inauguration  of  a  new  life.  Under  these  au- 
thors, and  others  of  less  note,  the  language 
attained  a  richness  of  expression,  a  flexibility 
of  style,  and  a  harmony  of  modulation  which 
it  never  possessed  before.  Gellert,  born  in 
1715,  is  distinguished  for  his  "  Spiritual  Songs 
and  Odes,"  his  letters,  and  his  romance  of 
The  Swedish  Countess,  which  is  the  first  domes- 
tic novel  written  in  the  German  language. 
Gessner  is  best  known  through  his  idyls,  in 
which  he  followed  the  classic  models.  Hage- 
dorn, who  died  in  1754,  wrote  many  poems; 
he  is  supposed  to  have  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  Klopstock  in  his  earlier  years. 
As  prose  writers,  Forster,  Mendelssohn  the 
philosopher,  and  Musaus,  who  made  a  collec- 
tion of  German  legends  and  traditions,  are 
wrorthy  of  note. 

With  Klopstock  commenced  the  golden  age 
of  German  literature,  and  the  list  of  renowned 
names  continues  unbroken  until  the  present 
time.  Klopstock  was  born  in  1724.  In  his 
odes  and  lyrical  poems  he  struck  out  a  new 
and  bold  path,  casting  aside  the  mechanical 
rules  of  the  older  schools  of  German  poetry. 
His  greatest  work  is  the  Messias,  a  sacred  epic, 
which  was  commenced  in  1745  and  finished  in 
1771.  Lessing,  born  in  1729,  stands  by  the 
side  of  Klopstock  as  a  poet,  while  he  is  also 
distinguished  as  a  prose  writer.  He  may  be 
considered  as  the  first  successful  German 
dramatist,  his  plays  of  Emilia  Galolti,  Minna 
von  Barnhelm,  Nathan  the  Wise,  still  keeping 
their  place  on  the  stage.  As  a  critical  writer 
on  all  the  branches  of  the  Fine  Arts,  he  is  also 
distinguished.  Wieland  follows  next  in  the 
list  of  German  classics.  Born  in  1733,  he  is 
the  link  between  the  age  of  Gellert  and  Klop- 
stock, and  that  of  Schiller  and  Goethe.  He 
died  in  1813.  His  principal  works  are  The 
Nr<r  Amadis,  which  illustrates  the  triumph  of 
spiritual  over  physical  beauty,  the  heroic  epic 
of   Oberon,  a  romance  of  the  middle  ages,  the 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


159 


drama  of  Alceste,  the  History  of  the  Ahderiles, 
a  satirical  romance,  besides  many  letters, 
satins,  and  criticisms  on  literature  and  art. 
Herder,  his  contemporary,  in  addition  to  his 
fame  as  a  poet,  is  celebrated  for  his  philosoph- 
ical and  theological  writings,  and  his  Spirit  of 
Hebrew  Poetry.  lie  died  in  1803.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  this  century,  Wieland,  Herder, 
Goethe, and  Schiller  were  gathered  together  at 
the  court  of  Weimar  —  the  most  illustrious 
congregation  of  poets  since  Shakespeare, 
Spenser,  Ben  Jonson,  and  Fletcher  met  to- 
gether in  London.  Goethe  was  born  in  1749, 
and  from  his  boyhood  displayed  a  remarkable 
talent  for  literature,  science,  and  art.  His 
first  romance,  The  Sorrows  of  Werther,  pro- 
duced a  great  sensation  throughout  all  Europe. 
His  tragedy  of  Gotz  von  Berlichingen,  written 
at  the  age  of  22,  established  his  fame  as  a 
poet.  After  his  settlement  at  Weimar  in 
1774,  his  works  followed  each  other  rapidly. 
He  produced  the  tragedies  of  Iphigenia,  Eg- 
mont,  Tasso,  and  Clavigo,  the  pastoral  epic  of 
Hermann  and  Dorothea,  the  philosophical  ro- 
mances of  Wilhelm  Meister  and  Die  Wahlc-er- 
jruhtlsrhaften,  the  West-Oestliche  Divan,  a  col- 
lection of  poems  founded  in  his  studies  of 
Oriental  literature,  and  the  first  part  of  his 
greatest  work,  Faust.  He  also  published  nar- 
ratives of  travel  in  France  and  Italy,  and 
Wahrheit  und  Dichtnng,  an  autobiography  of 
his  life.  His  philosophic  and  scientific  writ- 
ings, especially  his  theory  of  color,  are  scarcely 
less  celebrated  than  his  literary  works.  He  is 
equally  a  master  in  all  departments  of  litera- 
ture, and  is  generally  acknowledged  as  the 
greatest  author  since  Shakespeare.  He  died 
in  1832.  Schiller,  born  in  1759,  exercised 
scarcely  less  influence  on  German  literature 
than  Goethe.  His  tragedy  of  The  Robbers  pro- 
duced nearly  as  great  a  revolution  as  The  Sor- 
rows of  Werther.  On  account  of  this  and 
other  works  he  was  obliged  to  fly  from  his 
native  Wurtemberg,  and  after  many  vicissi- 
tudes, settled  in  Weimar,  with  his  great  col- 
leagues. After  a  brief  but  intense  and 
laborious  life,  he  died  in  1805.  After  The 
Robbers,  he  wrote  the  following  dramatic 
works  :  Fiesco,  Cabal  and  Love,  Don  Carlos, 
The  Maid  of  Orleans,  Marie  Stuart,  William 
Tell,  The  Bride  of  Messina,  and  Wallenstein. 
The  last  is  the  greatest  drama  in  the  German 
language.  His  lyrical  poems  are  unsurpassed. 
His  principal  prose  works  are  the  History  of 
ike  Netherlands  and  History  of  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.  This  period,  so  glorious  for  German 
literature,  produced  also  the  poets,  Burger, 
author  of  Lenore  and  The  Wild  Huntsman  : 
Count  Stolberg ;  Voss,  author  of  Lvise ;  Salis 
and  Matthisson,  elegiac  poets  ;  Tiedge,  author 


of  Urania ;  and  the  hero  Korner,  the  Tyrtaeus 
of  the  wars  of  1812  and  1813.  The  depart- 
ment of  prose  was  filled  by  many  distin- 
guished writers  of  philosophy,  history,  and 
romance.  Kant,  who  lived  from  1724  to 
1804,  is  the  father  of  modern  German  philoso- 
phy, and  exercised  a  great  influence  on  all  his 
contemporaries.  Schlegel,  in  the  department 
of  literary  criticism,  and  Winckelmann,  in 
that  of  art,  are  renowned  names.  Hegel  and 
Fichte  succeeded  Kant  as  philosophers,  and 
these  in  turn  were  followed  by  Ruge,  Strauss, 
Feuerbach,  Ulrici,  Schopenhauer,  and  Von 
Hartmann  ;  while  Alexander  von  Humboldt 
became  the  leader  of  a  new  and  splendid  com- 
pany of  writers  on  cosmical  science.  The 
name  of  Tieck  heads  the  school  of  modern 
German  romance.  He  was  born  in  1773,  and 
early  attracted  attention  by  his  Bluebeard  and 
Puss  in  Boots.  In  addition  to  a  great  number 
of  plays,  romances,  and  poems,  he  produced, 
in  conjunction  with  Schlegel,  a  German  trans- 
lation of  Shakespeare,  which  is  the  most 
remarkable  work  of  its  kind  in  all  literature. 
Jean  Paid  Richter,  the  most  original  and 
peculiar  of  all  German  authors,  was  born  in 
1763  and  died  in  1825.  His  first  work  was  a 
humorous  and  satirical  production,  entitled 
The  Greenlandic  Lawsuit,  followed  by  Selec- 
tions from  the  Devil's  Papers.  His  works  are 
distinguished  by  a  great  knowledge  of  human 
nature,  and  a  bewildering  richness  of  imagina- 
tion, and  a  style  so  quaint  and  involved  as 
almost  to  form  a  separate  dialect.  His  best 
works  are  Titan,  Hesperus,  Die  Unsichtbare 
Loge,  and  Flower,  Fruit,  and  Thorn  Pieces. 
E.  T.  A.  Hoffman  is  scarcely  less  original  in 
his  romances,  which  have  a  wild,  fantastic, 
and  supernatural  character.  Among  other 
German  authors,  the  brothers  Grimm  are  cele- 
brated for  their  Kinder  und  Haus  Mahrchen, 
the  notorious  Kotzebue  for  his  plays,  and 
Wolfgang  Menzel  for  his  History  of  Germany 
and  German  Literature. 

Since  the  commencement  of  the  present  cen- 
tury Germany  has  been  prolific  of  authors, 
but  the  limits  of  this  sketch  prohibit  us  from 
much  more  than  the  mere  mention  of  their 
names.  Baron  de  la  Motte  Fouque  is  known 
as  the  author  of  Undine,  one  of  the  most  purely 
poetical  creations  of  fiction,  Sintram,  and 
Thiodolf  the  Icelander.  Borne  attained  celeb- 
rity as  a  satirist,  critic,  and  political  writer. 
Uhland  stands  at  the  head  of  the  modern  gen- 
eration of  poets.  His  ballads,  romances,  and 
his  epic  of  Ludwig  der  Baier,  are  among  the 
best  German  poems  of  the  day.  After  him 
rank  Ruckert,  also  renowned  as  an  oriental 
scholar  ;  Hauff,  a  lyric  poet,  and  author  of  the 
romance  of  Lichtenstein ;  Gustav  Schwab,  Jus- 


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THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


tinus  Kerner,  author  of  the  Seeress  of  Prevorst ; 
Arndt,  author  of  the  German  Fatherland,  the 
national  lyric  ;  Anastasius  Griin  (Count  Auer- 
sperg),  author  of  the  Pfaff  von  Kahlenberg ; 
Nicholas  Lenau,  author  of  Savonarola  ;  Ferdi- 
nand Freiligrath,  a  vigorous  political  poet; 
Heinrich  Heine,  author  of  many  popular  songs 
and  ballads;  Chamisso,  who  also  wrote  the 
romance  of  Peter  Schlemihl;  Gutzkow,  distin- 
guished as  a  dramatist ;  Halm,  also  a  drama- 
tist, and  author  of  Per  Sohn  der  Wildniss  ;  and, 
as  lyric  poets,  Herwegh,  Geibel,  and  Beck. 
Among  the  distinguished  prose  writers  are 
Schlosser,  author  of  a  Universal  History ;  Ne- 
Aiider,  author  of  a  History  of  the  Church, 
and  a  Life  of  Christ ;  Prince  Puckler-Muskau 
and  the  Countess  Hahn-Hahn,  critics  and 
tourists;  Zschokke  (a  Swiss),  Auerbach  and 
Freytag  distinguished  as  novelists,  and  Feu- 
erbach  ;  Schelling  as  a  philosopher ;  Straus3, 
author  of  a  Life  of  Christ  and  head  of  the  Ger- 
man "Rationalists";  Muller,  as  a  historian, 
and  Krummacher,  a  writer  of  fables  and  para- 
bles. As  historians  Rotteck,  Niebuhr,  and 
Ranke  are  among  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  present  century.  One  of  the  most  popular 
prose  writers  is  Adalbert  Stifter,  whose  Studien 
ire  unsurpassed  for  exquisite  purity  and  pic- 
turesqueness  of  style.  In  science  the  first 
/•lace  belongs  to  Humboldt's  Cosmos  ;  In  chem- 
istry Liebig  is  widely  and  popularly  known  ; 
Du  Bois-Raymond  has  made  great  researches 
in  animal  electricity,  physics,  and  physiology ; 
Virchow  in  biology  ;  Helmholtz  in  physiologi- 
cal optics  and  sound ;  Haeckel  has  extended 
the  theories  and  investigations  of  Darwin. 
Modern  German  literature  is  singularly  rich  in 
history,  theology,  and  criticism. 

SCANDINAVIAN  LITERATURE. 

Under  this  head  we  have  grouped  the  litera- 
ture of  the  three  nations  of  Scandinavian  ori- 
gin,—  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark.  The 
old  Scandinavian  Eddas,  or  hymns  of  gods 
and  heroes,  may  be  traced  back  to  the  seventh 
or  eighth  century.  The  earlier  Edda,  which 
was  collected  and  arranged  by  Samund  in  the 
year  1100,  consists  of  legends  of  the  gods,  most 
of  which  were  probably  written  in  the  eighth 
century.  The  latter  Edda,  collected  by  Snorre 
Sturleson  in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  contains  fragments  of  the  songs  of  the 
Skalds  who  flourished  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
centuries,  especially  in  the  latter,  when  their 
genius  reached  its  culmination  in  Norway  and 
Iceland.  Among  the  most  renowned  works  of 
the  Skalds  were  the  Eiriksmal,  the  apotheosis 
of  King  Eric,  who  died  in  952,  and  the  Hako- 
narmal,  describing  the  fall  of  Jarl  Haco.  A 
celebrated  Skald  was  Egill  Skalagrimsson,  who 


wrote  three  epic  poems,  and  two  drapas,  or 
elegiac  poems.  The  power  of  the  Skalds  de- 
clined through  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cen- 
turies, and  after  the  fourteenth,  when  the 
Christian  element  first  began  to  appear  in  Ice- 
landic poetry,  wholly  disappeared.  Many  sagas 
were  written  in  prose,  and  the  Heimskringla  of 
Snorre  Sturleson,  who  died  in  Iceland  in  1238, 
contains  the  chronicles  of  Scandinavian  history 
from  its  mythic  period  to  the  year  1177. 

Previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Upsala,  in  1476,  the  only  literature  of 
Sweden  was  a  few-  rhymed  historic  legends. 
The  two  centuries  succeeding  this  period  have 
left  no  great  names,  and  few  distinguished 
ones.  Saxo-Grammaticus  made  a  collection 
of  legends  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  Olaus 
Magni  wrote  a  history  of  the  North  in  Latin  ; 
Messenius, who  died  in  1637,  wrote  comediesand 
a  historical  work  entitled  Scandia  Illustrata; 
Axel  Oxenstierna,  the  celebrated  minister, 
was  also  a  theologist  and  patron  of  literature  ; 
Olof  Rudbeck,  a  distinguished  scholar,  pub- 
lished in  1675  his  Atlantica,  wherein,  from  the 
study  of  the  old  Sagas,  he  endeavored  to  show 
that  Sweden  was  the  Atlantis  of  the  ancients. 
George  Stjernhjelm,  who  died  in  1672,  was  the 
author  of  a  poem  called  Hercules,  whence  he  is 
named  the  father  of  Swedish  poetry.  Sweden- 
borg,  the  most  striking  character  in  Northern 
literature,  was  born  in  1688.  After  several 
years  of  travel  in  England  and  on  the  conti- 
nent, he  established  himself  in  Sweden,  where 
he  devoted  his  attention  to  science,  and  pro- 
duced a  number  of  works  on  natural  philoso- 
phy, mineralogy,  zoology,  and  other  kindred 
subjects.  The  close  of  his  life  was  entirely 
occupied  with  his  religious  studies,  and  the 
production  of  his  Arcana  Cozleslia,  which  con- 
tains his  revelations  of  the  future  life,  and  his 
theory  of  the  spiritual  universe.  These  writ- 
ings gave  rise  to  a  new  religious  sect,  the  mem- 
bers of  which,  in  the  United  States,  are  sup- 
posed to  number  about  6,000.  He  professed 
to  be  visited  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  his  works 
are  considered  by  his  disciples  as  equally  in- 
spired with  those  of  the  Apostles.  He  died  in 
London  in  1772.  Dalin  and  Madame  Norden- 
flycht  were  the  first  noted  poets  of  the  last 
century.  They  were  succeeded  by  a  multitude 
of  lyric  and  didactic  poets ;  but  Swedish  poe- 
try did  not  attain  a  high  character  before  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century.  Among 
the  authors  nost  worthy  of  note  are  Lidner, 
Bellman,  n.d  Thorild.  An  important  history 
of  Sweden  has  been  written  by  Professors  Gei- 
jer,  Fryxell,  and  Strumbolm.  The  present  cen- 
tury produced  Atterbom  and  Dahlgren,  poets 
of  considerable  celebrity,  and  Tegner,  the  first 
of  Swedish   poets,  whose  Frithiqf's  Saga  has 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


161 


been  translated  into  English,  French,  and  Ger- 
man. Longfellow  has  translated  his  Children 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  the  glow  of  his  imag- 
ination, his  fine  artistic  feeling,  and  his  won- 
derful command  of  rhythm,  Tegner  Tasks 
among  the  first  of  modern  poets.  He  died  in 
1850.  As  writers  of  fiction,  Count  Sparre,  au- 
thor of  Adolf  Findling,  Frederika  Bremer, 
whose  fame,  as  a  painter  of  Swedish  life,  has 
extended  over  both  hemispheres,  and  Madame 
Flygare-Carlen,  author  of  the  Rose  of  Thistle 
Island,  have  attained  an  honorable  place.  The 
most  celebrated  works  of  Miss  Bremer  are  The 
Neighbors,  Hie  Home,  and  Strife  and  Peace. 

There  are  few  names  in  Danish  literature 
before  the  last  century.  Ludwig  von  Holberg, 
born  in  1685,  was  the  first  who  achieved  a 
permanent  reputation  as  poet  and  historian. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century  Denmark 
produced  many  distinguished  scholars  and  men 
of  science.  Rafn  and  Finn  Magnusen  rescued 
the  old  Icelandic  sagas  from  oblivion,  and  es- 
tablished the  fact  of  the  discovery  of  New 
England  by  Bjorne  in  the  tenth  century ;  Pe- 
tersen became  renowned  as  a  classical  scholar 
and  critic  ;  Oersted  is  a  well  known  name  in 
science  and  philosophy  ;  and  Miiller  and  Allen 
successfully  labored  in  the  department  of  his- 
tory. Nearly  all  these  authors  first  became 
known  in  the  present  century.  At  the  head  of 
Denmark's  poets  is  (Ehlenschlager,  who  died 
in  1850.  His  national  tragedies,  epics,  and 
lyrics  were  written  partly  in  German  and  partly 
in  Danish.  He  is  considered  the  originator  of 
the  artist-drama,  of  which  his  Coreggio  is  a 
masterpiece.  Baggesen,  who  commenced  his 
career  in  the  last  century,  is  one  of  the  first 
Danish  lyric  poets.  Heiberg  devoted  himself 
to  vaudeville  and  the  romantic  drama,  and 
Hauch  to  tragedy,  in  which  he  is  justly  dis- 
tinguished. Hertz  is  known  through  his  King 
Rene's  Daughters,  which  has  been  successfully 
produced  on  the  English  stage.  One  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  modern  Danish  authors 
is  Hans  Christian  Andersen,  known  alike  as 
poet,  novelist,  and  tourist.  His  romances  of 
Danish  life  are  the  most  characteristic  of  his 
works,  though  he  is  better  known  out  of  his 
native  country  by  his  Impromsatore  and  The 
True  Story  of  My  Life.  Norway  cannot  be 
said  to  have  had  a  literature  distinct  from  the 
Danish  until  after  its  \inion  with  Sweden  in 
1814.  The  period  from  that  time  to  the  present 
has  been  one  of  great  literary  activity  in  all 
departments,  and  many  distinguished  names 
might  be  mentioned,  among  them  that  of 
Bjornson  whose  tales  have  been  extensively 
translated.  Jonas  Lie,  who  enjoys  a  wide 
popularity,  Camilla  Collett,  and  Magdalene 
Thoresen  are  also  favorite  writers.     Wergeland 


and  Welhaven  were  two  distinguished  poets  of 
the  first  half  of  the  century.  Kielland  is  an 
able  novelist  of  the  realistic  school,  and  Pro- 
fessor Boyesen  is  well  known  in  the  United 
States  for  his  tales  and  poems  in  English. 
Henrik  Ibseri  is  the  most  distinguished  dra- 
matic writer  of  Norway  and  belongs  to  the  real- 
istic school.  Among  other  recent  writers  are 
Borjesson,  whose  Eric  XIV.  is  a  masterpiece  of 
Swedish  drama  ;  Tekla  Knos,  a  poetess  whose 
claims  have  been  sanctioned  by  the  Academy  ; 
and  Claude  Gerard  (nom  de  plume) ,  very  pop- 
ular as  a  novelist. 

RUSSIAN  LITERATURE. 

The  first  fragments  of  Russian  literature 
belong  to  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries. 
They  consist  principally  of  rude  songs  and 
legends,  the  hero  of  which  is  Wladimir  the 
Great,  who  first  introduced  Christianity  into 
the  country.  Nestor,  a  monk  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Kiev,  who  died  in  the  year  1116,  left 
behind  him  a  collection  of  annals,  beginning 
with  852,  which  threw  much  light  on  the  early 
history  of  Russia.  After  the  empire  was  freed 
from  the  Mongolian  rule  by  Ivan  I.  in  1478, 
the  progress  of  literature  and  the  arts  were 
more  rapid.  The  first  printing  press  was  es- 
tablished in  Moscow  in  1564,  though  the  Acad- 
emy in  that  city  was  not  founded  until  a  cea- 
tury  later.  Peter  the  Great  devoted  much  at- 
tention to  the  Russian  language  and  literature. 
At  his  command,  the  characters  used  in  print- 
ing were  greatly  simplified  and  improved.  The 
first  Russian  newspaper  was  printed  in  1705, 
in  this  character.  # 

From  1650  to  1750,  Russia  produced  several 
authors,  but  principally  among  the  clergy,  and 
their  works  are  dissertations  on  theology  or 
lives  of  the  saints.  Tatitschev  wrote  a  His- 
tory of  Russia,  which  still  retains  some  value. 
The  only  poet  of  this  period  was  Kantemir,  son 
of  the  Hospodar  of  Moldavia,  who  entered  the 
Russian  service,  devoted  himself  to  study,  and 
obtained  much  reputation  from  his  satires. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  and  es- 
pecially during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
Catharine  II.,  the  establishment  of  universities 
and  academies  of  science  and  art,  contributed 
greatly  to  the  development  of  the  language 
and  the  encouragement  of  literature.  The 
distinction  between  the  old  Slavic  and  mod- 
ern Russian  dialects  is  strongly  exhibited 
in  the  works  of  Lomonosow,  and  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  latter  was  still  further  de- 
termined by  Sumarakow,  the  first  Russian 
dramatist,  whose  plays  were  performed  on  the 
stage.  Cheraskow,  who  belongs  to  the  last 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  wrote  a  long 
epic  poem  on  the  Conquest  of  Kazan,  and  an- 


162 


THE  CENTURY"  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


other  on  Wladimir  the  Great.  He  was  con- 
sidered the  Homer  of  his  time,  but  is  now 
never  read.  Among  his  contemporary  poets 
were  Prince  Dolgoruki,  who  wrote  philosophic 
odes  and  epistles,  and  Count  Chvostow,  the 
author  of  some  of  the  best  lyric  and  didactic 
poetry  in  the  language. 

The  first  Russian  poet  whose  name  was 
known  beyond  the  borders  of  the  empire  was 
Derzhavin,  who  was  born  at  Kazan  in  1743, 
and  after  filling  important  civil  posts  under  the 
Empress  Catharine,  died  in  1816.  Many  of 
his  most  inspired  odes  were  addressed  to  his 
imperial  patroness.  His  ode  To  God  has  been 
translated  into  nearly  all  languages,  and  a 
Chinese  copy,  printed  in  letters  of  gold,  hangs 
upon  the  walls  of  the  palace  at  Pekin.  The 
prose  writers  of  this  period  were  Platon,  Lew- 
anda,  and  Schtscherbatow,  who  wrote  a  His- 
tory of  Russia.  Under  Alexander  I.,  in  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  Rus- 
sian literature  made  rapid  advances.  Karam- 
sin,  who  stood  at  the  head  of  Russian  authors 
during  this  period,  first  freed  the  popular  style 
from  the  fetters  of  the  classic  school,  and  de- 
veloped the  native  resources  of  the  language. 
Prince  Alexander  Schakowski  wrote  many 
comedies  and  comic  operas,  and  Zukowski, 
following  in  the  path  of  Karamsin,  produced 
some  vigorous  and  glowing  poetry.  Count 
Puschkin,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  Russian 
authors,  was  born  in  1799.  His  first  poem, 
published  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  attracted  so 
much  attention  that  he  resolved  to  devote  him- 
self to  literature.  An  Ode  to  Freedom,  how- 
ever, procured  him  banishment  to  the  south  of 
Russia,  where  his  best  poems  were  written. 
His  works  are  Russian  and  Ljudmilla,  a  ro- 
mantic epic  of  the  heroic  age  of  Russia ;  the 
Mountain  Prisoner,  a  story  of  life  in  the  Cau- 
casus ;  the  Fountains  of  Baktschissarai,  and 
Boris  Godunoff,  a  dramatic  poem.  In  his  in- 
vention, the  elegance  of  his  diction,  and  the 
richness  of  his  fancy,  Puschkin  excels  all 
other  Russian  authors.  He  was  killed  in  a 
duel  in  1837.  His  contemporary,  Baratynski, 
who  stood  nearest  him  in  talent,  died  in  1844. 
Other  poets  of  this  period  are  Lermontow, 
Podolinski,  and  Baron  Uelwig.  Russian  ro- 
mance is  not  yet  fairly  developed.  The  first 
names  in  this  department  are  Bestuzew,  who 
suffered  banishment  in  Siberia  and  met  death 
in  theCaucusus,  where  his  best  work,  Amaleth- 
Beg,  was  written,  Bulgarin,  author  of  Dam  trins 
and  Mazeppa,  Count  Tolstoi,  and  Turgenieff. 
The  only  histories  written  in  Russia  are  his- 
tories of  Russia.  The  best  of  these  which 
have  been  produced  by  the  present  generation 
of  authors  are  those  of  Ustrialow,  Pogodin, 
PolewoL  and  Michailowski-Danilewski. 


POLISH  LITERATURE. 

The  Polish  language  has  received  a  more 
thorough  development  and  boasts  a  richer 
literature  than  any  other  language  of  Slavic 
origin.  It  first  reached  a  finished  and  regular 
form  in  the  sixteenth  century,  though  a  frag- 
ment of  a  hymn  to  the  Virgin  remains,  which 
was  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  St. 
Adalbert,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  first 
bloom  of  Polish  literature  happened  during 
the  reigns  of  Sigismund  I.  and  Augustus, 
from  1507  to  1572.  Michael  Rey,  the  father 
of  Polish  poetry,  was  a  bold,  spirited  satirist. 
He  died  in  1586,  and  was  followed  by  the 
brothers  Kochanowski,  Miaskowski,  and  Szy- 
monowicz,  who,  for  his  Latin  odes,  was  called 
the  Latin  Pindar.  Bielski  wrote  the  Kronika, 
a  collection  of  Polish  legends,  and  Gornicki, 
secretary  to  Sigismund,  a  History  of  the  Crown 
of  Poland.  Orzechowski,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished orators  of  his  day,  wrote  in  the 
Latin  language,  the  Annales  Polonia;. 

After  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  Polish  letters  declined,  and  as  the 
kingdom  came  under  the  ascendency  of  the 
Jesuits,  a  corresponding  change  came  over  the 
character  of  the  literature.  Kochowski,  who 
died  in  1700,  was  historiographer  to  King 
John  Sobieski,  and  accompanied  him  against 
the  Turks.  Opalinski,  the  Woiwode  of  Posen, 
published  in  1652  his  Sat y res,  a  lively  and 
characteristic  work,  and  a  number  of  Jesuit 
historians  undertook  histories  of  the  country, 
in  which  few  of  them  were  successful. 

Through  the  influence  of  French  authors, 
Polish  literature  made  another  advance,  at  the 
close  of  the  first  half  of  the  last  century.  The 
first  poet  who  served  to  concentrate  the  scat- 
tered elements  of  Polish  poetry,  was  Krasicki, 
who  was  born  in  1734,  and  in  1767  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ermeland.  He  wrote  a  mock- 
heroic  poem,  Myszeis  (The  Mousead),  an  epic 
entitled  Woyna  Chocimska  (The  War  of 
Chocim),  and  many  fables  in  verse.  The 
most  prominent  of  the  later  poets  are  Godebski, 
Wezyk,  author  of  romances  and  dramas,  Felin- 
ski,  author  of  Barbara  Jiadziirill,  and  Gen. 
Kropinski,  who  wrote  Ludyarda  Tropinski, 
who  died  in  1825,  was  the  author  of  many  ad- 
mirable lyrics  and  idyls,  and  a  tragedy  called 
Judyta.  Niemcewicz,  his  contemporary,  wrote 
the  Historical  Lires  of  Poland,  a  History  of 
the  reign  of  Sigismund  III.,  and  a  romance, 
Johann  v.  Tenczyn.  The  university  of  Wilna. 
which  in  1815  was  the  seat  of  Polish  learning, 
witnessed  a  revolution  in  the  character  of  the 
literature.  Several  young  authors,  with 
Mickiewicz  at  their  head,  determined  to  free 
themselves  from  the  classic  spirit  of  the  lan- 
guage,   and    imitate    the    later   English    and 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


163 


German  schools.  From  this  time  Polish  fiction 
took  a  freer,  bolder,  and  more  varied  form. 
Mickiewicz,  born  in  1798,  published  his  first 
volume  of  poetry  in  1822.  Banished  to  the 
interior  of  Russia,  on  account  of  political 
troubles,  he  wrote  a  series  of  sonnets  which  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Prince  Galizin,  under 
whose  auspices  his  epic  poem,  Konrad  Wallen- 
rod,  was  published  in  1828.  His  Polish  epic 
of  Pan  Tadeusz  first'  appeared  in  Paris  in  1834. 
Among  his  contemporary  authors,  the  most 
noted  are  Odyniec,  author  of  the  drama  of 
Izora  ;  Xorsac,  a  lyric  and  elegiac  poet ; 
Garczynski,  who  wrote  many  fiery  battle- 
songs  ;  and  Czajkowski,  a  noted  writer  of 
Slavic  romances.  The  later  prose  writers  of 
Poland  are  the  historical  Lelewel,  and  Count 
Plater,  and  Ilenryk  Sienkiewicz,  author  of 
With  Fire  ami  Sword  and  Quo  }'adis,  who  is 
the  first  of  Polish  novelists,  and  second  to  none 
in  this  generation. 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

The  English  language,  like  other  composite 
modern  tongues,  such  as  the  French  and 
Italian,  passed  through  several  phases  before 
reaching  its  present  form  and  character. 
During  the  prevalence  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
tongue,  from  the  fifth  century  to  the  Norman 
conquest,  England  boasted  several  authors, 
whose  names  and  works  have  in  part  descended 
to  us.  The  venerable  Bede,  born  in  North- 
umberland in  672,  is  distinguished  for  his 
scholarship.  He  left  an  Ecclesiastical  history 
of  the  Angles,  which  forms  the  basis  of  early 
English  history.  The  monk  Caedmon,  who 
flourished  i:i  the  seventh  century,  wrote  a  par- 
aphrase of  Genesis  and  some  fragments  which 
are  supposed  to  have  given  Milton  the  first 
idea  of  Paradise  Lost.  The  song  of  Beowulf, 
which  belongs  to  the  eighth  century,  is  a 
spirited  and  stirring  heroic.  King  Alfred's 
poems  belong  to  the  best  specimens  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature.  The  Norman  conquest  in- 
troduced the  French  language  and  the  litera- 
ture of  the  Trouveres,  while  the  Anglo-Saxon 
was  left  to  the  peasants  and  thralls.  Out  of 
these  elements,  however,  the  English  language 
was  gradually  formed,  and  under  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was 
made  the  language  of  the  court.  It  then  as- 
sumed a  character  which  is  intelligible  to  the 
educated  English  of  the  present  day,  and  that 
period,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  the 
first  age  of  English  literature. 

The  earliest  English  author  is  Chaucer, 
"the  morning-star  of  English  song,"  who 
was  born  in  1328,  and  produced  his  first  poem, 
The  Court  of  Love,  in  1347.  During  his  life 
he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  Edward  III.,  and  his 


son,  John  of  Gaunt.  He  filled  various  diplo- 
matic stations,  among  others  that  of  ambassa- 
dor to  Genoa.  During  his  residence  in  Italy, 
he  became  familiar  with  the  works  of  Daute, 
Boccaccio,  and  Petrarch,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  visited  the  latter.  He  also  wrote  Troilus 
and  Cressida,  The  House  of  Fame,  and  The 
Canterbury  2'ales,  his  most  famous  work,  an 
imitation,  in  poetry,  of  the  Decameron.  He 
died  in  1400.  The  first  prose  works  in  the 
English  language  were  translations  of  the  gos- 
pels and  of  some  of  the  classics.  Wickliffe, 
the  Reformer,  who  first  made  an  English 
version  of  the  Bible,  was  a  contemporary  of 
Chaucer.  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  and  Henry 
Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey,  who  flourished  under 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  are  the  next  English 
poets  of  note.  They  wrote  principally  songs 
and  odes.  Surrey  was  beheaded  on  charge  of 
treason  in  1547. 

The  reign  of  Elizabeth,  at  the  close  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  was  the  golden  age  of 
English  literature.  Shakespeare,  Spenser, 
Raleigh,  Sidney,  Ben  Jonson,  Beaumont,  and 
Fletcher  formed  a  constellation  of  poets  and 
dramatists,  such  as  no  other  age  or  country 
ever  produced.  Spenser,  born  in  1553,  became 
early  associated  with  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  to 
whom,  in  1579,  he  dedicated  his  first  work, 
the  Shepherd's  Calendar,  a  pastoral.  From 
1586  to  1598,  he  was  sheriff  of  the  county  of 
Cork,  in  Ireland,  and  resided  at  Kilcolman 
Castle,  where  his  greatest  work,  The  Faery 
Queen,  was  composed.  This  is  an  allegory  in 
twelve  books,  written  in  stanza  of  his  own  in- 
vention (modeled,  however,  on  the  Italian 
ottava  rima),  and  which  now  bears  his  name. 
He  died  in  1599.  Sidney,  who  was  born  in 
1554,  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  Arcadia, 
a  pastoral  romance,  and  the  Defence  of  Poetry. 
He  is  the  first  writer  who  gave  an  elegant  and 
correct  form  to  English  prose.  Shakespeare, 
the  greatest  dramatic  poet  of  any  age,  was 
born  in  1564.  He  commenced  his  career  by 
preparing  for  the  stage  the  plays  of  some  of 
his  predecessors,  and  this  fact  has  thrown 
some  doubt  about  the  authenticity  of  two  or 
three  of  the  plays  included  among  his  works. 
The  order  in  which  his  own  plays  appeared 
has  never  been  satisfactorily  ascertained.  The 
following,  however,  are  known  to  have  been 
written  before  1598  :  The  Two  Gentlemen  of 
Verona ;  Love's  Labor  Lost ;  The  Comedy  oj 
Errors  ;  Midsummer  Night's  Dream  ;  Romeo  and 
Jiilii  / :  Merchant  of  Venice  ;  Richard  II.  ;  Rich- 
ard III.  ;  Henry  TV.  ;  and  King  Joint. 

The  Tempest,  which  appeared  in  1611,  is 
believed  to  be  his  last  dramatic  work.  He 
also  wrote  the  poems  of  Venus  and  Adonis  and 


164 


THE    CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  Rape  of  Lucrece,  a  lyric  called  The  Pas- 
sionate Pilgrim,  and  a  great  number  of  son- 
nets, some  of  which  are  the  finest  in  the 
language.  He  died  in  1616.  Ben  Jorison 
was  born  in  1574,  and  published  his  first 
dramatic  work,  the  comedy  of  Every  Man  in 
His  Humor,  in  1596.  In  addition  to  other 
comedies,  the  best  of  which  are  Volpone,  the 
Fox,  and  The  Alchemist,  he  wrote  many  exquis- 
ite songs  and  madrigals.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh 
is  more  distinguished  as  a  gallant  knight  and 
daring  adventurer  than  as  an  author,  yet  his 
lyrics  and  his  History  of  the  World,  written 
during  twelve  years'  imprisonment)  in  the 
Tower,  give  him  full  claim  to  the  latter  title. 
He  was  born  in  1552,  and  was  beheaded  by 
order  of  James  I.  in  1617.  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  contemporaries  and  in  sorae  degree 
imitators  of  Shakespeare,  deserve  the  next 
place  after  him  among  the  dramatists  of  that 
period.  Beaumont  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  inventive  genius  of  their  plays,  and 
Fletcher  to  have  supplied  the  wit  and  fancy. 
The  Faithful  Shepherdess  is  the  work  of 
Fletcher  alone.  Many  dramatists  flourished 
during  this  and  the  succeeding  generation, 
whose  works  are  now  but  little  read,  but  who 
would  have  attained  eminence  but  for  the 
greater  lights  with  which  they  are  eclipsed. 
The  most  noted  of  them  are  Marlowe,  Mars- 
ton,  Chapman,  Decker,  Webster,  Ford,  and 
Massinger. 

Between  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  the  only 
name  which  appears  in  English  literature  is 
Cowley,  the  author  of  the  Davideis,  a  for- 
gotten epic.  Milton  was  born  in  1608,  and 
in  his  early  boyhood  exhibited  the  genius 
which  afterwards  made  him  the  first  Eng- 
lish poet  and  one  of  the  great  masters  of 
English  prose.  His  hymn  on  the  Nativity 
was  written  in  his  twenty-first,  and  his  mask 
of  Com  us  in  his  twenty-third  year.  L' Allegro, 
II  Penseroso,  and  Lycidas  soon  afterward 
appeared.  After  his  return  from  Italy,  he 
devoted  his  attention  to  theology  and  poli- 
tics. His  treatise  on  Marriage  was  published 
in  1643,  his  Areopagitica  in  1644,  and  his 
famous  reply  to  Salmasius  in  1651.  In  the 
following  year  he  lost  his  sight,  and  -was 
obliged  to  retire  from  public  service.  His 
Paradise  Lost  appeared  in  1665,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  Paradise  Regained  in  1671,  and  Sam- 
son Agonistes.  He  died  in  1674.  Dryden, 
who,  born  in  1631,  was  known  as  a  poet  dur- 
ing Milton's  life,  introduced  a  new  school  of 
poetry — -  the  narrative  and  didactic.  His  first 
noted  poem,  the  Annus  Mirabilis,  was  produced 
in  1666,  his  satire  of  Absalom  and  Arhitophel 
in  1681,  and  shortly  afterwards  his  Hind  and 
Panther,  a  religious  satire.     He  also  wrote  sev- 


eral rhymed  tragedies  and  an  essay  on  Dra- 
matic Poesy.  Defoe,  born  in  1663,  wrote  the 
world-renowned  narrative  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
which  was  first  published  in  1719.  The  seven- 
teenth century  was  also  an  important  epoch 
for  English  philosophical  literature.  Lord 
Bacon,  born  in  1561,  published  his  De  digni- 
tate  et  augmentis  Scientarum  in  1605,  and  his 
celebrated  Novum  Organum  in  16*20.  These, 
although  written  in  Latin,  are  the  most  impor- 
tant philosophical  works  which  have  ever 
emanated  from  an  English  author.  Hobbes,  a 
writer  on  politics,  jurisprudence,  and  moral 
philosophy,  died  in  1679.  Locke,  born  in 
1632,  first  published  his  Essay  on  the  Human 
Understanding  in  1690. 

The  commencement  of  the  last  century 
brings  us  to  a  group  of  authors  of  very  differ- 
ent character.  The  influence  of  French  liter- 
ature began  to  be  felt,  and  the  characteristics 
of  the  English  writers  of  this  period  are  ele- 
gance and  grace.  This  is  properly  the  age  of 
English  prose,  which  was  enriched  successively 
by  Addison,  Horace  Walpole,  Swift,  Sterne, 
Richardson,  Smollett,  Fielding,  Hume,  Gib- 
bon, Chesterfield,  and  Robertson.  The  first 
poet  who  rose  to  eminence  in  the  last  century 
was  Pope,  who  was  born  in  1688,  and  pub- 
lished his  Essay  on  Criticism  in  1711.  His 
most  celebrated  poetical  works  are  the  Rape  of 
the  Lock,  the  Essay  on  Man  and  The  Dunciad. 
Thomson,  author  of.  The  Seasons  and  the 
Castle  of  Indolence,  lived  and  died  in  the  first 
half  of  the  century.  Gay,  a  contemporary 
poet,  is  distinguished  for  his  Fables.  Gray 
ranks  as  one  of  the  finest  lyric  poets  of  Eng- 
land. The  few  odes  lie  has  left,  and  his  Elegy 
in  a  Country  Churchyard,  belong  to  the  classics 
of  the  language.  Goldsmith  was  born  in  1728 
and  died  in  1774.  His  poems  of  The  Traveller 
and  The  Deserted  Village,  and  his  romance  of 
the  Vicar  of  Wakefield ',  will  live  as  long  as  his 
native  tongue.  Cowper  closes  the  list  of  the 
poets  of  the  last  century.  He  died  in  1800, 
after  a  life  darkened  by  religious  melancholy. 
His  Task,  Table-Talk,  and  ballad  of  John  Gil- 
pin, are  his  best  poetical  works.  Returning 
to  the  prose  writers,  Addison  is  first  in  point 
of  time,  having  been  born  in  1672.  His  best 
works  are  his  essays,  contributed  to  77;e  Spec- 
tator, which  he  established  in  1711,  in  con- 
junction with  his  friend  Steele.  His  English 
has  rarely  been  excelled  for  purity  and  ele- 
gance. Chesterfield,  Lady  Montague,  and 
Horace  Walpole  are  distinguished  as  episto- 
lary writers.  Dean  Swift,  born  in  1667,  was 
a  politician  and  satirist,  but  is  now  bestknown 
by  his  Tale  of  a  Tub,  published  in  1704,  and 
Gulliver' a  Travels,  in  1726.  Sterne  in  his 
Tristram  Shandy  and    The  SvntimentalJourney, 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


165 


displayed  a  droll  mingling  of  wit  and  pathos, 
in  a  style  exceedingly  lively  and  flexible. 
Richardson,  one  of  the  first  English  romance 
writers,  was  born  in  1689.  His  principal 
novels,  which  are  of  immense  length,  are 
Pamela,  Clarissa  Harlowe,  and  Sir  Charles 
Crandison.  Smollett,  his  successor,  published 
his  Roderick  Random  in  1748,  and  Humphrey 
('linker,  his  last  work,  in  1771.  Hume,  in 
addition  to  political  and  philosophical  works, 
wrote  the  History  of  England,  from  the  inva- 
sion of  Caesar  to  the  rebellion  of  1688,  which 
was  published  in  1673-4.  Smollett  wrote  four 
volumes  in  continuation  of  the  history.  Gib- 
bon, born  in  1737,  completed,  after  twenty 
years'  labor,  his  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Roman  Empire,  which  appeared  from 
1782  to  1788.  Robertson,  the  contemporary 
of  Gibbon,  published  his  History  of  Scotland 
in  1759,  and  his  History  of  the  Reign  of  Charles 
V.  in  1769.  Dr.  Johnson,  whose  Rasselas, 
Lires  of  the  Poets,  and  contributions  to  The 
Rambler  exercised  such  a  salutary  influence  on 
the  popular  taste  of  his  time,  died  in  1784. 
His  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language  was 
first  published  in  1755.  Edmund  Burke,  one 
of  the  most  finished  and  powerful  of  English 
orators,  published,  in  1756,  his  Essay  on  the 
Sublime  and  Beautiful,  which  is  a  model  of 
philosophical  writing.     He  died  in  1797. 

With  the  present  century  commenced  a  new 
era  in  English  literature.  The  reign  of  the 
drama  and  the  epic  was  over ;  the  reign  of 
romance,  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  and  the 
expression  of  a  higher  and  more  subtle  range 
of  imagination  now  commenced.  The  lan- 
guage lost  something,  perhaps,  of  its  classic 
polish  and  massive  strength,  but  became  more 
free  and  flowing,  more  varied  in  style,  and 
richer  in  epithet.  The  authors  in  whom  this 
change  is  first  apparent  are  Coleridge  and 
Wordsworth  in  poetry,  and  Scott  in  prose. 
Nearly  coeval  with  the  two  former,  but  differ- 
ent in  character,  were  Byron  and  Moore ;  the 
latter  are  the  poets  of  passion,  the  former  of 
imagination.  Scott,  in  his  Waverley  novels, 
first  developed  the  neglected  wealth  of  English 
romance.  Burns,  although  his  best  songs  are 
in  the  Scottish  dialect,  stands  at  the  head  of 
all  English  song  writers.  Campbell,  in  the 
true  lyric  inspiration  of  his  poems,  is  classed 
with  Gray.  Rogers  and  Southey  can  hardly 
be  ranked  among  those  poets  who  assisted  in 
developing  the  later  English  literature.  The 
former  imitates  the  old  models ;  the  latter, 
more  daring  in  his  forms  of  verse  and  more 
splendid  in  his  imagination,  has  never  been 
able  to  touch  the  popular  heart.  Coleridge's 
prose  works  contain  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant  contributions   to   English    philosophical 


literature  since  the  time  of  Bacon.  The  de- 
partment of  history  has  been  amply  filled  by 
Scott,  Alison,  author  of  a  History  of  Europe, 
Gillies  and  Grote,  celebrated  for  their  Histories 
of  Greece,  Napier  in  his  History  of  the  Peninsu- 
lar War,  Hallam  in  his  History  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  Macaulay  in  his  History  of  England. 
Leigh  Hunt  wrote  The  Rimi?ii.  The  field  of 
historical  romance  opened  by  Sir  Walter  Scott 
has  been  successfully  followed  by  Sir  Edward 
Bulwer-Lytton  and  G.  P.  R.  James. 

As  novelists  of  English  life  and  society, 
under  all  its  aspects,  Dickens  and  Thackeray  — 
and  Miss  Bronte,  author  of  Shirley  and  Jane 
Eyre  —  stand  preeminent.  As  essayists  and 
critics,  the  names  of  Lords  Jeffrey  and 
Brougham,  Sidney  Smith,  Macaulay,  Professor 
Wilson,  De  Quincey,  Carlyle,  and  Stevens 
surpass  even  the  group  who  produced  The 
Tatler  and  The  Spectator.  Carlyle,  in  his 
Sartor  Resartus,  Past  and  Present,  and  Heroes 
and  Hero  Worship,  has  made  use  of  an  idiom 
of  his  own  —  a  broken,  involved,  German- 
esque  diction,  which  resembles  that  of  no 
other  English  author.  Some  of  the  most 
prominent  English  poets  of  this  period  are 
Lord  Byron,  Shelley,  Thomas  Moore,  Leigh 
Hunt,  Rogers,  Alfre'd  Tennyson,  Milnes, 
Barry  Cornwall,  Robert  Browning,  Elizabeth 
Barrett  Browning,  probably  the  most  impas- 
sioned and  imaginative  of  English  female 
authors,  Walter  Savage  Landor,  Mary  How- 
itt,  R.  H.  Home,  author  of  Orion,  Croly, 
Philip  James  Bailey,  author  of  Festus,  and 
T.  N.  Talfourd,  author  of  the  tragedy  of  Ion. 
Among  later  writers  of  poetry,  Matthew 
Arnold  has  written  some  of  the  most  refined 
verse  of  our  generation,  and  among  critics 
holds  the  first  rank.  Algernon  Swinburne 
excels  all  living  poets  in  his  marvelous  gift  of 
rhythm  and  command  over  the  resources  of 
the  language.  Dante  Rossetti  had  great  lyrical 
power  ;  Edwin  Arnold  has  extraordinary  pop- 
ularity in  the  United  States  for  his  remark- 
able poem,  The  Light  of  Asia,  and  for  other 
poems  on  Oriental  subjects.  Among  other 
poets  of  the  present  generation  whose  writings 
are  marked  by  excellences  of  various  kinds 
are  Lord  Lytton  ("Owen  Meredith"),  Wil- 
liam Morris,  Edmund  Gosse,  Austin  Dobson, 
Andrew  Lang,  and  Philip  Marston.  Among 
female  writers,  the  poems  of  Jean  Ingelow 
have  a  merited  popularity  ;  those  of  Adelaide 
Procter  are  pervaded  by  a  beautiful  spirit  of 
faith  and  hope ;  while  Christina  Rossetti 
shows  great  originality  and  deep  feeling. 
Chief  in  the  field  of  fiction  are  the  writings  ol 
"  George  Eliot,"  a  woman  of  rare  genius, 
whose  works  are  among  the  greatest  England 
has  produced.   Anthony  Trollope  has  produced 


166 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


many  works  remarkable  lor  their  accurate  pic- 
tures of  English  life  and  character.  George 
Macdonald  and  Wilkie  Collir.s  are  novelists  of 
great  merit,  as  are  Mrs.  Humphry  Ward, 
Kudyard  Kipling,  and  Richard  Blackmore. 
Among  others  in  popular  favor  are  William 
Black,  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Conan  Doyle,  and  J. 
M.  Barrie.  Charles  Darwin  and  Herbert 
Spencer  have  been  the  most  distinguished 
authors  identified  with  the  scientific  and  phil- 
osophical aspects  of  evolution,  and  have  had 
a  wide  influence  on  contemporary  thought. 
Tyndall  has  done  more  than  any  other  writer 
to  popularize  great  scientific  truths.  Huxley 
stands  foremost  among  physiologists  and  nat- 
uralists. Among  numerous  other  writers  dis- 
tinguished in  various  branches  of  science,  a 
few  only  can  be  here  named.  Walter  Bagehot 
writes  of  Political  Society ;  Alexander  Bain 
on  Mind  and  Body  ;  Henry  Maudsley  on  Brain 
and  Mind ;  Norman  Lockyer  on  Spectrum 
Analysis ;  and  Sir  John  Lubbock  on  Natural 
History.  The  most  distinguished  historian  of 
the  times  is  James  Anthony  Froude,  who 
shows  great  vigor  of  thought  and  power  of 
description.  The  histories  of  John  Richard 
Green  and  E.  A.  Freeman  are  valuable  for 
their  original  research,  and  have  wide  celeb- 
rity. Max  Muller  has  rendered  important 
service  to  the  sciences  of  Philology  and  Eth- 
nology. Lecky  is  eminent  for  his  Rationalism 
in  Europe  and  History  of  Morals.  Leslie 
Stephen,  John  Morley,  and  John  Addington 
Symonds  are  distinguished  in  various  depart- 
ments of  criticism  and  history.  Thomas  Hill 
Green  and  James  Martineau  are  masters  of 
Ethical  Philosophy.  John  Stuart  Mill  holds 
a  high  place  as  a  writer  on  Political  Economy. 
All  English  works  of  any  merit  are  now  imme- 
diately reprinted  in  this  country,  and  the 
English  literature  of  the  present  century  is  as 
familiar  to  most  Americans  as  their  own. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE. 

The  literature  of  the  United  States  belongs 
almost  exclusively  to  the  present  century.  The 
language  being  that  of  England,  and  all  the 
treasures  of  English  literature  the  common  in- 
heritance of  our  countrymen,  whatever  Ameri- 
can authors  produce  is  necessarily  measured  by 
the  English  standard.  The  language  comesto  us 
finished  and  matured,  while  the  means  of  intel- 
lectual cultivation — until  a  comparatively  recent 
period — have  been  limited,  and  our  abundant 
stores  of  legend  and  history  are  still  too  fresh 
to  be  available  for  the  purpose  of  poetry  and 
fiction.  The  present  generation,  however,  has 
witnessed  the  growth  of  a  national  literature, 
which,  if  not  peculiarly  American  in  language, 
is  at  least  so  in  style  and  the  materials  chosen. 


The  seventeenth  century  boasted  two  or 
three  authors,  but  none  we  believe  native  to 
the  soil.  Mrs.  Anne  Bradstreet,  wife  of  a 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  published  in  1640, 
a  poem  on  the  Four  Elements,  smoothly  versi- 
fied, but  of  little  poetical  merit.  Cotton 
Mather,  born  in  1663,  is  almost  the  only  prose 
writer  worthy  of  note.  His  Magnolia  contains 
some  valuable  historical  matter.  The  last 
century  produced  some  distinguished  prose 
writers  and  some  accomplished  versifiers, 
though  no  poet  in  the  true  sense  of  the  title. 
Franklin,  born  in  1706,  was  master  of  a  sin- 
gularly clear,  compact,  and  vigorous  style. 
Jonathan  Edwards,  who  flourished  during  the 
last  century,  wrote  a  celebrated  treatise  on  the 
Will,  which  is  one  of  the  first  metaphysical 
works  in  the  language.  The  Revolutionary 
struggle  and  the  circumstances  which  pre- 
ceded and  succeeded  it,  produced  a  number  of 
bold  and  brilliant  writers  and  speakers,  among 
whom  were  Jefferson,  Hamilton,  the  Adamses, 
Richard  Henry  Lee,  and  Patrick  Henry.  The 
diplomatic  correspondence  of  the  Revolution 
has  rarely  been  surpassed.  Philip  Freneau, 
who  has  been  called  the  first  American  poet, 
wrote  many  patriotic  songs,  which  were  sung 
during  the  struggle,  but  none  have  retained 
their  original  vitality.  Trumbull  was  the 
author  of  a  Hudibrastic  poem  entitled  Mc- 
Fingal,  in  which  the  Tories  were  held  up  to 
ridicule  ;  the  first  part  was  published  in  1775. 
Joel  Barlow,  who  aspired  to  the  rank  of  an 
epic  poet,  published,  in  1787,  his  Vision  oj 
Columbus,  which,  in  1808,  was  expanded  into 
the  Columbiad ,  and  printed  in  what  was  then 
a  style  of  unusual  magnificence. 

Dana,  Bryant,  Washington  Irving,  Cooper, 
Paulding,  and  Everett,  were  all  born  towards 
the  close  of  the  last  century.  Dana  may  be 
considered  as  the  first  genuine  poet  the  United 
States  has  produced.  His  Buccaneer  is  a 
picturesque  and  striking  poem,  founded  on  a 
legend  of  the  pirates  who  formerly  frequented 
the  American  coast.  Irving's  Knickerbocker's 
History  of  New  York  appeared  in  1809,  and 
instantly  gave  him  a  position  as  a  writer  of 
the  purest  style  and  of  exquisite  humor  and 
fancy.  A  Biography  of  Gold 'smith, to  whom  he 
has  been  compared,  was  published  in  1849. 
Many  of  his  works — among  them  The  Sketch 
Book,  Bracebridge  Hall,  The  Alhambra,  and 
the  Life  of  Columbus- — -were  first  published  in 
England,  where  he  lived  many  years.  Cooper's 
first  essay  in  literature  was  a  novel  of  society 
entitled  Precaution,  but  he  subsequently  con- 
fined himself  to  the  two  fields  in  which  he  has 
earned  his  best  fame — the  forest  and  the 
ocean.  His  most  successful  novels  are  The 
Spy,  The  Pioneers,  The  Deerslayer,  The  Pilot, 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


167 


and  The  Pathfinder.  Bryant  first  attracted 
notice  by  his  poem  of  Thanatopsis,  written  in 
his  nineteenth  year.  His  first  volume,  The 
Ages,  was  published  in  1825.  William  Ellery 
Channing's  essays,  criticism*,  and  moral, 
religious,  and  political  writings  won  him  much 
celebrity  as  a  prose  writer.  William  Wirt, 
author  of  The  British  Spy,  a  collection  of 
letters  written  in  a  chaste  and  elegant  style  ; 
Charles  Brockden  Brown,  the  earliest  Ameri- 
can novelist,  author  of  Wieland;  Richard 
Henry  Wilde,  author  of  a  Life  of  Tasso:  Chief 
Justice  Marshall,  who  compiled  a  voluminous 
Life  of  Washington ;  Henry  Wheaton,  author 
of  standard  works  on  law  and  political  econ- 
omy ;  Judge  Story,  author  of  several  celebrated 
legal  works;  Edgar  Allan  Poe,  a  most  original 
and  strongly  marked  character,  who  wrote  the 
poem  of  The  Raven  and  a  number  of  weird 
and  fantastic  prose  stories  ;  Margaret  Fuller,  a 
woman  of  remarkable  acquirements,  who  has 
left  behind  her  much  admirable  descriptive 
and  critical  writing,  are  all  entitled  to  distin- 
guished mention. 

The  stories  and  poems  of  N.  P.  Willis,  as 
well  as  his  records  of  travels  in  Europe  and 
the  East,  are  unsurpassed  in  point  of  bril- 
liancy. Hawthorne,  author  of  The  Scarlet 
Letter,  The  House  of  Seven  Gables,  and  The 
Marble  Faun,  is  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of 
his  psychological  insight,  his  power  of  intense 
characterization,  and  for  his  mastery  of  the 
spiritual  and  the  supernatural.  His  style  is 
the  pure  colorless  medium  of  his  thought ;  the 
plain  current  of  his  language  is  always  equable, 
full,  and  unvarying,  whether  in  the  company 
of  playful  children,  among  the  ancestral  asso- 
ciations of  family  or  history,  or  in  grappling 
with  the  mysteries  and  terrors  of  the  super- 
natural world.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  author 
of  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  and  a  crowd  of  other 
writers  of  various  and  high  degrees  of  merit 
and  reputation,  followed  in  almost  unbroken 
succession  down  to  the  present.  Among  these, 
as  writers  of  fiction,  may  be  mentioned  Wil- 
liam Ware,  author  of  Probus  and  Palmyra; 
William  Gilmore  Simms,  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  author  of  the  Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast Table;  George  William  Curtis,  Donald  G. 
Mitchell,  William  Dean  Howells,  Henry 
James,  Helen  Hunt  Jackson,  Frances  Hodgson 
Burnett,  Elizabeth  Stuart  Phelps,  Louisa  M. 
Alcott,  F.  Marion  Crawford,  George  W.  Cable, 
F.  J.  Stimson,  Edward  Everett  Hale,  Bret 
Harte,  and  Lew*  Wallace.  Prominently  de- 
voted to  poetry  and  criticism  are  Richard  II. 
Dana,  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Lowell,  Whit 
tier,  Bayard  Taylor,  Walt  Whitman,  R.  II. 
Stoddard,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  R.  W.  Gilder,  Edgar 
Faucett,    Joaquin    Miller,    James    Whitcomb 


Riley,  John  Hay,  and  Edmund  Clarence  Sted- 
man. 

To  the  historical  school  belong  the  names  of 
Prescott,  Motley,  Parkman,  Bancroft,  Ilil- 
dreth,  Winsor,  Fiske,  and  McMaster.  The 
works  of  Prescott  are  among  the  finest  models 
of  historical  composition,  and  they  breathe 
freely  the  spirit  of  our  liberal  institutions. 
His  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  of  the 
Conquest  of  Mexico,  and  the  Conquest  of  Peru, 
unite  all  the  fascination  of  romantic  fiction 
with  the  grave  interests  of  authentic  events. 
Motley's  History  of  the  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Re- 
public is  a  work  distinguished  for  its  historical 
accuracy,  philosophical  breadth  of  treatment, 
and  clearness  and  vigor  of  style.  Bancroft 
has  written  the  most  accurate  and  philosophical 
account  that  has  been  given  of  the  United 
States',  which  has  been  worthily  supplemented 
by  the  volumes  of  McMaster.  In  Hildreth's 
History  of  the  United  States,  rhetorical  grace 
and  effect  give  way  to  a  plain  narrative  con- 
fined to  facts  gleaned  with  great  care  and  con- 
scientiousness. The  writing  of  Winsor  and 
Fiske  has  been  confined  to  certain  important 
epochs. 

Of  the  statesmen  of  the  present  century 
who  have  contributed  to  our  literature  of  ora- 
tory, the  most  eminent  are  Webster,  Clay,  and 
Calhoun.  The  speeches  and  forensic  argu- 
ments of  Webster  are  remarkable  for  clear- 
ness and  impressiveness,  and  rise  occasionally 
to  grandeur.  The  speeches  of  Clay  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  sincerity  and  warmth  which 
were  characteristic  of  the  man,  who  united 
the  gentlest  affections  with  the  pride  of  the 
haughtiest  manhood.  His  eloquence  reached 
the  heart  of  the  whole  nation.  The*  style  of 
John  C.  Calhoun  was  terse  and  condensed, 
and  his  eloquence,  though  sometimes  impas- 
sioned, was  always  severe.  He  had  great  skill 
as  a  dialectician  and  remarkable  power  of 
analysis,  and  his  works  will  have  a  permanent 
place  in  American  literature.  The  writings 
and  speeches  of  John  Quincy  Adams  are  dis- 
tinguished by  universality  of  knowledge  and 
independence  of  judgment,  and  they  are  re- 
positories of  rich  materials  for  the  historian 
and  political  philosopher.  Edward  Everett, 
as  an  orator,  had  few  equals,  and  his  occasional 
addresses  and  orations  have  become  permanent 
memorials  of  many  important  occasions  of 
public  interest.  Of  the  numerous  other  ora- 
tors, eminent  as  rhetoricians  or  debaters,  a  few 
only  can  be  named  ;  among  them  are  Legar6, 
Randolph,  Choate,  Sumner,  Phillips,  Preston, 
Prentiss,  Lincoln,  and  Robert  G.  Ingersoll. 

Philosophy  assumed  its  first  distinctive  char- 
acter under  the  influence  of  the  Transcendental 
School  of  New  England.      The  first  to  plant 


168 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  seeds  of  this  philosophy  was  George  Rip- 
ley, a  philanthropist  of  high  ideals.  Theo- 
dore Parker  owed  his  great  power  as  a  preacher 
to  his  faith  in  the  Transcendental  philosophy. 
The  Absolute  God,  the  Moral  Law,  and  the 
Immortal  Life  he  held  to  be  the  three  cardinal 
attestations  of  the  universal  consciousness. 
The  first  place,  however,  belongs  to  Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson,  who  lighted  up  its  doctrines 
with  the  rays  of  ethical  and  poetical  imagina- 
tion. With  many  inconsistencies  to  be  allowed 
for,  he  still  remains  the  highest  mind  that  the 
world  of  letters  has  produced  in  America. 
His  essays  are  marvels  of  keen  insight  and 
profound  wisdom.  Other  writers  identified 
with  the  Transcendental  movement  are  O.  B. 
Frothingham,  O.  A.  Brownson,  James  Free- 
man Clarke,  Henry  D.  Thoreau,  A.  Bronson 
Alcott,  C.  P.  Cranch,  and  Thomas  Went  worth 
Higginson,  the  latter  one  of  the  most  delightful 
prose  writers  of  this  generation.  The  most 
distinguished  philosophical  writer  of  the  pres- 
ent day  is  Josiah  Royce,  a  professor  in  Harvard 
University,  with  whom  must  be  mentioned  John 
Fiske,  William  James,  Andrew  D.  White, 
Joseph  Le  Conte,  and  George  T.  Ladd. 

The  physical  sciences,  from  an  early  period, 
have  found  able  investigators  in  the  United 
States,  and  the  fields  of  theology,  economy, 
and  jurisprudence  have  furnished  many  hon- 
orable names.  Among  scientists  those  most 
prominent  in  chemistry  and  physics  are  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  Morse,  Hare,  Silliman, 
Henry,  Edison,  Remsen,  and  Rowland ;  in 
geology,  Dana,  Hitchcock,  Hall,  Hodge,  Owen, 
Whitney,  Le  Conte  ;  in  botany,  Torrey,  Gray, 
Bessey,  '  Coulter,  and  Campbell ;  in  natural 
history,  Holbrook,  Audubon,  Agassiz,  Henry, 
and  Jordan  ;  in  political  economy,  Henry  C. 
Carey,  Francis  A.  Walker,  and  Henry  George  ; 
in  psychology,  William  James  and  G.  Stanley 
Hall. 

French  Academy,  The,  was  created  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1635.  Its  original  pursuits  were 
eloquence  and  poetry.  In  1648  it  was  ex- 
tended to  the  fine  arts;  and  in  1666,  by  Col- 
bert, to  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Scandinavians  anciently  employed  an 
alphabet  of  letters  formed  principally  of 
straight  lines,  which  has  been  called  Runic, 
from  an  Icelandic  word  runa,  meaning  a  fur- 
row or  line. 

Volapuk. —  This  so-called  universal  lan- 
guage was  invented  in  1879,  by  Johann  Martin 
Schleyer,  a  Swabian  pastor  and  latterly  a 
teacher  in  Constance.  Of  the  vocabulary, 
about  one  third  is  of  English  origin,  while  the 
Latin  and  Romance  languages  furnish  a  fourth. 
The  grammar  is  simplified  to  the  utmost. 
The  most  practical  disciples  limit  their  aims 


to  making  Volapuk  a  convenience   for   com 
mercial   correspondence,    a  kind  of   extended 
international  code. 

Sanskrit  is  one  of  the  Indo-European 
group  of  languages,  intimately  connected  with 
the  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  Teutonic,  Slavo- 
nian, and  Celtic  languages.  It  is  the  classical 
language  of  the  Hindus,  and  the  parent  of  all 
the  modern  Aryan  languages  of  India.  It 
ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language  about  the  sec- 
ond century  B.C.  Sanskrit  literature,  which 
extends  back  to  at  least  1500  B.  C,  and  is 
very  voluminous,  was  introduced  to  the  west- 
ern world  by  Sir  William  Jones,  who  founded 
the  Asiatic  Society  in  Calcutta  in  178-1. 

Languages  of  the  World. —  It  has 
been  estimated  that  there  are  over  3000  lan- 
guages in  the  world.  English  is  spoken  by 
above  130,000,000  of  the  human  race  ;  Ger- 
man by  100,000,000  ;  Russian  by  70,000,000  ; 
French  by  45,000,000 ;  Spanish  by  40,000,- 
000  ;  Italian  by  30,000,000,  and  Portuguese  by 
13,000,000. 

English  is  spoken  by  4,000,000  Canadians ; 
over  3,500,000  West  Indians;  3,000,000  Aus- 
tralians ;  1,000,000  East  Indians  ;  38,000,000 
in  the  British  Isles,  and  65,000,000  in  Amer- 
ica. 

German  is  spoken  by  2,000,000  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada;  2,000,000  in 
Switzerland  ;  40,000  Belgians  ;  46,000,000  in 
the  German  Empire,  and  10,000,000  in  the 
Austro-Hungarian  Empire. 

French  is  spoken  by  2,250,000  Belgians ; 
1,000,000  in  the  United  States  and  Canada ; 
1,000,000  in  Algiers,  India,  and  Africa; 
600,000  Swiss  ;  600,000  in  Hayti ;  200,000  in 
Alsace-Lorraine,  and  38,000,000  in  France. 

Troubadours  were  minstrels  of  southern 
France  in  the  eleventh,  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
centuries.  They  were  the  first  to  discard  Latin 
and  use  the  native  tongue  in  their  composi- 
tions. Their  poetry  was  either  about  love  and 
gallantry,  or  war  and  chivalry.  In  northern 
France  they  were  called  Trouveres  and  the 
language  employed  was  the  Walloon. 

Grub  Street,  London,  is  thus  described 
in  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary:  "Originally 
the  name  of  a  street  near  Moorfields,  in  Lon- 
don, much  inhabited  by  waiters  of  small  his- 
tories, dictionaries,  and  temporary  poems, 
whence  any  production  is  called  Grub  Street." 
Andrew  Marvell  used  the  name  in  its  appro- 
priate sense,  which  later  was  freely  used  by 
Pope,  Swift,  and  others. 

Madrigal  is  a  short  lyric  poem,  generally 
on  the  subject  of  love,  and  characterized  by 
some  epigrammatic  terseness  or  quaintness.  It 
was  written  as  a  rule  in  iambic  meter,  and 
contained  not  less  than  six  or  more  than  thir- 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


169 


teen  lines,  and  ran  chiefly  upon  three  rhymes. 
The  name  is  also  applied  to  the  music  for  a 
simple  song  sung  in  a  rich,  artistic  style  but 
without  musical  accompaniment. 

Minnesingers,  The,  were  love  poets, 
contemporary  in  Germany  with  the  House  of 
Honenstauffen.  Though  called  love  singers, 
some  of  their  poems  were  national  ballads, 
and  some  were  extended  romances.  Walter  of 
Vogelweide  was  by  far  the  best  of  the  lyrists  ; 
Heinrich  of  Yeldig  was  the  most  naive  and 
ingenuous  ;  Hartman  the  most  classical ;  Wol- 
fram the  most  sublime,  and  Gottfried  the 
most  licentious. 

Iliad,  The,  is  the  tale  of  the  siege  of  Troy, 
an  epic  poem  in  24  books  by  Homer.  Mene- 
laus,  King  of  Sparta,  received  as  a  guest,  Paris, 
a  son  of  Priam,  King  of  Troy.  Paris  eloped 
with  Helen,  his  host's  wife,  and  Menelaus  in- 
duced the  Greeks  to  lay  siege  to  Troy  to  avenge 
the  perfidy.  The  siege  lasted  ten  years,  when 
Troy  was  taken  and  burned  to  the  ground. 
Homer's  poem  is  confined  to  the  last  year  of 
the  siege. 

Lorelei,  famed  in  song  and  story,  is  a  rock 
which  rises  perpendicularly  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  height  of  427  feet,  near  St.  Goar.  It  was 
formerly  dangerous  to  boatmen,  and  has  a 
celebrated  echo.  The  name  is  best  known 
from  Heine's  "Song  of  the  Siren,"  who  sits 
on  the  rock,  combing  her  long  tresses,  and 
singing  so  ravishingly,  that  the  boatmen,  en- 
chanted by  the  music  of  her  voice,  forget  their 
duty,  and  are  drawn  upon  the  rock  and  perish. 

Beauty  and  the  Beast.— This  venerable 
story,  from  Les  Contes  Marines,  of  lime.  Ville- 
neuve  (1740),  is,  perhaps,  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  nursery  tales.  A  young  and  lovely 
woman  saved  her  father  by  putting  herself  in 
the  power  of  a  frightful  but  kind-hearted 
monster,  whose  respectful  affection  and  melan- 
choly overcame  her  aversion  to  his  ugliness, 
and  she  consented  to  become  his  bride.  Being 
thus  freed  from  enchantment  the  monster  as- 
sumed his  proper  form  and  became  a  young 
and  handsome  prince. 

^neid,  The,  Virgil's  epic  poem,  is  con- 
tained in  twelve  books.  When  Troy  wras  taken 
by  the  Greeks  and  set  on  fire,  JSaeas,  with  his 
father,  son,  and  wife,  took  flight,  with  the  in- 
tention of  going  to  Italy,  the  original  birth- 
place of  the  family.  The  wife  was  lost,  and 
the  old  man  died  on  the  way ;  but,  after  nu- 
merous perils  by  sea  and  land,  iEneas  and  his 
son  Ascanius  reached  Italy.  Here  Latinus, 
the  reigning  king,  received  the  exiles  hospita- 
bly, and  promised  his  daughter  Lavinia  in 
marriage  to  ^Eneas  ;  but  she  had  been  already 
betrothed  by  her  mother  to  Prince  Turnus,  son 
of  Valmus,  king  of  Rutuli,  and  Turnus  would 


not  forego  his  claim.  Latinus,  in  this  dilemma, 
said  the  rivals  must  settle  the  dispute  by  an 
appeal  to  arms.  Turnus  being  slain,  yEneas 
married  Lavinia,  and  ere  long  succeeded  his 
father-in-law  in  the  throne. 

Gesta  Romanorum,  the  deeds  of  the 
Romans,  is  the  title  of  a  collection  of  short 
stories  and  legends  in  the  Latin  tongue,  widely 
spread  during  the  Middle  Ages,  but  of  the 
authorship  of  which  little  is  known  save  that 
it  took  its  present  form  most  likely  in  England, 
about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  or  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fourteenth  century.  The  stories 
are  invariably  moralized,  and,  indeed,  this 
edifying  purpose  throughout  is  the  sole  unify- 
ing element  of  the  collection.  The  title  is 
only  so  far  descriptive  as  the  nucleus  of  the 
collection  consists  of  stories  from  Roman  his- 
tory, or  rather  pieces  from  Roman  writers,  not 
necessarily  of  any  greater  historical  value  than 
that  of  Androcles  and  the  Lion  from  Alius 
Gallius.  Moralized,  mystical,  and  religious 
tales,  as  well  as  other  pieces,  many  of  ultimate 
oriental  origin,  were  afterwards  added,  and 
upon  them  edifying  conclusions  hung,  bring- 
ing the  whole  up  to  about  180  chapters. 

Bluebeard  is  the  hero  of  the  well-known 
nursery  tale,  and  is  so  named  from  the  color 
of  his  beard.  The  story  is  widely  known  in 
AVestern  Europe,  but  the  form  in  which  it  has 
become  familiar  is  a  free  translation  of  that 
given  by  Perrault  in  1697.  In  this  story 
Bluebeard  is  a  Signeur  of  great  wealth,  who 
marries  the  daughter  of  a  neighbor  in  the 
country  and  a  month  after  the  wedding  goes 
from  home  on  a  journey  leaving  his  wife  the 
keys  of  his  castle,  but  forbidding  her  to  enter 
one  room.  She  cannot  resist  her  curiosity, 
opens  the  door,  to  find  the  bodies  of  all  Blue- 
beard's former  wives,  and  at  once  sees  the  fate 
to  which  she  herself  is  doomed.  Bluebeard, 
on  his  return,  discovers  from  a  spot  of  blood 
upon  the  key  which  could  not  be  cleaned  off, 
that  his  wife  had  broken  his  command  and 
tells  her  that  she  must  die-  She  begs  for  a 
short  respite  to  commend  herself  to  God,  sends 
her  sister  Anne  to  the  top  of  the  tower  to 
seek  for  help  and  finally  is  just  on  the  point  of 
having  her  head  cut  off,  when  her  two  brothers 
burst  in  And  dispatch  Bluebeard.  There  are 
many  versions  of  the  story,  all  agreeing  in  es- 
sential details.  It  is  found  in  the  German, 
French,  Greek,  Tuscan,  Icelandic,  Esthonian, 
Gaelic,  and  Basque  folklore. 

Sagas,  The,  belong  to  the  Norse  literature 
and  are  generally  books  in  the  form  of  a  tale, 
like  a  Welch  "  mahinogi."  "  Edda  "  was  the 
name  of  the  Bible  of  the  ancient  Scandinavi- 
ans. In  the  Edda  there  are  numerous  Sagas. 
As  our  Bible  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews, 


170 


THE    CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


religious  songs,  moral  proverbs,  and  religious 
stories,  so  the  Edda  contains  the  history  of 
Norway,  religious  songs,  a  book  of  proverbs, 
and  numerous  stories.  The  original  Edda  was 
compiled  and  edited  by  Saemun  Sigfusson,  an 
Icelandic  priest,  in  the  eleventh  century.  It 
contains  twenty-eight  parts  or  books,  all  of 
which  are  in  verse. 

Two  hundred  years  later,  Snorro  Sturles- 
son,  of  Iceland,  abridged,  re-arranged,  and 
reduced  the  prose  of  the  Edda,  giving  the  vari- 
ous parts  a  kind  of  dramatic  form  like  the 
Dialogues  of  Plato.  It  then  became  need- 
ful to  distinguish  between  the  two  works ; 
so  the  old  poetical  compilation  is  called  the 
Elder  or  Rhythmical  Edda,  while  the  more 
modern  work  is  called  the  Younger  or  Prose 
Edda,  and  sometimes  the  Snorro  Edda.  The 
Younger  Edda  is,  however,  partly  original, 
containing  the  discourse  of  Bragi  on  the 
Origin  of  Poetry ;  here,  too,  we  find  the 
famous  story  called  by  the  Germans  "  Nibe- 
lungen-Lied."  Beside  the  Sagas  contained  in 
the  Eddas  there  are  a  number  of  productions 
of  various  forms. 

Miracle  Plays,  The,  were  founded  on  the 
historical  parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments and  on  the  lives  of  the  saints.  They 
were  performed  at  first  in  churches,  and  after- 
wards on  platforms  in  the  streets.  Their  de- 
sign was  to  instruct  the  people  in  Bible  his- 
tory ;  but  long  before  the  Reformation,  they 
had  so  far  departed  from  their  original  charac- 
ter as  to  bring  contempt  upon  the  church  and 
religion.  The  exhibition  of  a  single  play 
often  occupied  several  days.  The  earliest  re- 
corded Miracle  Play  took  place  in  England  in 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  ;  but  they 
soon  became  popular  in  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  and  Italy. 

In  Germany  these  plays,  with  one  excep- 
tion, were  suppressed  in  the  year  1779.  The  vil- 
lages of  Oberammergau  in  the  Bavarian  High- 
lands, had,  upon  the  cessation  of  a  play,  in 
1633,  vowed  to  perform  the  "Passion  of  Our 
Saviour  "  every  tenth  year  out  of  gratitude, 
and  also  as  a  means  of  instruction  to  the  peo- 
ple. The  pleading  of  a  deputation  of  Oberam- 
mergau peasants  with  Maximilian  II.  of  Ba- 
varia, saved  their  play  from  general  Condemna- 
tion. The  play  was  remodeled  and  is  per- 
haps the  only  Miracle  Play  that  survives  to 
the  present  day.  The  performance  lasts  for 
eight  hours  with  an  intermission  of  one  hour 
at  noon  ;  and  though  occurring  only  once  in 
a  decade  is  repeated  on  several  Sundays  in 
succession  during  the  season.  The  characters 
in  the  play  number  about  500.  The  person- 
ator  of  the  Saviour  seems  to  regard  the  per- 
formance  of  his   part   as  an   act  of  religious 


worship ;  and  the  other  important  actors  are 
said  to  be  selected  for  their  holy  life  and  to  be 
consecrated  to  their  work  with  prayer.  Travel- 
ers from  all  parts  of  the  world  flock  to 
Oberammergau  during  the  time  announced 
for  its  representation. 

Cid  Canipoador,  historically  Roderigo 
Diaz,  the  noted  Spanish  warrior,  is  so  inter- 
mingled with  fable  that  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  get  at  the  truth.  His  career  is  celebrated 
in  the  Spanish  Epic,  "  Poem  of  the  Cid." 
From  this  poem  and  other  Spanish  works 
Southey  translated  and  compiled  his  "  Chroni- 
cle of  the  Cid." 

The  Cid  is  supposed  to  have  been  born 
about  the  year  1026,  and  to  have  died  at 
Valentia,  1099.  He  was  such  a  terror  to  the 
Moors,  and  seemed  so  superior  to  all  others, 
that  he  was  called  El  Seid  (Arabic  for  the 
Lord)  ;  and  finally  Cid  Campeador  (Lord 
Champion). 

Rebecca,  of  Ivanhoe.  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
model  for  this  character  was  a  young  woman, 
Rebecca  Gratz  by  name,  of  an  honorable 
Jewish  family  of  Philadelphia.  She  was  born 
on  the  4th  of  March,  1781,  and  in  her  younger 
days,  and  even  beyond  middle  life,  possessed 
singular  beauty.  She  was  noted  for  her  be- 
nevolent and  charitable  life  and  for  her  devo- 
tion to  the  Jewish  faith.  One  of  the  most 
intimate  friends  of  her  family  was  Washing- 
ton Irving,  who  in  the  fall  of  1817  first 
introduced  the  character  to  the  notice  of  Scott 
during  his  visit  to  Abbotsford.  During  one 
of  their  many  conversations,  Irving  spoke  of 
his  friend  Rebecca  Gratz  of  Philadelphia,  de- 
scribed her  wonderful  beauty,  and  related  the 
story  of  her  firm  adherence  to  her  religious 
faith.  Scott  was  deeply  interested  and  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  embodying  a  character  like 
hers  in  one  of  his  novels.  Shortly  after  this 
he  wrote  Ivanhoe,  and  named  his  heroine 
Rebecca. 

Romance  of  the  Rose,  the  Iliad  of 
France,  is  a  poetical  allegory  begun  by  Guil- 
laume  de  Loris  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century  and  continued  by  Jean  de  Munge 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  The  poet  dreams 
that  Dame  Idleness  conducts  him  to  the  palace 
of  pleasure,  where  he  meets  Love,  whose  at- 
tendant maidens  are  Sweet  Looks,  Courtesy, 
Youth,  Joy,  and  Competence  ;  by  them  he  is 
conducted  to  a  bed  of  roses.  He  has  just 
singled  out  one  rose  when  an  arrow  from 
Love's  bow  stretches  him  fainting  on  the 
ground  and  he  is  carried  away.  When  he  is 
revived  he  resolves  to  find  his  rose,  and  Wel- 
come promises  to  aid  him.  Shyness,  Fear,  and 
Slander  obstruct  his  way  ;  Reason  advises  him 
to  give  up  the  quest ;  Pity  and  Kindness  show 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


171 


Mm  the  object  of  his  search ;  but  Jealousy 
seizes  Welcome  and  locks  her  in  Fear  Castle. 
Here  the  original  poem  ends.  The  sequel 
takes  up  the  tale  at  this  point,  and  is  an  ex- 
traordinary mixture  of  erudition  and  satire. 
The  poem  reached  the  height  of  its  popularity 
in  the  sixteenth  century. 

A  Curious  Book. —  A  book  belonging  to 
the  family  of  Prince  De  Ligne  of  France  is 
said  to  be  the  most  curious  book  in  the  world, 
because  it  is  neither  written  nor  printed.  The 
letters  of  the  text  are  cut  out  of  each  folio 
upon  the  finest  vellum  ;  and,  being  interleaved 
with  blue  paper,  it  is  as  easy  to  read  as  print. 
The  labor  bestowed  upon  it  was  excessive. 
Rudolph  II.  of  Germany  offered  for  it,  in 
1640,  860,000. 

Koran,  The,  in  the  Arabic  language  sig- 
nifies "The  Reading."  That  Mohammed  is 
the  real  author  of  the  Koran  there  is  no  doubt ; 
but  the  Mohammedans  steadfastly  deny  it  to 
be  the  work  of  their  prophet,  the  orthodox 
among  them  believing  it  to  be  of  divine  origin. 
Mohammed  left  his  revelations  written  upon 
palm  leaves  and  skin,  which  were  thrown 
promiscuously  into  a  chest,  bearing  no  dates 
but  merely  the  places  of  revelation  ;  some  are 
marked  Mecca  and  some  Medina.  Three  years 
after  the  death  of  the  prophet,  in  635,  Aby- 
Bekr  collected  and  published  these  articles  in 
the  form  of  what  is  now  called  the  Koran. 

Goethe,  the  acknowledged  prince  of  Ger- 
man literature,  was  born  at  Fraukfort-on-the- 
Main,  August  28,  1749,  and  died  in  Weimar 
on  March  22,  1832.  His  greatest  work  is 
Faust,  but  it  can  never  become  popular,  be- 
cause its  wisdom  does  not  lie  on  the  surface. 
When  he  had  finished  it,  he  said  the  work  of 
his  life  was  done.  Hermann  and  Dorothea  is 
as  immortal  as  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield.  The 
Sorrows  of  Werther  brought  him  equal  fame. 
It  is  said  that  the  WTerther  fever  ran  so  high 
that  in  some  countries  booksellers  were  for- 
bidden by  law  to  sell  it.  Young  women  cried 
over  it,  and  young  men  shot  themselves  with 
a  copy  of  Werther  in  their  hand. 

Classic  and  Romantic  Literature. — 
The  term  classic  has,  ever  since  the  second  cen- 
tury, been  applied  to  writers  of  the  highest 
rank.  Latterly  it  has  come  to  designate  the 
best  writers  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome. 
Romantic  literature  was  the  term  first  used  in 
Germany,  about  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century,  by  a  number  of  young  poets  and 
critics  who  wished  to  indicate  that  they  sought 
the  essence  of  art  and  poetry  in  the  wonderful 
and  fantastic. 

Telemachus  was  written  by  Francois  Fen- 
elon,  Archbishop  of  Cambrey.  It  is  a  French 
prose  epic,    in   24   books,    and   contains  the 


adventures  of  Telemachus,  the  only  son  of 
Ulysses  and  Penelope,  while  in  search  pi  his 
father,  who  had  been  absent  thirty  years  from 
his  home.  Telemachus  is  accompanied  by  the 
god  of  wisdom  under  the  form  of  Mentor. 
There  is  perhaps  no  book  in  the  French  lan- 
guage which  has  been  more  read,  and  it  is  a 
class  book  in  almost  every  European  school. 

Dante  is  called  the  father  of  Italian  litera- 
ture. Before  his  time  the  poets  of  northern 
Italy  wrote  in  the  Provencal  language,  which 
was  the  dialect  spoken  chiefly  in  southern 
France.  But  Dante  wrote  in  Italian,  and  from 
his  time  the  Italian  became  a  real  language. 

His  great  work  is  the  "  Divine  Comedy," 
an  epic  poem  consisting  of  three  parts,  viz. : 
hell,  purgatory,  and  paradise.  This  poem  is 
an  allegory  conceived  in  the  form  of  a  vision, 
which  was  the  most  popular  style  of  poetry  in 
that  age.  As  a  poem,  it  is  of  the  highest 
order,  and  ranks  Dante  with  Homer  and 
Milton. 

Songs  of  the  Gondoliers, — For  more 
than  two  hundred  years  the  gondoliers  of 
Venice  sang  no  other  songs  than  strophes  from 
Tasso's  immortal  epic,  "Jerusalem  Delivered." 
This  poem  commemorates  the  delivery  of  Jeru- . 
salem  from  the  Saracens  ;  and  the  hero  of  the 
poem  is  Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  the  first  Christian 
king  of  Jerusalem.  Tasso  was  born  at  Sorrento 
in  1544.  He  became  melancholy,  and  was  for 
seven  years  confined  by  the  Duke  Alfonso  in 
an  insane  asylum.  When  released  he  went  to 
Naples.  Pope  Clement  Y1U.  invited  him  to 
Rome  to  receive  the  laurel  crown  of  poet ;  but 
he  died  before  the  ceremony  took  place,  April, 
1595,  and  was  buried  on  the  day  on  which  he 
was  to  have  been  crowned. 

Writing,  History  of. — The  very  first 
origin  of  the  art  of  writing  has  been  a  matter 
of  speculation  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
myths  of  antiquity  ascribe  it  to  Thoth,  or  to 
Cadmus,  which  only  denotes  their  belief  in  its 
being  brought  from  the  East,  or  being,  per- 
haps, primeval.  The  Talmud  ascribes  it  to  a 
special  revelation.  Unquestionably  the  first 
step  toward  writing  was  rude  pictorial  repre- 
sentations of  objects,  the  next  the  application 
of  a  symbolic  meaning  to  some  of  these  pic- 
tures, and  gradually  all  pictures  became  sym- 
bolic, and  for  convenience  were  abbreviated-. 
Later  they  became  conventional  signs,  and  in 
time  they  were  made  to  stand  for  the  sounds 
of  spoken  language.  The  various  systems  of 
writing  of  the  ancient  world  had  probably  at 
least  three  sources  —  the  Egyptian,  the  Assyr- 
ian, and  the  Chinese  systems  —  all  of  which 
were  originally  hieroglyphics,  or  made  up  of 
pictures.  The  Egyptians  had  four  distinct 
styles  of  writing  —  the  hieroglyphics,  hieratic, 


172 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


enchorial,  and  Coptic.  The  hieroglyphic  was 
probably  in  use  before  4,000  B.  C,  and  at 
first  was  made  up  entirely  of  pictures ;  but 
about  2,000  B.  C.  the  hieratic  form  was  intro- 
duced, in  which  the  hieroglyphs  were  greatly 
simplified,  and  developed  into  purely  linear 
forms.  The  enchorial  form  of  writing  was  in 
use  from  700  B.  C.  to  A.  D.  200,  and  was  a 
still  further  simplification  of  the  earlier  forms, 
finally  developing  into  the  alphabetic  form 
known  as  the  Coptic.  The  cuneiform  writing 
of  the  Assyrian  empire  disputes  the  honors  of 
antiquity  with  the  Egyptian  early  forms.  This 
was  probably  hieroglyphic  in  its  origin,  but 
became  modified  by  the  different  nations  occu- 
pying the  Assyrian  empire  until  it  assumed  the 
form  of  the  inscriptions  as  known  to  archaeol- 
ogists. The  name  of  this  writing  is  from  a 
Latin  Avoid  meaning  a  wedge,  and  it  is  so 
called  because  all  the  characters  used  are  made 
up  of  different  arrangements  of  a  single  pointed 
figure  resembling  a  wedge  in  form.  There 
were  three  classes  of  cuneiform  characters  used 
in  the  period  of  development  of  this  form  of 
writing;  first,  the  Assyrian  or  Babylonian, 
which  was  very  complicated,  containing  from 
six  hundred  to  seven  hundred  symbols ;  the 
Scythian  or  Median,  having  about  one  hundred 
characters  only ;  and  the  third,  the  Persian, 
which  is  purely  alphabetic.  The  Chinese 
gives  an  example  of  a  written  language  which 
was  arrested  in  an  early  period  of  its  develop- 
ment, before  the  alphabetic  stage  had  been 
reached.  The  people  of  China  still  use  a  writ- 
ten character  for  a  word,  as  they  did  thou- 
sands of  years  ago.  The  Egyptian  is  the  most 
important  of  those  early  systems,  as  from  it 
was  probably  derived  the  Phoenician  alphabet, 
which  became  the  parent  of  all  the  graphic 
systems  of  the  modern  world.  The  Egyptians 
never  fully  separated  the  hieroglyphic  and 
phonetic  symbols,  but  the  Phoenicians  adopted 
the  latter  only,  and  thus  originated  the  first 
purely  alphabetic  plan  of  writing.  The  Phoe- 
nician alphabet  was  the  parent  of  five  principal 
branches  of  graphic  forms,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  Greek,  which  was  the  parent 
of  the  Roman  alphabet,  from  which  sprung 
the  alphabets  of  all  modern  European  nations, 
and  those  taken  from  them  by  the  people  who 
now  inhabit  the  Western  hemisphere. 

Capital  letters  were  first  invented,  and  were 
in  use  for  many  centuries  before  the  invention 
of  small  letters.  The  oldest  manuscripts  now 
in  use,  dating  as  far  back  as  the  third  century. 
are  written  entirely  in  capitals,  and  without 
spacing  between  the  words,  or  marks  of  punc- 
tuation. The  small  letters  were  first  introduced 
about  the  seventh  century. 

Punctuation  was  unknown  to  the  ancients. 


Aristophanes  of  Alexandria,  about  two  and  a 
half  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  intro- 
duced some  of  the  marks  now  used.  But  it 
was  not  until  about  the  year  1500  A.  D.r  that 
Aldus  Manutius,  a  learned  printer  of  Venice, 
reduced  the  art  of  punctuation  to  a  system. 

Surnames  are  so  called  from  the  early 
practice  of  writing  them  over  the  Christian 
names.  In  modern  times  they  were  first  used 
in  France,  particularly  in  Normandy,  where 
they  can  be  traced  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
tenth  century.  They  were  introduced  into 
England  by  the  Normans  after  the  conquest. 
The  ancient  Hebrews,  Egyptians,  Syrians,  Per- 
sians, and  others  had  but  a  single  name  which 
was  generally  significant  of  some  feature  con- 
nected with  their  birth.  Thus,  Rachel,  dying, 
had  called  her  child  Benoni,  "  the  son  of  my 
sorrow";  but  Jacob  gave  him  the  name  of 
Benjamin,  "the  son  of  my  strength."  These 
simple  names,  however,  soon  became  so  com- 
mon to  many  owners,  that  they  failed  to  con- 
vey individuality  ;.  and  this  led  to  the  addition 
of  other  designations,  now  known  to  us  as 
surnames.  Only  about  a  thousand  surnames 
were  taken  up  by  the  most  noble  families  in 
France  and  in  England  about  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor.  The  lower  nobility 
did  not  follow  this  example  before  the  twelflh 
century  and  the  citizens  and  husbandmen  had 
no  family  names  before  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. English  names  have  recruits  among 
them  from  almost  every  race. 

The  three  most  numerous  patronymics  of 
Celtic  origin  now  in  use  among  the  English 
are  the  O,  the  Mac,  and  the  Ap.  The  Irish  O 
originally  meant  grandson,  the  Scotch  Mac 
and  the  Welch  Ap  meaning  son. 

The  Jews  were  the  last  to  adopt  surnames, 
and  it  is  only  within  the  past  hundred  years 
that  they  were  compelled  by  law  to  adopt  them 
in  England. 

Sacred  Books  of  the  Hindus  are  of 
great  antiquity.  The  oldest  of  their  sacred 
books,  the  Vedas  (knowledge  or  science),  con- 
tain the  revelation  of  Brahma,  and  were  pre- 
served by  tradition  until  collected  by  Vyasa. 
The  Vedas  are  three  in  number :  first,  the 
Rig- Veda  containing  hymns  and  mystic  pray- 
ers ;  second,  the  Yajur-A'eda  containing  the 
religious  rites ;  third,  the  Sama-Veda,  with 
prayers  in  the  form  of  songs.  The  Vedas  were 
written  in  Sanskrit  and  were  first  translated 
into  English  by  Sir  William  Jones.  The  whole 
life  of  Ancient  India  is  found  in  the  Vedas, 
the  Puranas,  and  the  two  great  epics,  called 
the  Ramavanaand  the  Mahabharata. 

The  Ramayana  contains  about  50,000  lines 
describing  the  youth  of  Rama  who  is  an  in- 
carnation of  their  God  Vishmi ;  his  banish- 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


173 


merit  and  residence  in  central  India.  The 
Mahabharata  of  later  date  consists  of  about 
220,000  lines  and  is  divided  into  eighteen 
books.  Five  brothers,  the  descendants  of  Bhar- 
ata  are  the  heroes  of  the  Mahabharata ;  and 
episodes  in  the  lives  of  these  heroes  occupy 
three  fourths  of  the  poem.  The  Puranas  re- 
late largely  to  mythological  legends.  The  gods 
Siva  and  Vishnu  are  the  sole  objects  of  wor- 
ship in  the  Puranas. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  the  chief  work  of 
John  Banyan,  has  gone  through  more  editions 
and  been  translated  into  more  languages,  than 
any  book,  except  the  Bible.  It  is  an  allegory 
of  a  Christian's  life  from  the  time  of  his  con- 
version to  that  of  his  death.  The  book  was 
written  during  the  author's  incarceration  in 
Bedford  jail,  where  he  passed  twelve  years  of 
his  life.  He  was  born  near  Bedford,  in  Eng- 
land, in  1628,  in  1655  became  a  Baptist  minis- 
ter and  preached  with  great  success  until  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.,  when  an  act  against 
conventicles  was  passed,  which  put  an  end  to 
his  labors.  His  trial,  conviction,  and  sentence 
followed.  He  was  several  times  offered  his 
liberty  on  the  condition  that  he  would  give  up 
preaching  ;  but  his  answer  was  always,  "  If  you 
let  me  out  to-day,  I  will  preach  again  to-mor- 
row."    He  died  in  London,  1688. 

Latin  language  first  appears  in  literature 
as  a  written  language  as  well  as  spoken,  in  the 
plain  of  Latium  in  the  third  century  B.  C. 
The  conquering  armies  of  Rome  soon  carried 
a  knowledge  of  the  Latin  tongue  to  the  utmost 
boundaries  of  the  known  world.  Hence  its 
presence  is  discernible  in  all  European  lan- 
guages. Those  languages  which  are  the  im- 
mediate offspring  of  the  Latin,  as  the  Italian, 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French,  both  Nor- 
man and  Provengal.  are  called  the  Romance 
languages.  Wallachian,  the  language  of  Rou- 
mania,  in  which  Latin  predominates,  has  not 
until  lately  been  classified  with  the  Latin  lan- 
guage. Latin  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language 
about  580  A.  D. 

Poet  Laureate  means  "  The  Poet  of  the 
Laurel  Wreath."  It  was  the  custom  in  early 
Greece  to  crown  with  a  laurel  wreath  the  suc- 
cessful poet  in  a  contest ;  this  custom  was 
adopted  by  the  Romans  during  the  Empire. 
But  the  title  of  "Poet  Laureate"  originated 
in  Germany  during  the  twelfth  century,  when 
the  ancient  ceremony  of  crowning  the  poet  par 
excellence  was  revived.  The  early  history  of 
the  Laureateship  in  England  is  traditional. 
The  story  goes  that  Edward  III.,  following  the 
example  of  the  coronation  of  Petrarch  at  Rome, 
conferred  a  similar  honor  upon  Geoffrey  Chau- 
cer with  the  yearly  pension  of  100  marks  and 
other  perquisites.     Although  the  Laureateship 


was  generally  recognized,  it  did  not  become  an 
established  office  until  1619,  with  Ben  Jonson. 

Hungarian  Literature  is  in  the  main 
confined  to  the  Magyar  language,  which  bears 
a  resemblance  to  the  Turkish.  It  is  only  of 
late  years  that  this  literature  has  assumed  a 
popular  character.  The  native  language  was 
excluded  from  public  and  official  documents 
for  eight  centuries,  but,  notwithstanding  this 
fact,  the  Hungarians  possess  to-day  a  litera- 
ture, which,  both  in  regard  to  quantity  and 
quality,  will  sustain  comparison  with  that  of 
the  most  civilized  of  western  nations.  The 
Latin  language  was  introduced  about  1000 
A.  D.  and  became  the  tongue  of  both  church  and 
state  until  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  Hungarian  language  was  revived  in  the 
sixteenth  century  and  became  the  sole  vehicle 
for  sacred  poetry.  Translations  of  the  Bible 
were  multiplied,  chronicles,  histories,  gram- 
mars, and  dictionaries  were  published,  and  the 
period  from  1702  to  1780  probably  marks  the 
Golden  Age  of  literature  in  Hungary.  But 
the  native  language  suffered  a  severe  reverse 
when  the  country  came  under  the  absolute  do- 
minion of  Austria. 

Renaissance,  The,  means  simply  a  new 
birth  or  revival ;  but  the  word  is  always  un- 
derstood to  mean  a  revival  in  learning.  The 
period  known  as  the  Renaissance  dates  from 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
(1453),  but  long  before  that  epoch  the  love  for 
classical  literature  had  been  reviving.  This 
event,  however,  gave  a  decided  impulse  to  the 
revival  of  learning  in  western  Europe ;  the 
learned  men  of  the  Greek  or  eastern  empire 
sought  new  homes  in  the  Occident  and  estab- 
lished schools  throughout  Europe.  The  revi- 
val of  learning,  the  invention  of  printing,  the 
discovery  of  the  new  world,  the  decline  of  feu- 
dalism, the  elevation  of  the  middle  classes,  all 
contributed  to  bring  about  the  Renaissance. 
It  reached  its  climax  about  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century. 

Theatrical  Performances  have  been 
traced  to  the  Grecian  custom  of  celebrating 
every  spring,  in  Athens,  a  festival  in  honor  of 
Bacchus.  Thespis  originated  the  custom  of 
introducing  a  single  speaker  to  amuse  the 
company  with  recitations.  He  also  invented  a 
movable  car  on  which  his  performances  were 
exhibited  in  various  places.  Theatrical  per- 
formers are  still  called  thespians.  The  car  of 
Thespis  was  soon  exchanged  for  a  permanent 
stage  in  the  Temple  of  Bacchus.  ^Eschylus 
soon  added  a  second  speaker  and  a  chorus, 
masks,  scenery,  etc.,  and  is  therefore  called 
the  "  Father  of  Tragedy."  At  the  festivals 
of  Bacchus  new  plays  were  brought  out  yearly 
in  competition.     ^Eschylus  won  the  prize  every 


174 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


year  until  he  was  fifty-six  years  old,  when  he 
was  defeated  by  Sophocles.  Greek  comedy  de- 
rived its  origin  from  the  revels  of  the  Comus 
(God  of  revelry)  during  the  Bacchic  festivals. 
Its  great  master  was  Aristophanes,  444  B.  C. 

FOREIGN  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

A  has. — Down  with. 

A  capite  ad  calcem. — From  head  to  foot. 

A  fin.— To  the  end. 

Afortiori. — With  stronger  reason. 

A  V abandon. — At  random. 

A  la  bonne  heure.— Opportunely ;  in  good  time. 

A  la  derobee.—Ky  stealth. 

A  la  mode. — According  to  the  fashion. 

A  main  armie. — With  force  of  arms. 

A  mensa  ct  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 

A  posteriori. — From  effect  to  cause ;  from  the  latter. 

A  priori.— From  cause  to  effect;  from  the  former. 

A  tempo  giusto. — To  sing  or  play  in  true  time.    (Music.) 

A  tempo  rimo. — To  restore  the  original  movement. 
(Musie.) 

A  innculo  matrimonii. — From  the  tie  of  marriage. 

A  votre  sante.— To  your  health. 

Ab  extra. — From  without. 

Ab  initio. — From  the  beginning. 

Ab  origine. — From  the  beginning. 

Ab  ovo. — From  the  beginning. 

Ab  urbe  conditd. — From  the  building  of  the  city  (Rome) ; 
abridged  A.  IT.  C. 

Abit  invidia. — Ail  offense  apart ;  let  there  be  no  malice. 

Absit  omen. — May  it  not  prove  ominous. 

Absque  hoc. — Without  this  or  that. 

Ac  etiam. — And  also. 

Actum  est  de  republica,. — It  is  all  over  with  the  com- 
monwealth. 

Ad  absurdum. — To  show  the  absurdity. 

Ad  arbitrium. — At  pleasure. 

Ad  astraper  aspera.—To  the  stars  through  difficulties. 

Ad  captandum  vulgus. — To  catch  the  mob  or  the  vulgar. 

Ad  eundcm.—To  the  same  point  or  degree. 

Adfinem—  To  the  end. 

Ad  Grceeas  Cat  end-as. — An  indefinite  postponement. 
(The  Greeks  had  no  calends.) 

Ad  hominem. — To  the  man  (that  is,  to  the  interests  or 
the  passions  of  the  man). 

Ad  infinitum. — Without  end. 

Ad  inquirendum. — For  inquiry. 

Ad  interim. — In  the  meanwhile. 

Ad  libitum. — At  pleasure. 

Ad  litem. — For  the  action  (at  law). 

Ad  nauseam— To  a  disgusting  degree. 

Ad  referendum . — For  further  consideration. 

Adretn. — To  the  purpose. 

Ad  ungitem. — To  the  nail ;  exactly ;  nicely. 

Ad  valorem. — According  to  the  value. 

Addendum. — An  addition  or  appendix. 

Adhuo  sub  jwlice  lis  est. — The  affair  is  not  yet  decided. 

jEgreseit  medendo. — The  remedy  is  worse  than  the  dis- 
ease. 

jEquam  servare  mentem. — To  preserve  an  equable  mind. 

uEquo  animo. — With  an  equable  mind. 

d£re  perennius. — More  lasting  than  brass;  enduring 
ever. 

Affaire  du  cceur. — A  love  affair;  an  amour. 

Afflatus.— Inspiration. 

Agenda. — Things  to  be  done. 

Agitato. — A  broken  style  of  performance,  to  awaken 
surprise.    (Music.) 

Agnus  Dei. — Lamb  of  God. 

Aide-de-camp.—  Assistant  to  a  general. 

Aidc-loi,  et  te  del  t'aidera. — Help  thyself,  and  Heaven 
will  help  thee. 

Alereflammam. — To  feed  the  flame. 

Alfresco. — In  the  open  air. 

Alga.— A  kind  of  seaweed. 

Alguazil. — A  Spanish  constable. 

Alias. — Otherwise;  elsewhere. 

Alibi. — Elsewhere;  not  present. 

Alisvolat  proprUs. — She  flies  with  her  own  wings. 

Aliunde.—  1'rom  some  other  quarter  or  person. 

Allegretto.— X  movement  quicker  than  andante,  but  not 
so  quick  as  allegro.    (Music.) 

Allemande. — A  kind  of  German  dance. 

Almamater. — Benign  mother  (applied  to  a  university). 

Alter  ego. — A  second  self. 

Alto  octavo. — An  octave  higher. 


AHo  rdicvo. — High  relief.    (Scidptt#r0>) 

.  il In  ripiow. — The  tenor  of  a  great  chorus. 

Alto  violino. — A  small  tenor  violin. 

.tin ende. — Compensation;  apology. 

Ami  <lu  pi  uple. — Friend  of  the  people. 

Amiens  curiir. — A  friend  of  the  court. 

Amor  patriot. — Love  of  country. 

Amour  propre. — Self-lo^e ;  Canity. 

Ancien  rigime. — Former  administration ;  ancient  order 
of  things. 

AndatUe.— -Moderately  slow  movement,  between  largo 
and  allegro.    (Music.) 

Angliec. — In  English. 

Amjiiis  in  hcrbd. — A  snake  in  the  grass. 

Aiiimis  opibnsque  parati. — Ever  ready  with  our  lives 
and  property. 

Animo  etfide. — By  (or  with)  courage  and  faith. 

Animo  facto. — Really  and  truly. 

Anim  usfurandi. — Felonious  intent. 

Anno  Doin  ini. — In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

Anno  lucis. — In  the  year  of  light. 

Anno  in  undi. — In  the  year  of  the  world. 

Ann  us  vi  irabilis. — Year  of  wonders. 

Aide  helium. — Before  the  war. 

Ante  lucem. — Before  light. 

Ante  meridiem. — Before  noon. 

Apercu. — A  brief  sketch  of  any  subject. 

Appoggiatura.—A  note  in  a  smaller  character  than  the 
regular  notes  of  the  piece.    (Music.) 

Apropos  (Ft.  Apropos). — To  the  purpose. 

Aqua  vita'. — Water  of  life;  brandy. 

Arbiter  elega id iarum. — Master  of  ceremonies;  an  um- 
pire in  matters  of  taste. 

Arcana  imperii. — State  secrets. 

Arcanum. — A  secret. 

Argumentum,  ad  crumenam. — An  argument  to  the 
purse. 

Argumentum  adfidem. — An  appeal  to  faith. 

Argumentum  ad  hominem. — An  argument  to  the  person. 

Argumetdum  adignorantiam. — An  argument  founded 
on  an  adversary's  ignorance  of  facts. 

Argument  urn  vdfiiidicium. — An  appeal  to  the  common 
sense  of  mankind. 

.  Irgumentum  ad  populum. — An  appeal  to  the  people. 

Argumentum  ad  verecundiam. — An  argument  to  mod- 
esty. 

Argumentum  baeulinum. — Club  law. 

Arioso. — Light,  airy. 

Armiger. — One  bearing  arms ;  an  esquire. 

Arpeggio. — The  notes  of  a  chord  played  in  rapid  suc- 
cession, and  not  simultaneously.    (Music.) 

Arriere-pensee. — Mental  reservation. 

Ars  est  celare  artem. — True  art  is  to  conceal  art. 

Assumpsit. — It  is  assumed  or  taken  for  granted. 

Astra  castra,  Numen  lumen. — The  stars  my  camp,  the 
Deity  my  light. 

Atspes  nonf  racta. — But  hope  is  not  broken. 

Auj'ait. — Well  instructed;  master  of  it. 

Anfond. — To  the  bottom,  or  main  point. 

A  up  i  id  de  la,  leltrc. — Literally. 

Aupis  oiler. — At  the  worst. 

An  recoir. — Farewell. 

.  \uiii  alteram  partem. — Hear  the  other  side. 

Aiirapopulans. — The  gale  of  popular  favor. 

Auri  sacra  fames. — The  accursed  thirstfor  gold. 

Autre  droit. — Another's  right. 

A  id  refnis. — Another  time. 

Autre  vie. — Another's  life. 

Aut  vinccre  out  mori. — Victory  or  death. 

Aido-<la-fc,  Auto-ile-fe. — An  act  of  faith;  burning  of 
heretics. 

Anriliwn  ab  alto. — Help  from  on  high. 

Ava.nt-coureur . — A  forerunner. 

Ave,  Maria. — Hail,  Mary. 

Badinage. — Light  or  playful  discourse. 

Ha  ga  telle. — A  trifle. 

Baa  bleu. — A  bluestocking ;  a  literary  woman. 

Hiissn-emdinuo. — Thoroughbass. 

Ttuss(i-relieri). — Figures  in  low  relief. 

Huleiiu. — A  longlight  boat. 

liiini-ideal . — A  model  of  ideal  perfection. 

Beau  minidc. — The  fashionable  world. 

liel  esprit.— A  brilliant  mind. 

P,i  llu-ihinno. — The  deadly  nightshade ;  fair  lady. 

Belles-lettres. — Polite  literature. 

Helium  inlernecimim,. — A  war  of  extermination. 

/.v  //////;  iithule.—X  deadly  war. 

/.V;(/'  phtcito. — At  pleasure.    (Mu.iic.) 

Benigno  numine.—By  the  favor  of  Providence. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


175 


Ben  trovoto. — 'Well  found  ;  an  ingenious  solution. 
BUlet-doux. — A  love  letter. 

Bis  dot  '/"I  citodot. — He  gives  twice  who  gives  promptly. 
Bis  )n  reareiabfUo  turn  liect. — To  blunder  twice  is  not 

allowed  in  war. 
Bis   rim-it,  r/tii  M    rl/i'if    in    r'ulorid.— He   conquers  a 

second  time,  who  controls  himself  in  victory. 
Bizarre. — Odd;  fantastic. 
Ill Use. — Surfeited. 

Bon  gri  vial  gri. — Willing  or  unwilling. 
-Bo/tjoMr.— Good-day ;  good-morning. 
Bonmot. — A  witty  saying;  a  jest;  a  quibble. 
Bon  sotr. — ( Jood  evening. 
Bonton. — High  fashion;  first-class  society. 
Bon  vipamt. — Ahigh  liver. 
Bona  fide. — In  good  faith. 
Bon-bon. — A  sweetmeat;  confectionery. 
Bonhomie. — Good-natured  simplicity." 
Bonis  noii  t  ijnisi/iiis  jn  /,i  I'irit  m'alis. — He  hurts  the 

good  who  spares  the  bad. 
Bonne  bom-he. — A  delicious  morsel. 
Bonus. — An  extra  payment  for  a  service  rendered  or  a 

thing  received. 
Boreas. — The  north  wind. 
Jloudoir.—X  small  private  apartment. 
Bourgeois. — A  citizen  of  the  trading  class ;   a  printing 

type. 
Bourgeoisie. — The  bodv  of  citizens. 
Bra  matt. — A  song  of  difficult  execution. 
Brevete. — Patented. 
Brutuni  fnlinen. — Aharmless  thunderbolt;  unreasoning 

bluster. 
Burletta. — A  musical  farce. 

Cachet.— X  seal. 

( 'oro'thes. — A  bad  habit  or  custom. 

Cacoethes  carpendi. — A  rage  for  finding  fault. 

Cacoetlo  *  lo'/io  mi; . — An  itch  for  speaking. 

Ctiroi  flti  s  xirilirinli.—X  passion  for  writing. 

( ladt  nzn. — The  fall  or  modulation  of  the  voice,  in  music. 

Caca  est  in  riiiia.—En\\  is  blind. 

c,i  ti  rn  ill  sunt. — The  remainder  is  wanting. 

( 'o  ti  ris  paribus. — Other  things  being  equal. 

('ill Hire.— Capacity  or  compass;  mental  power;  a  term 
in  gunnery. 

Camera  obseura. — A  dark  chamber  used  by  artists. 

Campus  Murfins. — The  field  of  Mars;  a  place  of  niili- 
tarv  exercise. 

Canaille.— The  rabble. 

Candida  Pax. — White-robed  Peace. 

Cantata. — A  poem  set  to  music. 

("nutate  Ihiniino.—  Sing  to  the  Lord. 

Cap-a-pie. — From  head  to  foot. 

Co  pins  <nl  siitisfitcii ml  a  in  .—You  may  take  to  satisfy. 

Caprin-io. — A  fanciful  irregular  kind  of  musical  com- 
position. 

Capriole. — A  leap  without  advancing :  capers. 

Vojiiit  inortiiiiiii. — Dead  head;  the  worthless  remains. 

Caret. — Is  wanting  or  omitted. 

( "a  !■■  t  in  it  io  etfinc. — It  wants  beginning  and  end. 

Carpe  diem. — Enjoy  the  present  day. 

Carte  blanche. — L nconditional  terms. 

Casus  belli. — An  occasion  for  war. 

Casus  foederis. — A  case  of  conspiracy ;  the  end  of  the 
league. 

Catalogue  roAtonnL — A  catalogue  of  books  arranged 
according  to  their  subjects. 

Cause  celcbre. — A  remarkable  trial  in  a  court  of  justice. 

Cam  nt  art  or. — Let  the  doer  beware. 

( 'mi  nf  emptor. — Let  the  purchaser  take  heed  or  beware. 

' !a  W  ndo  tutus. — Safe  through  caution. 

Ce  n'est  que  le  prt  m  'n  r  pat  qui  route. — It  is  only  the  first 
step  which  is  difficult. 

(_'nl out  anna  toga:. — Let  military  power  yield  to  the 
civil. 

Cede  Deo. — Submit  to  Frovidence. 

( 'i  rtiorari. — To  be  made  more  certain. 

( v  ssio  bonorum. — Yielding  up  of  goods. 

(  "i  st  ime  autre  chose. — That  is  quite  a  different  thing. 

(h  n  run  a.  son  gout . — Every  one  to  his  taste. 

Chanson. — A  song.  ( 

( liiinsonnette. — A  little  song. 

Chapeau. — A  hat. 

Cluijiille  ardente. — The  place  where  a  dead  person  lies 
in  state. 

Chaperon. — An  attendant  on  a  lady,  as  a  guide  and  pro- 
tector. 

Chargi  d'affaires. — An  ambassador  of  second  rank. 

Chateau.— X  castle ;  a  country  mansion. 

Chef-d'oeuvre.~-X  masterpiece. 


( /,<•  rnlii  r  d' Industrie. — A  knight  of  industry;  one  who 

lives  by  persevering  fraucf. 
Chi  tori-  eoii/essa. — Silence  is  confession. 
Cliia ro-oscuro  or  Chiaroscuro.— Light  and  shadow  in 

painting. 
Chose  qui  plait  est  a  demi  vendue.— X   thing   which 

pleases  is  already  half  sold. 
(in  rone. — A  guide  or  conductor. 
(  iiislno.—A  dangler  after  a  lady. 
Ci-devant. — Formerly;  former. 
Circa. — About. 

CUb  niotiiruin  eit'o  put  rid  u,,i . — Soon  ripe,  soon  rotten. 
( Inrinr  e  tenebris. — More  bright  from  obscurity. 
Clique. — A  party ;  a  gang. 
( 'oanonan. — A  surname. 
Commeilfaut. — As  it  should  be. 
( '<-/// «(  une  lion  a  in  .—A  common  good. 
Com  in  nniapropriedicere. — To  express  common  things 

with  propriety. 
Communibus  annis. — One  year  with  another. 
Compos  mentis. — Of  sound  mind. 
Con  a  more. — With  love  or  hearty  inclination. 
(  oneio  ad  clerum. — A  discourse'to  the  clergy. 
CongS  d'elire. — Permission  to  elect. 
Connoisseur. — A  skillful  judge. 
Consensus  facet  legem. — Consent  makes  the  law. 
Contour. — The  outline  of  a  figure. 
Contra. — Against. 

Contra  bonos  mores. — Against  good  manners. 
(ont  n "temps. — A  mischance;  disappointment. 
Coram  nobis. — Before  us. 
Coram  non  judice. — Before  one  who  is  not  the  proper 

judge. 
Cornucopia. — The  horn  of  plenty. 
Corpus  delicti. — The  whole  nature  of  the  offense. 
Corrigenda. — Corrections  to  be  made. 
Coryphaeus. — A  leader,  or  chief. 
Cotillon.— X  lively  dance. 
Couleur  de  rose. — Rose-color ;   an  aspect  of  beauty  and 

attractiveness. 
Coup  de  grdce. — The  finishing  stroke. 
Coup  de  main. — A  bold  and  rapid  enterprise. 
Coup  de  pied. — A  kick. 
Coup  de  soleil. — A  stroke  of  the  sun. 
Cmip  d'etat. — A  masterstroke  of  state  policy. 
Coup  d'ceil. — Rapid  view  or  glance. 
Come  ipi'il  eoute. — Cost  what  it  may. 
Credat  Judceus. — A  Jew  may  believe  it. 
Crescit  amor  nvmmi  quantum  ipsa  pecunia  crescit. — 

The  love  of  money  increases  as  rapidly  as  the  money 

itself  increases. 
Crescit  eundo. — It  increases  by  going. 
Crescite  et  m  ultiplieom  ini.— Increase  and  multiply. 
Crimenfalsi. — Falsehood  ;  perjury. 
Crux  criticorum. — The  cross  or  puzzle  of  critics. 
'  id  bono? — To  whose  good? 
Old  mala? — To  whose  harm? 
Culdesac. — The  bottom  of  the  bag;  a  difficulty;  a  street 

or  lane  that  has  no  outlet. 
Cum  grano  satis. — With  a  grain  of  salt;    with  some 

allowance. 
Cum  mxdtis  aliis. — With  many  others. 
Cum  privilegio. — With  privilege. 
Curia  advutari  vult. —  The  court  wishes  to  be  advised. 
Curiosa  felicitas. —  A  felicitous  tact. 
Currente  calamo. — With  a  running  pen;    written  off- 
hand. 
Custos  rotulorum. —  Keeper  of  the  rolls. 

Da  capo. —  Over  again. 

JJamnant  quod  non  intelligunt.  —  They  condemn  what 
they  do  not  comprehend. 

Data.—  Things  granted  (sing,  datum). 

/>!■  Iinnisnon. — Of  the  goods  not  yet  administered  on. 

De  die  in  diem. —  From  day  to  day. 

lie  facto. —  In  fact;  in  reality. 

]>!■  i/iistilius  non  est  disputandum. —  There  is  no  disput- 
ing about  tastes. 

Dejure. —  By  law  or  right. 

De  mortals  nil  nisi  bonum. —  Say  nothing  but  what  is 
good  of  the  dead. 

De  novo. — Anew. 

De  prof  and  is. —  Out  of  the  depths. 

lie  trap. — Out  of  place;  not  wanted. 

Debitojustitim. —  By  debt  of  justice. 

Debut. —  Beginning  of  an  enterprise:  first  appearance. 

/>•  r,  ptio  risils. —  An  illusion  of  the  sight. 

Dedimus  potcstatem. —  We  have  given  power. 

Deficit. —  A  want  of  deficiency. 

Dei  gratid.—  By  the  grace  of  God. 


176 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Dijeuner  &  la  /ourchette.     A   breakfast  or   luncheon 

with  meats. 
Dele. —  Blot  out  or  erase. 

Delenda  est  Carthago.—  Carthage  must  be  blotted  out. 
Delta  (The  Greek  letter  A)-— A  triangular  tract  of  land 

toward  the  mouth  of  ;i  river. 
Denouement. —  An  unraveling  or  winding  up. 
Deo  adjuvantc,  rum  timendum. —  God  helping,  nothing 

need  be  feared. 
Deo  favente. — With  God's  favor. 
Deo  gratias. —  Thanks  to  God. 
Deojuvante. —  With  God's  help. 
Deo  nonfortund. —  From  God,  not  fortune. 
Deo  vole'nte  or  D.  V. — God  willing. 
Depot. —  A  store;  the  recruiting  reserve  of  regiments. 
Dernier  ressort. —  The  last  resort. 
Desideratum. —  Something  desired  or  wanted. 
Desunt  carter  a. — The  other  things  are  wanting. 
Detinet. —  lie  detains ;  he  keeps. 
Ditour. —  A  circuitous  march. 

Detur  digniori. —  Let  it  be  given  to  the  more  worthy. 
Deus  ex  htachind. —  A  god  from  the  clouds ;  unexpected 

aid  in  an  emergency. 
Devastavit. —  He  wasted. 
Devoir. —  Duty. 
Dexter. —  The  right  hand. 
Dictum. —  A  positive  assertion  (pi.  dicta). 
Dictum  de  dieto.—  Report  upon  hearsay. 
Diesfaustus. —  A  lucky  day. 
Dies  inc. —  Day  of  wrath. 
Dies  non. — A  day  on  which  judges  do  not  sit. 
Dieu  et  mon  droit. — God  anil  my  right. 
Dieu  vous  garde. — God  protect  you. 
Dii  majorum  gentium. — The  goVls  of  the  superior  class ; 

the  twelve  superior  gods. 
Diipenates. — Houshold  gods. 
Dilettanti. — Persons  who  devote  themselves  to  science 

merely  for  amusement   or   relaxation  (sing,   dilet- 
tante). 
Diluvium. — A  deposit  of  superficial  loam,  sand,  etc., 

caused  by  a  deluge. 
Dirigo. — I  direct  or  guide. 

Disjecta  membra. — Scattered  parts,  limbs,  or  writings. 
Distrait. — Absent  in  thought ;  absent-minded. 
Distringas. — A  writ  for  distraining. 
Divide  et  impera. — Divide  and  govern. 
Doce  til  discas.— Teach,  that  you  may  learn. 
Docendo  dicimus. — We  learn 'by  teaching. 
Dolce.— Soft  and  agreeable.    (Music) 
Dolce  far  niente. — Sweet  idleness. 
Doli  tncapax. — Incapable  of  mischief. 
Doloroso. — Soft  and  pathetic.    (Music.) 
Domicile  (L.  domicilium). — An  abode. 
Domine  dirige  nos. — O  Lord,  direct  us. 
Dominus  vobiscum. — The  Lord  be  with  you. 
Double  entendre. — Double  meaning  (correctly  written 

double  entente). 
Douceur. — A  present  or  bribe ;  sweetness. 
Draco. — A  dragon ;  a  constellation. 
Dramatis  persorws. — The  characters  in  a  play. 
Duet  (lt:\\.  duetto). — A  song  for  two  performers. 
Dulce  est  desipere  in  loco.— It  is  pleasant  to  jest  or  revel 

at  the  proper  time. 
Dulce  et  decorum  est  pro  patrid  mori.—lt  is  sweet  and 

pleasant  to  die  for  one  s  country. 
Dulia.— An  inferior  kind  of  worship. 
Dum  spiro  spero.— Whilst  I  breathe,  I  hope. 
J)um  virirnus,  vivamus.— While  we  live,  let  us  live. 
Duo. — Two ;  a  two-part  song. 

Duodecimo.— A  book  having  twelve  leaves  to  a  sheet. 
Durante   placito    or    durante    beneplaci to.  —  During 

pleasure. 
Durante  vitd.— During  life. 
Duxfwminafacti.—A  woman  was  the  leader  to  the  deed. 

E pluribus  unum.— One  out  of  manv ;  one  composed  of 

many ;  the  motto  of  the  United  States. 
Eau  de  vie.— Brandy ;  water  of  life. 
Ecce  homo.— Behold  the  man. 
Ecce  signum.— Behold  the  sign. 
Eclaircissement.— The  clearing  up  of  an  affair. 
Eclat. — Splendor;  applause. 
Editio  princeps.— The  first  edition. 
Eheu.'— Ah,  alas! 
Elan.—  Buoyancy;  dash. 

Elegit.— He  hath  elected ;  a  writ  of  execution. 
Eleve.—A  pupil. 
Elite.— The  best  part. 

Embonpoint.— Roundness ;  good  condition. 
Emeritus.— One  retired  from  active  official  duties. 


Emeute. — Insurrection ;  uproar. 

Empressement. — Eagerness ;  ardor. 

En  ami. — As  a  friend. 

En  (want! — Forward ! 

En  flute.— Carrying  guns  on  the  upper  deck  only. 

En  grande  tetme. — in  full  dress. 

En  masse.— In  a  mass ;  in  a  body. 

/:'//  />assant. — By  the  way  ;  in  passing. 

En  rapport. — In  communication. 

En  revanche. — In  return. 

En  route. — On  the  way. 

Enceinte.—  Pregnant." 

Enfans  perdus. — Lost  children ;  the  forlorn  hope. 

Ennui. — Weariness  ;  lassitude. 

Ense  petit  placidam  sub   Ubertate   cndetem.—By   his 

sword  he  seeks  the  calm  repose  of  libertv. 
Ensemble.— The  whole  taken  together. 
Entente  cordiale.— The  cordial  understanding  between 

two  countries. 
Entre  nous. — Between  ourselves. 
Entree. — Entra  nee. 
Entremets. — Small  and  dainty  dishes  set  between  the 

principal  ones  at  table. 
Eo  nomine.— By  that  name. 

K<l  nil  ibrium  — Equality  of  weight;  even  balance. 
Ergo. — Therefore. 
Erijmit     cozlo    fulmen,    sceptrumque     I g rami  is.  —  He 

snatched  the  thunderbolt   from  heaven,  and    the 

scepter  from  tyrants. 
Erratum. — A  mistake  or  error  (pi.  errata). 
Escroiv.—A  deed  or  writing  left  with  another,  to  be  de- 
livered on  the  performance  of  something  specified. 
Espi.'glerie. — Waggish  tricks. 
Esprit  de  corps. — The  animating  spirit  of  a  collective 

body. 
Est  modus  in  rebus. — There  is  a  medium  in  all  things. 
Estoppel. — A  stop,  a  preventive  plea. 
Esto  perpetua. — May  it  last  forever. 
Et  costera. — And  the  rest. 
Eureka. — I  have  found  it. 
Ex. — Out  of;  late  (as  ex-consul). 
Ex  animo. — Heartily. 

Ex  cathedrd.— From  the  chair;  with  high  authoritv. 
Ex  concesso.— From  what  has  been  granted. 
Ex  curid. — Out  of  court. 

Ex  fn mo  dare  lucent.— Out  of  smoke  to  bring  light. 
Ex  nihilo  nihil  Jit. — Nothing  can  come  of  nothing. 
Ex  officio.— By  virtue  of  his  office. 
Ex  parte.— On  one  side  only  (before  a  noun,  exparte). 
Ex pedc  llervulrm. — We  recognize  a  Hercules  from  the 

size  of  the  foot ;  that  is,  we  judge  of  the  whole  from 

the  specimen. 
Ex  post  facto. — After  the  deed  is  done. 
Ex  tempore. — Without  premeditation. 
£■35  uno  disce  omnes. — From  one  learn  all;    from  one 

judge  of  the  whole. 
Excelsior. — More  elevated ;  onward. 
K.rrirpta. — Extracts. 
Exempli  gratid.—As  for  example. 
Exeunt  omnes. — All  retire. 

Experiment um  cruris.— A  decisive  experiment. 
Experto  credo. — Believe  one  who  has  experience. 
Exposi. — An  exposition ;  recital. 

Faber  sum  fortunce.— The  architect  of  his  own  fortune. 
Facile  primus,  facile   ju-i mips.— Bv  far  the   first  or 

chief  est. 
Facilis  est  descensus. — Descent  is  easy. 
Facsimile. — Make  it  like ;  hence,  an  exact  copy. 
Factotum.— Do  all ;  a  man  of  all  work. 
Facta  est  lux.— There  was  light. 
Wat  eet  ab  hoste  doceri.— It  is  allowable  to  learn  even 

from  an  enemy. 
Fata,  obstant—  The  fates  oppose  it. 
Fn  nli  nil . — An  easy  chair. 
Faux  pas. — A  false  step. 
Fclo  desc. — A  self-murderer. 
Femme  coiireHe. — A  married  woman. 
Ei  in  in e  sole. — A  woman  unmarried. 
Festina  lente. — Hasten  slowly;  advance  steadilv  rather 

than  hurriedly. 
EPte. — A  feast  or  celebration. 

Ftte  i/nnnpetre.—A  rural  feast.  * 

Feu  dejoie. — A  bonfire;  a  discharge  of  musketrvon  davs 

of  rejoicing. 
Eiiiillfto'n. — A  small  leaf;  a  supplement  to  a  newspaper; 

a  pamphlet. 
Eiat.—Let  it  be  done. 
Fiat  justitia,  ruat  caelum .— Let  justice  be  done,  though 

the  heavens  should  fall. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


177 


Fiat  lux.— T^et  there  be  light. 

/•"/'/- ,  turn  armis.— By  faith,  not  by  arms. 

h'nh  ,  e*  '/  iniriilr. — Trust,  but  see  whom. 

fides  <t.'i  utttia. — Fidelity  and  justice. 

Hil us  Achates. — Faithful  Achat'es(that  is,  a  true  friend). 

Fieri  facias.— Cause  it  to  be  done  (a  kind  of  writ). 

FUius  nuMus. — A  son  of  nobody. 

FiUe-de-</i<in<hri  .—  A  chambermaid. 

Finale. — To  close  or  end. 

Fin' m  respiet  .—Look  to  the  end. 

Finis. — The  end. 

tronat  opus. — The  end  crowns  the  work. 
Flagrante  bt  Uo*— WMle  the  war  is  raging. 
Flagrante  delicto. — In  the  commission  of  the  crime. 
Fh'uii  ur. — A  lounger. 

Flecti,  nnnfranffi.— To  be  bent,  not  to  be  broken. 
/■;<, ,,,-  iii  -lis.— The  flower  of  the  lily  (pi. fleurs-de-lis ,. 
Forte.— In  music,  a  direction  to  sing  or  play  with  force 

or  spirit. 
Fortes  fort  una  jurat.— Fortune  assists  the  brave. 
Fort is'si  in  '/.—Very  loud. 
Fortiterinre. — Resolute  in  deed. 
Fracas. — Bustle ;  a  slight  quarrel ;  more  ado  about  the 

thing  than  it  is  worth. 
Fruges  consumer*   natt.—  Born  merely  to  consume  the 

fruits  of  the  earth. 
Fugam  fecit.— He  has  taken  to  flight. 
Fuit  Ilium.—  Troy  has  heen. 
Functus  officio.— ^Out  of  office. 
Furore. — Excitement. 

Gaii  It  dc  caiiir. — Oayety  of  heart. 

Gallic).-  In  French. 

Garden  Men. — Take  pood  care. 

Gardes  lafoL—Keesp  the  faith. 

G auelierii .— Awkwardness. 

Ga  iiihiim  us  tgttur.— So  let  us  be  joyful. 

Gendarme. — A  military  policeman. 

Gendarmerie. — The  body  of  the  gendarmes. 

Grains  lori. — The  genius  of  the  place. 

-  irritahile  (>//</*/(.— Irritahle  tribe  of  poets. 
Gloria  in  ea  ot  Is!  s.— Glory  to  God  in  the  highest. 
Gratis.  -Free  of  cost. 
Gratis  dictum .— Mere  assertion. 
Gravamen.—  The  thing  complained  of. 
Qrtsette. — Dressed  in  gray  (a  term  applied  to  French 

shop  prirls,  etc.). 
Gusto. — Great  relish. 

lint,. us  corpus. — You  are  to  have  the  body;  a  writ  of 
rijrht.  by  virtue  of  which  every  citizen  can,  when 
imprisoned,  demand  to  be  put  oh  his  trial. 

Habit  uf- . — A  frequenter. 

BweoUtn  mi  in tnisse  jural, it.— It  will  be  pleasant  here- 
after to  remember  these  things. 

Haricot. —  V  kind  of  ragout:  a  kidney-bean. 

flu  a/  passibus  a  ends.— Sot  with  equal  steps.  (  Wrongly 
quoted  :   see  Xon,  etc.) 

Ha  nt  'tout.— High  flavor. 

Ha uti  a r. — Haughtini-ss. 

H'  ii no  librorum.—A.  bookworm. 

Hie  et  ubiqui -.—Here,  there,  and  everywhere. 

Hicj  i''i. — Here  lies. 

Hine  ilhr  laeryma  . — Hence  proceed  these  tears. 

Hoe  age. — Do  this;  attend  to  what  you  are  doing. 

Homme  (F esprit.— k  man  of  talent^  or  of  wit. 

Homo  vi  ii/tn ruin  lit/  rn rum. — A  man  of  much  learning. 

Hani  si, it  ijni  null  u  pense.— Evil  be  to  him  that  evil 
thinks. 

Honor es  mutant  mores.— Honors  change  men's  man- 
ners. 

Horn  .fu'jit.— The  hour  or  time  flies. 

Horn  sen  referetis. — I  shudder  to  relate. 

Hors  de  combat.  -  Disabled  for  fighting;  vanquished. 

Hortus siccus. — A  collection  of  dried  plants. 

Hostis  huiiiiini  generis.— Am  enemy  of  the  human  race. 

Hot 1 1  <!•  rilh  .—  A  town  hall. 

H'fi  l-I>i,  u.—  The  chi  f  hospital  in  French  cities. 

Hum  a  a  a  in  est  i  era  re. — It  is  human  to  err. 

Hum-  tn  ran  to. — Beware    f  him. 

Ibidem ,  contracted  ibid,    r  id.— In  the  same  place. 

I/I,  die  ii.— I  serve. 

/,/  est.— That  is:  abridged  [.  e. 

Id  genus  until'. — All  of  that  sort. 

Idem,  contracted  id. — The  same.     {Id.   ib.,  the    same 

author;  in  the  same  place.) 
Idaneus  homo.— A.  fit  man. 
Ignorant  us. — We  are  iprnorant. 
I'jnorantia   legis  neminem  excusat.— Ignorance  of  the 

law  excuses  no  one. 


H  ale  diable  au  corps.— The  devil  is  in  him. 

///<  it  a  fores,  servum  pecus.— Imitators,  a  servile  herd. 

I  in  in  r'm  ni  in  imperw. — One  government  existing  within 

another. 
Fmpransus. — One  who  has  not  dined. 
Imprimatur. — Let  it  be  printed. 
Imprimis.— In  the  first  place. 
Impromjitu. — A  prompt  remark  without  study. 
/,,  artiriila  mortis.— At  the  point  of  death. 
In  en/iite. — In  the  head. 
In  cauo  quies. — There  is  rest  in  heaven. 
In  commendam.—ln  trust. 
In  conspectu  fori.— In  the  eye  of  the  law ;  in  the  ?ight 

of  the  court. 
In  curia:—  In  the  court. 
In  iluplo.— Twice  as  much. 
In  equilibria. — Equally  balanced. 
In  esse. — In  being. 
In  extenso.— At  full  length. 
In  extremis— At  the  point  of  death. 
Informd  pauperis. — As  a  pauper. 

Inforo  conscientice. — Before  the  tribunal  of  conscience. 
In  hoc  signo  vinccs. — In  this  sign  thou  shalt  conquer. 
///  I iin  me. — At  the  threshold. 
Inloco.—ln  the  place. 
In  medias  res. — Into  the  midst  of  things. 
In  memoriam. — To  the  memory  of. 
In  perpetuum. — Forever 
In  petto. — In  reserve ;  in  one's  breast. 
In  posse.— In  possible  existence. 
In  posterinn  — For  the  time  to  come. 
In  propria:  persona.—  In  his  own  person. 
Inpuris  naturalibus.—  Quite  naked. 
In  re. — In  the  matter  of. 
In  situ. — In  its  original  situation. 
In  statu  quo.— In  the  former  state. 
Inte,  Domine,  speravi. — In  thee,  Lord,  have  I  put  my 

trust. 
In  terrorem. — By  way  of  warning. 
In  totidem  r-erbis.—in  so  many  words. 
In  toto.— Altogether. 
In  transitu. — On  the  passage. 
In  utrumque  paratus. — Prepared  for  either  event. 
In  vacuo. — In  empty  space,  or  in  a  vacuum. 
In  tnno  Veritas.—  There  is  truth  in  wine. 
Incognito. — Disguised,  unknown. 
Index  erpurgatorius. — A  list  of  prohibited  books. 
Infra  dignitatem.— Beneath  one's  dignity. 
Innuendo. — Covert  meaning;  indirect  hint. 
Inops  eonsi/ii. — Without  counsel. 
Insouciance. — Carelessness;  indifference. 
Instar  omnium. — One  will  suffice  for  all ;  an  example  to 

others. 
Inter  alia. — Among  other  things. 
Inter  arma  leges  silent. — In  the  midst  of  arms  the  laws 

are  silent. 
Inter  nos. — Between  ourselves. 
Inter  se. — Among  themselves. 

I/,sc  ilirit. — He  himself  said  it:  dogmatic  assertion. 
I lisissima  verba. — The  very  words. 
Ipso  facto. — By  the  fact  itself ;  actually. 
tpsoyure. — By'the  law  itself. 
Ira  furor  brevis  est. — Anger  is  brief  madness. 
Ita  lex  scripta  est. — Thus  the  law  is  written. 
Item. — Also. 

Jacta  est  alea. — The  die  is  cast. 

Jamais  arricre. — Never  behind. 

Je  nesais  quoi.—  I  know  not  what. 

Jet  d'eau. — A  jet  of  water. 

Jeu  de  mots.—V\ay  upon  words ;  a  pun. 

Jeu  d'esprit. — A  witticism. 

Judicium  Dei. — The  judgment  of  God. 

Juniores  ad  la  bores. — Young  men  for  labors. 

Jure  divino.— By  divine  law. 

Jure  aentium .— By  the  law  of  nations. 

Jure  humano. — By  human  law. 

Jus  civile. — Civil  law. 

Jus  gladii.— "Riant  of  the  sword. 

Juste  milieu. — The  golden  mean;  a  just  medium. 

Justitim  soror  fides. — Faith  is  the  sister  of  justice. 

La  critique  est  aisec,  et  Part  est  difficile. — Criticism  is 

easy,  and  art  is  difficult. 
labor  ipse  voluntas.— Labor  itself  is  pleasure. 
Labor  am  iiia  i  im-it.—  Labor  conquers  all  things. 
Laisscz-novsfaire. — Let  us  alone. 

Lapsus  calami.— A.  slip  of  the  pen :  an  error  in  writing. 
Lapsus  Ungues. — A  slip  of  the  tongue. 
Lapsus  meinorice.—A.  slip  of  memory. 


178 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Lares  et  penates.— Household  gods. 

L'argent. — Money,  or  silver. 

Laudator  temporis  acti. — A  praiser  of  time  past. 

Laws  Deo. — Praise  to  God. 

Laus  propria  sordct. — Praise  of  one's  own  self  defiles. 

Le  beau  monde.— The  fashionable  world. 

Le  bon  temps  viendra. — The  good  time  will  come. 

Le  grand  ceuvre. — The  great  work;  the  philosopher's 
stone. 

Lepas. — Precedence  in  place  or  rank. 

Le  savoir-faire. — The  knowledge  how  to  act;  address. 

Le  tout  ensemble.— All  together. 

Lege. — Read. 

Leges  legum. — The  law  of  laws. 

Lese  majesti..—  High  treason. 

L'6toile  du  nord. — The  north  star. 

Lettre  de  cachet. — A  sealed  letter ;  a  royal  warrant. 

Levari  facias.— That  you  cause  to  be  levied;  a  writ  of 
execution. 

Lev&e. — A  morning  visit  or  reception. 

Lex  loci. — The  law  of  the  place. 

Lex  magna  est,  et  prcevalebit. — The  law  is  great,  and 
will  prevail. 

Lex  non  scripta.— The  unwritten  or  common  law. 

Lex  scripta.— Statute  law. 

Lextalionis. — The  law  of  retaliation. 

Lex  terrce,  lex  patriae. — The  law  of  the  land. 

L'homme  ^propose,  et  Dieu  dispose.—  Man  proposes  and 
God  disposes. 

Libretto. — A  little  book  or  pamphlet. 

Licentia  vatum. — A  poetical  license. 

Lingua  Franca.— The  mixed  language'  spoken  by  Euro- 
peans in  the  East. 

Liqueur. — A  cordial. 

Lis  litem  generat. — Strife  begets  strife. 

Lis  subjndice. — A  case  not  yet  decided. 

Lite  pendente. — During  the  trial. 

Litera  scripta  manet. — The  written  letter  remains. 

Literati. — Men  of  letters  or  learning. 

Loco  citato. — In  the  place  cited.  • 

Loco  parentis. — In  the  place  of  the  parent. 

Locum  tenens. — One  who  holds  a  place  for  another. 

Locus  sigilli  (L.  S.).-  The  place  of  the  seal. 

Longo  intervaUo. — At  a  great  distance. 

Ludere  cum  sacris. — To  trifle  with  sacred  things. 

Lusus  naturw.— A  sport  or  freak  of  nature. 

Made  virtute.— Proceed  in  virtue. 

Mademoiselle. — A  young  unmarried  ladv. 

Magna  Charta.— The  great  charter  of  England. 

Magna  civitas,  magna  solitudo. — A  great  city  is  a  great 
desert. 

Magna  est  Veritas,  et  prcevalebit.— The  truth  is  great, 
and  will  prevail. 

Magni  nominis  umbra. — The  shadow  of  a  great  name. 

Magnum  opus.— A  great  work. 

Magnus  Apollo. — Great  Apollo;  one  of  high  authority. 

Maison  de  ville.— The  town  house. 

Maitred' hotel. — An  hotel  keeper;  a  house  steward. 

Major-domo  (Ital.  maior-domo). — One  who  has  the  man- 
agement of  a  household. 

Malrl fide.— -In  bad  faith ;  treacherously. 

Mai  apropos. — Out  of  time ;  unbecoming. 

Malaria. — Noxious  exhalations. 

Malgri. — In  spite  of. 

Malum  in  se—  Had  in  itself. 

Mandamus. — We  command ;  a  peremptory  writ  to  com- 
pel obedience. 

Manege. — A  riding  school. 

Mania  a  potu. — Madness  caused  by  drunkenness. 

Manuforti.— With  a  strong  hand. 

Mardl  gras. — Shrove  Tuesday. 

Mare  clausum. — A  closed  sea;  a  bay. 

Materfami lias. —The  mother  of  a  family. 

Materia  medica. — Substances  used  in  the  healing  art. 

Matinie. — A  morning  party. 

Mauvais  godt. — Bad  taste. 

Mauvais  s-ujet. — A  worthless  fellow. 

Mauvaise  honte. — False  modesty;  bashfulness. 

Maximum. — The  greatest. 

Maximus  in  minimis. — Very  great  in  trifling  things. 

Mejudiee. — I  being  judge ;  in  my  own  opinion. 

Medio  ttitissimits  ibis. — A  medium  course  will  be  safest. 

Meditat ione  furj<v. — In  contemplation  of  flight. 

Memento  mori. — Remember  death. 

Memorabilia. — Things  to  be  remembered. 

Memoriter. — By  rote. 

Menage.— Household. 

Mens  sana  in  corpore  sano. — A  sound  mind  in  a  sound 
body. 


Menssibi  conscia  recti. — A  mind  conscious  of  rectitude. 

Mensa  et  thoro. — From  bed  and  board. 

Merum  sal.— Pure  salt ;  genuine  Attic  wit. 

Meuin  et  tuum.— Mine  and  thine. 

Minimum. — The  least. 

Minutice. — Minute  concerns;  trifles. 

MirabiZe  dictu. — Wonderful  to  be  told. 

Mir  a  bilia. — Wonders . 

Mittimus.— We  send ;  a  warrant  for  the  commitment  of 
an  offender. 

Modus  operandi. — Manner  of  operation. 

Montani  semper  liberi. — Mountaineers  are  always  free- 
men. 

Morceau. — A  morsel. 

More  suo. — In  his  own  way. 

Mot  du  guet.—X  watchword. 

Multum  in  parvo. — Much  in  a  small  space. 

Mutanda—  Things  to  be  altered. 

Mutatis  mutandis. — The  necessary  changes  being  made. 

Mutato  nomine. — The  name  being  changed. 

NaiveU. — Ingenuousness ;  simplicity. 

Ne  cede  malts. — Yield  not  to  misfortune. 

Ne  exeat. — Let  him  not  depart. 

Ne  plus  ultra.— Nothing  further ;  the  uttermost  point. 

Ne  quid  nimis.— Not  too  much  of  anything ;  do  noth- 
ing to  excess. 

Ne  sutor  ultra  crepidam.—'Let  not  the  shoemaker  go 
beyond  his  last. 

Ne  tentes,  aid  perflce.— Attempt  not,  or  accomplish 
thoroughly. 

Nee  pluribus  impar. — Not  an  unequal  match  for  num- 
bers. 

Nee  scire  fas  est  omnia. — It  is  not  permitted  to  know  all 
things. 

Necessitatis  non  habet  legem. — Necessity  has  no  law. 

Ne'e. — Born. 

Nefasti  dies. — Days  upon  which  no  public  business  was 
transacted;  aiso,  unlucky  days. 

Nemine  contradicente. — No  one  contradicting. 

Nemine  dissentiente. — Without  opposition  or  dissent. 

Nemo  me  impune  lacessit. — No  one  wounds  me  with  im- 
punity. 

Nemo  mortalium  omtiibus  horis  sapit. — No  one  is  wise 
at  all  times. 

Nemo  repentefuit  turpissimus. — No  man  ever  became  a 
villain  at  once. 

Nemo  solus  sapit. — No  one  is  wise  alone. 

Xiaiserie.— Silliness. 

Nib  il  debet. — He  owes  nothing  ;  a  plea  denying  a  debt.' 

Xihil  quod  tetigit,  non  ornavit. — Whatever  he  touched 
he  embellished. 

Xil  admiraH.— -To  wonder  at  nothing. 

Nil  desperandum. — Never  despair. 

Ximium  ne  crede  colori. — Trust  not  too  much  to  looks. 

X'importe.— It  matters  not. 

Xisi  Dominusfrustra. — Unless  the  Lord  be  with  us,  all 
efforts  are  in  vain. 

Xoblesse  oblige. — Rank  imposes  obligation. 

Xolens  volens. — Willing  or  unwilling. 

Xoli  me  tangere.— Don  t  touch  me. 

Xolle  prosequi .— Unwilling  to  proceed. 

Xolo  episcopari. — I  am  not  willing  to  bo  made  a  bishop 
(an  old  former  way  of  declining  a  bishopric). 

Xom  de  guerre. — An  assumed  name. 

Notn  de  plume.— X  literary  title. 

Xomen  et  omen. — Name  and  omen;  a  name  that  is 
ominous. 

Non  compos  mentis. — Not  of  sound  mind. 

Non  deficient c  ennnend.— If  the  money  does  not  fail. 

Non  est  disputandum  —  It  is  not  to  be  disputed. 

Non  est  inventus.— Not  found. 

Non  lihet.— It  does  not  please  me. 

Non  mi  ricordo.—l  don't  remember. 

Non  nobis  solium. — Not  merely  for  ourselves. 

Xoii  obstante—  Notwithstanding. 

Non  omnis  mortar.— J  shall  not  wholly  die. 

Nonpassibus  asquis.— "Sot  with  equal  steps. 

Non  sequitur.—lt  does  not  follow  ;  an  unwarranted  con- 
clusion. 

Non  sibi,  sed  omnibus.—  Not  for  i  tself .  but  for  all. 

Xonclialonce.— Coolness;  easy  indifference. 

Nonpareil.— Peerless;  a  small  printing  type. 

Noscete  ipsum. — Know  thyself . 

tiosettw  ex  SOOUs.— He  is  known  by  his  companions. 

Nota  bene.— Mark  well. 

Nous  verrons.—'We  shall  see. 

Novus  homo. — A  new  man. 

Nudum  pactum.— An  invalid  agreement. 

Nulla  crux,  nulla  corona.— No  cross,  no  crown. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


179 


Nulla  nuova,  bona  nuova. — The  best  news  is  no  news. 

Nulliusfilius.—The  son  of  nobody. 

Nunc  aut  nutiquam. — Now  or  never. 

O  tempora  '  o  mores  .'—Oh,  the  times !  oh,  the  manners ! 

Obiit.—He  (or  she)  died. 

Obiter  dictum  —A  thing  said  bv  the  way,  or  in  passing. 

Obsta  principiis,— Resist  the  first  beginnings. 

Odi  pro/anum.—l  loathe  the  profane. 

Odium  theologicum.— The  hatred  of  theologians. 

Ohe .'  jam  satis.— Oh,  there  is  now  enough. 

Ollapodrida. — An  incongruous  mixture. 

Omne  ignotum  pro  magnifico.— Whatever  is  unknown 
is  thought  to  he  magnificent. 

Omnes.— All. 

Omnia  bona  bonis.— All  things  are  good  with  the  good. 

Omnia  vineit  amor.— Love  conquers  all  things. 

On-dit.—A  rumor;  a  flying  report. 

Onus.— Burden. 

Onus  probandi.—  The  responsibility  of  producing  proof. 

Ope  el  consilio.— With  assistance  and  counsel. 

Ora  et  labora. — Pray  and  work. 

Orator  fit,  poeta  nascitur . — The  orator  is  made  by  edu- 
cation, but  a  poet  must  be  born. 

Ore  rotundo.— With  full  sounding  voice. 

Otium cum  dignitate  —  Dignified  leisure. 

Outre. — Preposterous;  eccentric. 

Oyer  and  Terminer.— A  criminal  court. 

Pallida  mors. — Pale  death. 

Par  excellence. — By  way  of  eminence. 

Par  nobilefratrurh.—A  noble  pair  of  brothers ;  two  just 

alike. 
Pari  passu. — With  equal  step ;  in  the  same  degree. 

Parole  d'honneur. — Word  of  honor. 

Pars  pro  toto.— Part  for  the  whole. 
/'tirticeps  criminis. — An  accomplice. 

Parturiunt  montes.  nascetur  ridiculus  mus. — The  moun- 
tains are  in  labor ;  a  ridiculous  mouse  will  be  broueh  t 
forth. 

Parva  componere  magnis.— To  compare  small  things 
with  great. 

Parvenu. — A  new  comer ;  an  upstart. 

Pas. — A  step ;  precedence. 

Passe-partout. — A  master  key. 

Passim.— In  many  places;  everywhere. 

Paterfamilias.— The  father  of  a  family. 

Pater  noster. — Our  Father ;  the  Lord's  prayer. 

Pater  patriot. — Father  of  his  country. 

Patois. — A  provincial  dialect. 

Pax  in  bello. — Peace  in  war. 

Peccavi.— 1  have  sinned. 

Penchant. — An  inclination ;  a  leaning  toward. 

Pendente  lite.—  While  the  suit  is  pending. 

Penetralia . — Secret  recesses. 

Per  aspera  ad  astra. — Through  trials  to  glory. 

Per  capita.— By  the  head ;  equal  division. 

Per  cent,  or  per  centum.— By  the  hundred. 

Per  contra. — Contrariwise. 

Per  curiam. — By  the  court. 

Per  diem.— By  the  day. 

Per/as  et  ne/as.— Through  right  and  wrong. 

Per  saltum.— With  a  leap ;  at  once. 

Perse.— By  itself ;  alone. 

Perdu. — Lost. 

Pi-re  de  famille. — The  father  of  a  family. 

Petit.—, Small ;  little. 

Petitio  principtt.—A  begging  of  the  question. 

Petit-maitre.—A  top. 

Pen  &  peu. — Gradually ;  a  little  by  little. 

Pinxit.— Painted  it;  placed  after  the  artist's  name  on  a 
picture. 

Piii.— More. 

Plateau. — A  plain;  a  flat  surface. 

Plebs. — Common  people. 

Pluries.—Yeiy  often ;  a  third  writ,  after  two  writs  have 
issued. 

Poco.—A  little. 

Poeta  nascitur,  nonfit. — A  poet  is  born,  not  made. 

Point  d'avpui. — Point  of  support;  prop. 

I'aissnn  d'Arrit. — April  fool. 

Populus  wilt  deeipi.— People  like  to  be  deceived. 

Posse  comitatus. — The  power  of  the  county. 

J'ostea. — Afterward;  indorsement  of  the  verdict  upon 
the  record. 

Post  mortem. — After  death. 

Postidata. — Things  assumed. 

Praicognita. — Things  previously  known. 

Pra>monituspra>mitnitus. — Forewarned,  forearmed. 

Preux  chevalier. — A  brave  knight. 

Prim&facie.— On  the  first  view. 


Prtmum  mobile.— The  primary  motive,  or  moving  power. 
Prim  us  inter  pares.— Chief  among  equals. 
Principia,  nan  In/mines— YTinc\\)\es,  not  men. 
I'riuri),iis  obsta.— Resist  the  first  innovations. 
Pro  avis  etfocis.— For  our  altars  and  our  hearths. 
Pro  bono  2rublieo.— For  the  public  good. 
Pro  et  con  (for  contra).— For  and  against. 
Pro  formd.— For  form's  sake ;  according  to  form. 

Pro  hdc  vice. For  this  turn  or  occasion. 

Pro  loco  et  tempore.— For  the  place  and  time. 

Pro  patrki.— For  our  country. 

Pro  rata.— In  proportion. 

Pro  re  natd.—For  a  special  emergency. 

Pro  tanto. — For  so  much. 

Pro  tempore.— For  the  time  being. 

Probatum  est.— It  has  been  tried  and  proved. 

Proces-verbal.—A  written  statement. 

Prochein  ami.— The  next  friend. 

Procul,  O  procul  este,  profani  .'—Far,  far  hence,   O  ye 

profane ! 
Pronunciamento.—A  public  declaration. 
Propaganda  fide.— For  extending  the  faith. 
Protege.— A  person  taken  charge  of,  or  patronized ;  a 

ward,  etc. 
Prudensfuturi.—  Thoughtful  of  the  future. 
Pugnis  et  calcibus.— With  fists  and  heels ;  with  all  the 

might. 
Punica  fides.— Punic  faith;  treachery. 

Quaere.— Query;  inquiry. 

Quamdiu  se  bene  gesserit.—So  long  as  he  shall  conduct 

himself  properly. 
Quantum.— The  due  proportion. 
Quantum  libet.— As  much  as  you  please. 
Quantum  meruit. — As  much  as  he  deserved. 
Quantum  sufiicit.— A  sufficient  quantity;  enough. 
Quare  clausum /regit.— An  action  for  damages  to  real 
estate. 
tare  impedit.—'Why  he  hinders. 
tasi  dicas.— As  if  you  should  say. 
uelque  chose.— A  trifle. 

ui  capi^  ille  facit. — He  who  takes  it  makes  it.  ' 
ui  pense  ?— Who  thinks  ? 
i  tarn  ?— Who  as  well  ?  The  title  given  to  a  certain 
action  at  law. 
Qui  transtulit  sustinet.—Re  who  brought  us  hither  still 

preserves  us. 
Qui  va  Id  ?— Who  goes  there  ? 

Qui vive ?— Who  goes  there?  hence,  on  the  qui-vive,  on 
the  alert. 

id-nunc  ? — What  now  ?  a  newsmonger. 
uidpro  quo.— One  thing  for  another;  "  tit  for  tat." 
uid  rides  ?— Why  do  you  laugh  ? 
uis  separabit  ?— Who  shall  separate  us  ? 
uo  animo  ? — With  what  intention  ? 
to  jure?— By  what  right  ? 
mo  warranto  ? — By  what  warrant  or  authority  ? 
uoad  hoc— To  this  extent. 
uod  avertat  Deus  .'—Which  may  God  avert  ! 
wd  iride. — Which  see. 
(odlibet. — A  nice  point ;  a  subtlety. 
ondam. — Former. 

orum. — Of  whom;   a   term   signifying   a   sufficient 
number  for  a  certain  business. 
Quos  Deus  vult  perdere,  prius  dementat. — Those  whom 
God  wishes  to  destroy,  he  first  deprives  of  under- 
standing. 

Ragout. — A  highly  seasoned  dish. 

Para  avis. — A  rare  bird ;  a  prodigy. 

He  infectd. — The  business  being  unfinished. 

Recte  et  suaviter. — Justly  and  mildly. 

Rectus  in  curid. — Upright   in   the  court;    with   clean 

hands. 
Redolet  lucemd.—  It  smells  of  the  lamp;  it  is  a  labored 

production. 
Reductio  ad  absurdum. —  A  reducing  a  position  to  an 

absurdity. 
Regina. — Queen. 
Regium  donum. — A  royal  donation  (a  grant  from  the 

British  crown  to  the  Irish  Presbyterian  clergy). 
Regnant  populi. — The  people  rule. 
Rencontre.— An  encounter. 
Renaissance.— New  birth;  applied  to  the  revival  of  the 

classic  arts  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
Requiescant  in  pace.— May  they  rest  in  peace. 
Requiescat  in  pace. — May  he  rest  in  peace. 
Rerum  primordia. — The  first  elements  of  things. 
Res  angusta  domi.— Narrow  circumstances  at  home; 

poverty. 


180 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Res  Integra.— An  entire  matter. 

Respite  finem. — Look  to  the  end. 

Respublica .— The  commonwealth. 

Restaurateur. — A  tavern  keeper  who  provides  dinners, 

etc. 
Risurni. — An  abstract  or  summary. 
Resurgam. — I  shall  rise  again. 

Revenons  a  nos  moutons.— Let  lis  return  to  our  subject. 
Rex.—  King. 

Rouge.— Red  coloring  for  the  skin. 
Rouged  noir  — Red  and  black  (a  kind  of  game). 
Bruin  iirbe.— The  country  in  town. 
Ruse   contre    ruse. — Diamond  cut  diamond ;    trick  for 

trick. 
Ruse.de  guerre. — A  stratagem  of  war. 

Salle.—  Hall. 

Salus  populi  suprema  lex  est. — The  welfare  of  the  peo- 
ple is  in  the  supreme  law. 

Salvo  pudore.— Without  offense  to  modesty. 

Sanctum  sanctorum.— Holy  of  Holies. 

Sang-froid.—  Coolness ;  self-possession. 

Sans.— Without. 

Sans  ckrefnonie. — Without  ceremony. 

Sans  peur  et  sans  reproche. — Without  fear  and  without 
reproach. 

Sans  souci. — Without  care :  free  and  easy. 

Sans  t&che.— Stainless. 

Sans-culottes.— Without  breeches;  a  term  applied  to 
the  rabble  of  the  French  Revolution. 

Sartor  resartus.— The  cobbler  mended. 

Satis,  superque. — Enough,  and  more  than  enough. 

Satis  verborum. — Enough  of  words ;  you  neecf  say  no 
more. 

Sauve  q  d  peut. — Save  himself  who  can. 

Savant.— A  learned  man. 

Savior- f aire.— Ability ;  skill. 

Scandalum  magnatum. — Scandal  of  the  great. 

Scienter.— Knowingly. 

Scilicet.— That  is  to  say ;  to  wit. 

Scirefaeias. — Cause  it  to  be  known. 

Scripsit.— Wrote  it.  * 

Scutpsit. — Engraved  it;  placed  after  the  engraver's 
name  in  prints. 

Secundum  artem.— According  to  rule. 

Selon  las  regies.— According  to  rule. 

Semper fid'elis .—Always  f ai thf ul . 

Semper  idem.— Alwa>  s  the  same. 

Semper  pa.ratus.—  Always  ready. 

Senatfts  consuttum. — A  decree  of  the  senate. 

Seriatim. — In  order ;  successively. 

Si  qiur.ris  penins\da,m  amcenam  circumspice. — If  thou 
seekest  a  beautiful  peninsula,  behold  it  here. 

Sic  in  ori'jinali. — So  it  stands  in  the  original. 

Sicitur  ad  astra. — Such  is  the  way  to  immortality. 

Sic  passim. — So  everywhere. 

Sic  semper  tyrannis.—So  be  it  ever  to  tyrants. 

Sic  transit  gloria  mundi. — Thus  passes  away  the  glory 
of  the  world. 

Si  cut  ante.— As  before. 

Similia  similibus  curantur. — Like  things  are  cured  bv 
like. 

Simpler,  miinditiis.— Of  simple  elegance. 

Sine  die.— Without  naming  u  day. 

Sine  invidid. — Without  envy. 

Sine  qua  non.— An  Indispensable  requisite. 

Siste,  viator.—  Stop,  traveler. 

Sobriquet. — A  nickname. 

Soi-disant. — Self-styled  ;  pretended. 

Soirie. — An  evening  party. 

Souvenir. — Remembrance ;  a  keepsake. 

Spartam  nactus  es,  huneexorna. — You  have  got  some- 
thing good ;  make  the  most  of  it  you  can. 

Spectas  eb-spectaberis. — You  will  see  and  be  seen. 

Spes  mea,  Cnristus. — Christ  is  my  hope. 

Spolia  opima. — The  richest  booty. 

Stoiis  pfde.  in,  una. — Standing  on  one  foot. 

Statu  quo,  or  in  statu  quo. — In  the  same  state. 

SIM. — Let  it  stand. 

Suaviter  in  modo,  fortiter  in  re. — Gentle  in  manner, 
resolute  in  deed. 

Sub  judice. — Under  consideration. 

Sub  rosd.— Under  the  rose;  privately. 

Sub  silenMo. — In  silence. 

Subpama. — Under  a  penalty;  a  summons  to  attend  a 
courtasa  witness. 

Surriiliiiiium .  —A.  substitute. 
Sin I  generis.— Of  its  own  kind;  peculiar. 
Summum  bonum. — The  chief  good. 
Supersedeas. — A  writ  to  stay  proceedings. 


Super  visum  corporis. — Upon  a  view  of  the  body. 
Suppressio  veri  suggestio  fa/si. — A  suppression  of  the 

truth  is  the  suggestion  of  a  falsehood. 
Supra. — Above. 
Suum  cuique. — Let  every  one  have  his  own. 

Table  d'hdte. — An  ordinary  at  which  the  master  of  the 
hotel  presides. 

Tabula  rasa.— A  smooth  or  blank  tablet. 

Tosdium  vitxe. — Weariness  of  life. 

Tale  quale. — Such  as  it  is. 

Tant  mieux.—So  much  the  better. 

Tant  pis.— So  much  the  worse. 

Tapis. — The  carpet. 

Tartuffe. — A  nickname  for  a  hypocritical  devotee,  de- 
rived from  the  principal  character  in  Moliere's 
comedy  so  called. 

Te.judice. — You  may  judge. 

Tempora  mutantur,  et  nos  mutant  ur  in  ill  is.— The 
tunes  are  changed,  and  we  are  changed  with  them. 

Tempus  edax  rerum. — Time  the  devourer  of  all  things. 

Tempus fugit .—Time  flies. 

Tempus  omnia  revelat. — Time  reveals  all  things. 

Teres  atque  rotundus. — Smooth  and  round ;  polished 
and  complete. 

Terra  firma. — Solid  earth ;  a  safe  footing. 

Terra  incognita.— An  unknown  country. 

Terre  tenant. — A  person  in  actual  possession  of  the 
land. 

Tertium  quid. — A  third  something;  a  nondescript. 

TUe-d-tete.—A  conversation  between  two  parties. 

Tirade — A  tedious  and  bitter  harangue. 

Ton. — The  fashion. 

Torso. — The  fragmentary  trunk  of  a  statue. 

Tort. — A  wrong ;  an  injury. 

Tot  homines,  quot  sentential.— So  many  men,  so  many 
minds. 

Totidem  rwrbis. — In  just  so  many  words. 

Toties  quoties. — As  often  as. 

Totoccelo. — By  the  whole  heavens;  diametrically  op- 
posite. 

Toto  corde. — With  the  whole  heart. 

Toujours  pret. — Always  ready. 

Tour  it  tour. — By  turns. 

Tout  bien  ou  rien. — The  whole  or  nothing. 

Tout  ensemble.— The  whole. 

Trin  jtin.rta  in  vno.— Three  united  in  one. 

'J'ii  ouoque,  Brute.'— And  thou  too,  Brutus  ! 

Tueoor.—l  will  defend. 

Tutlo  e  buono  chevienda  IXo.—  All  is  good  which  comes 
from  God. 

Tuum  est.— It  is  your  own. 

Ubijus  incertum,  ibijus  nullum.— Where  the  law  is  un- 
certain, there  is  no  law. 

I'lii  lihertas,  ibi patria. — Where  liberty  dwells,  there  is 
my  country. 

I'lii  supra.— V\There  above  mentioned. 

Ultima  ratio  regrum.— The  last  argument  of  kings;  mil- 
itary weapons :  war. 

Ultima  Th  ulr. — The  utmost  boundary  or  limit. 

Ultimatum . — A  final  action  or  decision. 

t'u  bel  esprit.— A  wit;  a  virtuoso. 

Unsot  d  triple  etage. — An  egregious  blockhead. 

Undvoce. — With  one  voice;  unanimously. 

Unique.— Singular;  the  only  one  of  its  kind. 

Usque  <ut  nausea m . — To  disgust. 

I'sns  inqiii  ruU. — I  "sage  iii  speaking. 

Ul  infra. — As  below. 

U ti possidetis.— As  you  possess;  state  of  present  posses- 
sion. 

Utile  dulci.— Utility  with  pleasure. 

Vade-mecum. — Go  with  me  ;  a  constant  companion. 

Vob  victis. — woe  to  the  vanquished  ! 

rate.— Farewell 

I'uti  t-i/i-chambre. — A  servant  who  assists  his  master  in 

dressing. 
Farias  leoHbnes. — Various  readings. 
Viluti  in  speculum. — As  iii  a  mirror. 
Venditioni  i  1 1, nuns. — That  you  expose  to  sale;  writ  of 

execution. 
/"( in.  riili.  vici. — I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 
Venire. — To  come;  a  writ  to  a  sheriff  directing  him  to 

summon  jurors. 
Venue. — Tbe place  from  which  the  jury  are  drawn. 
Verbatim  et  literatim. — Word  for 'word  and  letter  for 

letter. 
I'rrlium  sat  sniiirn/i.—.\  word  is  enough  for  a  wise  man. 
Verdad  es  verae. — Truth  is  green. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


181 


Veritas  vincit.— Truth  conquers. 

Versus. — Against;  toward. 

Vertu,  Virtu. — Virtue ;  taste;  art;  skill. 

VitO.  -I  forbid. 

Vi  et  arm  is. — By  force  and  arms. 

Pitt.— By  the  way  of. 

Via  /nt, i in. —A  middle  course. 

Pitt.— In  the  room  of. 

Vice  versd. — The  terms  being  exchanged ;  reversely.    . 

Viilr.— See. 

Vide  et  eredi . — See  and  believe. 

Fide  ut  supra. — See  as  above. 

Villi/ iret. — To  wic,  namely. 

Viihttes. — Sentinels  on  horseback. 

Vignette. — A  name  given  to  slight  engravings  with  which 
books,  bank-notes,  etc.,  are  ornamented. 

Vi nrit  1.1  hi nr  patricB. — Love  of  country  prevails. 

Viiinil a m  miitri iiioiiii. — The  bond  of  marriage. 

Virt  hi,  so. — One  skilled  in  matters  of  taste  or  art. 

Virtute  officii. — By  virtue  of  office. 

MB. — Inert  power;  the  tendency  of  every  body 
to  remain  at  rest. 

Vis  medicatrix  natural. — The  healing  tendency  of  na- 
ture. 

Vis  poet ica. — Poetic  genius. 

Vis  citir.—The  vigor  of  life. 

ris-<i-ris.— Face  to  face. 

Vila  bri  ris.  an  Umoa.— Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long. 

I' ica  voce. — By  word  of  mouth ;  by  the  living  voice. 


Vivant  rex  et  regina. — Long  live  the  king  and  queen. 

Yinit  regina. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Viifit  ri-sj,iili/irn.—Li\e  the  republic. 

Vice  la  bagatelle. — Success  to  trifling. 

Vive  la  reine. — Long  live  the  queen. 

Vice  I'empcreitr. — Long  live  the  emperor. 

Vim  /e  roi. — Long  live  the  king. 

fire/'  im  peratrice. — Long  live  the  empress. 

Vice,  rale. — Farewell,  and  be  happy. 

Voild  totd.— That's  all. 

Voildune  aidre  chose. — That's  quite  a  different  mat- 
ter. 

Voir  dire. — A  preliminary  examination  to  determine 
the  competency  of  a  witness. 

Voletis  etpotens.— Willing  and  able. 

Volgo  gran  bestia. — The  mob  is  a  great  beast. 

Volere  tpotere. — To  will  is  to  do. 

Volti  siitnto. — Turn  over  quickly. 

Vox,  etprarterea  nihil. — A  voice,  and  nothing  more. 

Voxpopuli,  vox  Dei.— The  people's  voice  is  God's  voice. 

Vox  stellarum. — The  voice  of  the  stars;  applied  to 
almanacs. 

Vulgo. — "Vulgarly ;  commonly. 

Viicllii. — Over,  to  next  page,  or  (o). 

Vtdn.ua  immedicabile. — An  irreparable  injury. 

Vultus  est  index  aniini. — The  countenance  is  the  index 
of  the  mind. 

Zonam  solvere.-r-To  loose  the  virgin  zone. 


ABBREVIATIONS   IN    GENERAL    USE. 


A.B.  Arti um  Baccalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Arts. 

Abp.    Archbishop. 

Abr.    Abridgment. 

A.C.  Ante  Christum,  before  Christ; 
Arch-Chancellor. 

Acad.    Academy. 

Acct.    Account;  Accent. 

A.D.  Anno  Domini,  In  the  year  of 
our  Lord. 

A.D.C.    Aide-de-camp. 

Ad.    Advertisement. 

Adj.     Adjective. 

Adjt.    Adjutant. 

\djt.-<;en.    Adjutant-General. 

Ad  lib.    Ad  liliitiim.  at  pleasure. 

Adm.    Admiral;  Admiralty. 

Admr.    Administrator. 

Admx.    Administratrix. 

Adv.  Adverb;  Advent;  Advertise- 
ment. 

.Et.    AStatU,  of  age;  aged. 

Agr.     Agriculture. 

Agt.    Agent. 

Am.    Alabama. 

A.M.  Anno  mundi.  In  the  year  of 
the  world ;  Artiwn  Afugister, 
Master  of  Arts:  Ante  meridiem, 
Before  noon,  morning. 

Aug.  Sax.    Anglo-Saxon. 

Anon.    Anonymous. 

Ans.    Answer. 

A.R.A.  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Arab.    Arabic,  or  Arabia. 

Ariz.  Ter.    Arizona  Territory. 

Ark.    Arkansas. 

Atty.     Attorney. 

Attv.-Gen.    Attorney-General. 

A. I4. A.  American  Unitarian  AflBO- 
ciation. 

Aug.    August. 

B.A.    Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Bal.    Balance. 

Bart,  or  Bt.    Baronet. 

Bbl.    Barrel. 

B.C.    Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.    Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.    Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.E.    Bachelor  of  the  Elements. 

B.M.    Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

B.  Mus.    Bachelor  of  Music. 

Brig.-Gen.    Brigadier-General. 

Bro.,  Bros.    Brother,  Brothers 

B.S.    Bachelor  of  Science. 

B.V.    Blessed  Virgin. 


B.V.M.    Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

C,  Ch.  or  Chap.    Chapter ;  Consul. 

C.  or  Cent.    A  hundred,  Centum. 

Cal.  California;  Calends;  Calen- 
dar. 

Caps.    Capitals. 

Capt.    Captain. 

Capt.-Gen.    Captain-General. 

C.E.    Civil  Engineer;   Canada  East. 

Cel.orCelt.    Celtic. 

C.H     Court-house. 

Chap.    Chapter;  Chaplain. 

Chron.    Chronicles. 

Clk.    Clerk. 

r.M.    Common  Meter. 

C.M.G.  Companion  of  the  Order  of 
St.  Michael  and  St.  George. 

Co.    Company;  County. 

COD.    Cash  (or  collect)  on  delivery. 

Col.    Colonel :  Colossians ;  Colorado. 

Colo.    Colorado. 

Con.  Against ;  In  opposition ;  Con- 
tra. 

Conn,  or  Ct.    Connecticut. 

Cor.  Sec.    Corresponding  Secretary. 

Cr.    Creditor;  Credit. 

Ct.,  cts.    Cent,  Cents;  Connecticut. 

Cwt.    Hundredweight. 

d.    Pennv  or  Pence. 

Dak.  Ter."    Dakota  Territory. 

DC.    District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.    Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D.    Doctor  of  Divinity. 

D.D.S.    Doctor  of  Denta'l  Surgery. 

D.E.    Dynamic  Enuineer. 

Dec.    December;  Declaration. 

Deft,  or  Df t.    Defendant. 

Del.    Delaware ;  Delegate. 

Dept.    Department. 

Dent.    Deuteronomy. 

Disc.    Discount. 

Dist.-Attv.     Distriot-Attornev. 

D.M.    Do*ctor  of  Music. 

D.M.D.    Doctor  Dental  Medicine. 

Do.    The  Same,  Ditto. 

Dol.,  Dols.,  8.    Dollars. 

Doz.    Dozen. 

Dr.    Debtor;  Doctor. 

Eccl.    Ecclesiastes. 

Ed.     Editor:  Edition. 

e.g.    For  example,  Exempli  gratia. 

Eng.    England:  English. 

Y.y.     Epistle. 

Eph.    Ephesians;  Ephraim. 

Esq.,  Esqs.    Esipiire.  Esquires. 

et  al.    And  others,  Et  alit. 


etc.  or  &c.    And  other  things ;  And 
so  forth. 

et.    seq.      And     what     follows,    Et 
seqiientia. 

Ex.    Example. 

ex.    g.      For      example,     Exempli 
gratia. 

Fahr.    Fahrenheit. 

F.A.M.    Free  and  Accepted  Masons. 

F.A.S.    Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian 
Society. 

fcap.  or  fcp.    Foolscap. 

Feb.    February. 

Fig.    Figure ;  "figurative. 

Fla.    Florida. 

F.R.A.S.     Fellow    of      the     Roval 
Astronomical  Societv.  . 

F.R.C.S.L.      Fellow   of    the    Roval 
College  of  Surgeons,  London. 

F.R.G.S.    Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society. 

Fri.    Fridav. 

F.R.S.    Fellow  of  the  Royal  Societv. 

F.R.S.E.    Fellow  of  the  Royal    So- 
ciety, Edinburgh. 

F.S.A".    Fellow   of    the    Society   of 
Arts. 

Ga.    Georgia. 

Gal.    Galations;  Gallon. 

Gen.    Genesis;  General.    ■ 

Goth.    Gothic. 

Gov.    Governor. 

Gov.-Gen.    Governor-General. 

H.B.M.      His     or     Her     Britannic 
Majesty. 

Heb.    Hebrews. 

Hhd.    Hogshead. 

H.R.    House  of  Representatives.  • 

H.R.H.    His  or  Her  Royal  Highness. 

la.    Iowa. 

lb.  or  ibid.    In  the  same  place. 

Id.    The  same,  Idem. 

id.  Ter.    Idaho  Territory. 

i.e.    That  is,  Id  >  St. 

I.H.S.    Jesus  the  Saviour  of  men. 

111.    Illinois. 

incog.    Unknown,  Incognito. 

Ind.    Indiana; Index:  Indian. 

Ind.  Ter.    Indian  Territory. 

Indef.    Indefinite. 

in  loc.     In  the  place;    on  the  pas- 
sage. In  loco. 

I. N.R.I.    Jesus  of   Nazareth,    King 
of  the  Jews. 

Inst.    Instant, of  this  month;  Insti- 
tute. 


182 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Io.    Iowa. 

I.O.F.    Independent  Order  of  For- 

I.O.O.F.'  Independent  Order  of  Odd 
Fellows. 

I.S.M.  Jesus  Salvator  mundi,  Jesus 
the  Saviour  of  the  world. 

Ital.    Italic;  Italian. 

Jan.    January. 

J.C.D.  Juris  Civilis  Doctor,  Doctor 
of  Civil  Law. 

J.D.   Jurum  Doctor,Doctor  of  Laws. 

J.P.    Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.  or  Jun.    Junior. 

J.U.D.  or  J.V.D.  Juris  utriusque 
Doctor,  Doctor  of  both  Laws  (of 
the  Canon  and  the  Civil  Law). 

Jul.    July ;  Julius. 

Kas.    Kansas. 

K.B.  King's  Bench  ;  Knight  of  the 
Bath. 

K.C.  King's  Counsel;  Knight  of 
the  Crescent,  in  Turkey. 

K.C.B.  Knight  Commander  of  the 
Bath. 

K.G.    Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.G.C.    Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross. 

K.G.C.B.  Knight  of  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Bath. 

Knt.    Knight. 

Ky.    Kentucky. 

Lev.    Leviticus. 

Lex.    Lexicon. 

L.I.    Long  Island. 

Lib.    Liber,  book. 

Lieut.    Lieutenant. 

LL.B.  Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Laws. 

LL.D.  Legum,  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Laws. 

loc.  cit.  Loco  citato,  in  the  place 
cited. 

Lond.    London. 

L.S.    Locus  sigilli,  Place  of  the  seal. 

Lt.    Lieutenant. 

M.    Meridies,  noon. 

M.    Mille,  a  thousand. 

M.  or  Mons.    Monsieur,  Sir. 

M.A.    Master  of  Arts. 

Ma;j.    Major. 

Maj.-Gen.    Major-General. 

Mar.    March. 

Mass.    Massachusetts. 

Math.  Mathematics ;  Mathema- 
tician. 

Matt.    Matthew. 

M.B.  Medicince  Baccalaureus, 
Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.B.  Musicae  Baccalaureus,  Bache- 
lor of  Music. 

M.C.    Member  of  Congress. 

Mch.    March. 

M.D.  Medicince  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Medicine. 

Md.    Maryland. 

Mdlle.  or  Mile.    Mademoiselle. 

Mdse.    Merchandise. 

M.E.  Methodist  Episcopal ;  Mili- 
tary or  Mechanical  Engineer. 

Me.    Maine. 

Mech.    Mechanics,  or  Mechanical. 

Med.    Medicine. 

Mem.  Memorandum.  Memento, 
remember. 

Messrs.  or  MM.  Messieurs,  Gentle- 
men. 

Mex.    Mexico,  or  Mexican. 

Mich.    Michigan. 

Minn.    Minnesota. 

Miss.    Mississippi. 

MM.  Their  Majesties;  Messieurs, 
Gentlemen ;  Two  thousand. 

Mme.    Madame. 

M.M.S.S.  Massachusettensis  Medv- 
cinm  Societatis  Socius,  Fellow  of 
the  Massachusetts  Medical  So- 
ciety. 

Mo.    Missouri;  Month. 

Mon.    Monday. 

Mo  us.    Monsieur,  Sir. 


Mont.  Ter.    Montana  Territory. 

M.P.  Member  of  Parliament";  Met- 
ropolitan Police. 

M.P.P.  Member  of  Provincial  Par- 
liament. 

Mr.    Mister. 

M.R.A.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society;  Member  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Science. 

M.R.C.C.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Chemistry. 

M.R.C.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons. 

M.R.G.S.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Geographical  Society. 

M.R.I.  Member  of  the  Royal  Insti- 
tute. 

Mrs.    Mistress. 

M.R.S.L.  Member  of  the  Royal 
Society  of  Literature. 

M.S.  Memoriae  sacrum,  Sacred  to 
the  memory;  Master  of  the  Sci- 
ences. 

MSS.    Manuscripts. 

Mus.  B.    Bachelor  of  Music. 

Miis.  D.    Doctor  of  Music. 

N.  A.    North  America. 

N.B.  New  Brunswick  ;  North 
British;  Nota  bene,  mark  well, 
take  notice. 

N.C.    North  Carolina ;  New  Church. 

N.E.    New  England ;  Northeast. 

Neb.    Nebraska. 

Nev.    Nevada. 

New  Test,  or  N.T.    New  Testament. 

N.F.    Newfoundland. 

N.H.    New  Hampshire;  New  Haven. 

N.J.    New  Jersey. 

N.Mex.    New  Mexico. 

No.    Numero,  number. 

Nol.pros.  Nolens  prosequi,  I  am  un- 
willing to  prosecute. 

Non  pros.  Non  prosequitur,  He 
does  not  prosecute. 

Non  seq.  Non  sequitur,  It  does  not 
follow. 

Nov.    November. 

N.S.  New  Style  (after  1752);  Nova 
Scotia. 

N.T.    New  Testament. 

Num.    Numbers;  Numeral. 

N.V.M.  Nativity  of  the  Virgin 
Mary. 

N.Y.    New  York. 

0.    Ohio. 

O.K.  A  slang  phrase  for  "All  cor- 
rect." 

Oct.    October. 

Old  Test,  or  O.T.    Old  Testament. 

Or.    Oregon. 

O.S.    Old  Style  (before  1752). 

O.S.F.    Order  of  St.  Francis. 

O.T.    Old  Testament. 

Oxon.  Oxoniensis,  Oxonii,  of  Ox- 
ford, at  Oxford. 

Oz.    Ounce. 

Pa.    Pennsylvania. 

Par.    Paragraph. 

Pd.    Paid. 

P.E.    Protestant  Episcopal. 

Penn.    Perinsylvania. 


By  the. 
Per  centum,  by  the  hun- 


Per.  or  pr, 
Per  cent, 

dred. 
Phar.    Pharmacy. 
Ph.B.     Philosophic  Baccalaureus, 

Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 
Ph.D.    Philosophice  Doctor,  Doctor 

of  Philosophy. 
Pinx.  Pinxit,  He  (or  she)  painted  it. 
PI.  or  plur.    Plural. 
Plff.    Plaintiff. 
P.M.    Post    meridiem.   Afternoon, 

Evening ;      Postmaster ;       Passed 

Midshipman ;  Paymaster. 
P.O.    Post  office. 
Pop.    Population. 
P.P.C.    Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take 

leave. 
Pp.  or  pp.    Pages. 


Pro  tem.  Pro  tempore,  for  the  time 
being. 

Prov.    Proverbs;  Provost. 

Prox.    Proximo,  next  (month). 

P.S.    Post  scriptum,  Postscript. 

P.S.    Privy  Seal. 

Ps.    Psalm  or  Psalms. 

Pt.  Part;  Pint;  Payment;  Point; 
Port;  Post-town. 

Pub.  Publisher;  Publication;  Pub- 
lished; Public. 

Pwt.    Pennyweight ;  Pennyweights. 

Pxt.    Pinxtt,  He  (or  she)  painted  it. 

q.e.d.  Quod  erat  demotistrandum, 
which  was  to  be  proved. 

q.l.  Quantum  libet,  as  much  as  you 
please. 

Q.M.    Quartermaster. 

Qr.    Quarter. 

q.s.  Quantum  suffieit,  a  sufficient 
quantity. 

Qt.    Quart. 

Ques.    Question. 

q.v.  Quod  vide,  which  see;  quan- 
tum vis,  as  much  as  you  will. 

R.  Recipe,  Take;  Regina,  Queen; 
Rex,  King;  River;  Rod;  Rood; 
Rises. 

R.A.  Royal  Academy ;  Royal  Acad- 
emician ;  Royal  Arch  ;  Royal  Arca- 
num; Royal  Artillery. 

Reed.    Received. 

Ref.    Reference;  Reform. 

Rev.  Reverend;  Revelation  (Book 
of);  Review;  Revenue;  Revise. 

R.I.    Rhode  Island. 

R.M.S.    Royal  Mail  Steamer. 

R.N.    Royal  Navy. 

Rom.Cath.    Roman  Catholic. 

R.S.A.  Royal  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries ;  Royal  Scottish  Academy. 

R.S.D.    Royal  Societv  of  Dublin. 

R.S.E.    Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh. 

R.S.L.    Royal  Society  of  London. 

R.S.V.P.  Responded s 'il  vous  plait, 
Answer  if  you  please. 

Rt.  Hon.    Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev.    Right  Reverend. 

S. A.  South  America ;  South  Africa ; 
South  Australia. 

Sat.    Saturday. 

S.C.  Senatus  conmdtum,  A  decree 
of  the  Senate;  South  Carolina. 

Sc.    He  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

sc.  or  scil.    Namely. 

Scot.    Scotland. 

Sculp,  or  sculp.  He  (or  she)  en- 
graved it,  Sculpsit. 

S.D.    Doctor  of  Science. 

Sec.    Secretary;  Second;  Section. 

Sept.    September;  Septuagint. 

Seq.  Following,  Seqxientia ;  lt  fol- 
lows, Sequitur. 

.Serg;.    Sergeant. 

Serg.  Maj.    Sergeant  Major. 

S.J.    Society  of  Jesus. 

S.J.C.    Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

S.P.    Without  issue,  Sinejyrole. 

Sp.    Spain. 

Sq.ft.    Square  foot  or  square  feet. 

Sq.  in.    Square  inch  or  inches. 

Sq.m.    Square  mile  or  miles. 

Sq.  r.    Square  rood  or  roods. 

Sq.  yd.    Square  yard. 

Sr.    Sir  or  Senior;  Sister. 

SS.  or  ss.    To  wit,  Scilicet. 

St.    Saint;  Street;  Strait. 

Stat.    Statute. 

S.T.D.    Doctor  of  Sacred  Theology. 

Ster.  or  Stg.    Sterling. 

S.T.P.  Professor  or  Sacred  The- 
ology. 

Subj.    Subjective. 

Sulist.    Substantive. 

Supt.    Superintendent. 

Surg.    Surgeon;  Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen.    Surgeon-General. 

Surv.    Surveyor. 

Surv.-Gen.    Surveyor-General. 

Syn.    Synonym;  Synonymous. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


186 


Term.    Tennessee. 

Ter.    Territory. 

Tex.    Texas. 

Th.orThurs.    Thursday. 

Tr.  Transpose;  Translator;  Trans- 
lation. 

Trans.  Translator ;  Translation ; 
Transactions. 

Treas.    Treasurer. 

Tues.  or  Tu.    Tuesday. 

Typ.    Typographer. 

U.J.C.  Doctor  of  both  Laws  (Civil 
and  Canon). 

U.K.    United  Kingdom. 

ult.  Last;  of  the  last  month,  Ul- 
timo. 

Unit.    Unitarian. 

Univ.    University. 

U.S.    United  States. 

U.S.A.    United  States  Army. 

U.S.A.    United  States  of  America. 

U.S.M.    United  States  Mail. 


U.S.M.    United  States  Marine. 
U.S.M.A.     United    States   Military 

Academy. 
U.S.N.    United  States  Navy. 
U.S.N.A.      United      States     Naval 

Academy. 
U.S.S.    United  States  Senate. 
U.T.    Utah  Territory, 
v.  or  vs.    Against ;    In  such  a  way ; 

Versus;  Versiculo. 
Va.    Virginia. 
Vat.    Vatican. 
Ven.    Venerable. 
Ver.    Verse ;  Version. 
Vice-Pres.  or  V.P.    Vice-President. 
Vise.    Viscount. 
viz.  or  vi.    To  wit;    Namely;    That 

is  to  say ;   Videlicet. 
Vo.    Left  hand  page,  Verso. 
Vol.    Volume. 
V.R.    Queen  Victoria,  Victoria  Re- 

gina. 


V.S.    Veterinary  Surgeon. 

Vt.    Vermont. 

Vul.  Vulgate  (Latin  version  of  the 
Bible). 

Wash.    Washington. 

W.Ter.    Washington  Territory. 

Wed.    Wednesday. 

Wise.    Wisconsin. 

Wk.    Week. 

W.T.    Wyoming  Territory. 

X.    Ten  or  tenth. 

Xmas  or  Xm.    Christmas. 

Xn  or  Xtian.    Christian. 

Yd.    Yard. 

Y.M.C.A.  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association. 

Y.  M.  Cath.  A.  Young  Men's  Catho- 
lic Association. 

Yrs.    Years;  Yours. 

&.    And. 

&c.  And  the  rest;  And  so  forth: 
Et  ccetera. 


CELEBRATED  CHARACTERS  IN  THE  LITERATURE  OF  THE 

WORLD. 


The  name  of  the  character  is  given  in.  black  letter 
work  from  which  the   character  is  taken,  in  italic. 


the  name  of  the  author  and  of  the 


Abdiel.  Paradise  Lost,  MUton.  The  faithful  angel 
who  opposed  Satan  in  his  revolt. 

Abigail.     The  Bible.    A  waiting  maid. 

Ablewhite,  Godfrey.  Moonstone,  Wilkie  Collins. 
A  disreputable  spy. 

Abou  Hassan.  Arabian  Nights.  An  Arab  who  was 
made  to  believe  himself  Caliph. 

Absalom.  1.  The  Bible.  The  son  of  David,  King 
of  Israel.  2.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dryden.  A 
pseudonym  for  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  an  illegitimate 
son  of  King  Charles  II. 

Absolute,  Captain.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  The  hero 
of  the  comedy,  the  gallant  and  fortunate  lover. 

Absolute,  Sir  Anthony.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan. 
Father  of  Captain  Absolute,  a  very  irascible  and  abso- 
lute old  gentleman. 

Achitophel.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dry  den.  The 
pseudonym  for  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 

Acres,  Bob.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A  cowardly 
boaster,  the  butt  of  the  comedy. 

Acrasia.  The  Faery  Queene,  Spenser.  An  old  witch, 
the  personification  of  intemperance. 

Adam,  Bell.    Reliques,  Percy.    A  celebrated  archer. 

Adams,  Parson.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding.  An 
eccentric,  good-natured  clergyman. 

Adriana.  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shakespeare.  The  wife 
of  Antipholus. 

Aguecheek,  Sir  Andrew.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakes- 
peare.   A  coward  and  a  fool. 

Aladdin.  Arabian  Xights.  The  owner  of  a  magic 
lamp  and  ring,  which  gave  the  possessor  every  wish  he 
made. 

All-worthy,  Squire.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  A  good- 
natured  old  country  gentleman. 

Alp.  The  Siege  of  Corinth,  Byron.  A  brave  and  de- 
voted man. 

Amadis  de  Gaul.  Amadis  de  Gaul.  The  hero  of  a 
Portuguese  chivalric  romance,  the  authorship  of  which 
is  unknown.  It  was  translated  into  every  language  in 
Europe. 

Amelia.  Amelia,  Fielding.  A  lovely  woman,  sup- 
posed1 to  be  drawn  from  Fielding's  own  wife. 

Amine.  Arabian  Sights.  A  wicked  sorceress,  who 
changed  her  three  sisters  into  hounds. 

A  in  let,  Richard.  The  Confederacy,  Vanburgh.  A 
gambler. 

Amri.  Absalom  and  Achitophel,  Dryden.  Pseu- 
donym for  H.  Finch. 

Andrews,  Joseph.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding.  A 
hero  ridiculously  upright  and  pure. 

Anerley,  Mary.  Mary  Anerley,  Blackmore.  A  lovely 
and  beautiful  girl. 

Apemantus.  Timon  of  Athens,  Shakespeare.  A 
cynic. 

Arden,  Enoch.  Enoch  Ar den,  Tennyson.  A  sailor, 
supposed  drowned,  who  returns  home  to  find  his  wife 
married  again. 


Argante.     The  Faery  Qneene,  Spenser.    A  giantess. 

Ariel.  The  Tempest,  Shakespeare.  A  spirit  of  the 
air,  perhaps  the  daintiest  creation  of  the  myriad-minded 
poet. 

Artful  Dodger.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  A  young 
thief  who  understands  his  business. 

Arthur,  King.  Idyls  of  the  King,  Tennyson.  A 
legendary  British  King,  who  established  an  order  of 
chivalry  known  as  the  Round  Table,  and  about  whom 
many  popular  legends  are  afloat  in  Wales  and  Western 
France. 

Ashton,  Lucy.  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  Scott. 
A  beautiful  character,  loved  and  lost  by  Ravenswood. 

Atalanta.  Atalanta  in  Calydon,  Swinburne.  One  of 
Diana's  maidens. 

Autolycus.  Winter's  Tale,  Shakespeare.  An  intel- 
lectual sneak  thief. 

Baba,  Ali.  Arabian  Nights.  The  hero  of  the  tale  of 
the  forty  thieves,  who  breaks  into  the  robbers'  cave 
by  means  of  the  magical  password  "  Sesame." 

Baba,  Cassim.  Arabian  Nights.  Brother  of  the 
above,  who  forgets  the  password  and  is  captured  by  the 
robbers. 

Backbite,  Sir  Benjamin.  School  for  Scandal, 
Sheridan.    A  scandal  monger. 

Bagstock,  Joe.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
pompous  fellow. 

Bailey,  Young.  Martin  Chuzzlewtt,  Dickens.  A 
precocious  youth. 

Balderstone,  Caleb.  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  Scott. 
The  butler  of  Ravenswood. 

Balthazar.  1.  Comedy  of  Errors,  Shakespeare.  A 
merchant.  2.  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Shakespeare. 
A  servant. 

Banquo.  Macbeth,  Shakespeare.  A  chieftain  mur- 
dered by  Macbeth ;  later  in  the  same  play,  a  ghost. 

Bardell,  Mrs.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  Mr. 
Pickwick's  landlady,  who  sues  him  for  breach  of  prom- 
ise of  marriage. 

Bardolph.  Henry  IV.,  Shakespeare.  A  follower  of 
Sir  John  Falstaff. 

Barkis.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens.  A  marrying 
man  who  eventuallv  marries. 

Bath,  Major.    Amelia,  Fielding.   A  pompous  officer. 

Bayes.  The  Rehearsal,  Duke  of  Buckingham.  A 
pseudonvm  for  Dryden. 

Baynes,  Charlotte.  Adventures  of  Philip,  Thack 
eray.    The  hero's  sweetheart. 

Bede,  Adam.  Adam  Bede,  George  Eliot.  An  ideal 
workingman. 

Belch,  Sir  Toby.  Twelth  Night,  Shakespeare. 
Olivia's  hard-drinking  uncle. 

Belford.  Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richardson.  The  friend 
of  Lovelace. 

Belinda.  Rape  of  the  Lock,  Pope.  The  heroine, 
whose  hair  is  cut. 


184 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Bell,  Laura.  Pendennis,  Thackeray.  One  of  the 
sweetest  heroines  in  English  literature. 

Bell,  Peter.  Peter  Bell,  Wordsworth.  An  extremely 
prosaic  man. 

Bellaston,  Lady.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  One  of  Tom 
Jones'  sweethearts. 

Bellenden,  Lady,  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A  Tory 
gentlewoman. 

Belphoebe.  The  Furry  Queene.  Spenser.  A  pseu- 
donym for  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Belvidera.  Venice  Preserved,  Otxvay.  The  heroine 
of  the  poem. 

Benedick.  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Shakespeare. 
A  confirmed  bachelor  who  was  converted  to  matrimony 
by  the  lovely  Beatrice.  From  this  gentleman  comes  the 
name  Benedick  or  Benedict  applied  to  married  men 
who  were  not  going  to  marry. 

Bennet,  Mrs.  Amelia,  Fielding.  An  improper  char- 
acter. 

Benvolio.  Romeo  and  Jidiet,  Shakespeare.  One  of 
Romeo's  friends. 

Bertram.  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well,  Shakespeare. 
The  hero  of  the  play,  who  marries  Helena. 

Bianca.     Othello,  Shakespeare.    Cassio's  sweetheart. 

Birch,  Harvey.  The  Sj/y,  Cooper.  The  chief  char- 
acter of  the  novel. 

Bilfll.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Allworthy's  nephew, 
a  talebearer. 

Blember.Miss  Cornelia.  JJombeyand  Son,  IHckens. 
A  bluestocking  governess. 

Bobadil,  Captain.  Every  Man  in  His  Humor,  Jon- 
son.    A  boasting  coward. 

Bceuf,  Front  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  King 
John's  followers.    A  ferocious  scoundrel. 

Boffin,  Noddy.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  The 
good-natured  occupant  of  Boffin's  Bower. 

Bois  Guilbert,  Brian  de.  Ivanhoe,  Scott.  The 
master  of  the  Knights  Templars. 

Boniface.  The  Beaux  Stratagem,  Farquhar.  A 
landlord.    Hence  applied  to  landlords  generally. 

Booby,  Lady.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding.  One  of 
the  minor  characters. 

Booth.    Amelia,  Fielding.    The  hero  of  the  story. 

Bottom,  Nick.  A  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
Shakespeare.  A  ridiculous  weaver  with 'whom  Titania, 
the  queen  of  the  fairies,  is  forced  to  fall  in  love  by  a 
charm. 

Bounderby,  Jo'siah.  Hard  Times,  Dickens.  A  pro- 
saic, matter-ol'-fact  manufacturer. 

Bowles,  Tom.  Kenelm  Chillingly,  Bulwer.  A  black- 
smith. 

Bowline,  Tom.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett.  A 
sailor,  whose  name  has  been  applied  to  mariners  ever 
since. 

Box  and  Cox.  Box  and  Cox,  Morton.  The  heroes  of 
the  farce. 

Bradwardine,  Baron.  Waverley,  Scott.  The  father 
of  Rose  Bradwardine. 

Bramble,  Matthew.  Humphrey  Clinker,  Smollett. 
A  walking  epitome  of  dyspepsia. 

Brangtons.  Evelina,  Miss  Bwney.  Very  vulgar 
people. 

Brass,  Sally  and  Sampson.  Old  Curiosity  Shop, 
Dickens.    A  shystering  lawyer  and  his  sister. 

Brick,  Jefferson.  Martin  Chuzzlewit,  Dickens.  A 
ridiculous  American  editor. 

Bridgenorth,  Major  Kalph.  Peveril  of  the  Peak, 
Scott.    A  prominent  officer  in  the  Puritan  Army. 

Bridget,  Mrs.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  Tristram's 
nurse. 

Brown,  Tom.  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  and  Tom 
Brown  at  Oxford,  Thos.  Hughes.  The  hero  of  one  of 
the  best  boys'  books  ever  written  in  English. 

Bucket,  Inspector.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  de- 
tective. 

Bumble.     Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.    A  beadle. 

Caius,  Doctor.  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  Shakes- 
peare.   Ann  Page's  Welsh  lover. 

Caliban.  The  Tempest,  Shakespeare.  Prospero's  mon- 
strous servant. 

Candor,  Mrs.  Hie  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A  scandal 
monger. 

Carker.  Domhey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A  scoundrelly 
clerk. 

Cassio.     Othello,  Shakespeare.    Othello's  lieutenant. 

Caudle,  Mrs.  Curtain  Lectures,  Douglas  JerroUl. 
An  artistic  scold. 

Caustic,  Col.  The  Louinf{  r,  Mackenzie.  A  satirical 
gentleman. 


Celia.  As  You  Like  It,  Shakespeare.  Rosalind's 
cousin. 

Cbadband.    Bleak  House,  Dickens.    A  hypocrite. 

Chamont.  The  Orphans,  Otway.  The  hero  of  the 
play. 

Chillingly,  Kenelm.  Kenelm  Chillingly,  Bulwer. 
The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Cbristabel.  Christabel,  Coleridge.  The  heroine  of 
the  poem. 

Christiana.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bunyan.  The  wife 
of  the  hero  Christian. 

Chuzzlewit,  Jonas  and  Martin.  Martin  Ch  uzzlc- 
urit,  Dickens.  The  first  a  miser  and  murderer,  the  sec- 
ond the  hero  of  Dickens'  story. 

Clare,  Ada.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  The  wife  of 
Carstone,  and  one  of  the  most  important  characters  in 
the  story. 

Clifford,  Paul.  Paul  Clifford,  Bulwer.  A  beautiful 
highwayman  hero. 

Clinker,  Humphrey.  Humphrey  Clinker,  Smollett. 
A  philosophical  young  man  who  meets  very  singular 
adventures. 

Coelebs.  Cwlebs  in  Search  of  a  Wife,  Hannah  More. 
A  gentleman  who  has  very  precise  ideas  on  the  subjects 
of  matrimony  and  woman. 

Coldstream,  Sir  Charles.  Used  Up,  Matthews.  A 
fatigued  and  weary  man  of  the  world. 

Consuelo.  Consnelo,  George  Sand.  The  heroine  of 
the  novel,  a  rather  inflammable  young  lady. 

Copper  Captain,  The.  Rule  a  Wife'  and  Hare  a 
Wife,  Beavmtmi  a  ml  Fletcher.  A  nickname  applied  to 
Perez,  the  boastful  coward  of  the  play. 

Copperfield,  David.  David  Co'ppcrfield ',  Dickens. 
The  hero  of  the  novel,  supposed  to  be  a  picture  of 
Dickens'  own  life  and  character. 

Cordelia.  Ring  Lear,  Shakespeare.  The  faithful 
daughter  of  the  king  in  the  play. 

Corinne.  Corinnc.  Mine,  de  Sta'el.  The  heroine  of 
de  Stael's  greatest  work. 

Costigan,  Captain.  Pendennis,  Thackeray.  The 
father  of  Pendennis' first  sweetheart,  a  hard  drinking 
but  amusing  old  man. 

Coverley,  Sir  Roger  de.  Spectator,  Addison.  A 
model  country  gentleman  of  the  olden  time. 

Crane,  I<  habod.  Sleepy  Hollow,  J rring.  The  school- 
master in  the  si  etch. 

Crawley,  Kawdon.  Vanity  Fair.  Thackeray.  The 
hero  of  "  the  novel  without  a  hero."  The  husband  of 
Becky  Sharp. 

Cressida.  Troilu.t  mid  Qreteida,  Shakespeare.  The 
heroine  of  the  play,  in  love  with  Troilus. 

Crummies,  Vincent.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens. 
A  theatrical  head  of  a  theatrical  family. 

Crusoe,  Robinson.  Robinson  Crusoe,  De  Foe.  The 
hero  of  the  most  remarkable  novel  ever  written.  It  has 
been  translated  into  every  civilized  language  on  the 
globe.  The  story  relates  Crusoe's  adventures  on  a  desert 
isle  upon  which  he  was  cast  by  the  sea,  and  is  one  of 
intense  interest. 

Cuttle,  Captain.  Dotnbey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A 
nautical  character  who  indulges  in  a  number  of  queer 
mannerisms. 

Cymbeline.  Cymbeline,  Shakespeare.  A  heroic  king 
of  Britain. 

Dalgarno,  Lord.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Scott.  A 
Scottish  nobleman  of  bad  character. 

Dalgetty.Dugald.  Waverley,  Scott.  A  famous  and 
well  drawn  soldier  of  fortune,  whose  name  has  become 
proverbial. 

Deans,  Davie,  Effie,  and  Jcanie.  Heart  of  Midlo- 
thian, Scott.  Famous  characters  in  the  story.  Jeanie 
is  the  heroine. 

Dedlock,  I.ady,  and  Sir  Leicester.  Bleak  House, 
Dickens.  Husband  and  wife,  proud  anil  unfortunate, 
but  noble  people. 

Delamaine,  Geoffrey.  Mm)  mid  Wife,  Collins.  A 
man  of  muscle. 

Delphine.  Delphine,  Mme.  de  Stael.  The  heroine  of 
the  novel. 

Deronda,  Daniel.  Daniel  Deronda,  George  Eliot. 
The  hero  of  the  novel,  one  of  the  best  character  sketches 
which  George  Eliot  has  made. 

Desdemona.  Othello.  Shakespeare.  The  unfortunate 
heroine  of  the  plav,  wife  of  the  Moor  Othello. 

Dlddler,  Jeremy.  Raising  tin-  Wind.  Finny.  The 
protol  \]>e  of  all  modern  deadbeats. 

Dimmesdale,  Rev.  Arthur.  The  Scarlet  Letter* 
Hawthorne.    The  seducer  of  Hester  Prynne. 

Dods,  Meg.    St.  Ronan's  Well,  Scott.    A  landlady. 


LANGUAGE  AND    LITERATURE. 


185 


Dodson  &  Fogg.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  Mrs. 
Bardell's  attorneys  in  her  suit  against  Mr.  Pickwick. 

Dogberry,  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Shakespeare. 
An  absurd  character  who  travesties  justice. 

Dombey,  Florence,  Mr.  and  Paul.  Dombey  and 
Son,  IHckens.    Characters  in  the  novel. 

Dominie,  Sampson.  Guy  Mannering,  Scott.  An 
eccentric  clergyman. 

Don  Quixote.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  The  hero  of 
the  novel.  This  has  been  described  by  eminent  critics 
as  the  best  work  of  fiction  which  the  world  has  yet  pro- 
duced. It  was  written  in  Spanish  by  Miguel  "de  Cer- 
vantes, as  a  protest  ajrainst  the  ridiculous  extrava- 
gances of  what  are  known  as  Chivalric  Romances.  Don 
Quixote  is  the  type  upon  which  thousands  of  later 
novels  have  been  founded.  Crazed  by  the  reading  of 
knightly  tales,  he  arms  himself  and  goes  out  in  search 
of  adventures,  on  his  steed  Rozinante,and  accompanied 
by  his  squire  Sancho  I'anzo.  These  adventures  are  told 
so  wittily,  that  the  world  has  been  laughing  at  them  for 
centuries,  and  the  book  has  never  lost  its  fresh,  boyish 
interest.  The  best  English  translation  is  Smollett's. 
Gustave  Dore,  the  famous  French  artist,  some  years 
since  .completed  a  set  of  illustrations  for  Don  Quixote, 
which  have  added  greatly  to  its  interest. 

Dora.  David  Coppe'rfleld,  Dickens.  Copperfield's 
child-wife. 

Dorimant.     The  Man  of  Mode.  F.thereqe.     A  dandy. 

Dorothea.  Middlemarch,  George  Eiot.  The  heroine 
of  the  talc. 

Dorrit,  Edward,  and  "Little."  Little  Dorrif, 
Dickens.  The  father  of  the  Marshalsea  prison  and  his 
interesting  daughter. 

Drawcansir.  The  Rehearsal,  The  Duke  of  Bucking- 
hum.    A  bully. 

Dulcinea  del  Toboso.  Don  Quixote,  Cervantes.  A 
country  girl  whom  Don  Quixote  selects  as  his  lady- 
love. 

Dundreary,  Lord.  Our  American  Cousin,  Taylor. 
A  typical  ana  absurd  English  lord.  The  character  was 
reaily  created  by  the  actor  Sothern. 

Edgar.  A'in^  Lear,  Shakespeare.  The  son  of  Glou- 
cester. 

Fmilia.  Othello,  Shakespeare.  "Wife  of  Iago,  the 
villain  of  the  play. 

Esmond,  Beatrix,  and  Henry.  Henry  Esmond, 
Thackeray.  Heroine  and  hero  of  the  novel,  which  is  of 
the  time  of  the  English  Revolution. 

Eugenia.  Tin  Return  of  the  Xutive,  Hardy.  A  beau- 
tiful and  unfortunate  girl. 

Evangeline.  Evangeline,  Longfellow.  Heroine  of 
the  poem;  her  wanderings  are  told  inverse  that  will 
never  die. 

Ftans,  Sir  Hugh.  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
Shakespeare.    A  Welsh  clergyman. 

Evelina.  Evelina,  Miss  Burney.  Heroine  of  the 
novel. 

Eyre,  Jane.  Jane  Eyre,  Bronte.   Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Fag.    Th<  Rivals.  Sheridan.    A  servant. 

Fagin.  (diver  Twist,  Dickens.  The  preceptor  in  the 
thieves'  academy,  where  Oliver  Twist  is  held  a  prisoner. 

Faithful,  Jacob.  Jacob  Faithful,  Murryat.  The 
hero  of  the  novel. 

Falkland.  The  Rivals.  Sheridan.  A  jealous  lover  of 
Julia's,  and  friend  to  Captain  Absolute. 

Falstaff,  Sir  John.  II ■  nry  1  V.  and  the  Merry  Wives 
of  Windsor,  Shakespeare.  This  is  Shakespeare's  most 
comic  character ;  Queen  Elizabeth  was  so  pleased  with 
Sir  John  in  Henry  IV.  that,  at  her  request,  Shakespeare 
composed  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor,  in  order  to 
give  the  fat  knight  a'wider  field  for  fun. 

Fanny.  Under  the  Greenwood  Tree,  Hardy.  A  pretty 
schoolmistress. 

Fat  Boy,  The.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  One  of  the 
minor  characters  in  the  novel,  given  to  sleep  and  pie. 

Faust.  Eavst,  Goethe.  The  hero  at  the  great  Ger- 
man tragedy,  who  sells  his  soul  to  the  Devil,  and  gets  in 
return  youth,  wealth,  and  an  attendant  devil,  Mephis- 
topheles.  Goethe  was  to  Germany  what  Shakespeare 
was  to  England. 

Felton,  Septimius.  Septimius  Felton,  Hawthorne. 
The  mystical  hem  of  the  novel. 

Ferdinand.  The  Tempest,  Shakespeare.  Son  of  the 
king,  falls  in  love  with  Prospero's  daughter.  Miranda. 

Ferrers,  Endymion.  Endymion,  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli.   Hero  of  the  novel. 

Figaro.  The  Marriage  of  Figaro,  Beaumarchais. 
An  exceedingly  comical  and  sharp-witted  barber. 


Firmin,  Philip.  The  Adventures  of  Philip,  Thack- 
eray.   The  hero  of  the  novel. 

Florizel.  A  Winter's  Tale,  Shakespeare.  The  prince 
of  Bohemia. 

Fluellen.  Henry  V.,  Shakespeare.  A  pedantic  but 
brave  Welsh  officer. 

Foker,  Harry.  Pcndennis,  Thackeray.  One  of  the 
minor  characters. 

Foppington,  Ford.  The  Relapse,  Van  Brugh.  An 
idiotic  dandy. 

Fosco,  Count.  Woman  (a  White,  Collins.  A  com- 
plicated scoundrel. 

Frankenstein.  Frankenstein,  Mrs.  Southey.  The 
dreadful  result  of  the  labors  of  a  German  student,  who 
makes  a  man  in  the  dissecting  room  out  of  corpses,  and 
brings  him  to  life  by  galvanism.  The  hideous  hero  of 
the  novel  has  a  series  of  most  blood-curdling  adven- 
tures. 

Friar  Tuck.  Reliques,  Percy.  The  jolly  companion 
of  Robin  Hood,  the  outlaw  of  Sherwood  Forest. 

Friday.  Robinson  Crusoe,  De  Foe.  Crusoe's  savage 
servant. 

Gadgrind,  Jeremiah.  Hard  Times,  Dickens.  A 
tyrannical  "  practical  "  man. 

Gamp,  Sairy.  Martin  (Inizzlevit,  Dickens.  A  comi- 
cal ami  hard-drinking  monthly  nurse. 

Gargantua.    Gargantua,  Ralielais.    Hero  of  the  tale. 

Gaunt,  Griffith.  Griffith  Gaunt,  Reade.  Hero  of 
the  novel. 

Gay,  Walter.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  Marries 
Florence  Dombey. 

Gibbie,  Goose.  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A  half-witted 
boy. 

Gil  Bias.  Gil  Bias,  Le  Sage.  The  hero  of  a  very 
famous  novel.  His  adventures  are  of  the  most  surpris- 
ing character,  and  are  told  in  a  most  interesting  man- 
ner. 

Gilpin,  John.  John  Gilpin's  Rule,  Couper.  The 
absurd  hero  of  the  poem. 

Ginevra.  Ginevra,  Rogers.  The  heroine  of  the  poem, 
accidentally  locked  in  a  trunk  on  her  wedding  day,  and 
not  found  for  years  and  years. 

G  bbo,  Launcelot.  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakes- 
peare.   A  merry  servant. 

Goneril.  King  Lear,  Shakespeare.  The  eldest  daugh- 
ter of  the  king,  a  traitor  and  an  ingrate. 

Gonzalo.  The  Tempest,  Shakespeare.  An  old  coun- 
cilor. 

Gosling,  Giles.    Kcnilworth,  Scott.    A  landlord. 

Grandison,  Sir  Charles.  Sir  Charles  Grandison, 
Richardson.    Hero  of  the  novel. 

Gray,  Vivian.  Vivian  Gray,  Disraeli.  Hero  of  the 
novel. 

Grundy,  Mrs.  Speed  the  Plow,  Mortem.  A  old  lady 
who  represents  worldly  propriety  and  talebearing. 

Gulliver,  Lemuel.  *  Gulliver's  Travels,  Swift.  Hero 
of  the  romance. 

Hamlet.  Hamlet,  Shakespeare.  The  melancholy 
Dane,  hero  of  the  play. 

Harley.  The  Mail  of  Feeling,  Mackenzie.  Hero  of 
the  novel. 

Harlowe,  Clarissa.  Clarissa  Harloue,  Richardson. 
Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Harris,  Mrs.  Martiti  Chuzzleirit,  Dickens.  A  ficti- 
tious person  invented  by  Sairy  Gamp,  for  the  purpose 
of  enforcing  her  statements  by  quoting  the  opinions  of 
Mrs.  Harris  upon  the  subject  under  discussion. 

Headstone,  Bradley.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens. 
A  schoolmaster  in  love"  with  Lizzie  Hexam. 

Heep,  Uriah.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens.  A  hyp- 
ocrite and  sneak. 

Helena.  All's  Well  that  Ends  Well,  Shakespeare. 
Heroine  of  the  play. 

Hero.  Much  Ado  About  Nothuvg,  Shakespeare. 
Daughter  of  Leonato. 

Hexam,  Lizzie.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  Hero- 
ine of  the  novel. 

Holofernes.  As  You  Like  it,  Shakespeare.  A  school- 
master and  pedant. 

Holt,  Felix.  Felix  Holt,  George  Eliot.  Hero  of  the 
novel. 

Honeyman,  Charles.  The  Xewcomes,  Thackeray. 
A  fashionable  preacher. 

Honor,  Mrs.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  Sophia  "Western's 
waiting  woman. 

Hopeful.    Pilgrim's  Proarcss.    Bunyan.    A  pilgrim. 

Horatio.  Hamlet,  Shakespeare.  The  friend  of 
Hamlet. 


186 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Howe,  Miss.  Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richardson.  Cla- 
rissa's friend. 

Hudibras.    Hudlbr as,  Butler.    Hero  of  the  poem. 

Hunter,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Leo.  Pickwick  Papers, 
Dickens.    Minor  characters  in  the  novel. 

Iago.  Othello,  Shakespeare.  The  villain  of  the 
tragedy. 

Imogen.  Cymbeline,  Sliakespeare.  Heroine  of  the 
play. 

Isabella.  Measure/or  Measure,  Shakespeare.  Her- 
oine of  the  play. 

1  van  In ><•.    lvanhoe,  Scott.    Hero  of  the  novel. 

Jack,  Col.  Col.  Jack,  DeFoc.  The  criminal  hero  of 
the  tale. 

JafHer.   Venice  Preserved,  Otway.  Hero  of  the  poem. 

Jaques.  As  You  Like  It,  Shakespeare.  The  melan- 
choly philosopher. 

Jarndyce,  Jobn.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  benevo- 
lent old  gentleman. 

Javert.    Les  Misirables,  Hugo.    A  detective. 

Jessica.  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespeare.  Shy- 
lock's  daughter. 

Jingle,  Alfred.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  An 
amusing  adventurer. 

Kilmansegg,  Miss.  The  Golden  Legend,  Hood.  The 
golden-leggeuneroine  of  the  poem. 

Kitely.  Every  Man  in  His  Humor,  Jonson.  A  jeal- 
ous husband. 

Lady  Bountiful.  The  Beaux  Stratagem,  Far- 
quhar.    A  generous  lady. 

Laertes.  Hamlet,  Shakespeare.  The  son  of  Polonius, 
killed  by  his  own  sword. 

I  .a  I  la  Kookh.  La/la  Rookh,  Moore.  Heroine  of  the 
poem,  to  whom  Feramorz  relates  the  stories  told  in  the 
romance. 

Languish,  l.ydia.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  Heroine 
of  the  play. 

Lear,  King.  King  Lear,  Shakespeare.  Hero  of  the 
play. 

Leatherstocking,  Natty.  Pathfinder,  Deerslayer, 
and  other  novels,  Cooper.  A  huntsman  and  Indian 
fighter. 

Legree.     Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Stowe.    Slave  muster. 

Leigh,  Aurora.  Aurora  Leigh,  Browning.  Heroine 
of  the  romance. 

Leila.     Giaour,  Byron.    Heroine  of  the  poem. 

Light  wood,  Mortimer.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dick- 
ens.   Minor  character  in  novel. 

Lismahago,  Capt.  Humphrey  Clinker,  Smollett.  A 
retired  officer. 

Little,  Henry.  Put  Yourself  in  His  Place,  Reade. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Little  Nell.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.  Heroine 
of  novel. 

Locksley.  lvanhoe,  Scott.  One  of  Robin  Hood's 
pseudonyms. 

Long  Tom  Coffin.    Pilot,  Cooper.    A  boatman. 

Lotbair.  Lothair,  Disraeli.  Hero  of  novel,  sup- 
posed pseudonym  for  the  Marquis  of  Bute. 

Lothario.    The  Fair  Penitent,  Rowe.    A  rake. 

Lovelace.    Clarissa  Harlowe,  Richardson^  A  rake. 

Lumpkin,  Tony.  She  Stoops  to  Oonquer,  Goldsmith. 
A  country  squire. 

Macbeth.    Macbeth,  Shakespeare.    Hero  of  the  play. 

Macduff.    Macbeth,  Shakespeare.    Rival  of  Macbeth. 

Maclvor,  Flora.    Rob  Roy,  Scotl.    Heroine  of  novel. 

Mackenzie,  Mrs.  Newcomes,  Thackeray.  A  terma- 
gant widow. 

Malagrother,  Sir  Mingo.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel, 
Scott.    An  ill-natured  courtier. 

Malaprop,  Mrs.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A  charac- 
ter famed  for  verbal  blunders. 

Malvolio.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakespeare.  Olivia's 
conceited  steward. 

Manfred.    Manfred,  Byron.    Hero  of  the  tragedy. 

Man  tali  ni.  Nicholas  Nickleby ;  Dickens .  The  absurd 
husband  of  the  milliner  in  the  story. 

Marchioness,  The.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens. 
Mr.  Dick  Shoveller's  remarkable  little  nurse. 

Margaret.  Faust,  Goethe.  The  heroine  of  the 
tragedy. 

Mariow,  Young.  She  Stoops  to  Conquer,  Goldsmith. 
Hero  of  the  play. 

Medora.     The  Corsair,  Byron.    Heroine  of  the  poem. 

M«rdl»,  Mr.    Little  Dorrit,  Dickens.    A  speculator. 


Meister,  Wilhelm.  Wilhelm  Meister,  Goethe.  Hero 
of  the  novel. 

Mephistopheles.     Fans/.  Goethe.    The  Devil. 

Mercutio.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakespeare.  A  won- 
derfully witty  friend  of  .Romeo's. 

Micawber,  Wilkins.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens. 
A  remarkable  character,  always  waiting  for  something 
to  turn  up. 

Miller,  Daisy.  Daisy  Miller,  Henry  James.  An 
alleged  representative  American  girl. 

Minna.  The  Pirate,  Scott.  One  of  the  heroines  of 
the  novel. 

Miranda.  The  Tempest,  Shakespeare.  Daughter  of 
Prospero,  beloved  of  Ferdinand;  heroine  of  the  play. 

Monimia.  The  Orphan,  Otway.  Heroine  of  'the 
poem. 

Mouldy.  Henry  IV.,  Shakespeare.  One  of  Falstair.s 
recruits. 

Mucklewrath,  Habakkuk.  Old  Mortality,  Scott. 
A  fanatical  preacher. 

Neuchatel,  Adriana.  Endymion,  Disraeli.  A 
wealthy  young  lady. 

Newcome,  Cllve,  Colonel,  Ethel.  The  Newcann  s, 
Thackeray.  Characters  in  the  best  novel  Thackeray 
has  written. 

Nickleby,  Mrs.  Nicholas  Nickleby,  Dickens.  The 
exasperating  mother  of  the  hero,  Nicholas. 

Noma.     The  Pirate,  Scott.    An  insane  soothsayer. 

Nydia.  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  Bulwer.  A  blind 
flower  girl. 

Obadiab.     Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.    A  servant. 

Oberon.  Midsummer  Night's  Dream.  Shakespeare. 
The  King  of  Fairyland. 

Ochiltree,  Edie.  The  Antiquary,  Scott.  A  beggar  of 
prominence. 

Oldbuck,  Jonathan.  The  Antiquary,  Scott.  Hero 
of  the  novel. 

Old  Mortality.  Old  Mortality,  Scott.  A  gravestone 
cleaner. 

Olifaunt,  Nigel.  The  Fortunes  of  Nigel,  Scott.  Hero 
of  the  novel. 

Ophelia.  Hamlet,  Shakespeare.  Heroine  of  the 
tragedy. 

Orville,  Lord.  Evelina,  Miss  Burney.  Evelina's 
lover. 

Othello.  Othello,  Shakespeare.  Hero  of  the  play,  a 
Moor,  husband -of  Desdemona. 

O'Trigger,  Sir  Lucius.  The  Rivals,  Sheridan.  A 
fire-eating  Irishman. 

Overreach,  Sir  Giles.  A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old 
Debts,  Massinger.    A  usurer. 

Page,  Anne  and  Mrs.  The  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor, 
Shakespeare.    Characters  in  the  play. 

Pamela.  Pamela,  Richardson.  An  intensely  good 
young  lady. 

Pangloss.  The  Heir-at-Law,  Colman.  A  pedantic 
teacher. 

Pantagruel.  Pantagruel,  Rabelais.  Hero  of  the 
sketch. 

Partridge.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  The  hero's  trusty 
follower. 

Pecksniff,  Charity,  Mercy,  Mr.  Martin  Chuzzle- 
wit,  Dickens.    Characters  in  the  story. 

Pendennis,  Arthur,  Helen,  Major.  Penile/mis, 
Thackeray.  Well  drawn  and  forcible  characters  in  the 
novel. 

Perdita.  Winter's  Tale,  Shakespeare.  Florizel's 
sweetheart. 

Petruchio.     Ttie  Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Shakesxteare. 
The  hero,  and  husband  of  Katherine. 
•  Pickle,  Peregrine.    Peregrine  Pickle,  Smollett.    The 
wandering  and  immoral  hero  of  the  novel. 

Pickwick,  Samuel.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Pierre.     Venice  Preserved,  Otway.    A  conspirator. 

Pistol,  Ancient.  Merry  Wives  of  Windsor  and 
Henry  I V.,  Shakespeare.  Falstaff 's  most  characteristic 
follower. 

Pleydell,  Paulus.    Guy  Mannering,  Scott.    A  lawyer. 

Poins,  Ned.  Henry  IV.,  Shakespeare.  A  friend  of 
Prince  Hal. 

Portia.  The  Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespeare.  Hero- 
ine of  the  play. 

Poundlint,  Peter.  Old  Mortality,  Scotl.  A  preacher. 

Primrose,  Dr.  Vicar  or'  Wakefield,  Goldsmith.  The 
Vicar  of  Wakefield. 

Primrose,  Moses.    Son  of  the  preceding. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


187 


Prolius.  Tiro  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  Shakespeare. 
One  of  the  two  gentlemen. 

Proudfute.  Fair  Maid  of  Perth,  Scott.  A  bonnet 
maker. 

Prynne,  Hester.  Soarlet  Letter,  Htnotborne.  Hero- 
ine of  novel. 

Pumbleehook,  Uncle.  Great  Expectations,  Dick- 
I  ns.     A  bully  and  fraud. 

Pynchon,  Phoebe.  Home  of  the  Seven  Gables. 
IIn  ii-th  or ne.    Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Quasimodo.  Our  Lady  of  Xotre  Dame,  Hugo.  A 
monster. 

Quickly,  Mrs.  Henri/  IV.,  Shakespeare.  The  famed 
hostess  of  the  Boar's  Head  Tavern,  in  Eastcheap. 

Quilp.  Old  Curiosity  .Shop,  lUckeiis.  A  vicious 
dwarf. 

Quince,  Peter.  Midsum  em  r  SighVs  Dream,  Shakes- 
peare.   Character  in  the  interlude. 

Random,  Roderick.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett. 
Hero  of  the  novel. 

Rashleigh.   Rob  Roy,  Scott.  The  villain  of  the  novel. 

Kasselas.  Rasselas,  Dr.  Johnson.  Prince  of  Abys- 
sinia, hero  of  the  tale. 

Rattler,  Jack.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett.  A 
nautical  character. 

Ravenswood.  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  Scott. 
Hero  of  the  novel,  lover  of  Lucy  Ashton. 

Rebecca.    Ivanhoc,  Scott.    A  lovelv  Jewess. 

Redgauntlet.  Redgauntlet,  Scott.  Hero  of  the  novel. 

Rob  Roy.  Rob  Roy,  Scott.  A  Scottish  chief,  hero  of 
the  novel. 

Roderigo.    Othello,  Shakespeare.    Iago's  dupe. 

Romeo.  Romeo  ami  Juliet,  Shakespeare.  The  hero 
of  the  play,  lover  of  Juliet. 

Sabrina.     Com  us.  Milton.    River  nymph. 

Sacripant.  Orlando  Furioso,  Ariosto.  King  of  Cir- 
cassia,  in  love  with  Angelica. 

Saddletree,  Bartoline.  Heart  of  Midlothian,  Scott. 
A  learned  peddler. 

Sancho  Panza.  Don  Qtdaeote,  Cervantes.  Worthy 
squire  of  a  worthy  master;  the  right  man  in  the  right 
place. 

Sandford,  Harry.  Sandfordand '  Merton,  Day.  Hero 
of  the  story. 

Sangrado,  Doctor.  Oil  Bias,  Le  Sage.  A  confirmed 
phlebotomist. 

Scheherezade,  Queen.  Arabian  Nights.  The  Sul- 
taness  who  tells  the  tales. 

Scrub.  The  Beaux  Stratagem,  Farquhar.  A  face- 
tious valet. 

Sedley,  Amelia.  Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray.  An  ami- 
able woman,  bat  of  no  great  decision. 

Sedlev,  Joseph.  Vanity  Fair.  Thackeray.  A  fat, 
bashful  East  Indian. 

Selim.    Bride  of  Abudos,  Byron.    The  hero. 

Shafton,  Sir  Pitrcie.  The  Monastery,  Scott.  A 
pedantic  courtier. 

rristr am  Shandy,  Sterne.  Hero 


Vanity  Fair,    Thackeray.     The 


Shandy,  Tristram 
of  the  story. 

Sharp,  Rebecca. 
designing  heroine. 

Shylock.    Merchant  of  Venice,  Shakespeare.    A  vin- 
dictive Jew. 

Silvia.     Tiro  Gentlemen  of  Verona,  Shakespeare.    In 
love  with  Valentine. 

Skimpole,  Harold.    Bleak  House,  Dickens.    Always 
out  of  money. 

Slipslop,  Mrs.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding.  A  waiting 
woman  of  doubtful  character. 

Slop,  Doctor.     Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.    An  iras- 
cible physician. 

Sly,   Christopher.      Taming  of  the  Shrew,  Shakes- 
pmri .     A  drunken  tinker. 

Sly  me,    Chevy.      Martin    Clmzzleu-it,    Dickens.     A 
"  gent  short  of  funds." 

Smyke.     Nicholas  Niddeby,   Dickens.     An  ill-used, 
poor.'half-witted  pupil  of  Squeers. 

Sneerwell,  Lady.    School  for  Scandal.  Shi  ridan.   A 
gossip  and  backbiter. 

Snodjcrass,  Augustus.     Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens. 
A  poetical  character. 

Snow,  Lucy.    Villrtte,  Charlotte  Bronti.  The  heroine. 

Sparkler,  Edmond.     Little  Dorril.  Dickens.     Man 
of  fashion. 

Squeers,  Wackford.     Nicholas  NickJeby,   Dickens. 
The  brutal  master  ol  Dotheboys  Hall. 


Squeers,  Master  Wackford.  In  same.  A  spoiled 
child,  the  image  of  his  father. 

St.  Leon.  St.  Leon.  William  Godwin.  Hero  of  the 
tale,  has  the  secret  of  perpetual  youth,  and  the  transmu- 
tation of  metals. 

Steerforth,  Janice.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens. 
Talented  and  profligate. 

Steggs,  Miss  Carolina  Wilhelmina  Amelia.  Vicar 
of  HiiLi  fn  ill.  Goldsmith.    A  pretender  to  gentility. 

Stiggins,  Elder.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  Affects 
pineapple  rum  and  Mrs.  Weller. 

Strap,  Hugh.  Roderick  Random,  Smollett.  Rod- 
erick's follower. 

Surface,  Sir  Charles  and  Joseph.  School  for  Scan- 
dal, Sheridan.  The  first  a  good-natured  rake,  the  sec- 
ond a  hypocrite. 

Swiveller,  Dick.  Old  Curiosity  Shop,  Dickens.  A 
gay  rattlepate  and  a  good  fellow. 

Tamora.  Titus  Andronicus,  Shakespeare.  A  Gothic 
queen. 

Tapley,  Mark.  Martin  Chuzzlewit,  Dickens.  Hap- 
piest when  most  miserable ;  jolly  when  he  ought  to  cry. 

Tappertit,  Simon.  Barnab'y  Rudge,  Dickens.  A 
ferocious  little  apprentice. 

Tartuffe.  Tartuffe,  Moliere.  A  hypocritical  charac- 
ter. 

Teazle,  Lady.  School  for  Scandal,  Sheridan.  The 
heroine. 

Teazle,  Sir  Peter.  School  for  Scandal,  Sheridan. 
The  old  husband  of  Lady  Teazle. 

Thersites.  Iliad,  Homer,  and  Troilus  and  Cressida, 
Shakespeare,    A  foul-mouthed  Greek. 

Thwackum.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding.  A  philosophical 
pedagogue. 

TiUemina.  The  Critic,  Sheridan.  A  maiden  very 
much  crossed  in  love. 

Tinion.  Timon  of  Athens,  Shakespeare.  A  misan- 
thrope, hero  of  the  play. 

Tinto,  Dick.  The  Bride  of  Lammermoor  and  St. 
Ronan's  Well,  Scott.    An  artist. 

Titania.  Midsummer  Wight's  Dream,  Shakespeare. 
The  queen  of  fairies. 

Titmouse,  Tittlebat.  Ten  Thousand  a  Year,  Dr. 
Warren.  Astonished  Parliament  by  an  imitation  of 
Chanticleer. 

Tito.  Romola,  George  Eliot.  The  handsome,  but 
weak  hero. 

Todgerg,  Mrs.  Martin  ChuzzlewU,  Dickens.  The 
keeper  of  a  commercial  boarding  house. 

Toots.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A  simple,  eccen- 
tric fellow. 

Topsy.  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,  Mrs.  Stowe.  An  igno- 
rant young  slave  girl. 

Touchstone.    As  You  Like  It,  Shakespeare.   A  clown. 

Touchwood,  Peregrine.  St.  Ronan's  Well,  Scott 
An  irascible  East  Indian. 

Tox,  Miss.  Dombey  and  Son,  Dickens.  A  spinster, 
slightly  curious. 

Traddles,  Tom.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens.  A  bar- 
rister and  friend  of  Copperfield. 

Trapbois.     The  Fortunes  of  Xigel,   Scott.    A  usurer. 

Trim,  Corporal,  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  The  fol- 
lower of  Uncle  Toby. 

Trinculo.    Tempest,  Shakespeare.    A  jester. 

Triol,  Marquis.  The  Pirate,  Scott.  A  wealthy  Zea- 
lander. 

Trotwood,  Betsy.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens.  The 
kindest  of  women,  but  w-ith  an  aversion  to  trespassing 
donkeys. 

Trulliber,  Parson.  Joseph  Andrews,  Fielding.  An 
ignorant  clergyman. 

Trunnion,  Commodore  Hawser.  Peregrine  Pickle, 
Smollett.    An  odd  nautical  character. 

Tulkinghorn,  Mr.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  A  wily- 
solicitor. 

Tulliver,  Maggie.  Mill  on  the  Floss,  George  Eliot. 
The  heroine. 

Tulliver,  Tom.  Mill  on  the  Floss,  George  Eliot.  The 
selti.sh,  conceited  brother  of  Maggie  Tulliver. 

Tupman,  Tracy.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  An 
obese  admirer  of  lovely  women. 

Turveydrop.  Bleak  House,  Dickens.  Dancing  mas- 
ter and  profewor  of  deportment. 

Tusher,  Thomas.  Henry  Esmond,  Thackeray.  A 
sycophantic  clergyman. 

Twemlow,  Mr.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  A. 
diner-out  and  friend  of  the  Veneerings. 

Twist,  Oliver.  Oliver  Twist,  Dickens.  Hero  of  the 
novel. 


J  88 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Twysden,  Talbott.  I'hilip,  Thackeray.  A  public 
officer. 

Tybalt.  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Shakespeare.  Nephew  of 
Lady  Capulet,  slain  by  Romeo. 

Ulrica.    Ivanhoe,  Scott.    An  old  witch. 

Una.  The  Faery  Queene, Spenser.  The  personification 
of  Truth. 

Uncas.  The  Last  of  the  Mohican,  Cooper.  A  Mohi- 
can chief. 

Uncle  Toby.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A  noble 
veteran,  the  real  hero  q£  the  story. 

Uncle  Tom.  Uncle  'Tom's  Cabin,  Stowe.  A  pious 
and  unfortunate  slave,  the  hero  of  the  novel.  This  book 
added  more  converts  to  the  abolition  party  than  any 
other  factor.  It  is  the  most  remarkable  and  effective 
American  work  printed. 

Varden,  Dolly.  Barnaby  Budge,  Dickens.  The  hej- 
oine  of  the  story. 

Vat  lick.  Vathek,  Beckford.  The  hero  of  Beckf  ord's 
remarkable  novel. 

Vernon,  Dl.  Bob  Boy,  Scott.  The  heroine  of  the 
novel. 

Vholes.    Bleak  House,  Dickens.    A  crafty  lawyer. 

Viola.  Twelfth  Night,  Shakespeare.  A  sweet  little 
lady  in  love  with  Orsino. 

Virgilia.  Coriolanus,  Shakespeare.  "Wife  of  Corio- 
lanus. 

Virginia.  Paul  and  Virginia,  St.  Pierre.  Heroine 
of  the  novel. 

Vivian.  Idyls  of  the  King,  Tennyson.  The  mistress 
of  Merlin,  the  Enchanter. 

Wadman,  Widow.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  The 
lady  who  seeks  to  decoy  Uncle  Toby  into  matrimony. 

Wamba.    Ivanhoe,  Scott.    A  clown. 

Wardle,  Mr.  Pickwick  Papers,  Dickens.  A  jolly 
country  gentleman,  friend  of  Mr.  Pickwick. 

Wegg,  Silas.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  The  vil- 
lain of  the  novel. 

Weller,  Tony  and  Samivel.  Pickwick  Pagers, 
Dickens.  Father  and  son;  the  latter,  Mr.  Pickwick's 
serving  man,  is  undoubtedly  the  most  original  and  most 
humorous  creation  of  Dickens'  exuberant  fancy. 

Werther.  Sorrows  of  Werther,  Goethe.  Hero  of  the 
tale. 

"Western,  Squire  and  Sophia.  Tom  Jones,  Fielding. 
Father  and  daughter,  the  latter  the  heroine  of  the 
novel. 

Whiskerandos,  Don  Ferolo.  The  Critic,  Sheridan. 
The  lover  of  Tilburina. 

Wickfield,  Agnes.  David  Copperfield,  Dickens. 
Heroine  of  the  novel. 

Wild,  Jonathan.  Jonathan  Wild,  Fielding.  A 
famous  highwayman,  and  afterwards  a  noted  thief- 
taker  of  London. 

Wildair,  Sir  Harry.  The  Constant  Couple,  and  Sir 
Harry  Wildair,  Farauhar.    The  hero  of  botli  plays. 

Wilfer,  Bella,  Lavinia,  Reginald,  and  Mrs.  Our 
Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  One  of  the  most  entertaining 
family  groups  in  English  fiction.  The  first  is  the 
charming  heroine  of  the  novel.  Lavinia  is  her  abom- 
inable sister;  Reginald,  her  angelic  papa;  while  the 
somber  background  is  marie  by'  the  gloomy  mamma, 
whose  other  name  in  the  family  is  The  Tragic  Muse. 

Wilfrid.    Bokeby,  Scott.    Hero  of  the  poem. 

Williams,  Caleb.  Caleb  Williams,  Godwin.  The 
hero  of  a  very  remarkable  novel. 

Wimble,  Will.  Spectator,  Addison.  Pseudonym  for 
Thomas  Morecraft. 

Winkle,  Rip  Van.  Sketch  Book,  Irving.  The  im- 
mortal sleeper  of  the  Catskills. 

Wishfort,  Lady.  The  Way  of  the  World,  Congreve. 
Heroine  of  the  play.  . 

Worldly  Wiseman,  Mr.  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Bun- 
yan.    One  of  Christian's  difficulties. 

Wray,  Enoch.  The  Village,  Crabbe.  A  noble  old 
man. 

Wren,  Jenny.  Our  Mutual  Friend,  Dickens.  The 
dolls'  dressmaker. 

Wronghend,  Sir  Francis.  The  Provoked  Husband, 
Vanburgh.    Hero  of  the  play. 

Yorick.  Tristram  Shandy,  Sterne.  A  jester  de- 
scended from  the  Yorick  whose  history  is  told  by 
Hamlet. 

Yseult.  Tristram  and  Yseult,  Matt  lieu-  Arnold.  A 
Cornish  heroine  of  the  olden  time. 


Zadoc.  Absalom  and  Achttophel,  Dryden.  Pseudo 
nym  for  Sancrof t,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 

Zanoni.  Zanoni,  Bulwer.  The  mystical  hero  of  the 
novel. 

Zeluco.  Zeluco,  Dr.  J.  Moore.  The  prodigal  hero  of 
the  novel. 

Zobeide.  Arafnan  Nights.  The  wife  of  the  great 
Haroun  al  Raschid. 

Zadig.  Zadig,  Voltaire.  The  Babylonian  hero  of  the 
novel. 

Zophiel.  Paradise  Lost,  Milton.  A  swift-winged 
cherub. 

Zuleika.  The  Bride  of  Abydos,  Byron.  Heroine  of 
the  poem. 

LITERARY  PSEUDONYMS. 

A.  L.  0.  E.  (  =  A  Lady  of 

England) Charlotte  Maria  Tucker. 

Adeler,  Max Chas.  Heber  Clark. 

Alexander,  Mrs Mrs.  A.  F.  Hector. 

Anstey,  F. F.  Anstey  Guthrie. 

Atlas  ("  World") Edmund  Yates. 

Bab W.  S.  Gilbert. 

Bede,  Cuthbert Rev.  Edw.  Bradley. 

Bell,  Acton Anne  Bronte\ 

Bell,  Currer Charlotte  Bronte\ 

lid  I.  EN  is Emily  Jane  Bronte. 

Bibliophile,  Jacob Paul  Lacroix. 

Bickerstaif,  Isaac Dean   Swift  and   Steele   in 

Toiler. 

Biglow,  Hosea J.  Russell  Lowell. 

Billings,  Josh Henry  W.  Shaw. 

Bon  Gaultier Sir  Theodore  Martin  and  W. 

E.  Aytoun. 

Boz Chas.  Dickens. 

Breitmann,  Hans Chas.  G.  Leland. 

Carmen,  Sylva Queen  of  Roumania. 

Conway,  Hugh F.  J.  Fargus. 

Cornwall,  Barry  : B.  W.  Procter. 

Crayon,  Geoffrey Washington  Irving. 

Danbury  Newsman J.  M.  Bailey. 

Elia Charles  Lamb. 

Eliot,  George Mrs.  Mary  Ann  Cross  (ne9 

Evans). 

Ettrick  Shepherd James  Hogg. 

Fern,  Fanny Mrs.  Sara  P.  Parton. 

Graduate  of  Oxford John  Ruskin. 

Greenwood,  Grace Mrs.  Lippincott. 

Grev'dle,  Henry Mme.  Durand. 

H.  H. Mrs.  Helen  Hunt  Jackson. 

Hamilton,  Gail Mary  Abigail  Dodge. 

Harland,  Marion Mrs.    M.    V .   Terhune    {nee 

Hawes). 

Historicus Sir  W.  Vernon  Harcourt. 

Jean  Paul J.  P.  F.  Richter. 

Kerr,  Orpheus  C R.  H.  Newell. 

Knickerbocker,  Died  rich Washington  Irving. 

L.  E.  L Letitia  E.  Landon. 

Lee,  Vernon Violet  Paget. 

Loti,  Pierre Julien  Viaud. 

Lyall,  Edna Ada  Ellen  Bayly. 

Maitland,  Thomas R.  Buchanan. 

Malet,  Lucas Mrs. Harrison(n^eKingsley). 

Mathers,  Helen Mrs.  Reeves'  (nee  Matthews). 

Meredith,  Owen Earl  of  Lytton. 

Miller,  Joaquin C.  H.  Miller. 

Nasby,  Petroleum  V D.  R.  Locke. 

North,  Christopher Prof.  John  Wilson. 

O'Dowd,  Cornelius Charles  Lever. 

OaUvy,  Gavin J.M.  Barrie. 

Old  Humphrey G.  Mogridge. 

Omnium,  .Jacob Matt.  Jas.  Higgins. 

Opium  Eater T.  De  Quincey. 

Optic,  Oliver Win.  T.  Adams. 

<>■  /!<■//,  Mar Paul  Blouet. 

Ouida Louise  de  la  Rame. 

...  ( Douglas  Jerrold. 

i  A.  T.  Quiller  Couch. 

(Sam.  G.  Goodrich ; 
W.Martin; 
G.  Mogridge; 
W.  Tegg ; 
J.  Bennett. 

Phiz HablotK.  Browne. 

Pindar,  Peter John  Wolcot. 

Plymley,  Peter Sydney  Smith. 

I' rant,  Father F.  S.  Mahony. 

Quirinns Dr.  Dollinger. 

Bob  Boy ,Iohn  Macgregor. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


II 


Sand,  George Mme.  Dndevant(^eDupin). 

tScriblerus,  Marti  mm Swift,  Pope,    and    Arbuth- 

not. 

Shirley John  Skelton. 

Slick,  Sam T.  C.  Haliburton. 

Stepniak S.  Kartcheff sky. 

Stretton,  Hesba Sarah  Smith. 

Syntax.  J>r Win.  Combe. 

Titcomb,  Timothy J.  G.  Holland. 

TUmarah,  Michael  Angela.. W.  M.  Thackeray. 

Twain,  Ma rk Samuel  L.  Clemens. 

Tytler,  Sarah Miss  11.  Keddie. 

Uncle  Remus  Joel  Chandler  Harris. 

Urban,  Sy/oanus Editor  of  The  Gentleman' a 

Md'/azine. 

Vacuus,  Viator Thomas  Hughes. 

Voltaire Francois  Marie  Arouet. 

Ward,  Artemits Chas.  P.  Browne. 

Warden,  Florence Mrs.  G.  James. 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth   Susan  Warner. 

Winter,  John  Strange Mrs.  H.  E.  V.  Stannard. 

Zadkiel Capt.  R.  J.  Morrison,  R.  N. 

FIRST  NEWSPAPERS. 

In  ancient  Rome  an  official  gazette,  called 
Acta  Diurna,  was  issued  under  the  manage- 
ment and  authority  of  the  government,  and 
posted  up  daily  in  some  prominent  place  in 
the  city. 


In  Venice  a  paper  of  public  intelligence, 

called  Gazetta,  was  published  in         1620 

In    England  the  first   weekly  newspaper 

was  published  by  Nathaniel  Butler  in  1622 

In  England  the  first  daily  newspaper  in     1709 

In  France  the  first  weekly  newspaper  was 

published  in  1631 

In  France  the  first  daily  in  1777 

In  America,  at  Boston,  a  newspaper  was 

published  in  1690 

In    Ireland    the    first    newspaper,  called 

Pue's  Occurrences,  appeared  in  1700 

In  Ireland  the  oldest  Dublin  newspaper, 

The  Freeman' s  Journal,  in  1755 

In  Germany  the  first  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished in  1715 

In  Holland  the  first  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished in  1732 

In  Turkey  the  first  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished in  1795' 

In    Australia  the  first  newspaper  was  pub- 
lished in  1803 


THE  FORTY  IMMORTALS  OF  THE  FRENCH  ACADEMY. 


Year  Elected. 


1855 
1862 
1870 
1874 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1884 
1884 
1886 
1886 
188S 
1888 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1893 
1893 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1894 
1895 
1896 
18'J6 
1896 
1896 
11-96 
1897 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1899 
1900 
1900 
1900 


Ernest  Wilfred  Gabriel  Baptiste  Legouve... 

Jacques  Victor  Albe,  Due  de  Broglie 

Emile  Ollivier 

Alfred  Jean  Francois  Mezieres 

Marie  Louis  Antoine  Gaston  Boissier 

Victorien  Sardou 

Edmund  Armand,  Due  d'  Audiff  rot  Pasquier 

Aime  Joseph  Edmund  Rousse 

Rene  Francois  Armand,  Sully-l'rudhomme. 

Adolphe  Louis  Albert  Perraiid 

Francois  Edouard  Joachin  Coppee 

Ludo vie  Hale vy 

Vallery  Clement  Octave  Greard 

Othenin  P.  de  Cleron  Comte  d'  Haussonville 

Jules  Arnaud  Arsene  Cla'  etie 

Eugene  Marie  Melchior,  Vicomte  de  Vogue 

Charles  Louis  de  Saulsesde  Freycinet 

Louis  Marie  Julien  Viand  (Pierre  Loti) 

Ernest  Lavisse 

Vicomte  Henri  de  Bornier 

Paul  Louis  Tbureau-Dangin 

Marie  Ferdinand  Brunetiere 

Albert  Sorel 

Jose1  Maria  de  Heredia 

Paul  Bourget 

Henri  Houssaye 

Jules  Lemaitre 

Jacques  Anatole  Thibault  (A natole  France). 
Marquis  Marie  C.  A.  Costa  de  Beauregard. 

Gaston  Bruno  1'aulin  Paris 

Claude -Adhemar  (Andre  Theuriet) 

Louis  Jules  Albert  Comte  Vandal 

Albert  Comte  de  Mun 

Gabriel  Hanotaux 

Claude  Jean  Baptiste  Guillaume 

Henri  Leon  Emile  Lavedan 

Paul  Deschanel 

Paul  Hervieu..,, 

Emile  Faguet 

Eugene  Marcellin  Berthelot 


Paris,  1807 

Paris,  1821 

Marseilles,  1825 

I'aris,  1826 

Nimes,  1823 

Paris,  1831 

Paris,  1823 

Paris,  1817 

Paris,  1839 

Lyons,  1828 

Paris,  1842 

Paris,  1834 

Vire,  1828 

Gurey,  1843 

Limoges,  1840 

Nice,  1848 

Foix,  1828 

Rochefort,  1850 

Nouvien,  1842 

Lunel,  1825 

Paris,  1837 

Toulon,  1849 

Honfleur,  1842 

Santiago,  Cuba,  1842 

Amiens,  1852 

Paris,  1858 

Orleans,  1853 

Paris,  1844 

Nyotte,  Savov,  1839.. 

Avenay,  1839 

Marly-le-Roi,  1833... 

Paris,  1861 

Lumigny,  1841 

Beaure  voir,  1853 

Montbard,  1822 

Orleans,  1859 

Brussels,  1856 ... 

Neuilly,   1857 

La  Roche,  1847 

Paris,  1827 


Ancelot 

Lacordaire  Pere 

De  Lamartine 

...St.  Marc-Girardin 

Patin 

Autran 

.Dupanloup  (Bishop) 

Jules  Favre 

DuvergierdeHauranne 

Auguste  Barbier 

/ De  Laprade 

Comte  d' Haussonville 

Comte  de  Falloux 

Caro 

Cuvillier-Fleury 

Desire1  Nisard 

Emile  Augier 

Octave  Feuillet 

Jurien  dela  Graviere 

Xavier  Marmier 

Rousset 

Lemoinne 

Taine 

De  Mazade 

...Maxime  Du  Camp 

Leconte  de  Lisle 

.  Jean  Victor  Duruy 
. . .  Comte  de  Lesseps 
...Camille  C.  Doucet 

Louis  Pasteur 

...Alexandre  Dumas 

. .   Leon  Say 

Jules  Simon 

. . .  Challemel-Lacour 

Due  d'  Auruale 

Henri  Meilhac 

Herve 

Pailleron 

Cherbuliez 

Bertram! 


190 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


NIBEHIVGEN  LIED. 

This  famous  historic  poem,  which  is  called 
the  Iliad  of  Germany,  was  produced  about 
1210,  and  is  divided  into  two  parts,  and  thirty- 
two  lieds  or  cantos.  The  first  part  ends  with 
the  death  of  Siegfried,  and  the  second  part  with 
the  death  of  Kriemhild. 

Siegfried,  the  youngest  of  the  kings  of  the 
Netherlands,  went  to  "Worms  to  crave  the  hand 
of  Kriemhild  in  marriage.  While  he  was 
staying  with  Gunther,  king  of  Burgundy  (the 
lady's  brother),  he  assisted  him  to  obtain  in 
marriage  Brunhild,  queen  of  Issland,  who  an- 
nounced publicly  that  he  only  should  be  her 
husband  who  could  beat  her  in  hurling  a  spear, 
throwing  a  huge  stone,  and  in  leaping.  Sieg- 
fried, who  possessed  a  cloak  of  invisibility, 
aided  Gunther  in  these  three  contests,  and 
Brunhild  became  his  wife.  In  return  for  these 
services  Gunther  gave  Siegfried  his  sister 
Kriemhild  in  marriage.  After  a  time  the 
bride  and  bridegroom  went  to  visit  Gunther, 
when  the  two  ladies  disputed  about  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  their  respective  husbands,  and 
Kriemhild,  to  exalt  Siegfried,  boasted  that 
Gunther  owed  to  him  his  victories  and  his  wife. 
Brunhild,  in  great  anger,  now  employed  Hagan 
to  murder  Siegfried,  and  this  he  did  by  stab- 
bing him  in  the  back  while  he  was  drinking 
from  a  brook. 

Thirteen  years  elapsed,  and  the  widow  mar- 


ried Etzel,  king  of  the  Huns.  After  a  time 
she  invited  Brunhild  and  Hagan  to  a  visit. 
Ilagan,  in  this  visit,  killed  Etzel 's  young  son, 
and  Kriemhild  was  like  a  fury.  A  battle 
ensued  in  which  Gunther  and  Ilagan  were 
made  prisoners,  and  Kriemhild  cut  off  both 
their  heads  with  her  own  hand.  Hildebrand, 
horrified  at  this  act  of  blood,  slew  Kriemhild  ; 
and  so  the  poem  ends.  Who  was  its  author, 
or  rather  the  man  who  cast  it  in  its  present 
form,  is  altogether  unknown ;  the  attribution 
of  it  to  minnesingers  of  Kiirenberg  in  Upper 
Austria  now  finds  very  little  acceptance. 

The  Nibelungen  Lied  has  been  ascribed 
to  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,  a  minnesinger ; 
but  it  certainly  existed  before  that  epoch,  if 
not  as  a  complete  whole,  in  separate  lays,  and 
all  that  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen  could  have 
done  was  to  collect  the  floating  lays,  connect 
them,  and  form  them  into  a  complete  story. 

The  Volsunga  Saga  is  the  Icelandic  ver- 
sion of  the  Nibelungen  Lied.  This  saga  has 
been  translated  into  English  by  William  Morris. 

There  is  a  continuation  of  the  poem,  called 
Nibelungen  Klage,  or  Lament  for  the  Nibe- 
lungs,  a  production  much  inferior  to  the 
Nibelungen  Lied.  In  spite  of  the  uncouth 
versification  of  this  last,  it  exercises  a  strong 
fascination  upon  the  reader,  owing  to  the  gran- 
deur of  its  conception,  its  strong  characteriza- 
tion, and  tragic  intensity. 


THE  MEANING   OF    CHRISTIAN    NAMES. 


Aa*on,  Hebrew,  a  mountain,  a  loft. 

Abel, ' Hebrew,  vanity. 

Abraham,  Hebrew,   the    father    of 

many. 
Absalom,   Hebrew,    the    father    of 

peace. 
Adam,  Hebrew,  red  earth. 
Adolphus,    Saxon,    happiness     and 

help. 
Adrian,  Latin,  one  who  helj>s. 
Alan,  Celtic,  harmony ;  or  Slavonic, 

a  hound. 
Albert,  Saxon,  all  bright. 
Alexander,  Greek,  a  helper  of  men. 
Alfred,  Saxon,-all  peace. 
Alonzo,  form  of  Alphonso,  q.  v. 
Alphonso,  German,  ready  or  willing. 
Ambrose,  Greek,  immortal. 
Amos,  Hebrew,  a  burden. 
Andrew,  Greek,  courageous. 
Anthony,  Latin,  flourishing. 
Archibald,  German,  a  bold  observer. 
Arnold,  German,  a  maintainer   of 

honor. 
ArthHr,  British,  a  strong  man. 

iufufthl; }  Latin>  ^nerable,  grand. 
Baldwin,  German,  a  bold  winner. 
Bardulph,  German,  a  famous  helper. 
Barnaby,  Hebrew,  a  prophet's  son. 
Bartholomew,  Hebrew,  the   son  of 

him  who   made   the  waters   to 

rise. 
Beaumont,  French,  a  pretty  mount. 
Bede,  Saxon,  prayer. 
Benjamin,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  a  right 

hand. 


CHRISTIAN  NAMES  OF    MEN. 

Bennet,  Latin,  blessed. 

Bernard,  German,  bear's  heart. 

Bertram,  German,  fair,  illustrious. 

Bertrand,  German,  bright  raven. 

Boniface,  Latin,  a  well  doer. 

Brian,  French,  having  a  thundering 
voice. 

Cadwallader, British,  valiant  in  war. 

Caesar,  Latin,  adorned  with  hair. 

Caleb,  Hebrew,  a  dog. 

Cecil,  Latin,  dim-sighted. 

Charles,  German,  noble  spirited. 

Christopher,  Greek,  bearing  Christ. 

Clement,  Latin,  mild  tempered. 

Conrad,  German,  able  counsel. 

Constantine,  Latin,  resolute. 

Cornelius,  Latin,  meaning  uncer- 
tain. 

Crispin,  Latin,  having  curled  locks. 

Cuthbert,  Saxon,  known  famously. 

Dan,  Hebrew,  judgment. 

Daniel,  Hebrew,  God  is  judge. 

David,  Hebrew,  well-beloved. 

Denis,  Greek,  belonging  to  the  god 
of  wine. 

Douglas,  Gaelic,  dark  gray. 

Duncan,  Saxon,  brown  chief. 

Dunstan,  Saxon,  most  high. 

I'M  gar,  Saxon,  happy  honor. 

Edmund,  Saxon,  nappy  peace. 

Edward,  Saxon,  happy  keeper. 

Edwin,  Saxon,  happy  conqueror. 

Egbert,  Saxon,  ever  bright. 

Elijah,  Hebrew,  God  the  Eord. 

Eli'sha,  Hebrew,  the  salvation  of 
God. 

Rininanuel.  Hebrew,  God  with  us. 


Enoch,  Hebrew,  dedicated. 
Ephraim,  Hebron-,  fruitful. 
Erasmus,  Greek,  lovely,  worthy  to 

be  loved. 
Ernest,  Greek,  earnest,  serious. 
Esau,  Hebrew,  hairy. 
Eugene,  Greek,  nobly  descended. 
Eustace,  Greek,  standing  firm. 
Evan  or  Ivan,  British,  the  same  as 

John. 
Everard,  German,  well  reported. 
Ezekiel,   Hebrew,    the   strength    of 

Cod. 

Felix,  Latin,  nappy. 

Ferdinand,  German,  pure  peace. 

Fergus,  Saxon,  manly  strength. 

Francis,  German,  free. 

Frederic,  Genua  a,  rich  peace. 

Gabriel,  Hebrew,  the  strength  of 
God. 

Geoffrey,  German,  joyful. 

George,  Greek,  a  husbandman. 

Gerard,  Saxon,  strong  with  a  spear. 

Gideon,  Hebrew,  a  breaker. 

Gilbert,  Saxon,  bright  as  gold. 

Giles,  Greek,  a  little  goat. 

Godard,  German,  a  godly  disposi- 
tion. 

Godfrey,  German,  God's  peace. 

Godwin,  German,  victorious  in  God. 

Griffith,  British,  having  great  faith. 

Guy,  French,  a  leader. 

Hannibal,  J'nnie,  a  gracious  lord. 

Harold,  Saxon,  a  champion. 

Hector,  Greek,  a  stout  defender. 

Henry,  German,  a  rich  lord. 

Herbert,  German,  a  bright  lord. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


191 


Hercules,  Greek,  the  glory  of  Hera 

or  Juno, 
llezekiah,  Hebrew,  cleaving  to  the 

Lord. 
Horace,  Latin,  meaning  uncertain. 
Horatio,  Italian,  worthy  to  be  be- 
held. 
Howell,  British,  sound  or  whole. 
Hubert,  German,  a  bright  color. 
Hugh,  butch,  high,  lofty. 
Humphrey,      German,        domestic 

peace. 
Ignatius,  Latin,  fiery. 
Ingram,  German,  or  angelic  purity. 
Isaac,  Hebrew,  laughter. 
Jabez,  Hebrew,  one  who  causes  pain. 
Jacob,  Hebrew,  a  supplanter. 
James  or  Jacques,  beguiling.    .» 
Joab,  Hebrew,  fatherhood. 
Jul i,  Hebrew,  sorrowing. 
Joel,  Hebrew,  acquiescing. 
John. .Hebrew, the  grace  or  the  Lord. 
Jonah,  Hebrew,  a  dove. 
Jonathan,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  the 

Lord. 
Joscelin,  German,  just. 
Joseph,  Hebrew,  addition. 
Joshua,  Hebrew,  a  Savior. 
Josiah  or  Josias,  Hebrew,  the  Are  of 

the  Lord. 
Julius,  Latin,  soft  hair. 
Lambert,  Saxon,  a  fair  lamb. 
Lancelot,  Spanish,  a  little  lance. 
Laurence,     Latin,     crowned     with 

laurels. 
Lazarus,  Hebrew',  destitute  of  help. 
Leonard,  German,  like  a  lion. 
Leopold,    German,    defending    the 

people. 
Lewis  or  Louis,  French,  the  defender 

of  the  people. 
Lionel,  Latin,  a  little  lion. 
Llewellin,  British,  like  a  lion. 
Llewellyn,  Celtic,  lightning. 
Lucius," Latin,  shining. 
Luke,  Greek,  a  wood  or  grove. 


Manfred,  German,  great  peace. 

Mark,  Latin,  a  hammer. 

Martin,  Latin,  martial. 

Matthew,  Hebrew,  a  gift  or  present. 

Maurice,  Latin,  sprung  of  a  Moor. 

Meredith,  British,  the  roaring  of  the 
sea. 

Michael,  Hebrew,  Who  is  like  God  ? 

Morgan,  British,  a  mariner. 

Moses,  I/il/ri  ir,  drawn  out. 

Nathaniel,  Hebrew,  the  gift  of  God. 

Neal,  French,  somewhat  black. 

Nicholas,  Greek,  victorious  over  the 
people. 

Noel,  French,  belonging  to  one's 
nativity. 

Norman,  trench,  one  born  in  Nor- 
mandy.' 

Obadiah,  Hebrew,  the  servant  of  the 
Lord. 

Oliver,  Latin,  an  olive. 

Orlando,  Italian,  counsel  for  the 
land. 

Orson,  Latin,  a  bear. 

Osmund,  Saxon,  house  peace. 

Oswald,  Saxon,  ruler  of  a  house. 

Owen,  British,  well  descended. 

Patrick,  Latin,  a  nobleman. 

Paul,  Latin,  small,  little. 

Paulinus,  Latin,  little  Paul. 

Percival,  French,  a  place  in  France. 

Percy,  English,  adaptation  of 
"pierce  eye." 

Peregrine,  Latin,  outlandish. 

Peter,  Greek,  a  rock  or  stone. 

Philip,  Greek,  a  lover  of  horses. 

Phineas,  Hebrew,  of  bold  coun- 
tenance. 

Ralph,  contracted  from  Randolph, or 
Randal,  or  Ranulph,  Saxon, 
pure  help. 

Raymond,  German,  quiet  peace. 

Reuben,  Hebrew,  the  son  of  vision. 

Reynold,  Gei-man,  a  lover  of  purity. 

Richard,  Saxon,  powerful. 

Robert,  German,  famous  in  counsel. 


Roderick,  German,  rich  in  fame. 

Roger,  German,  strong  counsel. 

Roland  or  Rowland,  German,  coun- 
sel for  the  land. 

Rollo,  form  of  Roland,  q.  v. 

Rufus,  Latin,  reddish. 

Samson,  Hebrew,  a  little  son. 

Samuel,  Hebrew,  heard  by  God. 

Saul,  Hebrew,  desired. 

Sebastian,  Greek,  to  be  reverenced. 

Seth,  Hebrew,  appointed. 

Silas,  Latin,  sylvan  or  living  in  the 
woods. 

Simeon,  Hebrew,  hearing. 

Simon,  Hebrew,  obedient. 

Solomon,  Hebrew,  peaceable. 

Stephen,  Greek,  a  crown  or  garland. 

Swithin,  Saxon,  very  high. 

Theobald,   Saxon,    bold    over    the 
people. 

Theodore,  Greek,  the  gift  of  God. 

Theodosius,  Greek,  given  of  God. 

Theophilus,  Greek,  a  lover  of  God. 

Thomas,  Hebrew,  a  twin. 

Timothy,  Greek,  a  fearer  of  God. 

Titus,  Greek,  meaning  uncertain. 

Toby,  or  Tobias,  Hebrew,  the  good- 
ness of  the  Lord. 

Valentine,  Latin,  powerful. 

Victor,  Latin,  conqueror. 

Vincent,  Latin,  conquering. 

Vivian,  Latin,  living. 

Walter,  German,  a  conqueror. 

Walwin,  German,  a  conqueror. 

Wilfred,  Saxon,  bold  and  peaceful. 

William,  German,  defending  many. 

Zaccheus,  Syriac,  innocent. 

Zachary,  Hebrew,  remembering  the 
Lord. 

Zachariah,  Hebrew,  remembered  of 
the  Lord. 

Zebedee,  Syriac,  having  an  inheri- 
tance. 

Zedekiah,   Hebrew,   the   justice   of. 
the  Lord. 


Ada.  German,  same  as  Edith,  //.  r. 
Adela,    German,  same   as   Adeline, 

Adelaide,  German,  same  as  Adeline, 
q.  V, 

Adeline,  German,  a  princess. 

Agatha,  Greek,  good. 

Agnes,  German,  chaste. 

Alethea,  Greek,  the  truth. 

Althea,  Greek,  hunting. 

Alice,  Alicia,  German,  noble. 

Alma,  Latin,  benignant. 

Amabel,  Latin,  lovable. 

Amy,  Amelia,  French,  a  beloved. 

Angelina,  Gree k,  lovely,  angelic. 

Anna,  or  Anne,  Hebrew,  gracious. 

Arabella,  Latin,  a  fair  altar. 

Aureola,  Latin,  like  gold. 

Aurora,  Latin,  morning  brightness. 

Barbara,  Latin,  foreign  or  strange. 

Beatrice,  Latin,  making  happy. 

Bella,  Italian,  beautiful. 

Benedicta,  Latin,  blessed. 

Bernice,  Greek,  bringing  victory. 

Bertha,  Greek,  bright  or  famous. 

Bessie,  short  form  of  Elizabeth,  q.  v. 

Blanche,  French,  fair. 

Bona,  Latin,  good. 

Bridget,  Irish,  shining  bright. 

Camilla,  Latin,  attendant  at  a  sacri- 
fice. 

Carlotta,  Italian,  same  as  Charlotte, 
q.  r. 

Caroline,  feminine  of  Carolus,  ihr 
Latin  of  diaries,  noble  spirited. 

Cassandra,  Greek,  a  reformer  of 
men. 

Catherine,  Greek,  pure  or  clean. 

Cecilia,  Latin,  from  Cecil. 

Cecily,  a  corruption  of  Cecilia,  q.  v. 

Charity-,  Greek,  love,  bounty. 


CHRISTIAN  NAMES  OF  WOMEN. 

Charlotte,  French,  all  noble. 
Chloe,  Greek,  a  green  herb. 
Christiana,    Greek,     belonging     to 

Christ. 
Clara,  Latin,  clear  or  bright. 
Clarissa,  Latin,  clear  or  bright. 
Constance,  Latin,  constant. 
Dagmar,  German,  joy  of  the  Danes. 
Deborah,  Hebrew,  a  bee. 
Diana,  Greek,  Jupiter's  daughter. 
Dorcas,  Greek,  a  wild  rose. 
Dorothea   or  Dorothy,    Greek,   the 

gift  of  God. 
Edith,  Saxon,  happiness. 
Eleanor,  Saxon,  all  fruitful. 
Eliza,  Elizabeth,  Hebreiv,  the  oath  of 

God. 
Ellen,  another  form  o/Helen,  q.  v. 
Emily,  corrupted  from  Amelia. 
Emma,  German,  a  nurse. 
Esther,  Hesther,  Hebrew,  secret. 
Eudoia,    Greek,   prospering   in   the 

way. 
Eudora,  Greek,  good  gift. 
Eudosia,    Greek,  good  gift   or  well 

given. 
Eugenia,  French,  well-born. 
Eunice,  Greek,  fair  victory. 
Eva,  or  Eve,  Hebreic,  causing  life. 
Fanny,  rli m m nt ire  of  Frances,  q.  v. 
Fenella,  Greek,  bright  to  look  on. 
Flora,  Latin,  flowers. 
Florence,  Latin,  blooming,  flourish- 
ing. 
Frances,  German,  free. 
Gertrude,  German,  all  truth. 
Grace,  Latin,  favor. 
Hagar,  Hebrew,  a  stranger. 
Hadassah,  Hebrew,  form  of  Esther, 

q.v. 
Hannah,  Hebrew,  gracious. 


Harriet,  German,  head  of  the  house. 
Helen,  or  Helena,  Greek,  alluring. 
Henrietta,  fern,  and  dim.  of  Henry, 

q.v. 
Hephzibah,  Hebrew,  my  delight  is  in 

her. 
Hilda,  German,  warrior  maiden. 
Honora,  Latin,  honorable. 
Huldah,  Hebreiv,  a  weasel. 
Isabella,  Spanish,  fair  Eliza. 
Jane,  or  Jeanne,  fern,  of  John,  q.v. 
Janet,  Jeanette,  little  Jane. 
Jemima,  Hebrew,  a  dove. 
Joan,  Hebrew,  fern,  of  John,  q.  v. 
Joanna,  or  Johanna,  form  of  Joan, 

q.v. 
Joyce,  French,  pleasant. 
Judith,  Hebrew,  praising. 
Julia,  Juliana,  feminine  of  Julius, 

Katnerine,  form  of  Catherine,  q.  v. 

Keturah,  Hebrew,  incense. 

Keziah,  Hebreiv,  cassia. 

Laura.  Latin,  a  laurel. 

Lavinia,  Latin,  of  Latium. 

Letitia,  Latin,  joy  or  gladness. 

Lilian,  Lily,  Latin,  a  lily. 

Lois,  Greek,  better. 

Louisa,  German,  fern,  of  Louis,  q.  v. 

Lucretia,    Latin,   a    chaste   Roman 

lady. 
Lucy,  Latin,  feminine  or* Lucius. 
Lyd'ia,  Greek,  descended  from  Lud. 
Mabel,  Latin,  lovely  or  lovable. 
Madeline,  form  of  Magdalen,  q.  v. 
Magdalen,  Syraic,  magnificent. 
Margaret,  Greek,  a  pearl. 
Maria,  Marie,  forms  of  Mary,  q.  v. 
Martha,  Hebrew,  bitterness. 
Mary,  Hebrew,  bitter. 
Matilda,  German,  a  lady  of  honor. 


i92 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Maud,  German,  dim.  form  of  Ma- 
tilda, q.  v. 

May,  Latin,  month  of  May,  or  dim.  of 
"Mary,  q.  v. 

Mercy,  English,  compassion. 

Mildred,  Saxon,  speaking  mild. 

Minnie,  dim.  of  Margaret,  q.  v. 

Naomi,  Hebrew,  alluring. 

Nest,  British,  the  same  as  Agnes. 

Nicola,  Greek,feminine  of  Nicholas. 

Olive,  Olivia,  Latin,  an  olive. 

Olympia,  Greek,  heavenly. 

Ophelia,  Greek,  a  serpent. 

Parnell,  or  Petronilla,  little  Peter. 

Patience,  Latin,  bearing  patiently. 

Paulina,  Latin.femini  ne  of  PauUnus. 

Penelope,  Greek,  a  weaver. 

Persis,  Greek,  destroving. 

Philadelphia,  Greek,  brotherly  love. 

Philippa,  Greek,  feminine  of  Philip. 


Phoebe,  Greek,  the  light  of  life. 
Phyllis.  Greek,  a  green  bough. 
Pollv,  variation  of  Molly,  dim.  of 

Mary,  q.  v. 
Priscilla,  Latin,  somewhat  old. 
Prudence.  Latin,  discretion. 
Psyche,  Greek,  the  soul. 
Rachel,  Hebrew,  a  lamb. 
Rebecca,  Hebrew,  fat  or  plump. 
Rhoda,  Greek,  a  rose. 
Rosa,  or  Rose.  Latin,  a  rose. 
Rosalie,  or  Rosaline,    Latin,  little 

Rose. 
Rosalind,  Latin,  beautiful  as  a  rose. 
Rosabella,  Italian,  a  fair  rose. 
Rosamond,  Saxon,  Rose  of  peace. 
Roxana,  Persian,  dawn  of  day. 
Ruth,  Hebrew,  trembling,  or  beauty. 
Sabina,  Latin,  sprung  from  the  Sa- 

bines. 


Salome,  Hebrew,  perfect. 
Sapphira,    Greek,  like    a    sapphire 

stone. 
Sarah,  Hebrew,  a  princess. 
Selina,  Greek,  the  moon. 
Sibylla,  Greek,  the  counsel  of  God. 
Sophia.  Greek,  wisdom. 
Sophronia,  Greek,  of  a  sound  mind. 
Susan,  Susanna,  Hebrew,  a  lily. 
Taidtlia,  Syrlac,  a  roe. 
Temperance,  Latin,  moderation. 
Theodosia,  Greek, , riven  by  God. 
Tryphena,  Greek,  delicate. 
Tiyphosa,  Greek,  delicious. 
Victoria,  Latin,  victory. 
Vida,  Erse,f;minine  of  David. 
Ursula,  Latin,  a  she  bear. 
Walburga,  Saxon,  gracious. 
Winifred,  Saxon,  winning  peace. 
Zenobia,  Greek,  life  from  Jupiter. 


MISUSE  OF  WORDS. 

A  and  An.  A  is  used  before  all  words  beginning  with 
consonants  except  those  beginning  with  silent  H,  or 
when  the  word  beginning  with  H  is  accented  on  some 
other  syllable  than  the  first.  An  is  to  be  used  before  all 
vowel  sounds,  silent  H,  and  when  the  words  beginning 
with  H  are  accented  on  some  other  syllable  than  the 
first. 

Ability  (for  capacity).  Capacity  is  the  power  of  re- 
ceiving and  retaining  knowledge  with  facility.  Ability 
is  the  power  of  applying  knowledge  to  practical  pur- 
poses. 

Abortive  (for  unsuccessful).  A  plan  may  be  abortive, 
but  an  act  cannot. 

Acceptance  (for  acceptation).  "  No  word  is  more 
vague  in  its  general  acceptance,"  should  be  "  in  its 
acceptation." 

Accident  (for  wound).  "  Witch  hazel  cures  acci- 
dents." 

Accredit  (for  credit).  Few,  except  very  bad  writers, 
employ  it  as  a  robust  substitute  for  credit  or  believe. 

Administer  (for  deal).  "  The  blows  were  adminis- 
tered [dealt]  by  Policeman  Johnson." 

Admire  (for  desire).  It  is  an  error  to  follow  this 
verb  with  an  infinitive,  as  "  I  admire  to  see  a  man  con- 
sistent." Doubly  wrong,  therefore,  is  the  expression, 
"  I  should  admire  to  go  with  you." 

Aggravate  (for  irritate,  worry,  annoy).  " There 
would  be  no  danger  in  aggravating  Violet  by  this  ex- 
pression of  pity."    Better  "  irritating." 

Agriculturalist  (for  agriculturist).  The  first  is 
never  correct. 

Ain't.  The  only  legitimate  contraction  of  I  am  not 
is  I'm  not. 

Allow  (for  say,  assert,  express  opinion).  We  may 
allow  or  admit  that  which  we  have  disputed,  but  of 
which  we  have  been  convinced ;  or  we  may  allow  certain 
premises  as  the  basis  «f  argument ;  but" we  assert,  not 
allow,  our  own  opinions. 

Allude  (for  say  or  mention).  Allude  (from  ludo,  hi- 
dere,  to  play)  means  to  indicate  jocosely,  to  hint  at 
playfully ;  and  so  to  hint  at  in  a  slight,  passing  manner. 
Allusion  is  the  byplay  of  language. 

Alone  (for  only).  Alone  means  "  quite  by  one's  self," 
and  is  always  an  adjective,  differing  herein  from  only, 
which  is  both  an  adverb  and  an  adjective.  In  some 
cases  the  words  may  be  used  indifferently,  but  as  a  rule 
there  is  a  marked  distinction  between  alone  and  onlv, 
as  "  I  did  it  alone,"  quite  by  myself;  '•  an  only  daugh- 
ter; "  "  they  differ  on  one  point  "only." 

Alternately  (for  by  turns).  Th'is  word  should  be 
used  onlv  in  speaking  of  two  objects  or  classes  of  ob- 
jects. Whately  rightly  defines  alternative  as  a  choice 
between  two  objects. 

Amateur  (for  novice).  A  professional  actor  who  is 
new  and  unskilled  in  his  art  is  a  novice,  and  not  an  ama- 
teur. An  amateur  may  be  an  artist  of  great  experience 
and  extraordinary  skill. 

Among  (for  between,  when  speaking  of  two).  Could 
says  it  should  not  be  written  amongst,  but  Worcester 
and  Webster  give  both  forms. 

And.  The  commonest  case  in  which  it  is  violated  is 
where  and  introduces  a  relative  clause,  no  relative  hav- 
ing occurred  before,  as  "I  have  a  book  printed  at 
Antwerp,  and    which    was   once   possessed   by  Adam 


Smith."  And  for  to  is  a  frequent  misuse.  "Try  to  do 
it,"  not  "  try  and  do  it." 

Anyways  (for  anyway).    This  is  a  frequent  misuse. 

Anywheres  (for  anywhere).  Belongs  to  the  class  of 
words  frequently  misused. 

Apprehend  (for  comprehend).  Apprehend  denotes 
the  laying  hold  of  a  thing  mentally,  so  as  to  understand 
it  clearly,  at  least  in  part  Comprehend  denotes  the 
embracing  or  understanding  it  in  all  its  compass  and 
extent.  We  may  apprehend  many  truths  which  we  do 
not  comprehend. 

As  (for  that).    "  I  don't  know  as  [that]  I  can  go." 

Assurance  (for  fire  insurance).  Webster  and  Worces- 
ter agree  that  this  word  is  limited  to  life  insurance. 

At  (for  bv).  "  I  bought  it  at  auction  "  is  correct  Eng- 
lish, but  "  it  is  to  be  sold  at  auction  "  is  American  only. 

At  all.  A  needless  expletive,  as  1(  I  did  not  like  the 
play  at  all." 

Avocation  (for  vocation).  Vocation  is  one's  pursuit, 
employment,  business;  avocation  refers  to  incidental 
or  pleasure  pursuits. 

Acoustics  takes  a  singular  verb.  Names  of  sciences, 
such  as  mathematics,  economics,  politics,  physics,  gym- 
nastics, etc.,  are  now  regarded  as  singular  in  number. 

Awful  (for  very  or  for  ugly).  "  The  -crowd  present 
was  awfully  boisterous." 

Bad.    "  I  feel  bad,"  not  "I  feel  badly." 

Balance  (for  rest,  remainder).  Balance  refers  to  the 
ledger  account,  and  does  not  properly  convey  the  same 
meaning  as  remainder. 

Banquet  (for  dinner,  supper).  A  banquet  is  a  public, 
sumptuous  feast. 

Beau,  a  word  used  by  the  uneducated  instead  of 
escort. 

Been  to  (for  been).    "  Where  have  you  been  to  ?  " 

Between  (for  among).  Between  is  only  for  two — by 
and  twain.  Carefully  avoid  such  expressions  as  '•  Be- 
tween every  stitch." 

Blame  it  on  (for  accuse).    A  common  vulgarism. 

Bountiful  (for  plentiful).  Bountiful  applies  to  per- 
sons, not  to  things,  and  has  no  reference  to  quantity. 

Bourn  (for  place,  instead  of  boundary).  Frequently 
misused. 

Bravery  (for  courage).  Bravery  is  inborn,  instinc- 
tive. Courage  is  the  product  of  "reason,  calculation. 
Men  who  are  simply  brave  are  careless,  while  the  cour- 
ageous man  is  always  cautious. 

Bring  (for  fetch).  Bring  expresses  motion  toward, 
not  away.  A  boy  is  properly  told  to  take  his  books  to 
school  and  to  bring  them  home.  A  gardener  may  say  to 
his  helper,  "  Go  and  bring  me  yonder  rake,"  but*  he 
might  better  say,  "  Feteh  me  yonder  rake." 

Bound  (for  determinedl.    "  He  is  bound  to  go  West." 

Bursted  (for  burst).  "The  pipes  bursted  during  the 
cold  weather." 

But.  (for  that  or  if).  "I  have  no  doubt  but  he  will 
come  to-night." 

But  that  (for  that).  "  I  should  not  wonder  but  that 
was  the  case." 

By  (for  upon).  "  By  [upon]  returning  it  to  this  office 
the  finder  will  be  rewarded.'' 

Calculate  (for  expect).  "  I  calculate  [expect]  to  go 
to-morrow. 

Can  (for  may).  The  boy  says,  "  Can  I  go  down 
street  ?"  when  "he  means  "  May  I  ?  "  It  is  a  question 
not  of  possibility  but  of  permission. 


LANGUAGE  AND   LITERATURE. 


193 


Caption  (.for  heading).  Not  sanctioned  by  good 
writers. 

Casket  (for  coffin).  A  newspaper  writer  facetiously 
intimated  that  a  man  in  a  casket  is  not  quite  so  dead  as 
a  man  in  a  coffin. 

Citizen  (for  person).  A  citizen  is  a  person  who  has 
certain  political  rights.  To  say  "Several  citizens  car- 
ried the  victims  of  the  accident  into  a  shop,"  would  be 
as  absurd  as  to  say,  "several  church  members." 

Come  (for  go).  "  I  am  coming  to  pay  you  a  visit." 
Coming  is  right. 

Commence  to  (for  begin).  Omit  to.  "We  begin  to 
write.    We  commence  writing. 

Compulsion  (for  obligation).  The  former  is  a  phys- 
ical, the  latter  a  moral,  necessity. 

Confess  to  (for confess);  "  I  confess  to  a  little  curios- 
ity on  this  subject."  The  natural  rejoinder  was,  "  Well, 
did  the  little  curiosity  absolve  you  f" 

Construe  (for  construct).  Writers  construct;  read- 
ers construe. 

Consummate  (for  perform).  ,"  The  marriage  was  con- 
summated [performed]  at  Paris,  last  April." 

Contemptible  (for  contemptuous).  "To  a  gentle- 
man who,  at  the  close  of  a  fierce  dispute  with  Porson, 
exclaimed,  'My  opinion  of  you  is  most  comtemptible, 
sir,'  he  retorted, '  I  never  knew  an  opinion  of  yours  that 
was  not  contemptible.'  " 

Continual  (for  continuous).  A  continuous  action  i3 
one  which  is  uninterrupted  ;  continual  is  that  which  is 
constantly  renewed  and  recurring,  though  it  may  be  in- 
terrupted as  frequently  a3  it  is  renewed. 

Continue  on  is  often  erroneously  used  for  continue. 

Corporeal,  frequently  misused  "for  corporal,  espe- 
cially of  punishment. 

Cortege  (for  procession).  A  cortege  is  a  procession, 
but  every  procession  is  not  a  cortege. 

Credible  (for  credulous).  "  He  is  very  credible  [credu- 
lous]." 

Creditable  (for  credible).  "  I  am  creditably  [credi- 
bly] i'.iformed." 

Dead  and  buried,  dead  and  gone,  and  similar  expres- 
sions are  to  be  deprecated.  Those  who  have  died  have 
usually  been  buried,  and  they  are  also  gone. 

Dearest.  "A  gentleman  once  began  a  letter  to  his 
bride,  thus  :  '  My  dearest  Maria.'  The  wife  replied: 
'  My  dear  John,  I  beg  that  you  will  mend  either  your 
morals  or  your  grammar.  You  call  me  your  "dearest 
Maria  " ;  am  I  then  to  understand  that  you  have  other 
Marias?' " 

Deduction  (for  induction).  Induction  is  the  mental 
process  by  which  we  ascend  to  the  delivery  of  special 
truths;  deduction  is  the  ^process  by  which  the  lav/  gov- 
erning particulars  is  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the 
law  governing  the  class  to  which  particulars  belony. 

Demoralized  (for  scared).  "The  horse,  in  addition 
to  losing  all  the  hair  on  his  tail,  became  considerably 
demoralized." 

Departure.  To  take  one's  departure  is  a  corruption 
of  the  accurate  form,  "  to  take  one's  leave." 

Differ  with,  in  opinion;  differ  from,  in  appear- 
ance. 

Die  ■with  (for  die  of).  A  man  dies  of  smallpox,  not 
with  smallpox. 

Dock  (for  wharf  or  pier).  A  dock  is  an  open  place 
without  a  roof,  into  which  anything  is  received,  and 
where  it  is  inclosed  for  safety."  The  shipping  around  a 
city  lies  at  wharfs  and  piers,  but  goes  into  docks. 

Done  should  be  used  only  with  has,  had,  or  have; 
frequently  misused  for  did. 

Don't  (for  doesn't).  Don't  is  the  contraction  for  do 
not ;  doesn't  the  contraction  for  does  not. 

Doubt  but  (for  doubt).  "  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  it 
is  so." 

Each  and  every  (often  followed  by  a  plural  verb). 
"  When  I  consider  "how  each  of  these  professions  are  [is] 
crowded." 

Emblem  (for  motto,  sentiment').  The  figure  is  the 
emblem;  not  the  accompanying  motto. 

Enthuse  (for  inspirit).  This  word  is  not  sanctioned 
by  good  usage. 

Epithet  (as  necessarily  decrying).  13  usually  and 
erroneously  applied. to  derogative  adjectives. 

Equally  as  well  (for  equally  well).  "  He  plays 
equally  as  well  [equally  well]." 

Every  once  in  a  while  is  an  absurd  and  meaningless 
expression. 

Every  (.for  entire  or  all).  "  Rendered  them  every 
assistance,"  is  absurdly  wrong.  Every  is  separated,  and 
can  be  applied  only  to  a  whole  composed  of  many  indi- 
viduals.   It  is  always  singular  in  number. 


Execute  does  not  mean  to  put  to  death.  The  law  is 
executed  when  the  criminal  is  nanged  or  imprisoned. 

Expect  (for  suppose;.  Expect  refers  only  to  that 
which  is  to  come,  and  which,  therefore,  is  looked  for. 
We  cannot  expect  backward. 

Female  (for  woman).    A  vulgar  misuse  of  English. 

From  out  (for  from).    "  From  out  the  castle. 

Farther,  further.  Farther  properly  signifies  dis- 
tance, further  degree  or  quantity.  "  As  he  walked  far- 
ther he  saw  they  were  further  along  with  the  work." 

Future  (for  subsequent).  "  Her  future  life  was  vir- 
tuous and  fortunate." 

First  two.    Often  written  and  spoken,  two  first. 

Gent  and  pants.  "Let  these  words  go  together,  like 
the  things  they  signify.  The  one  always  wears  the 
other." 

Gentleman,  lady  (for  man,  woman).  The  most  im- 
portant rule  to  observe  La  that  where  adjectives  are 
used  the  nouns  must  be  man,  woman  —  not  a  polite 
gentleman,  or  a  lovely  lady ;  but  a  polite  man,  a  lovely 
woman. 

Girl  (for  daughter).  A  father,  on  being  requested  by 
a  rich  and  vulgar  fellow  for  permission  to  marry  "  one 
of  his  girls,"  gave  this  rather  crushing  reply  :  "  Cer- 
tainly. Which  one  would  you  prefer  —  the  waitress  or 
the  cook  ?" 

Graduated  (for  was  graduated).  Students  do  not 
graduate,  but  are  graduated.  "  I  graduated  [was  grad- 
uated] in  1876." 

Great,  big.    Frequently  used  for  large. 

Gums  (for  overshoes).  "Emily  is  outside,  cleaning 
her  gums  upon  the  mat." 

Get  signifies  possession  obtained  by  exertion.  "  He 
has  [not  has  got]  red  hair." 

Had  ought  (for  ought).  "You  had  ought  to  have 
been  with  me." 

Haven't  no.  Omit  no.  Do  not  use  two  words  mean- 
ing no  in  the  same  sentence. 

Healthv,  healthful,  wholesome.  Healthy  refers 
to  living  things.  "  The  man  is  healthy."  "  The  food  is 
wholesome."    "  The  surroundings  are  "wholesome." 

Is  (for  are).  "  Their  general  scope  and  tendency  is  [are] 
not  remembered  at  all." 

It  is  I  (not  me).  It  is  he  (not  him).  It  is  she  (not 
her). 

Jewelry  (for  particular  jewels).  Its  use  in  the  latter 
sense  is  always  to  be  preferred.  Think  of  Cornelia 
pointing  to  the  Gracchi,  "  These  are  my  jewelry." 

Kids  (for  kid  gloves).  Colloquial  and  should  not  be 
used. 

Fast  (for  latest).  "  I  have  received  your  latest  [not 
last]  letter." 

Fay  (for  lie).  Remember  that  lay  expresses  transitive 
action,  and  lie  means  rest.  We  lay  the  book  on  the  table 
and  the  book  lies  where  we  have  placed  it. 

Learn  (for  teach).  Learn  means  to  acquire  knowl- 
edge ;  teach,  to  impart  it.  This  use  of  learn  is  found  in 
respectable  writers,  but  is  now  deemed  improper,  as 
well  as  inelegant. 

Leave  (without  an  object).  "Anna  Louise  Carey  will 
leave  the  stage,"  announces  an  exchange.  "  Thanks, 
Annie ;  we  were  afraid  you  would  take  the  stage  with 
you.    So  kind  to  leave  it,"  rejoins  the  critic. 

Leave  (for  let).    "  Leave  [let]  me  be." 

Let's  (for  let).  "  Well,  farmer,  let's  you  and  I  goby 
ourselves." 

Liable.    Frequently  misused  for  likely. 

Lit  (for  lighted).    Much  censured  as  an  Americanism. 

Look  (followed  by  an  adverb).  "  Miss  Marlowe  looked 
charmingly."  Just"  as  correct  to  say  "  Miss  Marlowe 
looked  gladly,  or  madly,  or  sadly,  or  delightedly." 

Loan  (for  lend).  The  former  word  is  a  noun,  the 
verbal  form  of  which  is  to  lend. 

Mutual  (for  common).  It  should  always  convey  a 
sense  of  reciprocity. 

Nice  is  now  applied  to  a  sermon,  to  a  jam-tart,  to  a 
young  man,  in  short,  to  everything.  The  word  should 
be  used  with  extreme  caution. 

Nor  (for  than,  after  comparative).  "  Better  nor  fifty 
bushel." 

Notion  (for  inclination).  "I  have  a  notion  to  go." 
Of  course  incorrect.  ^ 

None  isetymologically  singular.  "  None  but  the  brave 
deserves  the  fair,"  wrote  Drvden. 

Off  of  (for  off).    "A  yard  off  of  the  cloth." 

Over  his  signature  (for  under  his  signature).  A  let- 
ter is  issued  under  or  by  the  authority  of  the  writer's 
signature. 

Particle  (for  at  all).  As  "  not  a  particle,"  for  "  not 
at  all." 


194 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Past  two  weeks.    Better,  the  last  two  weeks. 

Patron  (for  customer)  is  wrong. 

Pile  (for  amount).    "  He  owed  me  quite  a  pile." 

Party  (for  person).    Avoid  it. 

Posted  (for  informed).  A  colloquialism  in  the  United 
States.    Must  be  used  with  caution. 

Previous  (for  previously).    "  Previous  to  my  going." 

Prolific  (for  frequent).  "  It  was  a  prolific  [frequent] 
source  of  annoyance." 

Promise  (for  assure).  "  I  promise  [assure]  you  I  was 
astonished." 

Proof  (for  evidence) .    Proof  is  the  result  of  evidence. 

Quite  is  not  to  be  used  for  nearly.  Quite  means 
wholly,  completely,  or  thoroughly. 

Raise  (for  bring  up,  educate).  A  peculiarity  of  the 
Southern  states. 

Real  (for  very).    "  Real  [very]  nice." 

Reckon  (for  conjecture,  conclude).  Provincial  and 
vulgar. 

Restive  (for  restless).  Restive  signifies  stubborn, 
unwilling  to  move,  balky. 

Remember  (for  recollect).  We  remember  without 
effort.    Recollect  with  some  exertion. 

Retire  (for  to  go  to  bed).  A  vulgar  but  unfortu- 
nately very  common  euphemism. 

Reverend  (for  the  reverend).  The  article  is  abso- 
lutely required. 

Right  (for  obligation).  "  The  cars  have  as  good  a 
right  to  be  stopped  as  the  carriages." 

Rise  up  (for  rise).    "  He  rose  up  and  left  the  room." 

Sabbath  (for  Sunday).  Sunday  is  the  name  of  the 
day,  while  Sabbath  is  the  name  of  an  institution. 

Shall  and  "Will.  Shall,  in  an  affirmative  sentence, 
in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second  and  third  per- 
sons, merely  announce  future  action.  Thus,  "  I  shall  go 
to  town  to-morrow."  "  I  shall  wait  for  better  weather." 
"  We  shall  be  glad  to  see  you."  "  I  shall  soon  be  twenty." 
"  We  shall  set  out  early,  and  shall  try  toarrive  by  noon." 
"You  will  be  pleased."  "You  will  soon  be  twenty." 
"  You  will  find  him  honest."    "  He  will  go  with  us." 

Shall,  in  an  affirmative  sentence,  in  the  second  and 
third  person,  announces  the  speaker's  intention  to  con- 
trol. Thus,  "  You  shall  hear  me  out."  "  You  shall  go, 
sick  or  well."  "  lie  shallhe  my  heir."  "  They  shall  go, 
whether  they  want  to  go  or  not." 

Will,  in  the  first  person,  expresses  a  promise,  an- 
nounces the  speaker's  intention  to  control,  proclaims  a 
determination.  Thus,  "I  will  [I  promise  to]  assist  you." 
"  I  will  [I  am  determined  to]  have  my  right."  "  We  will 
[we  promise  to]  come  to  you  in  the  morning." 

Shall,  in  an  interrogative  sentence,  i:i  the  first  and 
third  person,  consults  the  will  or  judgment  of  another; 
in  the  second  person,  it  inquires  concerning  the  inten- 
tion orf  utureaction  of  another.  Thus,  "  Shall  I  go  with 
you?"  "When  shall  we  see  you  again?"  "When 
shall  I  receive  it  ?"  "  When  shall  I  get  well  ?"  "When 
shall  we  get  there?"  "Shall  he  come  with  us?" 
"Shall  you  demand  indemnity?"  "Shall  you  go  to 
town  to-morrow  ?  "    "  What  shall  you  do  about  it  ?  " 

Will,  in  an  interrogative  sentence,  in  the  second  per- 
son, asks  concerning  the  wish,  and,  in  the  third  person, 
concerning  the  purpose  or  future  action  of  others. 
Thus,  "  Will  you  have  an  apple  ?"  "  Will  you  go  with 
me  to  my  uncle's?"  "Will  he  be  of  the  party?" 
"  Will  they  be  willing  to  receive  us  ?  "  "  When  will  he 
be  here?" 

Will  cannot  be  used  interrogatively  in  the  first  person 
singular  or  plural.  We  cannot  say, "  Will  I  go '.'"  "  Will 
I  help  you  ?  "  "  Will  I  be  late  ?  "  "  Will  we  get  there  in 
time  ?  "    "  Will  we  see  you  again  soon  ?  " 

Official  courtesy,  in  order  to  avoid  the  semblance  of 
compulsion,  conveys  its  commands  in  the  you  will  form 
instead  of  the  strictly  grammatical  yon  shall  form.  It 
says,  for  example,  "  You  will  proceed  to  Key  West, 
where  you  will  find  further  instructions  awaiting  you." 

A  clever  writer  on  the  use  of  shall  and  will  says'  that 
whatever  concerns  one's  beliefs,  hopes,  fears,  likes,  or 
dislikes,  cannot  be  expressed  in  con  junction  with  J  will. 
Are  there  no  exceptions  to  this  rule  ?  If  I  say,  "  I 
think  I  shall  go  to  Philadelphia  to-morrow,"  I  convey 
the  impression  that  my  going  depends  upon  circum- 
stances beyond  my  control ;  but  if  I  say,  "  1  think  I  irill 
go  to  Philadelphia  to-morrow,"  I  convey  the  impression 
that  my  going  depends  upon  circumstances  within  my 
control  —  that  my_  going  or  not  depends  on  mere  incli- 
nation. We  certainly  must  say,  "  I  fear  that  I  shall  lose 


it;"  "  I  hope  that  I  shall  be  well ;  "  "I  believe  that  1 
shall  have  the  ague;"  "I  hope  that  I  shall  not  be  left 
alone ;  "  "I  fear  that  we  shall,  have  bad  weather ;  "  "I 
shall  dislike  the  country ;  "  "I  shall  like  the  perform- 
ance." The  writer  referred  to,  asks,  "  How  can  oik;  Bay, 
'  I  will  have  the  headache  ?'  "  I  answer,  very  easily,  as 
every  young  woman  knows.  Let  us  see  :  "'Mary,  you 
know  you  promised  John  to  drive  out  with  him  to- 
morrow; how  shall  you  get  out  of  it?"  "Oh,  I  will 
have  the  headache!"  We'request  that  people  will  do 
thus  or  so,  and  not  that  they  shall.  Thus,  "  It  is  re- 
quested that  no  one  will  leave  the  room." 

Shall  is  rarely,  if  ever,  used  for  will;  it  is  will  that  is 
used  for  shall.  Expressions  like  the  following  are  com- 
mon :  "  Where  will  you  be  next  Aveek  ?  "  "I  will  be  at 
home."  "  We  will  have  dinner  at  six  o'clock."  "How 
will  you  go  about  it?"  "When  will  you  begin?" 
"  When  will  you  set  out?"  "  What  will  you  do  with 
it  ?  "  In  all  such  expressions,  when  it  is  a  question  of 
mere  future  action  on  the  part  of  the  person  speaking 
or  spoken  to,  the  auxiliary  must  be  shall  and  nut  will. 

Sliould  and  would  follow  the  regimen  of  shall  and 
ivill.  Would  is  often  used  for  should ;  should  rarely  for 
would.  Correct  speakers  say,  "  I  should,  go  to  town  to- 
morrow if  I  had  a  horse."  "I  should  not ;  I  should  wait 
for  better  weather."  "  We  should  be  glad  to  see  you." 
"We  should  have  started  earlier,  if  the  weather  had 
been  clear."  "I  should-  like  to  go  to  town,  and  would 
go  if  I  could."  "  I  would  assist  you  if  I  could."  "  I 
should  have  been  ill  if  I  had  gone."  "  I  rvmild  I  were 
home  again!"  "I  should  go  fishing  to-day  if  I  were 
home."  "  I  should  so  like  to  go  to  Europe !  "  "I  should 
prefer  to  see  it  first."  "I  should  be  delighted."  "  I 
should  be  glad  to  have  you  sup  with  me."  "  I  knew 
that  I  should  be  ill."  "I  feared  that  I  should  lose  it." 
"  I  hoped  that  I  should  see  him."  "  I  thought  that  I 
should  have  the  ague."  "  I  hoped  that  I  should  not  be 
left  alone."  "I  was  afraid  that  we  should  have  bad 
weather."  "  I  knew  I  should  dislike  the  country."  "I 
should  not  like  to  do  it,  and  tvill  not  [determination] 
unless  compelled." 

Shut  to  ( for  shut).    "  Shut  the  door  to." 

Somewheres(f  or  somewhere).  "  The  farmer  had  gone 
out  somewheres." 

Sparrowgrass,  a  corruption  of  asparagus. 

Spoonsful  (for  spoonfuls).  "  Two  spoonsful  [spoon- 
fuls] at  bedtime." 

Stopping  (for  staying).  "At  what  hotel  are  vou  stop- 
ping?" 

Such  (for  so).  "Such  an  extravagant  young  man," 
for  "  So  extravagant  a  young  man." 

Than  (for  when).  "The  admiral  was  hardly  in  the 
channel  than  [when]  he  was  driven  to  sea  by  the  storm." 

Think  for  (for  think).  "  You  will  find  that  he  knows 
more  than  you  think  for." 

Those  sort  of  things.  "I  never  approved  of  those 
[that]  sort  of  things." 

Those  who  (for  they  that).  That  and  those,  as  de- 
monstrative adjectives,  refer  backward,  and  are  not 
therefore  well  suited  for  forward  reference. 

To  (for  at).    "  When  I  was  to  [at]  home." 

Try  and  (for  try  to).  "  I  will  try  and  [to]  come  to- 
morrow." 

Unique  (for  beautiful).  A  thing  is  unique  when  it  is 
the  only  one  of  Its  kind,  whether  it  is  good  or  bad,  ugly 
or  beautiful. 

Vengeance  (for  revenge).  Vengeance  should  never 
be  ascribed  save  to  God  or  to  men  acting  as  the  execu- 
tors of  his  righteous  doom. 

Vulgar  (for  immodest).  The  word  vulgarity  was  for- 
merly thought  to  mean  indecent;  now  it  simply  means 
bad  manners.  Vulgar  people  are  low,  mean,  coarse, 
plebeian,  no  matter  where  the  wheel  of  fortune  has  placed 
them. 

Warn't  (for  wasn't).    Heard  only  as  a  vulgarism. 

Was  (for  is,  of  general  truths).  "  Truth  is  eternal." 
In  the  expression  of  general  and  necessary  truths  the 
present  tense  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  past  tense. 

Ways  (for  way).    "  He  was  a  long  ways  [way]  behind." 

What  (for  that).  "I  don't  know  but  what  [that]  I  shall 
go." 

Which  (for  that).  "  She  would  be  all  which  [that]  the 
emperor  could  desire." 

Widow  woman  (for  widow).    Uselessly  redundant. 

You  was  (for  you  were).  You  takes  the  plural  form 
of  a  verb. 


NAPOLEON    BONAPARTE. 


Book  III. 


History  and  Biography. 


History  and  Biography. 


Chronological  Eras. —  The  year  1899 
corresponds  to  the  year  7407-8  of  the  Byzan- 
tine era ;  to  5659-60  of  the  Jewish  era,  the 
year  5650  beginning  at  sunset  on  September 
4  ;  to  2652  since  the  foundation  of  Rome  ac- 
cording to  Varro ;  to  2675  of  the  Olympiads 
(the  third  year  of  the  669th  Olympiad  begin- 
ning July  1,  1899)  ;  to  2559  of  the  Japanese 
era,  and  to  the  32d  year  of  the  Meiji ;  to  1316- 
17  of  the  Mohammedan  era  or  the  era  of  the 
Hegira,  the  year  1317  beginning  on  May  12, 
1899.  The  125th  year  of  the  Independence 
of  the  United  States  of  America  begins  on 
July  4,  1900. 

Date  of  Beginning  of  Epochs,  Eras, 
and  Periods. 

NAME.  BEGAN. 

Grecian  Mundane  Era b.  c.  5598,  Sept.   1 

Civil  Era  of  Constantinople "  5508,  Sept.    1 

Alexandrian  Era "  5502,  Aug.  29 

Ecclesiastical  Era  of  Antioch "  5492,  Sept.    1 

Julian  Period "  4713,  Jan.     1 

MundaneEra "  4008,  Oct.     1 

Jewish  Mundane  Era "  3761,  Oct.     1 

Era  of  Abraham "  2015,  Oct.     1 

Era  of  the  Olympiads "  776,  July     1 

Roman  Era  (A.  U.  C.) "  753,  Apr.  24 

Era  of  Nabonassar "  747,  Eeb.  26 

Metonic  Cycle "  432,  July  15 

(irecian  or  Syro-Bta^etlonian  Era "  312,  Sept.   1 

TyrianEra "  125,  Oct.    19 

Sidonian  Era "  110,  Oct.     1 

Cesarean  Era  of  Antioch "  48,  Sept.    1 

Julian  Year "  45,  Jan.     1 

Spanish  Era  "  38,  Jan.     1 

Actian  Era • "  30,  Jan.     1 

Augustan  Era "  27,  Feb.  14 

Vulgar  Christian  Era a.d.       l,Jan.     1 

Destruction  of  Jerusalem "  69,  Sept.   1 

Era  of  Maccabees "  166,  Nov.  24 

Era  of  Diocletian "  284,  Sept.  17 

Era  of  Ascension "  295,  Nov.  12 

Era  of  the  Armenians "  552,  July     7 

Mohammedan  Era "  622,  July  16 

Persian  Era  of  Yezdegird "  632,  June  16 

Divisions  of  Time. —  The  interval  be- 
tween two  consecutive  transits  of  a  fixed  star 
over  any  meridian  or  the  interval  during  which 
the  earth  makes  one  absolute  revolution  on  its 
axis  is  called  a  Sidereal  Day,  and  is  invariable, 
while  the  interval  between  two  consecutive 
transits  of  the,  Sun  over  any  meridian  is  called 
an  Apparent  Solar  Day,  and  its  length  varies 
from  day  to  day  by  reason  of  the  variable 
motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit,  and  the  incli- 
nation of  this  orbit  to  the  equator,  on  which 
time  is  measured. 

A  Mean  Solar  Day  is  the  average  or  mean  of 
all  the  apparent  solar  days  in  a  year.  Mean 
Solar  Time  is  that  shown  by  a  well-regulated 
clock  or  watch,  while  Apparent  Solar  Time  is 
that  shown  by  a  well-constructed  sundial ; 
the  difference  between  the  two  at  any  time  is 
the  Equation  of  Time,  and  may  amount  to  16 


minutes  and  21  seconds.  The  Astronomical 
Day  begins  at  noon  and  the  Civil  Day  at  the 
preceding  midnight.  The  Sidereal  and  Mean 
Solar  Days  are  both  invariable,  but  one  day  of 
the  latter  is  equal  to  1  day,  3  minutes,  and 
56.555  seconds  of  the  former. 

The  interval  during  which  the  earth  makes 
one  absolute  revolution  round  the  Sun  is  called 
a  Sidereal  Year,  and  consists  of  365  days,  6 
hours,  9  minutes,  and  9.6  seconds,  which  is 
invariable. 

The  Tropical  Year  is  the  interval  between 
two  consecutive  returns  of  the  Sun  to  the  Ver- 
nal Equinox.  If  this  were  a  fixed  point,  the 
Sidereal  and  Tropical  Years  would  be  identical ; 
but  in  consequence  of  the  disturbing  influence 
of  the  moon  and  planets  on  the  spheroidal  fig- 
ure of  the  earth,  the  Equinox  has  a  slow,  ret- 
rograde mean  motion  of  50.26  seconds  annually, 
and  the  Sun  returns  to  the  Equinox  sooner 
every  year  than  he  otherwise  would  by  20  min- 
utes, 23.6  seconds;  the  Tropical  Year,  there- 
fore, consists  of  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes, 
and  46  seconds.  The  Tropical  Year  is  not  of 
uniform  length  ;  it  is  now  slowly  decreasing 
at  the  rate  of  .595  second  per  century,  but 
this  variation  will  not  always  continue. 

Julius  Caesar,  inB.  C.  45,  was  the  first  to  re- 
form the  calendar  by  ordering  that  every  year 
whose  date  number  is  exactly  divisible  by  4 
contain  366  days,  and  all  other  years  365  days. 
The  intercalary  day  was  introduced  by  count- 
ing the  sixth  day  before  the  Kalends  of  March 
twice;  hence  the  name  bissextile,  from  bis, 
twice,  and  sex,  six.  He  also  changed  the  be- 
ginning of  the  year  from  first  of  March,  to  the 
first  of  January,  and  also  changed  the  name  of 
the  fifth  month  (Quintilis)  to  July,  after  him- 
self. The  average  length  of  the  Julian  year  is 
therefore  365£  days,  which,  however,  is  too 
long  by  11  minutes  and  14  seconds,  and  this 
would  accumulate  in  400  years  to  about  three 
days.  The  Julian  Calendar  continued  in  use 
until  A.  D.  1582,  when  the  date  of  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seasons  occurred  10  days  later  than 
in  B.  C.  45,  when  this  mode  of  reckoning  time 
was  introduced. 

The  Gregorian  Year  was  introduced  by  Pope 
Gregory  XIII.  with  the  view  of  keeping  the 
Equinox  to  the  same  day  of  the  month.  It 
consists  of  365  days,  but  every  year  exactly  di- 
visible by  4  and  the  centurial  years  which  are 
exactly  divisible  by  400  contain  366  days  ;  and 
if  in  addition  to  this  arbitrary  arrangement 
the  centurial  years  exactly  divisible  by  4,000 
contain  366  days,  the  error  in  the  Gregorian 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


197 


system  will  amount  to  only  one  day  in  about  20 
centuries.  If,  however,  31  leap  years  were  in- 
tercalated in  128  years,  instead  of  32  as  at 
present,  the  calendar  would  be  practically  ex- 
act, and  the  error  would  not  amount  to  more 
than  a  day  in  100,000  years.  The  length  of 
the  mean  Gregorian  Year  may  therefore  be  set 
down  at  365  days,  5  hours,  49  minutes,  12 
seconds.  The  Gregorian  Calendar  was  intro- 
duced into  England  and  her  colonies  in  1752, 
at  which  time  the  Equinox  had  retrograded  11 
days  since  the  Council  of  Nice  in  A.  D.  325, 
when  the  festival  of  Easter  was  established  and 
the  Equinox  occurred  on  March  21  ;  hence  Sep- 
tember 3,  1752,  was  called  September  14,  and 
at  the  same  time  the  commencement  of  the  legal 
year  was  changed  from  March  25  to  January 
1,  so  that  the  year  1751  lost  the  months  of 
January  and  February  and  the  first  24  days  of 
March.  The  difference  between  the  Julian  and 
Gregorian  Calendars  is  now  12  days.  Russia 
and  the  Greek  Church  still  employ  the  Julian 
Calendar  for  civil  and  ecclesiastical  purposes. 

Standard  Time. —  Primarily,  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  railroads,  a  standard  of  time 
was  established  by  mutual  agreement  in  1883, 
by  which  trains  are  run  and  local  time  regu- 
lated. According  to  this  system,  the  United 
States,  extending  from  G5°  to  125°  west  longi- 
tude, is  divided  into  four  time  sections,  each 
of  15°  of  longitude,  exactly  equivalent  to  one 
hour,  commencing  with  the  75th  meridian.  The 
first  (eastern)  section  includes  all  territory  be- 
tween the  Atlantic  coast  and  an  irregular  line 
drawn  from  Detroit  to  Charleston,  S.  C,  the 
latter  being  its  most  southern  point.  The  sec- 
ond (central)  section  includes  all  the  territory 
between  the  last  named  line  and  an  irregular 
line  from  Bismarck,  N.  D.,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Rio  Grande.  The  third  (mountain)  section 
includes  all  territory  between  the  last-named 
line  and  nearly  the  western  borders  of  Idaho, 
Utah,  and  Arizona.  The  fourth  (Pacific)  sec- 
tion covers  the  rest  of  the  country  to  the  Pa- 
cific coast.  Standard  time  is  uniform  inside 
each  of  these  sections,  and  the  time  of  each  sec- 
tion differs  from  that  next  to  it  by  exactly  one 
hour.  Thus  at  12  noon  in  New  York  city 
(eastern  time),  the  time  at  Chicago  (central 
time)  is  11  o'clock  A.  M.  ;  at  Denver  (moun- 
tain time),  10  o'clock  A.  M.,  and  at  San  Fran- 
cisco (Pacific  time),  9  o'clock  A.  M.  Stand- 
ard time  is  16  minutes  slower  at  Boston  than 
true  local  time,  4  minutes  slower  at  New  York, 
8  minutes  faster  at  Washington,  19  minutes 
faster  at  Charleston,  28  minutes  slower  at  De- 
troit, 18  minutes  faster  at  Kansas  City,  10 
minutes  slower  at  Chicago,  one  minute  faster 
at  St.  Louis,  28  minutes  faster  at  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  10  minutes  faster  at  San  Francisco. 


Old  English  Holidays. — These  holidays, 
with  their  names,  had  their  origin  in  mediaeval 
England  when  the  State  religion  was  that  of 
the  Church  of  Rome,  and  they  are  still  ob- 
served generally  or  in  some  parts  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland. 

January  6.  Twelfth  Day,  or  Twelfth- 
tide,  sometimes  called  Old  Christmas  Day,  the 
same  as  Epiphany.  The  previous  evening  is 
Twelfth  Night,  with  which  many  social  rites 
have  long  been  connected. 

February  2.  Candlemas  :  Festival  of  the 
Purification  of  the  Virgin.  Consecration  of 
the  lighted  candles  to  be  used  in  the  church 
during  the  year. 

February  14.  Old  Candlemas  :  St.  Val- 
entine's Day. 

March  25.  Lady  Day:  Annunciation  of 
the  Virgin.     April  6  is  old  Lady  Day. 

June  24.  Midsummer  Day  :  Feast  of  the 
Nativity  of  John  the  Baptist.  July  7  is  old 
Midsummer  Day. 

July  15.  St.  Swithin's  Day.  There  was 
an  old  superstition  that  if  rain  fell  on  this 
day  it  would  continue  forty  days. 

August  1.  Lammas  Day:  Originally  in 
England  the  festival  of  the  wheat  harvest.  In 
the  Church  the  festival  of  St.  Peter's  miracu- 
lous deliverance  from  prison.  Old  Lammas 
Day  is  August  13. 

September  29.  Michaelmas:  Feast  of  St. 
Michael,  the  Archangel.  Old  Michaelmas  is 
October  1 1 . 

November  1.  Allhallowmas  :  Allhal- 
lows  or  All  Saints'  Day.  The  previous  even- 
ing is  Allhalloween,  observed  by  home  gath- 
erings and  old-time  festive  rites. 

November  2.  All  Souls'  Day:  Day  of 
prayer  for  the  souls  of  the  dead. 

November  11:  Martinmas:  Feast  of  St. 
Martin.     Old  Martinmas  is  November  23. 

December  28.  Childermas  :  Holy  Inno- 
cents Day. 

Lady  Day,  Midsummer  Day,  Michaelmas, 
and  Christmas  are  quarter  (rent)  days  in  Eng- 
land, and  Whitsunday,  Martinmas,  Candle- 
mas, and  Lammas  Day  in  Scotland. 

Shrove  Tuesday,  the  day  before  Ash  Wednes- 
day, and  Maundy  Thursday,  the  day  before 
Good  Friday,  are  observed  by  the  Church. 
Mothering  Sunday  is  Mid-Lent  Sunday,  in 
which  the  old  rural  custom  obtains  of  visiting 
one's  parents  and  making  them  presents. 

Legal  Holidays  in  the  Various 
States. — January  1.  New  Year's  Day: 
Tn  all  the  States  (including  the  District  of 
Columbia)  except  Kentucky,  Massachusetts, 
Mississippi,  New  Hampshire,  and  Rhode  Island. 

January  8.  Anniversary  of  the  Bat- 
tle of  New  Orleans  :  In  Louisiana. 


198 


THE  CENTURY'  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


January  19.  Lek's  Birthday  :  In  Flor- 
ida, Georgia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
and  Virginia. 

February  12.  Lincoln's  Birthday  :  In 
Connecticut,  Illinois,  Minnesota,  New  Jersey, 
New  York,  North  Dakota,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Washington  (State). 

February  14,  1899.  Spring  Election 
Day  :  In  Pennsylvania  (from  12  o'clock  noon). 

February  14,  1899.  Mardi-Gras  :  In 
Alabama  and  the  parish  of  Orleans,  Louisiana. 

February  22.  Washington's  Birthday  : 
In  all  the  States  (including  the  District  of  Co- 
lumbia) except  Mississippi. 

March  2.  Anniversary  of  Texan  Inde- 
pendence :   In  Texas. 

March  31,  1899.  Good  Friday  :  In  Ala- 
bama, Louisiana,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania, 
Tennessee. 

April  5,  1899.  State  Election  Day: 
In  Rhode  Island. 

April  6.  Confederate  Memorial  Day: 
In  Louisiana. 

April  19.  Patriots'  Day  :  In  Massachu- 
setts. 

April  21.  Anniversary  of  the  Battle 
of  San  Jacinto  :  In  Texas. 

April  26.  Confederate  Memorial  Day  : 
In  Alabama,  Florida,  and  Georgia. 

May  10.  Confederate  Memorial  Day  : 
In  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

May  20.  Anniversary  of  the  Signing 
of  the  Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence :   In  North  Carolina. 

May  30.  Decoration  Day  :  In  Arizona, 
California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Delaware, 
District  of  Columbia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Maryland,  Mas- 
sachusetts, Michigan,  Minnesota,  Missouri, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire, 
New  elersey,  New  York,  North  Dakota,  Ohio, 
Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Is- 
land, South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Utah,  Ver- 
mont, Wisconsin,  Washington,  and  Wyoming. 

June  3.  Jefferson  Davis's  Birthday: 
In  Florida  and  Georgia. 

July  4.  Independence  Day:  In  all  the 
States  and  the  District  of  Columbia. 

July  24.     Pioneers'  Day  :   In  Utah. 

August  16.  Bennington  Battle  Day: 
In  Vermont. 

Septemkkh  4,  1899.  Labor  Day  :  In  Ala- 
bama, California,  Colorado,  Connecticut,  Del- 
aware, District  of  Columbia,  Florida,  Georgia, 
Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Maine, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minne- 
sota, Missouri,  Montana,  Nebraska,  New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Ohio, 
Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Carolina,    South    Dakota,    Tennessee,    Texas, 


Utah,  Virginia,  Washington.  Wisconsin,  and 
Wyoming. 

Skptember  9.  Admission  Day  :  In  Cali- 
fornia. 

November  1.  All  Saints'  Day:  In 
Louisiana. 

November  —  General  Election  Day  : 
In  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Indi- 
ana, Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Louisiana, 
Maryland,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  Montana,  Ne- 
vada, Xew  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Is- 
land, South  Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennes- 
see, Texas,  West  Virginia,  Washington,  Wis- 
consin, and  Wyoming,  in  the  years  when  elec- 
tions are  held  in  these  States.  In  1900  the 
date  is  November  6. 

November  25.  Labor  Day  :  In  Louis- 
iana. 

November — 1900.  Thanksgiving  Day  is 
either  the  fourth  or  last  Thursday  in  Novem- 
ber in  1900,  as  the  President  may  determine. 
It  is  observed  in  all  the  States,  and  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  though  in  some  States  it  is 
not  a  statutory  holiday. 

December  25.  Christmas  Day  :  In  all 
the  States,  and  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Sundays  and  Fast  Days  are  legal  holidays  in 
all  the  States  which  designate  them  as  such. 

There  are  no  statutory  holidays  in  Missis- 
sippi and  Nevada,  but  by  common  consent  the 
Fourth  of  July,  Thanksgiving,  and  Christmas 
are  observed  as  holidays  in  Mississippi.  In 
Kansas,  Decoration  Day,  Labor  Day,  and 
Washington's  Birthday  are  the  only  legal  hol- 
idays by  legislative  enactment ;  other  legal  hol- 
idays are  so  only  by  common  consent.  In  New 
Mexico,  Decoration  Day,  Labor  Day.  and  Ar- 
bor Day  are  holidays  when  so  designated  by 
the  Governor. 

Arbor  Day  is  a  legal  holiday  in  Arizona, 
Colorado,  Minnesota,  North  Dakota,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Wyoming,  the  day  being  set  by  the 
Governor ;  in  Texas,  February  22  ;  in  Ne- 
braska, April  22  ;  Montana,  third  Tuesday  in 
April;  Utah,  April  15:  Rhode  Island,  first 
Friday  in  May;  Idaho,  on  Friday  after  May 
1  ;  Florida,  February  7  ;  Georgia,  first  Friday 
in  December. 

Every  Saturday  after  12  o'clock  noon  is  a 
legal  holiday  in  Xew  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  District 
of  Columbia,  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  in 
Newcastle  County,  Del.,  except  in  St.  George's 
Hundred;  in  Louisiana  and  Missouri  in  cities 
of  100,000  or  more  inhabitants;  in  Ohio  in 
cities  of  50.000  or  more  inhabitants  ;  and  June 
1  to  August  31  in  Denver,  Col.  In  Connecti- 
cut and  Maine,  banks  close  at  12  noon  on  Sat- 
urdays. 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


199 


There  is  no  national  holiday,  not  even  the 
Fourth  of  July.  Congress  has  at  various 
times  appointed  special  holidays.  In  the  sec- 
ond session  of  the  fifty-third  Congress  it  passed 
an  act  making  Labor  Day  a  public  holiday  in 
the  District  of  Columbia,  and  it  has  recognized 
the  existence  of  certain  days  as  holidays,  for 
commercial  purposes,  but,  with  the  exception 
named,  there  is  no  general  statute  on  the  sub- 
ject. The  proclamation  of  the  President  des- 
ignating a  day  of  Thanksgiving  only  makes  it 
a  legal  holiday  in  those  States  which  provide 
by  law  for  it. 

The  Months  and  their  Names. —  Jan- 
uary, the  first  month  of  the  year,  was  among 
the  Romans  held  sacred  to  Janus,  from  whom 
it  derived  its  name,  and  was  added  to  the  calen- 
dar along  with  February  by  Xuraa  in  713  B.  C. 
It  was  not  till  the  eighteenth  century  that  Jan- 
uary was  universally  adopted  by  European 
nations  as  the  first  month  of  the  year,  although 
the  Roman's  considered  it  as  such  as  far  back 
as  251  B.  C. 

February  is  the  name  given  to  the  second 
month,  in  which  were  celebrated  the  Februa, 
or  feasts  to  the  manes  of  deceased  persons. 

March,  the  first  month  of  the  Roman  year, 
and  the  third  according  to  our  present  calen- 
dar, consists  of  31  days.  It  was  considered  as 
the  first  month  of  the  year  in  England  until 
the  change  of  style  in  1752,  and  the  legal 
year  was  reckoned  from  the  25th  of  March.  Its 
last  three  days  (old  style)  were  once  popularly 
supposed  to  have  been  borrowed  by  March  from 
April,  and  are  proverbially  stormy. 

To  the  fourth  month  of  our  year  the  Romans 
gave  the  name  of  Aprilis,  derived  from  aperire, 
"  to  open,"  probably  because  it  is  the  season 
when  the  buds  begin  to  open.  By  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  it  was  called  Eastermonth. 

The  name  of  the  fifth  month,  May,  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mer- 
cury, to  whom  the  Romans  on  the  first  day 
offered  sacrifices.  It  was  the  third  month  of 
the  Roman  year. 

June,  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calendar,  but  the  fourth  among  the  Romans, 
consisted  originally  of  26  days,  to  which  four 
were  added  by  Romulus,  one  taken  away  by 
Xuma,  and  the  month  again  lengthened  to  30 
days  by  Julius  Caesar. 

The  seventh  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calendar,  and  the  fifth  in  the  Roman  calendar, 
was  originally  called  Quintilis  (the  fifth). 
At  first  it  contained  30  days,  was  reduced  to 
31,  then  to  30,  but  was  restored  to  31  days  by 
Julius  Caesar,  in  honor  of  whom  it  was  named 
July. 

August,  the  eighth  month  of  the  year,  was 
so  named  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  (B.  C.  63 


-A.  D.  14),  who  commanded  that  his  name 
should  be  given  to  the  month.  August  was 
the  sixth  month  of  the  Roman  year  and  was 
previously  called  Sextilis. 

September  (Lat.  Septem,  seven)  was  the 
seventh  month  of  the  Roman  calendar,  but  is 
the  ninth  accoi'ding  to  our  reckoning.  The 
Anglo-Saxons  called  it  gerst-monath,  "  barley- 
month." 

October  (Lat.  octo,  eight)  was  the  eighth 
month  of  the  so-called  "  year  of  Romulus, " 
but  became  the  tenth  when  (according  to  tra- 
dition) Numa  changed  the  commencement  of 
the  year  to  January  1st,  though  it  retained  its 
original  name. 

November  (Lat.  novem  nine)  was  among 
the  Romans  the  ninth  month  of  the  year  (the 
Ger.  Wind  month)  at  the  time  when  the  year 
consisted  of  ten  months,  and  then  contained 
30  days.  It  subsequently  was  made  to  contain 
only  29,  but  Julius  -Caesar  gave  it  31  ;  and  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  the  number  was  restored 
to  30,  which  number  it  has  since  retained. 

December  means  the  tenth  month,  and  re- 
ceived that  name  from  the  Romans  when  the 
year  began  in  March,  and  has  retained  its 
name  since  January  and  February  were  put  at 
the  beginning  of  the  year. 

The  Origin  of  the  Days  of  the 
Week. —  The  names  of  these  are  derived  from 
Saxon  idolatry.  The  Saxons  had  seven  deities 
more  particularly  adored  than  the  rest, 
namely  :  The  Sun,  the  Moon,  Tuisco,  Woden, 
Thor,  Friga,  and  Saeter. 

Sunday  being  dedicated  to  the  sun,  was 
called  by  them  Sunandaeg  ;  his  idol  repre- 
sented the  bust  of  a  man,  with  the  face  dart- 
ing bright  *rays,  holding  a  wheel  before  Ids 
breast,  indicative  of  the  circuit  of  the  golden 
orb  around  our  sphere. 

Monday  was  dedicated  to  the  moon,  and  was 
represented  by  a  female  on  a  pedestal,  with  a 
very  singular  dress  and  two  long  ears. 

Tuesday  w7as  dedicated  to  Tuisco  a  German 
hero,  sire  of  the  Germans,  Scythians,  and  Sax- 
ons. He  was  represented  as  a  venerable  old 
man,  with  a  long,  white  beard,  a  scepter  in 
his  hand  and  the  skin  of  a  white  bear  thrown 
over  his  shoulders. 

Wednesday  was  consecrated  to  Woden,  or 
Odin,  a  supreme  god  of  the  northern  nations, 
father  of  the  gods  and  god  of  war.  He  was 
represented  as  a  warrior  in  a  bold  martial  atti- 
tude, clad  in  armor,  holding  in  his  right  hand 
a  broad,  crooked  sword  and  in  his  left  a 
shield. 

Thursday  was  consecrated  to  Thor,  eldest 
son  of  Woden,  who  was  the  Roman  Jupiter. 
He  was  believed  to  govern  the  air,  preside 
over  lightning  and  thunder,  direct  the  wind, 


200 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


rain,  and  seasons.  lie  was  represented  as  sit- 
ting on  a  splendid  throne,  with  a  crown  of  gold 
adorned  with  twelve  glittering  stars,  and  a 
scepter  in  his  right  hand. 

Friday  was  sacred  to  Friga — Ilertha  or 
Edith  ■ —  the  mother  of  the  gods  and  wife  of 
Woden.  She  was  the  goddess  of  love  and 
pleasure  and  was  portrayed  as  a  female  with  a 
naked  sword  in  her  right  hand  and  a  bow  in 
her  left  hand,  implying  that  in  extreme  cases 
women  should  fight  as  well  as  men. 

Saturday  was  named  in  honor  of  Saeter, 
who  is  the  Roman  Saturnus.  He  was  repre- 
sented on  a  pedestal,  standing  on  the  back  of 
a  prickly  fish  called  a  perch,  his  head  bare,  with 
a  thin,  meager  face.  In  his  left  hand  he  held 
a  wheel  and  in  his  right  a  pail  of  water  with 
fruits  and  flowers.  The  sharp  fins  of  the  fish 
implied  that  the  worshipers  of  Saeter  should 
pass  safely  through  every  difficulty.  The 
wheel  was  emblematic  of  their  unity  and 
freedom,  and  the  pail  of  water  implied  that 
he  could  water  the  earth  and  make  it  more 
beautiful. 

Anniversaries. 

DATES  OF  HISTORICAL  EVENTS  CUSTOMARILY 
OR  OCCASIONALLY  OBSERVED. 

Jan.        1.  Emancipation  Proclamation  by  Lincoln,  1863. 

Jan.       8.  Battle  of  New  Orleans,  1815. 

Jan.      17.  Franklin  born,  1706. 

Jan.      17.  Battle  of  the  Cowpens,  S.  C,  1781. 

Jan.      18.  Daniel  Webster  born,  1782. 

Jan.      19.  Robert  E.  Lee  born,  1807. 

Jan.      27.  German  Emperor  born,  1859. 

Feb.      12.  Abraham  Lincoln  born,  1809. 

Feb.      15.  Battle-ship  Maine  blown  up,  1898. 

Feb.      22.  George  Washington  born,  1732. 

Feb. 22-23.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista,  1847. 

March    5.  Boston  Massacre,  1770. 

March  15.  Andrew  Jackson  born,  1767. 

March  18.  Grover  Cleveland  born,  1837. 

April      1.  Bismarck  born,  1815. 

April      9.  Lee  surrendered  at  Appomattox,  1865. 

April    12.  Fort  Sumter  fired  upon,  1861. 

April    12.  Henry  Clay  born,  1777. 

April    13.  Thomas  Jefferson  born,  1743. 

April    14.  Lincoln  assassinated,  1865. 

April  19.  Primrose  Day  in  England,  Lord  Beaconsfield 
died,  1881. 

April    19.  Battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord,  1T75. 

April    23.  Shakespeare  born,  1564. 

April    27.  General  Grant  born,  1822. 

April  30.  Washington  was  inaugurated  first  President, 
1789. 

May  1.  Dewey  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  at  Manila, 
1898. 

May  13.  First  English  settlement  in  America  at  James- 
town, 1607. 

May  13.  The  Society  of  the  Cincinnati  was  organized 
by  officers  of  the  Revolutionary  Army,  1783. 

May  20.  Mecklenburg,  N.  C,  Declaration  of  Independ- 
ence, 1775. 

May      24.  Queen  Victoria  born,  1819. 

June      6.  General  Nathaniel  Greene  born,  1742. 

June  15.  King  John  granted  Magna  Charta  at  Runny- 
mede,  1215. 

June     17.  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  1775. 

June     18.  Battle  of  Waterloo,  1815. 

June     28.  Battleof  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston,  S.C.,  1776. 

July       1.  Dominion  Day  in  Canada. 

July    1-2.  General  assault  on  Santiago  de  Cuba,  1898. 

July    1-3.  Battle  of  Gettysburg,  1863. 

July  3.  Cervera's  fleet  was  destroyed  off  Santiago, 
1898. 

July       4.  Declaration  of  Independence.  1776. 

July      14.  The  Bastille  was  destroyed.  1789 


July 

16. 

July 

21. 

Aug. 

13. 

Aug. 

16. 

Sep. 

1. 

Sep. 

8. 

Sep. 

10. 

Sep. 

11. 

Sep. 

13. 

Sep. 

14. 

Sep. 

17. 

Sep.  19-20. 

Sep. 

20. 

Oct. 

7. 

Oct. 

8-11. 

Oct. 

12. 

Oct. 

17. 

Oct. 

19. 

Nov. 

5. 

Nov. 

9. 

Nov. 

10. 

Nov. 

25. 

Dec. 

2. 

Dec. 

14. 

Dec. 

16. 

Dec. 

16. 

Dec. 

22. 

Dec.  25-26. 

Dec. 

29. 

Santiago  surrendered,  1898. 

Battle  of  Bull  Run,  1«61. 

Manila  surrendered  to  the  Americans,  1898. 

Battle  of  Bennington,  Vt.,  1777. 

Capitulation  of  Sedan,  1870. 

Battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  S.  C,  1781. 

Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  Perry's  victory,  1813. 

Battle  of  Lake  Champlain,  McDonough's  vic- 
tory, 1814. 

Battle  of  Chapultepec,  1847. 

Citv  of  Mexico  taken  by  the  U.  S.  troops,  1847. 

Battle  of  Antietam,  1862. 

Battle  of  Chickamauga,  18(^3. 

Italians  occupied  Rome,  1870. 

Battle  of  King's  Mountain,  N.  C,  1780. 

Great  fire  of  Chicago,  1871. 

Columbus  discovered  America,  1492. 

Burgoyne  surrendered  at  Saratoga,  1777. 

Cornwallis  surrendered  at  Yorktown,  1781. 

Guy  Fawkes  Day  in  England.  The  Gunpow- 
der Plot  discovered,  1604. 

Great  fire  of  Boston,  1872. 

Martin  Luther  born,  1483. 

British  evacuated  New  York,  1783. 

Battle  of  Austerlitz,  1805. 

Washington  died,  1799. 

Boston  "Tea  Party,"  1773. 

The  great  fire  in  New  York,  1835. 

Mavflower  pilgrims  landed  at  Plymouth  Rock, 
1620. 

Battle  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  1776. 

William  Ewart  Gladstone  born,  1809. 


The  First  Day  of  the  Year. 

Readers  of  Parish  Registers  and  other  ancient  docu- 
ments are  sometimes  puzzled  by  the  dates,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  apparent  discrepancies  in  the  time  when 
the  year  commenced.    It  began :  — 

7th  to  14th  Centuries,  at  Christmas. 
12th  Century,  by  the  Church,  on  March  25. 
14th  Century,  by  Civilians,  same  time. 

In  1752  the  New  Style  was  introduced,  and  1753  com- 
menced on  the  1st  of  January.  Previous  to  this  two 
dates  were  used,  one  for  the  civil  year,  and  the  other 
for  the  historical;  the  former  commenced  March  25, 
and  the  latter  January  1 ;  thus  we  find  the  same  event 
with  two  dates,  e.  g.,  Feb.  20, 1681-2.  Another  change 
was  made  in  the  calendar  bv  the  same  Act,  24  Geo.  II. 
c.  23;  the  day  after  September  2d  was  accounted  the 
fourteenth,  hence  the  difference  between  Old  and  New 
Michaelmas  and  other  days. 

General   Councils. 

A.D. 

Jerusalem Against  Judaizers 51 

Aries Against  the  Donatists 314 

*Nice First  Oecumenical  Council 325 

Constantinople..  Arian 337 

Rome Athanasian 342 

Sardis Against  Arius 347 

* Constantinople . .  Second  (Ecumenical 381 

*Ephesu8 Third  do 431 

*Chalcedon Fourth  do 451 

*  Constantinople. .  Fifth  do 553 

*  Constantinople.  .Sixth  do 681 

Nice Seventh  do 787 

Constantinople.  .Eighth  do 870 

Home First  Lateran 1123 

Rome Second  do 1139 

Rome Third  do 1 197 

Rome Fourth  do 1215 

Lyons Emperor  Frederick  deposed 1243 

Lyons Temporary  reunion  of  Greek  and 

Latin  Churches 1274 

Vienne Fifteenth  Oecumenical 1312 

Pisa : Popes  elected  and  deposed 1409 

Constance Huss  condemned  to  be  burned  . . .  1414 

Basle Eighteenth  Oecumenical 1431 

Rome Fifth  Lateran 1512  to  1517 

Trent Nineteenth  UScumenical..  .1545  to  1563 

Rome Last  Oecumenical 1870 


*  Only  the  six  thus  marked  were  indisputably  General 
or  (Ecumenical.  Some  other  councils,  such  as  those 
summoned  to  Pavia  and  Siena,  were  designed  to  be 
Oecumenical,  but  led  to  no  such  result.  The  Greek 
Church  recognizes  seven. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


201 


A  READY  REFERENCE  CALENDAR. 

For  ascertaining  any  Day  of  the  Week  for  any  given  Time  within  Two  Hundred  Years  from  the  introduction  of 

the  New  Style,  1753  to  1952,  inclusive. 


YEARS  1753  TO  1952. 

a 

eg 

-. 
4 

-' 
- 

7 

i 

- 
< 

3 

- 

5 

e 

a 
s 
-. 

l 

a 
-. 

:; 

U 
3 
< 

6 

— 
■1 

2 

f 
4 

> 

z 

7 

1753e 
1754d 

1781g 
1782d 

1800e 
l^Ola 

I828q 

1829a 

1856«i 
1857a 

1884q 
1885a 

1900g 
:  1901d 

1928h 
1929d 

a 

2 

1755e 
1756p 

1783e 
17h4i» 

1802b 
1803c 

1830b 
1831c 

1858b 
lb59c 

1886b 

1887c 

1902e 
1903a 

1930e 
1931a 

b 

:> 

1 

i 

4 

G 

2 

4 

7 

3 

5 

1 

8 

1757c 
1758f 

1785c 
1786f 

1S04h 

l805d 

1832h 
1833d 

1860h 
1801d 

1888h 
1889d 

1904k 
1905f 

1932k 
1933f 

c 

6 

2 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

1759g 
1700q 

i78Tg 
I788q 

1806e 
1867a 

1834e 
1835a 

1862e 
1863a 

1890e 
1891a 

1906g 
1907d 

1934g 
1935d 

d 

2 

.-. 

6 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

1761a 

1762b 

1789a 
1790b 

1808k 
1809f 

1836k 
1837f 

1864k 
1865f 

1892k 
1893f 

19081 
1909b 

19361 
1937b 

e 

3 

6 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

1763c 
1764h 

1791c 
1792h 

1810g 
lSlld 

1S38g 
1839(1 

1866g 
1867d 

1894g 
1895d 

1910c 
1911f 

1938c 
1939f 

f 

7 

3 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

7 

i3 

5 

1765d 
1706e 

1793d 
1T14.> 

18121 
1813b 

18401 
1841b 

lsr.s  I 

1869b 

18961 
1897b 

1912m 
1913e 

1940m 
1941e 

S 

1 

4 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

1767a 
1768k 

1795a 
1796k 

1«14- 
1815f 

1812c 
1843f 

1870c 
1871f 

1898c 
1899f 

1914a 

1915b 

1942a 
1943b 

h 

7 

3 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

1769f 

1770jr 

17H7f 
1798g 

1816m 
1817e 

1844m 
1845e 

1872m 
1873e 

1916n 
1917g 

1944n 
1945g 

k 

5 

1 

2 

5 

7 

3 

.'. 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

1771d 
177-.'  1 

1799d 

1818a 
1819b 

1846a 
1847b 

1874a 
1875b 

1918d 
1919e 

1946d 
1947e 

1 

3 

6 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

1773b 
1774c 

1820n 
,1821g 

1848n 
1849g 

1876n 
1877g 

1920p 
1921c 

1948p 
1949c 

m 

1 

4 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

4 

7 

2 

5 

7 

1775f 
1776m 

1822d 
1823e 

1850d 
1851e 

1878d 
1879e 

1922f 
1923g 

1950f 
1951g 

n 

f, 

2 

3 

6 

1 

4 

6 

2 

5 

7 

3 

5 

1777e 

1778a 

1824p 
1825c 

1852p 
1853c 

1880p 
1881c 

1924q 
1925a 

1952q 

P 

4 

7 

1 

4 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

5 

1 

3 

1779b 
1780n 

1826f 
I827g 

1854f 
1855g 

1882f 
1883g 

1926b 
1927c 

q 

2 

5 

6 

2 

4 

7 

2 

5 

1 

3 

6 

1 

TABLE  OF  DAYS. 


Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday  " 

Friday 

Saturday 

SUNDAY 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

SUNDAY 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday 

Friday 

Saturday 

SUNDAY 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 

Thursday  * 

Friday 

Saturday 

SUNDAY 

Monday 

Tuesday 

Wednesday 


1  Tuesday 

2  Wednesday 

3  Thursday 

4  Friday 

5  Saturday 

6  SUNDAY 

7  Monday 

8  Tuesday 

9  Wednesday 

10  Thursday 

11  Fridav 

12  Saturday 

13  SUNDAY 

14  Monday 

15  Tuesday 

16  Wednesday 

17  Thursday- 
lS  Friday 

19  Saturday 

20  SUNDAY 

21  Monday 

22  Tuesday 

23  Wednesday 

24  Thursday  ' 

25  Friday 

26  Saturday 

27  SUNDAY 

28  Monday 

29  Tuesday 

30  Wednesday 

31  Thursday  ' 


1  Wednesday 

2  Thursday 

3  Friday 

4  Saturday 

5  SUNDAY 

6  Monday 

7  Tuesday 

8  Wednesday 

9  Thursday 

10  Friday 

11  Saturday 

12  SUNDAY 

13  Monday 

14  Tuesday 

15  Wednesday 

16  Thursday 

17  Friday 

18  Saturday 
19!  SUNDAY 

20  Monday 

21  Tuesday 

22  Wednesday 

23  Thursday 

24  Friday 

25  Saturday 

26  SUNDAY 

27  Monday 

28  Tuesday 

29  Wednesday 

30  Thursday 

31  Friday 


1  Thursday 

2  Friday 

3  Saturday 

4  SUNDAY 

5  Monday 

6  Tuesday 

7  Wednesday 

8  Thursday 

9  Friday 

10  Saturday 

11  SUNDAY 

12  Monday 

13  Tuesday 

14  Wednesday 

15  Thursday 

16  Friday 

17  Saturday 

18  SUNDAY 

19  Monday 

20  Tuesday 

21  Wednesday 

22  Thursday 

23  Friday 

24  Saturday 

25  SUNDAY 

26  Monday 

27  Tuesday 

28  Wednesday 

29  Thursday 

30  Friday 

31  Saturday 


li  Friday 
2  Saturday 
8  SUNDAY 

4  Monday 

5  Tuesday 

6  Wednesday 

7  Thursday 

8  Friday 

9  Saturday 

10  SUNDAY 

11  Monday 

12  Tuesday 

13  Wednesday 

14  Thursday 

15  Friday 

16  Saturday 

17  SUNDAY 

18  Monday 

19  Tuesday 

20  Wednesday 

21  Thursday 

22  Friday 

23  Saturday 

24  SUNDAY 
26  Monday 

26  Tuesday 

27  Wednesday 

28  Thursday 

29  Friday 

30  Saturday 

31  SUNDAY 


1  Saturday 

2  SUNDAY 

3  Monday 

4  Tuesday 

5  Wednesday 

6  Thursday 

7  Friday 

8  Saturday 

9  SUNDAY 

10  Monday 

11  Tuesday 

12  Wednesday 

13  Thursday 

14  Friday 

15  Saturday 
18  SUNDAY 

17  Monday 

18  Tuesday 

19  Wednesday 
2i  Thursday 

21  Friday 

22  Saturday 

23  SUNDAY 

24  Monday 

25  Tuesday 

26  Wednesday 

27  Thursday 

28  Friday 

29  Saturday 

30  SUNDAY 

31  Monday 


1  SUNDAY  1 

2  Monday  2 

3  Tuesday  3 

4  Wednesday  4 

5  Thursday  5 

6  Friday  6 

7  Saturday  7 

8  SUNDAY  8 

9  Monday  9 

10  Tuesday  10 

11  Wednesday  11 

12  Thursday  12 

13  Friday  13 

14  Saturday  14 
IB  SUNDAY  15 

16  Monday  16 

17  Tuesday  17 

18  Wednesday  18 

19  Thursday  19 

20  Friday  20 

21  Saturday  21 

22  SUNDAY  22 

23  Monday  23 

24  Tuesday  24 

25  Wednesday  25 

26  Thursday  26 

27  Friday  27 

28  Saturday  28 

29  SUNDAY  29 

30  Monday  30 

31  Tuesday  31 


Note  —The  letters  in  the  list  of  "  Teaks  iroin  1753  lo  1952  "  refer  to  the  table  headed  with  the  Months,  the  Azures  in  which 
refer  to  the  same  figures  at  Die  head  of  the  table  of  Days.  For  example :  To  know  on  what  day  July  4, 1900,  will  fall,  look  for  1900 
in  theta- leof  Yeaus.  The  letter  g  is  attached.  Look  for  the  same  letter  in  the  table  of  Months,  and  in  a  parallel  line  under 
July  is  the  figure  7,  which  directs  to  column  7  in  the  table  of  Days  below,  in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  July  4  falls  on  Wednesday. 


202 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OE  FACTS. 


A  mCTIOXAUY  OF  MYTHOLOGY. 

Abeo'na.    A  goddess  of  voyages,  etc. 
Acha'tes.    The  trusty  friend  of  JEneas. 
Ach'eron.    The  son   of  Sol  and  Terra,  changed  bv 
Jupiter  into  a  river  of  hell.    Used  also  for  hell  itself. 

Achil'les.  A.Greek  who  signalized  himself  in  the 
war  against  Troy.  Having  been  dipped  by  his  mother 
in  the  river  Styx,  he  was  invulnerable  in  every  part 
except  his  right  heel,  by  which  she  held  him,  but  was 
at  length  killed  by  Paris  with  an  arrow. 

A'cis.  A  Sicilian  shepherd,  killed  bv  Polvphemus 
because  he  rivaled  the  latter  in  the  affections  of 
Galatea. 

Actae'on.  A  famous  hunter,  who,  having  surprised 
Diana  as  she  was  bathing,  was  turned  by  her  into  a 
stag,  and  killed  by  his  own  dog.?. 

Ado'nis.  A  beautiful  youth  beloved  by  Venus  and 
Proserpine.  He  was  killed  by  a  wild  boar.  When 
wounded,  Venus  sprinkled  nectar  into  his  blood,  from 
which  flowers  sprang  up. 

jEge'ns.  A  king  of  Athens,  giving  name  to  the 
^Egean  sea  by  drowning  himself  in  it. 

yE'gis.  A  shield  given  by  Jupiter  to  Minerva.  Also 
the  name  of  a  Gorgon  whom  Pallas  slew. 

^ne'as.  A  Trojan  prince,  son  of  Anchises  and  Ve- 
nus; the  hero  of  Virgil's  poem,  the  ^Enekl. 

iE'olus.    The  god  of  the  winds. 

JEn'ns.    One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

.  1  Oscula'pi us.  The  god  of  medicine  and  the  son  of 
Apollo.  Killed  by  Jupiter  with  a  thunderbolt  for  hav- 
ing restored  Hippolytus  to  life. 

vE'thon.    One  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

Aganajem/non.  King  of  Mycenae  and  Argos,  brother 
to  Menelaus,  and  chosen  captain-general  of  the  Greeks 
at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Aganip'pe.  A  fountain  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Heli- 
con, daughter  of  the  river  Permessus. 

Agla'ia.    One  of  the  three  Graces. 

A'jax.  Next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  of  all  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war. 

Al'bion.  The  son  of  Neptune ;  went  into  Britain  and 
established  a  kingdom. 

Alces'te,  or  Alcestis.  The  daughter  of  Pelias  and 
wife  of  Admetus,  brought  back  from  hell  by  Hercules. 

Alci'des.    A  title  of  Hercules. 

Alec'to.    One  of  the  three  Furies. 

Alo'a.    A  festival  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 

Am'mnn.    A  title  of  Jupiter. 

Amphi'on.  A  famous  musician,  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Antiope,  who  built  the  city  of  Thebe3  by  the  music 
of  his  harp.  He  and  his  brother  Zethus  are  said  to  have 
invented  music. . 

Amphitri'te.  Goddess  of  the  sea  and  wife  of  Nep- 
tune. 

Androm'ache.    "Wife  of  Hector. 

Androm'eda.  The  daughter  of  Cepheus  and  Cassio- 
peia, who,  contesting  with  Juno  and  the  Nereides  for 
the  prize  of  beauty,  was  bound  to  a  rock  by  them  and 
exposed  to  a  sea  monster,  but  was  rescued  and  married 
by  I'erseus. 

Ange'rona.    The  goddess  of  silence. 

Antir'us.  The  giant  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra; 
squeezed  to  death  by  Hercules. 

Antever'ta.    Goddess  of  women  in  labor. 

Antig'one.  The  daughter  of  CEdipusand  Jocasta, 
famous  for  her  filial  piety. 

An'ubis.    An  Egyptian  god  with  a  dog's  head. 

A'pis.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe;  called  alsoSerapis 
and  Osiris.  Taught  the  Egyptians  to  sow  corn  and 
plant  vines,  and  was  worshiped  by  them  in  the  form  of 
an  ox. 

Apollo.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  the  god 
of  music,  poetry,  eloquence,  medicine,  and  the  fine  arts. 

Arach'ne.  A  Lydian  princess,  turned  into  ;i  spider 
for  contending  with  Minerva  at  spinning. 

Arethu'sa.  One  of  Diana's  nymphs,  who  was  changed 
into  a  fountain 

Ar'gus.  The  son  of  Aristor ;  said  to  have  had  a  hun- 
dred eyes ;  but  being  killed  by  Mercury  when  appointed 
by  Juno  to  guard  to,  she  pat  his  eves  on  the  tail  of  a 
peacock.    Also  an  architect,  who  bniit  the  ship  Argo. 

Ariad'ne.  The  daughter  of  Minos,  who,  from  love  to 
Theseus,  gave  him  a  clew  of  thread,  to  guide  him  out  of 
the  Cretan  labyrinth  ;  being  afterward  deserted  bv  him, 
she  was  married  to  Bacchus,  and  made  his  priestess. 

Ari'on.  A  lyric  poet  of  Methymna,  who,  i:i  his 
voyage  to  Italy,  saved  his  life  from  the  cruelty  cf  the 
mariners  by  means  of  dolphins,  which  the  sweetness  of 
tin  music  brought  together. 


Arista>'us.     A  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene. 

Astne'a.  The  goddess  of  justice;' changed  into  the 
constellation  Virgo. 

Atalan'ta.  A  princess  of  Scyros,  who  consented  to 
marry  that  one  of  her  suitors  who  should  outrun  her, 
Hippomenes  being  the  successful  competitor. 

At'Ias.  One  of  the  Titans,  and  king  of  Mauretania ; 
said  to  have  supported  the  world  on  his  shoulders ;  he 
was  turned  into  a  mountain  by  Perseus. 

Anro'ra.    The  goddess  of  morning. 

Autum'nus.    The  god  of  fruits. 

Bacchan'tes.    Priests  of  Bacchus. 

Bac'chug.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Semele,  and  the 
god  of  wine. 

Bap'ta.    The  goddess  of  shame. 

Beller'ophon.  The  son  of  Glaucus,  king  of  Ephyra. 
He  underwent  numerous  hardships  for  refusing  an  inti- 
macy with  Sthenoboea,  wife  of  Prcetus,  the  king  of 
Argos.  With  the  aid  of  the  horse  Pegasus,  he  destroyed 
the  Chimera. 

Bello'na.    Goddess  of  war;  sister  of  Mars. 

Bereni'ee.  A  Grecian  lady;  the  only  person  of  her 
sex  permitted  to  see  the  Olympic  games. 

Boli'na.  A  nymph  rendered  immortal  for  her  mod- 
esty and  resistance  to  Apollo. 

Bo'reas.  The  son  of  Astraeus  and  Aurora  ;  the  name 
of  the  north  wind. 

Bria'reuB.  A  giant  who  warred  against  heaven,  and 
was  feigned  to  have  had  fifty  heads  and  one  hundred 
arms. 

Busi'ris.  The  son  of  Neptune  ;  a  tyrant  of  Egypt, 
and  a  monstrous  giant,  who  fed  his  horses  with  human 
flesh  ;  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Byblis.  The  daughter  of  Miletus  ;  she  wept  herself 
into  a  fountain  through  love  of  her  brother  Caunus. 

Ca'cus.  A  son  of  Vulcan  and  a  most  notorious  rob- 
ber; slain  by  Hercules  for'stealing  his  oxen. 

Cad'imis.  The  son  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia; 
founder  of  Thebes,  and  the  reputed  inventor  of  sixteen 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet. 

Cadti'ceus.    Mercury's  golden  rod  or  wand. 

Calli'ope.  One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over  elo- 
quence and  epic  poetry. 

Calyp'so.  One  of  the  Oceanides  who  reigned  in  the 
island  Ogygia,  and  entegtained  anil  became  enamored 
of  Ulysses. 

Cainae'na,  or  Carna.    Goddess  of  infants. 

Cassan'dra.  A  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  prophecy  by  Apollo. 

CastaPides.  The  Muses,  so  called  from  the  fountain 
Castalius,  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus. 

Cas'tor.  A  son  of  Jupiter  and  Leda.  He  and  his 
twin  brother  Pollux  shared  immortality  alternately, 
and  were  formed  into  the  constellation  Gemini. 

Ce'crops.  The  first  king  of  Athens,  who  instituted 
marriage,  altars,  and  sacrifices. 

Cen'taurs.  Children  of  Ixion,  half  men  and  hall' 
horses,  inhabiting  Thessaly,  and  vanquished  by 
Theseus. 

Cer'berus.  The  three-headed  dog  of  Pluto,  guarding 
the  gates  of  hell. 

Ce'res.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Cybele,  and 
goddess  of  agriculture. 

Cha'ron.  The  son  of  Erebns  and  Noz,  and  ferryman 
of  hell,  who  conducted  the  souls  of  the  dead  over  the 
rivers  Styx  and  Acheron. 

Charyb'dis.  A  ravenous  woman,  turned  by  Jupiter 
into  a  very  dangerous  gulf  or  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of 
Sicily. 

Chi'mera.  A  strange  monster  of  Lycia,  killed  by 
Bellerophon. 

Chi'ron.  A  Centaur,  who  was  preceptor  to  Achilles, 
taught  iEsculapius  physic  and  Hercules  astronomy,  and 
who  became  the  constellation  Sagittarius. 

C'hry'seis.  The  daughter  of  Chryses,  priest  of  Apollo, 
famed* for  beauty  and  for  her  skill  in  embroidery. 

Cir'ce.    A  noted  enchantress. 

Cli'o.    One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over  history. 

Clo'tho.    One  of  the  three  Fates. 

Clytemnes'tra.  The  faithless  wife  of  Agamemnon, 
killed  by  her  son  Orestes. 

Co'mus.    The  god  of  merriment. 

Cro'cus.  A  young  man  enamored  of  the  nymph  Sini- 
lax,  and  changed  into  a  flower. 

Croe'sus.    Kingof  Lydia;  the  richest  man  of  his  time. 

Cu'pid.    Son  t  f  Mar's  and  Venus ;  the  god  of  love. 

Cyb'ele.  The  daughter  of  Ccelus  and  Terra;  wife  of 
«aturn.  and  mother  of  the  gods. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


203 


Cy'clops.  Vulcan's  workmen,  giants  who  had  only 
one  eye.  in  the  middle  of  their  foreheads;  slain  by 
Apollo  in  a  pique  against  Jupiter. 

Doed'alus.  A  most  ingenious  artificer  of  Athens, 
who  formed  the  Cretan  labyrinth,  and  invented  the 
auger,  axe,  glue,  plumb-line.saw,  and  masts  and  sails 
for  ships. 

Da'mon,    The  friend  of  Pythias. 

Dan  a  ides,  or  Bel'ides."  The  fifty  daughters  of 
Danaus,  king  of  Argos,  all  of  whom,  except  Hyperm-  j 
nestra,  killed  their  husbands  on  the  first  night  of  their 
marriage,  and  were  therefore  doomed  to  draw  water 
out  of  a  deep  well,  and  eternally  pour  it  into  a  cask  full 
of  holes. 

Daph'ne.  A  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo ;  the  daughter 
of  the  river  Peneus ;  changed  into  a  laurel  tree. 

Daph/nis.  A  shepherd  of  Sicily  and  son  of  Mercury ; 
educated  by  the  nymphs,  and  inspired  by  the  Muses 
with  the  love  of  poetry. 

Dar'danus.    A  son  of  Jupiter  and  founder  of  Troy. 

Deida'mia.  The  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  king  of 
Scyros;  wife  of  Achilles,  and  mother  of  Pyrrhus. 

Deiph'obus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba  ;  married 
Helena  after  the  death  of  Paris,  but  betrayed  by  her  to 
the  (Jreeks. 

Dejani'ra.  Wife  of  Hercules,  who  killed  herself  in 
despair,  because  her  husband  burned  himself  to  avoid 
the  torment  occasioned  by  the  poisoned  shirt  she  had 
given  him  to  regain  his  love. 

Del'phi.  A  city  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a  temple  and 
an  oracle  of  Apollo. 

Deucalion.  The  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king  of 
Thessaly,  who,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  was  preserved 
from  the  general  deluge,  and  repeopled  the  world  by 
throwing  stones  behind  them,  as  directed  by  the  oracle. 

Dian'a.  Daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Latoria,  and  god- 
dess of  hunting. 'chastity,  and  marriage. 

Di'do.  Founder  and  queen  of  Carthage ;  daughter  of 
Belus,  and  wife  of  Sichreus.  According  to  Virgil,  she 
entertained  .Eneas  on  his  voyage  to  Italy,  and  burned 
herself  in  despair,  because  heJeft  her. 

Diome'des.  Son  of  Tydeus,  and  king  of  JEtolia; 
gained  great  reputation  at  Troy,  and,  with  Ulysses, 
carried  off  the  Palladium. 

Dir'ce.  Wife  of  Lycus,  king  of  Thebes;  dragged  to 
death  by  a  mad  bull. 

Dry'ades.    Nymphs  of  the  woods. 

Ecli'o.  The  daughter  of  Aer,  or  Air,  and  Tellus,  who 
pined  away  for  love  of  Narcissus. 

Elec'tra.  Daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Clytemnes- 
tra ;  instigated  her  brother  Orestes  to  revenge  their 
father's  death  upon  their  mother  and  .Egisthus. 

Elys'iuni.  The  happy  residence  of  the  virtuous  after 
death. 

Kneel 'ad us.  Son  of  Titan  and  Terra,  and  the  strong- 
est of  the  giants :  conspired  against  Jupiter,  and  at- 
tempted to  scale  heaven. 

Endyni'ion.  A  shepherd  and  astronomer  of  Caria, 
condemned  to  a  sleep  of  thirty  years. 

Epe'us.  The  artist  who  made  the  Trojan  horse,  in- 
ventor of  the  sword  and  buckler. 

Er'ato.    The  Muse  of  lyric  and  amorous  poetry. 

Er'eane.     A  river  whose  waters  inebriated. 

Er'ebns.  The  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox ;  an  infernal 
deitv.  A  river  of  hell,  and  often  used  by  the  poets  for 
hell  itself. 

Erin'nys.  The  Greek  name  for  the  Furies,  or  Eumen- 
ides. 

E'ros.    A  name  of  Cupid. 

Eumen'ides.    A  name  of  the  Furies. 

Euphor'bus.  The  son  of  Panthous;  slain  by  Mene- 
laus  in  the  Trojan  war. 

Euphros'yne.    One  of  the  three  Graces. 

Euro'pa.  "  The  daughter  of  Agenor ;  carried  by  Jupi- 
ter, in  the  form  of  a  white  bull,  into  Crete. 

Enry'ale.  A  queen  of  the  Amazons.  Also  one  of  the 
three  Gorgons. 

Eury'alus.  A  Peloponnesian  chief  in  the  Trojan 
war.  Also,  a  Trojan  and  a  friend  of  Nisus,  for  whose 
loss  .(Eneas  was  inconsolable. 

Euryd'ice.  Wife  of  Orpheus ;  killed  by  a  serpent  on 
her  marriage  day. 

Euryl'ochus."  One  of  the  companions  of  Ulysses; 
the  only  one  who  was  not  changed  by  Circe  into  a  hog. 

Euter'pe.    One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over  music. 

E-rad'ne.  Daughter  of  Mars  and  Thebe  ;  threw  her- 
self on  the  funeral  pyre  of  her  husband.  (  ataneus. 


Fab'ula.    Goddess  of  lies. 

Fa'ma.    Goddess  of  report,  etc. 

Fates.  Powerful  goddesses,  who  presided  over  the 
birth  and  the  life  of  mankind,  were  the  three  daughters 
of  Nox  and  Erebus,  named  Clotho,  Lachesis,  and  Atro- 
pos.  Clotho  was  supposed  to  hold  the  distaff,  Lachesis 
to  draw  the  thread  of  human  life,  and  Atropos  to  cut 
it  off. 

Fau'na,  and  Fatu'a.    Names  of  Cybele. 

Fau'ni.  Rural  gods,  described  as  having  the  legs, 
feet,  and  cars  of  goats. 

Fau'nus.  Son  of  Mercury  and  Nox,  and  father  of  the 
Fauni. 

Flo'ra.    The  goddess  of  flowers. 

Fortu'na.    The  goddess  of  fortune ;  said  to  be  blind. 

Fu'ries.  The  three  daughters  of  Nox  and  Acheron, 
named  Alecto,  Tisiphone,  and  Mega>ra,  with  hair  com- 
posed of  snakes,  and  armed  with  whips,  chains,  etc. 

Galate'a.  A  sea-nymph,  daughter  of  Nereus  and 
Doris,  passionately  loved  by  Polyphemus. 

Gan'ymede.  The  son  of  Tros,  king  of  Troy,  whom 
Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  an  eagle,  snatched  up  and  made 
his  cupbearer. 

Ge'ryon.  A  monster,  having  three  bodies  and  three 
heads,  and  who  fed  his  oxen  with  human  flesh,  and  was 
therefore  killed  by  Hercules. 

Gor'dius.  A  husbandman,  but  afterward  king  of 
Phrvgia,  remarkable  for  tying  a  knot  of  cords,  on  which 
the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so  intricate  a  manner, 
that  Alexander,  unable  to  unravel  it,  cut  it  asunder. 

Gor'gons.  The  three  daughters  of  Phorcus  and  Ceta, 
named  Stheno,  Euryale,  and  Medusa.  Their  bodies  were 
covered  with  impenetrable  scales,  their  hair  entwined 
with  serpents;  they  had  only  one  eye  betwixt  them, 
and  they  could  change  into  "stones  those  whom  they 
looked  on. 

Gra'ces.  Three  goddesses,  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and  Eu- 
phrosyne,  represented  as  beautiful,  modest  virgins,  and 
constant  attendants  on  Venus. 

Hades.    A  title  of  Pluto. 

Har'pies.  Winged  monsters,  daughters  of  Neptune 
and  Terra,  named  Aello,  Celaeno,  and  Ocypete,  with  the 
faces  of  virgins,  the  bodies  of  vultures,  and  hands 
armed  with  claws. 

He'be.  The  daughter  of  Juno ;  goddess  of  youth,  and 
Jupiter's  cupbearer;  banished  from  heaven  on  account 
of  an  unlucky  fall. 

Hec'tor.  The  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba ;  the  most  val- 
iant of  the  Trojans,  and  slain  by  Achilles. 

Hec'uba.  The  wile  of  Priam,  who  tore  her  eyes  out 
for  the  loss  of  her  children. 

Hel'ena,  or  Hel'en.  The  wife  of  Menelaus.  and  the 
most  beautiful  woman  of  her  age,  who,  running  away 
with  Paris,  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Hel'enus.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  spared  by 
the  Greeks  for  his  skill  in  divination. 

Helle.  The  daughter  of  Athamas,  who,  flying  from 
her  stepmother  Ino,  was  drowned  in  the  Pontic  sea,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  Hellespont. 

Her'cules.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena;  the 
most  famous  hero  of  antiquity,  remarkable  for  his  great 
strength  aud  numerous  exploits. 

Her'mes.    A  name  of  Mercury. 

Hermi'one.  The  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  and 
wife  of  Cadmus;  was  changed  into  a  serpent.  Also,  a 
daughter  of  Menelaus  and  Helena,  married  to  Pyrrhus. 

He'ro.  A  beautiful  woman  of  Sestos,  in  Thrace,  and 
priestess  of  Venus,  whom  Leander  of  Abydos  loved  so 
tenderlv  that  he  swam  over  the  Hellespont  every  night 
to  see  "her;  but  he,  at  length,  being  unfortunately 
drowned,  she  threw  herself  in  despair,  into  the  sea. 

Hesper'ides.  Three  nymphs,  .Egle,  Arethusa,  and 
Hesperethusa,  daughters  of  Hesperus.  They  had  a  gar- 
den bearing  golden  applet,  watched  by  a  dragon,  which 
Hercules  slew,  and  bore  awav  the  fruit. 

Hes'perus.  The  son  of  Jnpetus,  and  brother  to  At- 
las; changed  into  the  evening  star. 

Hippol'ytus.  The  son  of  Theseus  and  Antiope,  or 
Hippofyte,  who  was  restored  to  life  by  .Esculapius,  at 
the  request  of  Diana. 

Hippom'enes.  A  Grecian  prince,  who,  beating  Ata- 
lanta  in  the  race  bv  throwing  golden  apples  before  her, 
married  her.    Thev  were  changed  by  Cybele  into  lions. 

Hyacin'thus.  A  beautiful  boy,  beloved  by  Apollo 
and'Zephvrus.  The  latter  killed  him  ;  but  Apollochanged 
the  blood" that  was  spilled  into  a  flower  called  hyacinth. 

Hy'ades.  Seven  (laughters  of  Atlas  aud  Jithra, 
changed  by  Jupiter  into  seven  stars. 


204 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Hy'dra.  A  celebrated  monster,  or  serpent,  with 
seven,  or,  according  to  some,  fifty  heads,  which  infested 
the  Lake  Lerna.    It  was  killed  by  Hercules. 

Hy'rnen.  Son  of  Bacchus  and  Venus,  and  god  of 
marriage. 

Hyperi'on.    Son  of  Coelus  and  Terra. 

Ica'rius.  Son  of  CEbalus ;  having  received  from  Bac- 
chus a  bottle  of  wine,  he  went  into  Attica  to  show  men 
the  use  of  it,  but  was  thrown  into  a  well  by  some  shep- 
herds whom  he  had  made  drunk,  and  who  thought  he 
had  given  them  poison. 

Ic'arus.  The  son  of  Daedalus,  who,  flying  with  his 
father  out  of  Crete  into  Sicily,  and  soaring  too  high, 
melted  the  wax  of  his  wings,  and  fell  into  the  sea,  thence 
called  the  Icarian  sea. 

I'o.  The  daughter  of  Inachus,  turned  by  Jupiter  into 
a  white  heifer,  but  afterward  resumed  her  former  shape ; 
was  worshiped  after  her  death  by  the  Egyptians,  under 
the  name  of  Isis. 

Iphigeni'a.  The  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra,  who,  standing  ready  as  a  victim  to  be  sac- 
rificed to  appease  the  ire  of  Diana,  was  by  that  goddess 
transformed  into  a  white  hart  and  made  a  priestess. 

I'ris.  The  daughter  of  Thaumas  and  Electra;  one  of 
the  Oceanides,  and  messenger  and  companion  of  Juno, 
who  turned  her  into  a  rainbow. 

Ixi'on.  A  king  of  Thessaly,  and  father  of  the  Cen- 
taurs. He  killed  his  own  sister,  and  was  punished  by 
being  fastened  in  hell  to  a  wheel  perpetually  turning. 

•la 'mis.  The  son  of  Apollo  and  Creusa,  and  first  king 
of  Italy,  who,  receiving  the  banished  Saturn,  was  re- 
warded by  him  with  the  knowledge  of  husbandry,  and 
of  things  past  and  future. 

Ja'son.  The  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  who,  with 
Medea's  help,  obtained  the  golden  fleece  from  Colchis. 

Jocas'ta.  The  daughter  of  Creon.  She  unwittingly 
married  her  own  son,  GSdipus. 

Ju'no.  The  daughter  of  Saturn  and  Ops ;  sister  and 
wife  of  Jupiter,  the  great  queen  of  heaven,  and  of  all 
the  gods,  and  goddess  of  marriages  and  births. 

Ju'piter.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops ;  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  heathen  world,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
gods,  and  governor  of  all  things. 

Lach'esis.    One  of  the  three  Fates. 

Laoc'oon.  A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  high 
priest  of  Apollo,  who  opposed  the  reception  of  the 
wooden  horse  into  Troy,  for  which  he  and  his  two  sons 
were  killed  by  serpents. 

Laom'edon.  A  king  of  Troy,  killed  by  Hercules  for 
denying  him  his  daughter  Hesione  after  he  had  delivered 
her  from  the  sea-monster. 

La'res.  Inferior  gods  at  Rome,  who  presided  over 
houses  and  families ;  sons  of  Mercury  and  Lara. 

I ,a\  »■  r'na.    A  goddess  of  thieves. 

Lea n'der.    See  Hero. 

Le'the.  A  river  of  hell,  whose  waters  caused  a  total 
forgetf ulness  of  things  past. 

Luben'tia.    Goddess  of  pleasure. 

Lu'cifer.  The  name  of  the  planet  Venus,  or  morning 
star ;  said  to  be  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Aurora. 

Luci'na.  A  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Juno,  and  a 
goddess  who  presided  over  childbirth. 

l.u'aa.  The  moon;  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and 
Terra. 

Luper'calia.    Feasts  in  honor  of  Pan. 

Mars.    The  cod  of  war. 

Mede'a.  The  daughter  of  iEtes,  and  a  wonderful 
sorceress  or  magician ;  she  assisted  Jason  to  obtain  the 
golden  fleece. 

Medu'sa.  The  chief  of  the  three  Gorgons ;  killed  by 
Perseus. 

Megje'ra.    One  of  the  Furies. 

Meg'ara.    Wife  of  Hercules. 

Melpom'ene.  One  of  the  Muses,  presiding  over 
tragedy. 

Meni'non.  The  son  of  Tithonus  and  Aurora,  and 
king  of  Abydon  ;  killed  by  Achilles  for  assisting  Priam, 
and  changed  into  a  bird  at  the  request  of  his  mother. 

Menela'us.  The  son  of  Atreus,  king  of  Sparta; 
brother  of  Agamemnon,  and  husband  of  Helen. 

Men'tor.  The  faithful  friend  of  Clysses,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Telemachus,  and  the  wisest  man  of  his  time. 

Mer'cury.  The  son  of  Jupiter  and  Maia;  messenger 
of  the  gods,  inventor  of  letters,  and  god  of  eloquence, 
commerce,  and  robbers. 


Mi'das.  A  king  of  Phrygia,  who  had  the  power  given 
him  of  turning  whatever  he  touched  into  gold. 

Miner'va.  The  goddess  of  wisdom,  the  arts,  and  war ; 
produced  from  Jupiter's  brain. 

Min'otaur.  A  celebrated  monster,  half  man  and  half 
bull. 

Mnemos'yne.  The  goddess  of  memory,  and  mother 
of  the  nine  Muses. 

Mo  in  us.  The  son  of  Nox,  and  god. of  folly  and  pleas- 
antry. 

Mor'pheus.  The  minister  of  Nox  and  Somnus,  and 
god  of  sleep  and  dreams. 

Mors.    Goddess  of  death. 

Mu'ses.  Nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne, 
named  Calliope,  Clio,  Erato,  Euterpe,  Melpomene,  Poly- 
hymnia, Terpsichore,  Thalia,  and  Urania.  They  were 
mistresses  of  all  the  sciences,  and  governesses  of  the 
feasts  of  the  gods. 

Mu'ta.    Goddess  of  silence. 

Na'iades.    Nymphs  of  streams  and  fountains. 

Narcis'sus.  A  beautiful  youth,  who,  falling  in  love 
with  his  own  reflection  in  trie  water,  pined  away  into  a 
daffodil. 

Nem'esis.  One  of  the  infernal  deities,  and  goddess 
of  revenge. 

Nep'tune.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops;  god  of  the 
sea,  and,  next  to  Jupiter,  the  most  powerful  deity. 

Ne'reids.    Sea  nymphs. 

Nes'tor.  The  son  of  Neleus  and  Chloris,  and  king  of 
Pylos  and  Messenia.  He  fought  against  the  Centaurs, 
was  distinguished  in  the  Trojan  war,  and  lived  to  a 
great  age. 

Ni'obe.  Daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  wife  of  Anq ih ion, 
who,  preferring  herself  to  Latona,  had  her  fourteen 
children  killed  t>y  Diana  and  Apollo,  and  wept  herself 
into  a  stone. 

Nox.  The  most  ancient  of  all  the  deities,  and  goddess 
of  night. 

Ocean'ides.  Sea  nymphs,  daughters  of  Oceanus; 
three  thousand  in  number. 

Oce'anus.    An  ancient  sea  god. 

CEd'ipus.  King  of  Thebes,  who  solved  the  riddle  of 
the  Sphinx,  unwittingly  killed  his  father,  married  his 
mother,  and  at  last  ran  mad  and  tore  out  his  eyes. 

Om'phale.  A  queen  of  Lydia,  with  whom  Hercules 
was  so  enamored  that  he  submitted  to  spinning  and 
other  unbecoming  offices. 

Ops.    A  name  of  Cybele. 

Ores'tes.    The  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Or'pheus.  A  celebrated  Argonaut,  whose  skill  in 
music  is  said  to  have  been  so  great  that  he  could  make 
rocks,  trees,  etc.,  follow  him.  He  was  the  son  of  Jupiter 
and  Calliope. 

Osi'ris.    See  Apis. 

Palla'dhiin.  A  statue  of  Minerva,  which  the  Trojans 
imagined  fell  from  heaven,  and  with  which  their  city 
was  deemed  unconquerable. 

PaPlas  and  Py'lotis.    Names  of  Minerva. 

Pan.  The  son  of  Mercury,  and  the  god  of  shepherds, 
huntsmen,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  country. 

Pando'ra.  The  first  woman,  made  by  Vulcan,  and 
endowed  with  gifts  by  all  the  deities.  Jupiter  gave  her 
a  box  which  contained  all  the  evils  and  miseries  of  life, 
but  with  hope  at  the  bottom. 

Par'is,  or  APexander.  Son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba : 
a  most  beautiful  youth,  who  ran  away  with  Helen,  anil 
thus  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Parnas'sus.  A  mountain  of  Phocis.  famous  for  a 
temple  of  Apollo;  the  favorite  residence  of  the  Muses. 

Peg'asus.  A  winged  horse  belonging  to  Apollo  and 
the  Muses,  which  sprung  from  the  blood  of  Medusa 
when  Perseus  cut  off  her  head. 

Pena'tes.    Small  statues  or  household  gods. 

PenePope.  A  celebrated  princess  of  Greece,  daugh- 
ter of  Icarus,  and  wife  of  Ulysses;  celebrated  for  her 
chastity  and  constancy  in  the  long  absence  of  her  hus- 
band. 

Per'seus.  Son  of  Jupiter  and  Danae;  performed 
many  extraordinary  exploits  by  means  of  Medusa's 
head. 

Pha'eton.  Son  of  Sol  (Apollo)  and  Climene.  He 
asked  the  guidance  of  his  father's  chariot  for  one  ilay 
as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent;  but,  unable  to  manage 
the  horses,  set  the  world  on  Are,  and  was  therefore 
struck  by  Jupiter  with  a  thunderbolt  into  the  river  Po. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


205 


Philomela.  The  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of 
Athens ;  changed  into  a  nightingale. 

Phin'eas.  King  of  Paphlagonia :  had  his  eyes  torn 
out  by  Boreas,  bat  was  recompensed  with  the  knowl- 
cdgeof  futurity.  Also  a  king  of  Thrace  turned  into  a 
stone  by  Perseus. 

Pho-'bus.    A  title  of  Apollo. 

Ple'iades.  Seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and  Pleione, 
changed  into  stars. 

Plu'to.  The  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops,  brother  of  Jupi- 
ter and  Neptune,  and  the  god  of  the  infernal  regions. 

Plu'tus.    The  god  of  riches. 

Ponao'na.    The  goddess  of  fruits  and  autumn. 

Polyhym'nia.    The  Muse  of  rhetoric. 

Pri'am.  The  last  king  of  Troy,  the  son  of  Laomedon, 
under  whose  reign  Troy  was  taken  by  the  Greeks. 

Proine'theus.  The  son  of  Japetus;  said  to  have 
stolen  fire  from  heaven  to  animate  two  bodies  which  he 
had  formed  of  clay,  and  was  therefore  chained  by  Jupi- 
ter to  Mount  Caucasus,  with  a  vulture  perpetually 
gnawing  his  liver. 

Pros'erpine.    Wife  of  Pluto. 

Pro'teus.  The  son  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys ;  a  sea  god 
and  prophet,  who  possessed  the  power  of  changing  him- 
self into  any  shape. 

Psy'che. "  A  nymph  beloved  by  Cupid  and  made  im- 
mortal by  Jupiter. 

Pvg'mies.  A  nation  of  dwarfs  only  a  span  long,  car- 
ried away  by  Hercules. 

Pyl'ades."  The  constant  friend  of  Orestes. 

Pyr'amus  and  Thisbe.  Two  lovers  of  Babylon,  who 
killed  themselves  with  the  same  sword,  and  thus  caused 
the  berries  of  the  mulberry  tree,  under  which  they  died, 
to  change  from  white  to  red. 

Py'thon.  A  huge  serpent,  produced  from  the  mud  of 
the  deluge ;  killed  by  Apollo,  who,  in  memory  thereof, 
instituted  the  Pythian  games. 

Re'mns.  The  elder  brother  of  Romulus,  killed  by 
him  for  ridiculing  the  city  walls. 

Rhadaman'thus.    One  of  the  three  infernal  judges. 

Kinn'ulus.  The  son  of  Mars  and  Ilia ;  thrown  into  the 
Tiber  by  his  uncle,  but  saved,  with  his  twin  brother, 
Remus,  by  a  shepherd;  became  the  founder  and  first 
king  of  Rome. 

Sa'lii.    The  twelve  frantic  priests  of  Mars. 

Sa'lus.    Goddess  of  health. 

Saturna'lia.     Feasts  of  Saturn. 

Sat'urn.    A  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra  :  god  of  time. 

Sat'yrs.  Attendants  of  Bacchus:  horned  monsters, 
half  goats,  half  men. 

Sem'ele.  The  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Thebe,  and 
mother  of  Bacchus. 

Seinir'aniis,  A  celebrated  queen  of  Assyria,  who 
built  the  walls  of  Babylon ;  was  slain  by  her'own  son, 
Nimyas,  and  turned  into  a  pigeon. 

Sera'pis.     See  Apis. 

Sile'mis.  The  foster-father,  master,  and  companion 
of  Bacchus.  He  lived  in  Arcadia,  rode  on  an  ass,  and 
was  drunk  every  day. 

Si'rens.  Sea  "nymphs,  or  sea  monsters,  the  daughters 
of  Oceanus  and  Aniphitrite. 

Sis'yphus.  The  son  of  ^Eolus  ;  a  most  crafty  prince, 
killed  by  Theseus,  and  condemned  by  Pluto  to  roll  up 
hill  a  large  stone,  which  constantly  fell  back  again. 

Sol.    A  name  of  Apollo. 

Som'nus.  The  son  of  Erebus  and  Nox,  and  the  god 
of  sleep. 

Sphinx.  A  monster,  who  destroyed  herself  because 
(Edipus  solved  the  enigma  she  proposed. 

Sten'tor.  A  Grecian,  whose  voice  is  reported  to  have 
been  as  strong  and  as  loud  as  the  voices  of  fifty  men 
together. 

Sthe'no.    One  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

Styx.    A  river  of  hell. 

Sylvanus.    A  god  of  woods  and  forests. 

Ta'cita.    A  goddess  of  silence. 

Tan'talus.  The  son  of  Jupiter,  and  king  of  Lydia, 
who  served  up  the  limbs  of  his  son,  Pelops.  to  try  the 
divinity  of  the  gods,  for  which  he  was  plunged  to  the 
chin  in" a  lake  of  hell,  and  doomed  to  everlasting  thirst 
and  hunger. 

Tar' tarns.  The  part  of  the  infernal  regions  in  which 
the  wicked  were  punished. 

Tau'rnn.  The  bull  under  whose  form  Jupiter  carried 
away  Europa. 

Telein'achus.    The  only  son  of  Ulysses. 

Terpsich'ore.    The  Muse  presiding  over  dancing. 


The'mis.  The  daughter  of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  and 
goddess  of  justice. 

Ti'phys.    Pilot  of  the  ship  Argo. 

Tisiph'one.    One  of  the  three  Furies. 

Ti'tan.  The  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra,  elder  brother 
of  Saturn,  and  one  of  the  giants  who  warred  against 
heaven. 

Titho'nus.  The  son  of  Laomedon,  loved  by  Aurora, 
and  turned  by  her,  in  his  old  age.  into  a  grasshopper. 

Tri'ton.  The  son  of  Neptune  and  Amphitrite,  a 
powerful  sea  god,  and  Neptune's  trumpeter. 

Tro'ilus.    A  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

Troy.  A  city  of  'Phrygia,  famous  for  holding  out  a 
siege  of  ten  years  against  the  Greeks,  but  Anally  cap- 
tured and  destroyed. 

Ulys'ses.  King  of  Ithaca,  who,  by  his  subtlety  and 
eloquence,  was  eminently  serviceable  to  the  Greeks  in 
the  Trojan  War. 

I'ra'iiia.    The  Muse  of  astronomy. 

Venus.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  deities  of  the 
ancients,  the  wife  of  Vulcan,  the  goddess  of  beauty,  the 
mother  of  love,  and  the  mistress  of  the  graces  and  of 
pleasures. 

Vertum'nus.  A  deity  of  the  Romans,  who  presided 
over  spring  and  orchards,  and  who  was  the  lover  of 
Pomona. 

Ves'ta.  The  sister  of  Ceres  and  Juno,  the  goddess  of 
fire,  and  patroness  of  vestal  virgins. 

Viri'placa.  An  inferior  nuptial  goddess,  who  recon- 
ciled husbands  and  wives.  A  temple  at  Rome  was  dedi- 
cated to  her,  whither  the  married  couple  repaired  after 
a  quarrel. 

Vulcan.  The  god  who  presided  over  subterraneous 
fire,  patron  of  workers  in  metal. 

Zeph'yrus.     The  west  wind,  son  of  iEolus  and  Aurora, 
and  lover  of  the  goddess  Flora. 
Zeus.    A  title  of  Jupiter. 

LEGEND  AND  FOLKLORE. 

The  eccentricities  of  traditional  story  and  tradition- 
ary practice  have  always  been  found  a  more  or  less  in- 
teresting and  amusing  study  by  the  contemplative 
observer  of  human  nature ;  and  almost  all  travelers  and 
historians,  from  Herodotus  downward,  have  occasion- 
ally condescended  to  add  something  to  the  general  col- 
lection of  curiosities  in  that  department.  But  to  make 
a  thorough  investigation  of  the  "  vulgar  antiquities  " 
of  any  country,  and  especially  of  one's  own,  was,  until 
very  recently,  regarded  as  childish  and  useless.  An  ex- 
ception, indeed,  has  been  made  in  favor  of  the  folklores 
of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  as  being  intrinsically 
beautiful  and  exceptionally  instructive.  But  the  very 
fact  that  these  had.  been  beautified  by  artistic  treat- 
ment impaired  their  usefulness  from  the  purely  anti- 
quarian point  of  view;  and  in  any  case  the  floating 
traditions  of  Attica  and  Latium  were  too  few,  too  frag- 
mentary, and  gathered  from  too  narrow  an  area  to  fur- 
nish adequate  data  for  the  anthropologist  and  the  so- 
ciologist. 

It  was  in  Germany  that  the  study  of  folklore  entered 
upon  its  scientific  stage,  and  indeed  that  country  has 
been  most  prolific  in  curious  oral  traditions  and  unwrit- 
ten customs.  Every  custom  has  an  instructive  history 
if  we  can  but  succeed  in  interpreting  its  lore. 

Orion  was  a  giant  hunter,  noted  for  his  beauty. 

Puck  and  Robin  Goodfellow  are  identica  1  myths. 

Ogri,  The,  were  giants  said  to  feed  on  human  flesh. 

Toadstool,  The,  is  called  in  Ireland  the  fairy's  mush- 
room. 

I>oki  was  the  god  of  strife  and  evil  in  Scandinavian 
mythology. 

Jupiter  chose  the  eagle  as  the  best  preservative 
against  lightning. 

Apotheosis  was  the  deification  or  raising  of  a  mortal 
to  the  rank  of  a  god. 

Oak,  The,  is  sacred  to  Jupiter  because  he  first  taught 
mankind  to  live  upon  acorns. 

Goat,  The,  was  the  animal  usually  sacrificed  to  Bac- 
chus, on  account  of  its  propensity  to  destroy  the  vine. 

Gypsies,  The,  are  said  to  be  wanderers  because  they 
refused  shelter  to  the  Virgin  and  Christ-child  on  the 
flight  into  Egypt. 

Valkyri,  in" the  northern  mythology,  are  either  nine 
or  three  times  three  divine  maidens,  who  cleave  their 
way  through  air  and  water  to  lead  to  Odin  those  who 
have  fallen  in  battle  and  who  are  worthy  of  Valhalla. 


206 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Dason,  the  national  god  of  the  Philistines,  half  man 
and  hall'  fifth,  is  mentioned  in  the  ohl  Testament  as 
having  temples  at  Gaza  and  Ashdod.  Several  names  of 
places  prove  that  the  worship  of  Dagon  existed  also  in 
other  parts  of  Palestine. 

Astral  Spirits  are  the  supposed  spirits  which  per- 
vade the  stars,  each  star  having  its  own  spirit  or  soul. 
Paracelsus  thought  that  every  human  being  had  an 
astral  spirit ;  hence  the  influence  of  one's  particular 
star  on  his  life. 

Wehr-wolf.  According  to  the  ancient  German 
superstition,  the  Wehr-wolf  was  a- man-wolf,  who  had 
the  form  of  a  man  by  day  and  a  wolf  by  night.  Lycan- 
thropv,  or  wolf-madness,  was  prevalent  in  Europe,  and 
especially  in  Germany,  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries. 

Cornucopia , the  horn  or  symbol  of  plenty,  is  placed  in 
the  hands  of  emblematical  figures  of  Plenty,  Liberality, 
and  the  like,  who  are  represented  as  pouring  from  it  an 
abundance  of  fruits  or  corn.  It  is  frequently  used  in 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  heraldry. 

Id  lis,  a  mythical  figure  in.  Welsh  tradition,  supposed 
to  have  been  at  once  a  giant,  a  prince,  and  an  astrono- 
mer. On  the  summit  of  Cader  Idris  in  Merionethshire, 
may  be  seen  his  rock-hewn  chair,  and  an  ancient  tradi- 
tion told  that  any  Welsh  bard  who  could  pass  the  night 
upon  it  would  be  found  the  next  morning,  either  dead, 
mad,  or  endowed  with  supernatural  poetic  inspiration. 
This  tradition  forms  the  subject  of  a  fine  poem  by  Mrs. 
Hemans;  the  gigantic  size  of  the  chair  is  alluded  to  in 
Tennyson's  "  Geraint  and  Enid." 

Griffin,  The,  is  a  chimerical  creature,  and  first  men- 
tioned by  Aristeas  about  500  B.  C.  The  griflin  is  vari- 
ously described  and  represented,  but  the  shape  in  which 
it  mbst  frequently  appears  is  that  of  a  cross  between  a 
lion  and  an  eagle,  having  the  body  and  legs  of  the  for- 
mer, with  the  beak  and  wings  of  the  latter,  and  the. 
addition  of  pointed  ears.  Sometimes  the  four  leg&are 
all  like  those  of  an  eagle,  and  the  head  is  that  of  a  cock. 
The  figure  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  East,  as  it  is 
found  in  ancient  Persian  sculptures.  Among  the  Greeks 
it  appears  on  antique  coins,  and  as  an  ornament  in  clas- 
sical architecture. 

Nectar  is  the  name  given  by  Homer,  Hesiod,  Pindar, 
and  the  Greek  poets  generally,  and  by  the  Romans,  to 
the  beverage  of  the  gods,  their  food  being  called  am- 
brosia. But  Sappho  and  Alcman  make  nectar  the  food 
of  the  gods,  and  ambrosia  their  drink.  Homer  describes 
nectar  as  resembling  red  wine,  and  represents  its  con- 
tinued use  as  causing  immortality.  By  the  later  poets, 
nectar  and  ambrosia  are  represented  "as  of  most  deli- 
cious odor;  and  sprinkling  with  nectar,  or  anointing 
with  ambrosia,  is  spoken  of  as  conferring  perpetual 
youth,  and  they  are  assumed  as  the  symbols  of  every- 
thing most  delicious  to  the  taste. 

Vishnu  is  the  second  god  of  the  Hindu  triad,  now  the 
most  worshiped  of  all  Hindu  gods.  Originally,  in  the 
oldest  Vedas,  a  sun-god,  he  gradually  increased  in  influ- 
ence at  the  expense  of  other  gods,  and  in  the  later 
Purana,  is  the  supreme  god.  Always  a  friendly  god,  he 
became  specially  the  friend  and  benefactor  of  man  in 
his  avatars  or  incarnations.  The  Vishnuite  doctrines 
were  gathered  into  one  body  in  the  eleventh  century,  as 
the  Vishnu-Purana.  Of  twenty  principal  sects,  votaries 
of  Vishnu,  and  one  hundred  minor  brotherhoods,  some 
are  merely  local,  others  are  wealthy  bodies  and  wide- 
spread. 

Damon  and  Pythias,  two  noble  Pythagoreans  of 
Syracuse,  are  remembered  as  the  models  of  faithful 
friendship.  Pythias,  having  been  condemned  to  death 
by  the  elder  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  begged 
to  be  allowed  to  go  home  for  the  purpose  of  arranging 
his  domestic  affairs,  Damon  pledging  his  own  life  for 
the  reappearance  of  his  friend  at  the  time  appointed 
for  his  doom.  Dionysius  consented,  and  Pythias  re- 
turned just  in  time  to  save  Damon  from  death.  Struck 
by  so  noble  an  example  of  mutual  affection,  the  tyrant 
pardoned  Pythias,  and  desired  to  be  admitted  into' their 
sacred  fellowship. 

Brownie,  a  very  engaging  though  mythical  creature 
of  the  Scottish  rural  districts,  is  believed  to  assist  in 
housework  at  night.  The  brownie  is  good  tempered 
and  industrious,  but  has  a  great  objection  to  slovenli- 
ness, and  marks  his  sense  of  neglect  by  pinching  slat- 
ternly maids.  Good  housewives  leave*  out  a  bowl  of 
milk  for  him.  If  the  farm  changed  hands  the  brownie 
usually  left,  which  may  explain  why  there  are  none 
now.  The  resemblance"  of  the  Scotch  brownie  to  the 
Jiobin  Good/ellow  of  the  English  and  the  Kobold  of  the 
German  folklore  is  obvious,  but  perhaps  they  may  be 


traced  further  to  the  lares  or  hearth  spirits  of  the  an- 
cients. The  Russian  Domovoy  lives  behind  the  stove, 
and  in  some  families  a  portion  of  the  supper  is  always 
Bel  aside  for  him  ;  for  if  he  la  neglected  he  waxes  wroth 
and  knocks  the  tables  and  benches  about  at  night. 
Spirits  with  similar  functions  elsewhere,  are  the  Lithu- 
anian kdiikn,  the  Finnish  poara,  and  the  French  latin. 

Star  Legends.  InCalicia,  the  province  northeast  of 
Hungary,  the  peasants  believe  that  when  a  star  falls  to 
earth,  it  is  at  once  transformed  into  a  rarely  beautiful 
woman  with  long  hair,  blonde  and  glittering.  This 
splendid  creature,  miraculously  engendered,  exercises 
on  all  who  come  in  contact  with" her  a  magical  influence. 
Every  handsome  youth  unfortunate  enough  to  attract 
her  attention  becomes  her  victim.  Thus  having  allured 
them  to  her,  she  encircles  them  with  her  arm  in  an  em- 
brace that  becomes  gradually  tighter  and  tighter,  until 
the  poor  dupes  arc  strangled"  to  death.  If  certain  words 
are  murmured  the  moment  the  star  starts  to  fall,  they 
cause  her  allurements  to  lose  their  power.  From  this 
superstition  springs  the  custom  of  wishing  while  a  star  is 
seen  hurrying  through  the  air,  a  wish  said  surely  to 
come  true'if  completely  formulated  before  the  light  is 
extinguished.  The  Spaniards  saw  in  the  falling  stars 
the  souls  of  their  dead  friends,  the  thread  of  whose  ex- 
istence was  cut  short  by  destiny.  The  Arabs  thought 
these  stars  to  be  burning"stones  thrown  by  angels  at  the 
heads  of  devils  who  attempted  to  enter  Paradise. 

Valhalla  is  the  place  of  residence  for  the  fallen  in 
battle,  in  Scandinavian  mythology.  The  name  Valhalla 
was  given  to  a  magnificent  marlile  structure  of  nearly 
the  same  proportions  as  the  Parthenon,  erected  by  Lud- 
wig  I.,  of  Bavaria  (1830-41),  as  a  Temple  of  Fame  for  all 
Germany,  on  an  eminence  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
above  the  Danube,  near  Ratisbon.  By  means  of  statues, 
busts,  reliefs,  and  tablets,  the  mythology  and  history  of 
Germany  are  illustrated  and  her  great  names  commemo- 
rated. 

Thule  was  the  name  given  by  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  most  remote  northern  portion  of  the 
world  then  known.  Whether  an  island  or  part  of  a 
continent,  is  not  known.  It  is  mentioned  by  Pytheas, 
the  Greek  navigator,  who  says  it  is  six  days'' sail  from 
Britain,  and  that  its  climate  is  a  mixture  of  earth,  air, 
and  sea.  Ptolemy,  with  more  exactitude,  tells  us  that 
the  sixty-three  degrees  of  north  latitude  runs  through 
the  middle  of  Thule,  and  adds  that  the  days  there  are,  at 
the  equinoctials,  twenty-four  hours  long. 

Amulet  is  any  object  worn  as  a  charm.  It  is  often  a 
stone  or  a  piece  of  metal,  with  an  inscription  or  some 
figures  engraved  on  it,  and  is  generally  suspended  from 
the  neck,  and  worn  as  a  preservative  against  sickness  or 
witchcraft.  Its  origin,  like  its  name,  seems  to  be  ori- 
ental. 

Cockatrice,  The,  is  a  fabulous  monster,  often  con- 
founded with  the  basilisk,  and  regarded  as  possessing 
similar  deadly  powers.  To  the  charms  of  the  basilisk  is 
added  a  dragon's  tail  armed  with  a  sting;  and  it  shared 
also  the  power  of  destroying,  by  a  glance,  so  often  re- 
ferred to  in  Shakespeare,  and  Other  early  writers. 

Cuneiform  is  a  term  descriptive  of  a  form  of  writ- 
ing of  which  the  component  parts  resemble  a  wedge.  It 
was  used  by  the  peoples  of  Babylonia,  Assyria,  and  other 
ancient  nations,  and  was  inscribed  upon 'stone,  bronze, 
iron,  glass,  and  clay.  It  was  not  until  the  seventeenth 
century  that  the  wedge-shaped  characters  were  sus- 
pected" to  be  other  than  idle  fancies  of  the  architects. 

Arthur's  Round  Tahle  contained  seats  for  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  knights.  Three  were  reserved;  two  for 
honor,  and  one  (called  the  siege  perilous)  for  Sir  Gala- 
had, destined  to  achieve  the  quest  of  the  Sangreal.  If 
anyone  else  attempted  to  sit  in  it,  his  death  was  the  cer- 
tain penalty. 

Undines,  The,  according  to  the  fanciful  system  of 
Paracelsis,  were  female  water  sprites.  They  intermarry 
readily  with  human  beings,  and  the  Undine  who  gives 
birth  to  a  child  under  such  a  union  receives,  with  her 
babe,  a  human  soul.  But  the  man  who  takes  an  Undine 
to  wife  must  be  careful  not  to  go  on  the  water  with  her, 
or  at  least  must  not  vex  her  while  there,  or  she  returns 
to  her  native  element. 

Isis  was  an  Egyptian  goddess.  The  deities  of  ancient 
Egypt  might  be  male  or  female,  but  in  neither  case 
could  the  Egyptian  worshiper  conceive  a  deity  as  ex- 
isting in  isolation;  to  every  deity  of  either  sex  there 
must  be  a  counterpart  of  the  other  sex.  It  was  to  this 
notion  that  the  goddess  Isis  owed  her  origin ;  she  was 
the  counterpart  of  Osiris,  and  this  fact  is  expressed  in 
the  statement  that  she  was  at  once  wife  and  sister  of 
Osiris, 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


207 


OUTLINES    OF    HISTORY. 

Chronological  and  Historical  Tabulations  Designed  for  Ready  Reference. 

Prehistoric  Ages.  —  Sir  J.  Lubbock  distinguishes  four  prehistoric  ages,  as  follows : 
1.  The  Paleolithic  or  Early  Stone  Age.  2.  The  Neolithic  or  Polished  Stone  Age.  3.  The 
Bronze  Age.  4.  The  Iron  Age.  In  the  Stone  Age  man  knew  nothing  of  pottery  or  agri- 
culture and  had  no  domestic  animals  except  the  dog.  In  the  Bronze  Age  arms  and  cutting 
instruments  were  made  of  bronze.     In  the  Iron  Age  bronze  was  superseded  by  iron. 


FROM  THE   DELUGE  TO  THE  TIME  OF  CYRUS 


2350 


1300 


1200 


1100 


1000 


The  Deluge.  2200  (circa).    Hia  dynasty  founded  in  China. 

1996.  Birth  of  Abraham.     1921.  Call  of  Abraham.     1896.  Isaac  born.     1837.  Jacob  and  Esau  born. 

1822.  Egyptian  alphabet  invented.   1729.  Joseph  sold  into  Egypt.    1706.  Jacob  removes  into  Egypt. 

1700.  Rameses,  King  of  Egypt.    1618.  Sesostris,  King  of  Egypt. 

1582.  Beginning  of  the  chronology  of  the  Axundelian  marbles,  brought  to  England  A.D.  1627. 

1574.  Moses  born.    1571.  Aaron  born. 

1491.  The  Exodus.    The  Law  given  from  Sinai.    1451.  Moses  and  Aaron  die. 

1451.  Joshua  leads  the  Israelites  into  Canaan. 


The  Hebrews 


Egypt 


The  Pharaohs. 


45.  Gideon  conquers  the  Midian- 

ites. 


88.  Jephthah. 

5<).  Eli. 

36.  Samson  slays  the  Philistines. 

20.  Samuel. 


95.  Saul,  King. 

55.  David,  King. 

42.  The  Ark  removed  to  Jerusalem. 

23.  Revolt  of  Absalom. 

15.  Solomon,  King. 

12.  The  Temple  begun. 


90.  Queen  of  Sheba  visits  Solomon.  '?•  Shishak. 

75.  Solomon  dies.  i  (1-  Invades  Judea 

Revolt  of  the  ten  tribes— two  5,nd  plunders  the 
Kingdoms  formed :  Ple- 


900 


800 


Judah 

Rehoboam, 

King. 
58.  Abijah. 
55.  Asa. 

4.  Jehosba- 
phat. 


89.  Jehoram. 

88.  The  Philis- 
tines plunder 
Jerusalem. 

78.  Joash. 


Israel 

Jeroboam, 

King. 
54.  Nadab. 
26.  Samaria 

built. 
18.  Ahab  and 

Jezebel. 


97.  Elijah  trans- 
lated. 

92.  Syrians  be- 
siege Samaria. 

84.  Jehu. 

40.  Jehoash  de- 
feats King 
Henhadad  of 
Svria. 


Assyria         Greece,  etc. 


73.  Rise  of  the 
Assyrian  Empire.  63.  Jason  and  the 
Semiramis.  Argonauts. 


50.  Nebuchad- 
nezzar I. 
30.  Tiglath  Pileser. 


94.  The  Trojan 

War. 
84.  Capture  of 

Troy. 

Chow  dynasty 

founded  in 

China. 


900.  Erection  of  the 
Northwest  Palace 
of  Nimroud. 


69.  Codrus  dies 
for  his  people. 
68.  Archons  chosen 


75.  Sardanapalus. 
70.  The  Assyrians 

conquer 

Phoenicia. 


Homer. 

84.  Legislation  of 

Lycurgusat 

Sparta. 
78.  Carthage 

founded  by 

Dido. 


208 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


B.C. 

Judith 

Israel 

Assyria 

Egrypt 

Greece,  Rome 

Joel,  prophet. 

Jonah. 

76.  Commence- 

59. Jotham. 

ment  of  Olym- 

42. Ahaz  pays  trib- 

47. Assyrians  in- 

47. Nabonassar. 

piads—first 

ute  to  Tiglath 
Pileser. 

vade  Israel. 

41.  Tiglath  Pileser. 

authentic  date 
in  Greek  history. 

41.  Pekah,  King  of 
Israel,  besieges 
Jerusalem ; 

30.  Hosea  pays 

tribute. 

28.  Shalmaneser. 

53.  Rome  founded 
by  Romulus. 

120,000  of  his  men 
are  slain  in  one 
day. 
26.  Hezekiah. 
Isaiah. 

21.  The  ten  tribes 
carried  into  cap- 
tivity. 

23.  Invades 
Phoenicia. 

11.  Sennacherib's 

50.  Sabine  war  in 
Rome. 

17.  Sennacherib. 

Nahum. 
10  Sennacherib's 

9.  Esarhadon,  King  of 

invasion. 

TOO 

army  destroyed. 
97.  Manasseh. 



.Babylonia 







42.  Amon. 

41.  Josiah. 

11.  Necho  11.  loses 

24.  Code  of  Draco, 

Jeremiah. 

200,000  men  try- 
ingto  cut  canal 
to  Red  Sea. 

Athens. 
16.  Tarquin  the 

Habakkuk. 

Elder,  King  of 

6.  Jerusalem 

6.  Nebuchadnezzar  the  Great  defeats 

6.  Nebuchadnez- 

Rome. 

taken  by 

Necho  of  Egypt,  invades  Judea  and 

zar  defeats 

OOO 

Nebuchadnezzar. 

98.  Jehoiachin. 
96.  Zedekiah. 
88.  Jerusalem  de- 

ta 

kes  Jerusalem. 



Necho. 
94.  Apries,  King. 

94.  Splon  gives 

89.  Nebuchadnezzar  invades  Phoenicia. 

laws  at  Athens. 

stroyed. 

79-72.  Conquered 

79.  TakesTyre. 

and  devasted  by 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

78.  Servius  Tul- 
lius,  Rome. 

Ezekiel. 

Destroys  Nineveh. 

Jews  carried  captive  to  Babylon. 

55.  Belshazzar. 

Amasis. 

34.  Tarquin  the 

38.  Cyrus,  the  Mede,  captures  Babylon  and  establishes  the 

Paammenit. 

Proud. 

Persian  Empire. 

25.  Conquest  by 

36.  Cyrus  ends  captivity  of  the  Jews. 

Cambyses,  son  of 

29.  Death  of  Cyrus. 

Cyrus. 

FROM  CYRUS  TO  ALEXANDER 

Persia 

Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome 

21.  Darius  I. 

Zechariah,  prophet. 

Haggai. 

15.  Dedication  of  sec- 

ond temple  at  Jerusa-    ,„   „,.     „.  .  . 

jem         r                          10.  The  Pisistratidae 

10.  The  Tarquins  van- 

expelled  from  Athens. 

8.  Subdued  by  Darius  |      quished. 

8-6.  Conquest  of 

Republic. 

of  Persia. 

Republic. 

Thrace,  Paeonia,  and 

4.  Sardis  burned  by 

Consuls. 

500 

Macedonia. 

the  Greeks. 

1.  Dictators. 

94.  Darius  invades 

90.  Miltiades  defeats 

93.  Tribunes  chosen. 

Greece. 

the  Persians  at 

91.  Coriolanus  con- 

90. Defeated  at 

Marathon. 

quered. 

Marathon. 

81.  Xerxes  invades 
Greece. 

80.  Leonidas  at  Ther- 
mopylae.   Themisto- 
cles  at  Salamis. 

Xerxes  destroys  Athens. 

89.  Besieges  Rome. 
88.  Retires  at  his 
mother's  suit. 

79.  Returns  defeated. 

80-50.  Anaxagoms 

67.  Ezra  returns  to 

teaches  philosophy. 

Jerusalem. 

79.  Battles  of  Mycale 

58.  Cincinnatus  Dic- 

65. Artaxerxes  I. 

and  Platsea ;  Persians 
retreat. 

tator. 

60.  Egypt  revolts. 

51.  First  decemvirate. 

56.  Esther. 

44.  Pericles  supreme. 

49.  "Virginius  kills  his 
daughter  to  save  her 
honor. 

55.  Jerusalem  rebuilt 
by  Nehemiah. 

43.  The  Parthenon  built 
by  Phidias. 

31.  Peloponnesian  war. 

40.  Famine  in  Rome. 

29.  Death  of  Pericles. 

Socrates. 

1.  Battle  of  Ctuuuca  : 

14.  Battle  of  Syracuse. 

400 

Cyrus  the  Younger 
slain. 

13.  Athenians  invade 
Sicily. 

HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


209 


B.C. 

Persia                      Greece                 Macedonia 

Ronie 

ArtaxerxesMnemon.  95.  Corinthian  war.          98.  Amyntas. 

94.  Persians  and  Athe- 

90. Rome  burnt  by  the 
Gauls. 

nians  in  battle  of           ^   oiinthian  war. 
Cnidus. 

76.  Civil  war  between 

78.  Theban  war— 

patricians  and  ple- 
beians. 

Epaminondas.Theban 

general. 

58.  Philip  II.                      69-  Tribunes  abolished. 
38-A.thenians and  ,           40.  Samnian  war  bearms. 

Thebans  defeated 

39.  War  with  Macedon.       at  Chaeronea. 

37.  "War  with  Latins. 

36.  Darius  III.  (Codo-                                                     36.  Murder  of  Philip. 

manus).                                                                             Accession  of  Alex- 

35.  Surrender  of 

35.  Greeks  conquered            ander  the  Great. 

Latium. 

by  Alexander  the           34   Battie  of  the 

Great. 
Thebes  destroyed. 

Granicus. 

34.  Persia  invaded  and 

conquered  by  Alex-     1                                             _,             ._ 
ander  the  Great  of                                            ™-  Battle  of  Is8U8- 

33.  Capture  of  Damascus.    Siege  of  Tyre. 

32.  Treaty  with  Alex- 

32. Alexander  captures  Tyre  and  conquers  Egypt.  Alexandria  founded. 

ander. 

31.  Battle  of  Arbela— subjugation  of  Persia. 

30.  Darius  assassinated. 

28.  Alexander  invades  India. 

24.  Alexander  dies  at  Babylon. 

FROM  ALEXANDER  TO  AUGUSTUS 

Egypt 

Syria 

Greece 

Macedonia 

Rome 

22.  Ptolemy  I. 

23.  Seleucus  I. 

21.  Romans  de- 

1. Battle  of  Issus. 

feated  by  Pon- 

Final division  of 

tius. 

Alexander's  do- 

300 

minions. 

81.  War  with 

Ptolemv  Lagus. 
84.  Ptolemy  Phila- 

99.  Athens  taken 

98.  Philip  IV. 

Pvrrhus,  King 
of  Epirus. 

by  Demetrius. 

x 

delphus. 

83.  Antiochus  I. 

97.  Republic  re- 
established. 

80.  Pyrrhus 

invades  Italy. 
74.  Pyrrhus 

87.  Birth  of  Ar- 

88. Lysimachus, 

defeated  at  Ben- 
even  turn. 

f5.  Rome  supreme 
over  all  Italy. 

64.  First  Punic 

chimedes  (d.  212). 
91.  Achaean  league. 

79.  Irruption  of 

King  of  Thrace, 
subjects  Mace- 
donia. 

the  Gauls. 

war. 

46.  Ptolemy  Ever- 

46.  Seleucus  I. 

51.  Achaean  league 

56.  Defeat  of 

Carthaginians. 
55.  Regulus  capt'd 

getes. 

renewed. 

bv  Carthaginians 

41.  Catullus 

Kgy  |  >t  ians  conquer 

defeats 

Carthaginians. 

18.  Second  Punic 

war. 

Hannibal 

26.  Reforms  of 

defeats  Romans 

Cleomenes. 

at  Ticinus. 

21.  Ptolemy  Philo- 

23.  Antiochus 

17.  Hannibal 

pater. 

the  Great. 

20.  Philip  V. 

11.  War  with  Rome 

passes  the 
Apennines. 

16.  Battle  of 
Cannae. 

11-5.  First  Mace- 
donian war. 

7.  Carthaginians 
defeated  at 
Metaunis. 

200 

4.  Ptolemy 
Epiphane. 

3.  Scipio  carries 
war  into  Africa. 

2.  Hannibal 
defeated. 

210 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


lOO 


Egypt 


Judea 


Syria 


80.  Ptolemy 
Philometer. 


45.  Ptolemy 
Phvscon. 


17.  Ptolemy 
Lathyrus. 


Ptolemy 
Alexander. 


65.  Berenice. 


43.  Murder  of 

Poinpey. 
45.  Cleopatra. 


30   Death  of 
Antony  and 
Cleopatra. 

Egypt  subdued 
by  Rome. 


Egyptians 
driven  out 
by  Antiochus. 


65.  Antiochus 
defeated  by 
Judas. 


35.  John  Hyr- 
canus. 


6.  Aristobulus. 
5.  Alexander 
Jannaeus. 


78.  Alexandra, 
Queen. 

70.  Hyrcanusll. 

G7.  Aristobulus 

II. 
63.  Jerusalem 

taken  by  the 

Romans. 


98.  Independ- 
ent. 


75.  Antiochus 

IV. 
70.  Plunders 

Jerusalem. 


Greece 


Macedonia    Rome 


91.  Sparta  joins    99.  Second  war 

the  league. 
88.  Laws  of 

Lycurgus 


30.  Antiochus 

VII. 
23.  Antiochus 

VIII. 
12.  Antiochus 

IX. 


C9.  Antiochus 

XIII. 
64.  Pompey 

makes  Syria 

a  Roman 

province. 


abolished  by 
Philopccmen. 


46.  Corinth 
taken  by 
Mummius. 


with  Rome. 
Perseus. 
Third  war 


with  Rome. 
68.  Battle  of 

I'ydna. 
Macedonia 

ma  dea  Roman 

province. 


99.  Second 
war  with 
Mace- 
donia. 


72.  Third 
war  with 
Mace- 
donia. 


49.  Third  Punic  warj 
4G.  Carthage  destroyed,  j 

34.  First  Servile  war.  I 


33.  Conquest  of  Spain. 


2.  Second  Servile  War 


90-88.  The  Social  war  in  Italy. 


73-72. 


J8.  War  with  Pontus. 
Civil  war — Marius  and  Sulla. 
Victories  of  Lucullus. 


63.  Second  conspiracy  of  Catiline— Cicero's 
orations. 

60.  First  triumvirate: 
Pompey,  Julius  Ca?sar,  Crassus. 

55.  Caesar  invades  Britain.    Crassus  killed  by  the  Parthians. 
»  51.  Gaul  subjugated. 

49.  Civil  war  between  Caesar  and  Pompey.    Caesar  dictator. 
48.  Battle  of  Pharsalia. 
45.  War  in  Spain.        Pompeians  defeated  at  Munda.     Caesar  dictator  for  life. 
44.  Caesar  assassinated.  Antony  master  of  Rome.   Corinth  and  Carthage  rebuilt. 
43.  Second  triumvirate — Octavius,  Antony,  Lepidus.    Cicero  put  to  death.  Ovid 

born. 
42.  Battle  of  Philippi.        Death  of  Brutus  and  Cassius.       Triumvirs  masters  of 

the  Roman  world. 

40.  Herod  made  King  of  the  Jews.  32.  War  between  Octavius  and  Antony. 

31.  Battle  of  Actium. 

Establishment  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

27.  Caesar  Octavius,  Emperor,  iinder  the  title  of  Augustus. 

17-7.  Temple  of  Jerusalem  rebuilt  by  Herod. 

12.  Drusus  invades  Germany. 

4.  The  Advent  of  Christ  (according  to  ITsher). 


FROM  AUGUSTUS  TO  CHARLEMAGNE 


lOO 


2()0 


300 


4-6.  Tiberius  in  Germany.    9.  Varus  and  his  legions  destroyed  by  the  Germans  under  Hermann. 

29.  The  Crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ.    (Some  authorities  give  A.D.  33  as  the  date.) 
37.  Caligula.        41.  Claudius.       54.  Nero.        61.  Insurrection  o2  the  Britons  under  Boadicea. 
64.  Rome  burned.    Christians  persecuted.        70.  Jerusalem  destroyed  by  Titus. 

79.  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  destroyed  by  eruption  of  Vesuvius. 

17.  Hadrian. 


80.  Birth  of  Galen. 
96.  Severus  captures  Byzantium. 


63.  Persecution  of  Christians. 


2.  Persecution  of  Christians.  9.  Severus  invades  Caledonia. 

36.  Persecution  of  Christians  renewed.  52-67.  Dreadful  pestilence. 

G3.  The  Franks  invade  Gaul. 


31.  Persian  war. 


3.  Diocletian  persecutes  Christians.    6.  Constantine  the  Great.    11.  Edict  to  stop  persecutions. 
23.  Constantine  sole  emperor.  25.  Council  of  Nice.  26.  Arian  controversy. 

64.  Valentinian  and  Valens  joint  emperors.        Final  division  of  the  empire. 


HISTORY  ANT)  BIOGRAPHY. 


211 


A.D. 

The  Western  Empire 

The  Eastern  Empire 

300 

03.  Honorius,  Emperor. 

94.  Theodosius  master  of  the  whole  Roman 

76.  Valens  allows  the  Huns  to  settle  in  Thrace. 
78.  Constantinople  threatened  by  the  Goths. 

world. 

95.  Arcadius,  Emperor  of  the  East. 

95.  Death  of  Theodosius. 

The  Huns  invade  the  Eastern  provinces. 

400 

400.  The  Goths,  under  Alaric,  overrun  Italy. 
9.  Romans  driven  from  Spain. 
10.  Alaric  sacks  Rome. 

8.  Theodosius  II. 

11.  Roman  legions  recalled  from  Britain. 

28.  Nestor,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

40.  Leo  I.  (the  Great;  Bishop  of  Rome. 
43.  Landing  of  Anglo-Saxons  in  Britain. 

52.  Attila  invades  Italy. 

53.  Death  of  Attila. 

55.  Genseric  sacks  Rome. 

29.  Vandals,  under  Genseric,  invade  Africa. 

33.  Attila,  King  of  the  Huns. 

39.  The  Vandals  surprise  Carthage. 

47.  Attila  ravages  the  empire  and  exacts  tribute. 

50.  Marcian. 

57.  Hengist  founds  the  kingdom  of  Kent. 

65.  Great  lire  at  Constantinople. 

72.  The  Visigoths  conquer  Spain. 

76.  Odoacer,  King  of  Italy. 

End  of  Western  Empire. 

86.  The  Franks  in  Gaul. 

89.  The  Ostrogoths  in  Italy. 

oOO 

7.  Kingdom  of  the  Franks  founded  by  Clovis. 

2.  The  empire  ravaged  by  the  Persians. 

39.  Belisarius  in  Italy. 

29.  The  Justinian  code  published. 

52.  Ostrogoths  expelled  from  Italy. 

96.  The  Lombards  overrun  Italy. 

81.  The  Slavonians  in  Thrace. 

600 

28.  Dagobert,  King  of  France. 

12.  Mahomet  spreads  his  doctrines. 
14.  Persians  ravage  Syria  and  Palestine. 

56.  Clovis  II.,  King  of  France. 

22.  The  Hegira. 

62.  Lombards  defeat  Constans  II.  in  Italy. 

40.  The  Saracens  invade  Egypt. 

78.  Cadwallader,  last  King  of  the  Britons. 

73.  Siege  of  Constantinople. 

97.  Anefesto,  Doge  of  Venice. 

97.  Saracens  conquer  Northern  Africa. 

TOO 

11.  Saracens  invade  Spain. 

14.  Charles  Martel,  Duke  of  France. 

32.   Battle  of  Tours.     Saracens  defeated  by 

20.  The  Saracens  defeated  at  Constantinople. 

the  Franks  under  Charles  Martel. 
52.  Pepin  the  Short,  King  of  France. 

30.  Iconoclasts  burn  and  destroy  works  of  art. 

68.  Succeeded  by  his  sons,  Charlemagne  and 
Carlo'man. 

72-85.  Charlemagne  conquers  the  Saxons. 

74.  Charlemagne  conquers  the  Lombards. 

87.  The  Danes  in  England. 

800 

91-96.  Charlemagne  establishes  the  margravate 
of  Austria. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  Caliph  of  Arabia. 

800.  Charlemagne  crowned  Emperor  of  the 
West  by  Pope  Leo  III. 

212 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


FROM   CHARLEMAGNE  TO   NAPOLEON 

A.D. 

England 

France 

Germany 

Eastern  Empire 

800 
900 

1000 

1100 

1200 

1300 
1400 

The  Anglo-Saxons 

28.  Egbert,  King. 
71.  Alfred  the  Great. 

24.  Athelstane. 

37.  Defeats  Danes, 
Scots,  etc. 

79.  Edward  the  Martyr 
assassinated. 

Ethelred. 
10.  Edmund. 

The  Danes 

17.  Canute  sole  ruler. 

34.  Canute  II. 

42.  Saxons  restored. 
Edward  the  Con- 
fessor 
66.  Battle  of  Hastings. 
The  Normans 
William  I.  (the 
Conqueror). 
87.  William  II. 

Henry  I. 

35.  Stephen. 

The  Plantagenets 

64.  Henry  II. 

71.  Invasion  of  Ireland. 

89.  Richard  Coeur  de 
Lion. 

99.  John  Lackland. 

15.  Magna  Charta 

signed. 

16.  Henry  III. 

62.  War  of  the  Barons. 

65.  Barons  defeated. 
72   Edward  I. 

82.  Conquest  of  Wales. 
97.  Sir  William  Wallace 

in  Scotland. 

7.  Edward  II. 

14.  Battle  of  Bannock- 
burn. 

27.  Edward  III. 

46.  Battle  of  Cressy. 

66.  Battle  of  Poictiers. 
77.  Richard  III. 

House  of  Lancaster 
99.  Henry  IV. 

13.  Henry  V. 

War  with  France. 

15.  Battle  of  Agincourt. 
22.  Henry  VI. 

53.  War  of  the  Roses. 

House  of  York 
61.  Edward  IV. 

83.  Edward  V. 
House  of  Tudor 

85.  Henry  VII. 

41.  Charles  the  Bald. 

61.  Pillaged  by  North- 
men. 

12.  Robert,  Duke  of 
Normandy. 

Capetian  Dynasty 

88.  Hugh  Capet,  King. 

96.  Robert  II. 

Paris  made  capital. 

31.  Henry  I. 
60.  Philip  I. 

87.  War  with  England. 
8.  Louis  the  Eat. 
37.  Louis  VII. 

80.  Philip  II. 

14.  Philip  Augustus. 
Battle  of  Bouvines. 

26.  Louis  IX. 

48.  Louis  IX  leads 
seventh  crusade. 

70.  Dies  before  Tunis. 
Philip  III. 

1.  Philip  IV.  quarrels 
with  the  Pope. 

14.  Louis  X. 

House  of  Valois 

28.  Philip  VI. 

50.  John  II. 
64.  Charles  V. 
80.  Charles  VI. 

22.  Charles  VII. 

29.  Joan  of  Arc  raises 
siege  of  Orleans. 

51.  English  expelled. 
01.  Louis  XI. 

83.  Charles  VIII. 

Valois-Orleans 

98.  Louis  XII. 

House  of  Prance 

14.  Louis  the  Debon- 
naire  separates  Ger- 
many from  France. 

House  of  Saxony 

18.  Henry  I.  (the 

Fowler). 
34.  Conquers  Huns, 

Danes,  Vandals, 

Bohemians. 
62.  Otho  I.  crowned 

Emperor  by  Pope. 
83.  Otho  III. 

House  of  Bavaria 

2.  Henry  II.  (Saint). 

House  of  F ran con  i  a 

22.  Conrad  II. 

39.  Henry  III. 
56.  Henry  IV. 

73.  War  with  Saracens. 

77.  Henry  goes  to 
Canossa  and  submits 
to  Pope. 

6.  Henry  V. 

38.  Conrad  III. 

52.  Frederick  I. 

Barbarossa. 
54.  Invades  Italy. 
02.  Destroys  Milan. 
67.  Italian  League. 

9.  Otto  IV. 
18.  Frederick  II. 

41.  Hanseatic  League 
formed. 

House  of  Hapsburg 

73.  Rudolph  I. 

92.  Adolph. 
98.  Albert  I. 

7.  Swiss  revolt. 
William  Tell. 

15.  Battle  of  Morgarten. 
Swiss  independence. 

House  of  Luxemburg 
49.  Charles  IV. 

78.  Wenceslaus. 
10.  Sigismund. 

15.  John  Huss  burned. 

House  of  Austria 

38.  Albert  II. 

40.  Frederick  III. 

93.  Maximilian  I. 

11.  Bulgarians  defeat 
the  Greek  Emperor. 

69.  John  Zimisces. 

54.  Schism  of  Greek 
Church. 

81.  Alexius  Comnenus. 

96.  Suspicious  recep- 
tion of  Crusaders. 

43.  Manuel  Comnenus. 

47.  Treachery  to  Ger- 
man Crusaders. 

4.  Baldwin  I. 

6.  Peter  de  Courtenay. 

19.  Robert  de 

Courtenay, 

28.  Baldwin  II. 

61.  Michael  Paleologus. 

28.  Andronic  III. 

41.  John  Paleologus. 

60.  The  Turks  in 
Adrianople. 

91.  Manuel  Paleologus. 

25.  John  Paleologus  II. 

48.  Constantine  Pale- 
ologus. 

53.  Amurath  captures 
Constantinople. 

Turkey 

56.  Turks  defeated  at 
Belgrade. 

HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


21  :i 


A.D. 

800 
900 


FROM   CHARLEMAGNE  TO   NAPOLEON 


Spain 


73.  Kingdom  of 
Navarre  founded 
by  Sancho  Inigo. 


Italy 


Russia 


42.  Invasion  by  the 
Saracens. 


lOOO 


.  Ruric,  the  Nor- 
man, establishes 
first  regular 
government  at 
Novgorod. 


4.  Oleg  invades 
Greek  empire. 


Scandinavia      Contemporary 


88.  ATadimirthe 
90.  Genoa  becomes       Great  embraces 
rich  and  power-        Christianitv. 
ful. 


26.  Sancho  II.  ,  ,  ,_    „ 

King  of  Castile.  16"1'-  Saracens 
„    _,       .       _  expelled  bv  the 

31    Ramirez  I.  Normans. 

King  of  Aragon. 


llOO 


1200 


1300 


1400 


91.  Moors  seize 
Saracen 
possessions. 

95.  Henry  of 
Besanc'on  takes 
Portugal  from 
Saracens. 


Exploits  of  the 
Cid  Ruv  Diaz. 


1094-1144.  Dynasty 
of  the  Alihora- 
vides  at  Cordova 

44.  Alphonso  of 
Leon  defeats 
the  Moors  in 
several  battles. 

33-48.    Ferdinand 
III.  takes  Cordo- 
va, Toledo,  etc., 
from  the  Moors. 

,  38.  Moors  found 
Granada. 

74.  Crown  of 
Navarre  passes 
to  France. 


27.  Kinjr  of  Gra-     I 
nada  brings 
200,000  Moors 
from  Africa. 

40.  Alphonso  XI. 
of  Castile  defeats 
Moors  at  Tarifa. 


74.  Ferdinand  II. 

of  Aragon 

marries  Isabella 

of  Leon  and 

Castile. 
80-84.  Inquisition 

established. 

92-98.  Jews  perse- 
cuted. 

92.  Ferdinand 
takes  Granada. 


73-85.  Gregory VI I. 
establishes 
universal  sover- 
eigntyof  Papacy. 


20.  Rise  of  Lom- 
bard cities. 

25.  The  glory  of 
Venice. 

54.  Barbarossa. 

61.  Wars  of  the 
Guelphs  and 
Ghibellines. 

76.  Barbarossa 
def  ea  ted  at 
Legnano. 

83.  Peace  of 
Constance. 


800-1000.  Viking 

Period. 
Norwegians 

colonize  Iceland. 


Eric. 
93.  Olaf,  first 
Christian  King 
of  Sweden. 


2.  Massacre  of 
Danes  by 
Ethelred  of  Eng. 

3.  Avenged  by 
Svenn,  King  of 
Denmark. 

13.  Svenn  conquers 
England. 


80.  Inge  the  Elder 
King  of  Sweden. 


9.  Haroun  al 
Raschid,  Caliph 
of  Arabia,  dies. 


55.  Eric 
Edwardson. 


23.  Irruption  of 
Tartars. 

42.  Tartars 
establish  empire 
of  Kaptschak. 


1.  The  Northmen 
discover 
America. 

65.  Turks  take 
Jerusalem. 


96.  First  Crusade. 

98.  Crusaders  take 
Antioch. 

99.  Crusaders  take 
Jerusalem. 


4.  Crusaders  take 
Acre. 

46.  Second 
Crusade. 

72.  Saladin's  con- 
quest in  Asia. 

87.  Third  Crusade 

94.  Fourth 
Crusade. 


"6-50.  Wars  of 

Frederick  II. 
77.  The  Visconti 

at  Milan. 
82.  The  Sicilian 

Vespers. 

French  expelled 

from  Sicilv. 


8.  Pope  Clement 

V.  removes  to 

Avignon. 
39.  First  Doge  of     80.  War  with 

Genoa  appointed'     Tartars. 
47.  Rienzi  frees       ''  *?■  Moscow  burned 

Rome.  K  .Invasion  by 

51.  Death  of  Rienzi      Tamerlane. 


95.  Charles  VII. 
conquers  Naples 

96.  Charles  loses 
Naples. 

99.  Louis  XII., 
aided  by  Venice, 
conquers  Milan, 
but  does  not  hold 
it  long. 


41.  Danes  invade 
Russia ; 
defeated  by 
Alexander 
Newski. 


79.  Magnus. 
90.  Birger. 


89.  Margaret 
offered  the 
Swedish  Crown. 

97.  Union  of 
Caiman  Sweden, 
Norway  and 
Denmark. 
Eric  King. 


14.  War  with 

Schleswig. 

62.  Ivan  the  Great 

founds  present      34.  Revolt  of 

monarchv.  peasantry. 


79.  Great  Tartar 
invasion. 


91.  Tartars 
defeated. 


39.  Eric  dethroned 
70.  Sten  Sture. 


1200.  Fifth 
Crusade. 

17.  Sixth  Crusade. 

18.  Genghis  Khan, 
the  Mogul, 
conquers  Asia. 

68.  Eighth  and 
last  Crusade. 

99.  Osman  I., 
Turkish  empire. 


11.  Knights 
Templars 
suppressed. 


96.  Battle  of  Nico- 

Solis.  Christians 
efeated. 


7.  Battle  of  Angora 

Tamerlane 

captures  Bajazet 
22.  Amurath  II. 

consolidates 

Ottoman  Empire 
42.  Hungarians 

defeat  Turks  at 

Vasag. 

92.  Columbus  dis- 
covers America. 

:>'.  Cabot  discovers 
Newfoundland. 


214 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1500 


1600 


1700 


1800 


England 


France 


Germany 


9.  Henry  VIII. 
13.  Battle  of  Flodden. 
15.  Wolsey. 
20.  Field  of  the  Cloth  of 

Gold. 
36.  Anne  Boleyn 

beheaded. 
47.  Edward  VI. 

53.  Mary. 

54.  Marries  Philip  of 
Spain. 

58.  Elizabeth. 

87.  Mary  of  Scots 
beheaded. 

88.  Spanish  Armada. 

House  of  Stuart 

3.  James  I. 

25.  Charles  I. 
49.  Commonwealth 
Oliver  Cromwell. 

60.  Stuarts  restored. 

Charles  II. 
66.  Great  London  Are. 
79.  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 
85.  James  II. 
88.  William  and  Mary. 
90.  Battle  of  the  Boyne. 


2.  Anne. 

House  of  Hanover 

14.  George  I. 

27.  George  II. 

39.  War  with  Spain. 

46.  Stuart  troubles  in 
Scotland. 
Battle  of  Culloden. 

56.  War  with  France,     j 

60.  George  III. 

75.  War  with  American 
Colonies. 

97.  Nelson  destroys 
French  fleet  near 
Alexandria. 

1.  Union  with  Irela  id. 

3.  War  with  Fran.ii  .     j 
5.  Napoleon  defeatt  d 

at  Trafalgar. 

8.  Peninsular  War. 
12.  War  with  IT.  S. 
14.  Peace  with  IT.  S. 


13.  English  Invasion. 
15.  Francis  I. 

25.  Battle  of  Pavia. 

47.  Henry  II. 

59.  Francis  II. 

60.  Huguenot  War. 

72.  Massacre  of 

St.  Bartholomew. 
74.  Henry  III. 

House  of  Bourbon 

89   Henry  IV.  of 
Navarre. 


10.  Louis  XIII. 

21.  Richelieu. 

27.  Siege  of  Rochelle. 

43.  Louis  XIV. 

48.  Wars  of  the  Fronde. 

72.  Holland  invaded. 

85.  Edict  of  Nantes 
revoked. 

89.  War  with  England. 

97.  Peace  of  Ryswick. 

4.  Defeated  by  Marl- 
borough at  Blenheim. 
13.  Peace  of  Utrecht. 

15.  Louis  XV. 

16.  Speculation  era. 
George  Law. 

45.  Battle  of  Fontenoy. 

46.  Victories  of  Marshal 
Saxe. 

48.  Peace  of  Aix-la- 

Chapelle. 
74.  Louis  XVI. 
78.  Aids  America. 

87.  Assembly  of 
Notables. 

88.  States  General. 
81).  Revolution. 

93.  Reign  of  Terror. 

Louis  beheaded. 
Republic 
99.  Napoleon,  First 

Consul. 

4.  Napoleon,  Emperor. 

5.  Battle  of  Austerlitz. 

6.  Jena. 


IB.  Battle  of  Waterloo. 


it.  Wagram. 

12.  Russian  campaign. 

13.  War  with  all 
Europe. 

14.  Allies  enter  France 
Napoleon  sent  to  El  ha 

Restoration 

Louis  XVIII.,  King. 

15.  Napoleon  returns. 
Battle  of  Waterloo. 
Napoleon  sent  to 

St.  Helena. 


17.  Protestant  Refor- 
mation —  Luther. 

19.  Charles  V. 

21.  Diet  of  Worms. 

30.  Augsburg  Con- 
fession. 

36.  Death  of  John  of 
Ley den. 

56.  Charles V.  abdicates. 
Ferdinand  I. 

64.  Maximilian  II. 

76.  Rudolph  II. 

12.  Mathias. 

18.  Thirty  Years'  War. 

19.  Ferdinand  II. 

20.  Battle  of  Prague. 

30.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
of  Sweden  invades 
Germany. 

32.  Battle  of  Lutzen. 
Death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus. 

31.  Death  of  Wallen- 
stein. 

37.  Ferdinand  III. 

48.  Treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia closes  war  and 
establishes  religious 
toleration. 

59.  Leopold  I. 

99.  Peace  of  Carlowitz. 


5.  Joseph  I. 
11.  Charles  VI. 


42.  Charles  VII. 

War  of  Austrian  suc- 
cession. 

House  of  Lorraine 

43.  Francis  I.  (husband 
of  Maria  Theresa). 

56  63.  Seven  Years'  War. 

65.  Joseph  II. 

90.  Leopold  II. 

92.  Francis  I. 
Battle  of  Valmy. 

4.  Francis  renounces 
title  Emperor  of  the 
Romans  and  assumes 
that  of  Emperor  of 

Austria 

5.  Napoleon  estab- 
lishes Kingdoms  of 
Wiirtemberg  and 
Bavaria. 

6.  Dissolution  of  Ger- 
man Empire. 
Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  formed. 

7.  Kingdom  of  West- 
phalia. 

8.  Serfdom  abolished 
in  Prussia. 

13.  War  of  Liberation 
(against  Nai>oleon). 

I  13.  Battle  of  Leipzig. 

14.  Prussians  occupy 
Paris. 

14-15.  Congress  of 
Vienna.  German  (On 
federation  formed. 


America 


12.  Florida  discovered 
bv  Ponce  De  Leon. 

13.  "Balboa  discovers 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

21.  Cortez  conquers 
Mexico. 


44.  De  Soto  discovers 
the  Mississippi. 


85.  First  American 
settlement  founded 
by  Walter  Raleigh. 


7.  Jamestown  settle- 
ment. 


14.  New  Amsterdam 
settled. 


20.  Puritans  land  at 
Plymouth  Rock. 


William  Penn. 


33.  Oglethorpe  founds 
Savannah. 

59.  Quebec  captured 
by  the  English. 

63.  Peace  of  Paris. 
France  cedes  Canada 
to  England. 

75.  Battle  of  Lexington 

76.  Declaration  of  Inde 
pendence. 

89.  George  Washing- 
ton, President. 

97.  John  Adams,  Presi- 
dent. 

1.  Thomas  Jefferson, 
President. 


4-6.  Lewis  and  Clarke 
explore  the  Upper 
Missouri. 


9.  James  Madison, 
President. 


1&  Battle  of  New 

( nleans. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


215 


A  .  I  > . 

Spain 

Italy 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Contemporary 

1500 

1530-21  Mnliamme- 

dans  expelled. 

9.  Venice  stripped 

20.  Christian  II. 

12,  Ferdinand  con- 

of Italian  posses- 

21. Sweden  breaks 

quers  Navarre. 

sions. 

loose  from  Union 

16.  Accession 

of  Calmar. 

House  of  Austria 

13-22.  Pope  Leo  X. 

Gustavus  Vasa. 

35.  Order  of  Jesu- 

Charles I., 

33.  Ivan  IV. 

its  founded. 

King  of  Spain. 
19.  Charles  be- 

53. Trade  with 

59.  Frederick  II. 

72.  Holland,  under 

comes  Emperor 

England  begun. 

of  Denmark. 

William  of 

of  Germany  u 

54.  Siberia  discov- 

60. Eric  XIV.King 

Orange,  rebels 

Cbarlea  v. ' 

ered. 

of  Sweden. 

against  Philip's 

57.  War  with 

WTar  between 

tyranny. 

France. 

Denmark  and 

fil.  Turks  defeated 

98.  The  race  of 

Sweden. 

81.  Holland  are- 

at  Lepanto. 

Ruric,  which 

70.Peaceof  Stettin. 

public. 

80.  Portugal  con- 
quered. 

88.  Armada  de- 
feated. 

governed  Russia 
for  700  years, 
becomes  extinct. 

93.  Augsburg  Con- 
fession accepted 
at  Upsala. 

82.  Reformation 
of  calendar. 

1600 

6.  Demetrius  the 

1600.  Charles  IX. 

1600-10.    300,000 
Moors  banished. 

impostor. 
10.  Interregnum. 
13.  Michael 

11.  Gustavus 
Adolphus. 
Axel  Oxenstjerna. 
17.  Russia  cedes 

35.  Tulip  mania. 

52.  Van  Tromp 
sweeps  the 

Fedorovitz,Czar, 

Finland  to 

Channel. 

27-31.  War  of 

establishes  the 

Sweden. 

Mantuan  succes- 

house of 

69.  Turks  take 

40.  Portugal  inde- 

sion. 

Romanoff. 

30.  Gustavus 

Candia. 

pendent. 

45.  Alexis. 

defeats  Tilly. 

54.  Victories  in 

32.  Gustavus  Adol- 

83. Sobieski,  King 

Poland. 

phus  killed  at 
battle  of  Lutzen. 
Christina. 

of  Poland,  de- 

93. Battle  of 
Marsaglia. 
French  defeat 

81.  The  Cossacks 
subdued. 

feats  the  Turks 
at  Vienna. 

82.  Ivan  and  Peter 

54.  Charles  X. 

93.  Peace  of  Car- 

Duke  of  Savoy. 

the  Great. 
89.  Peter  sole  ruler. 

97.  Charles  XII. 

lowitz. 

1700 

PhilipV.  (Bour- 

1700. War  with 
Sweden. 

.                      

1700.  Swedes  defeat 

_                     _ 

bon). 

•_'.   War  of  Succes- 

3. St.  Petersburg 
founded. 

Russians  at 
Narva. 

sion. 

6.  Battle  of  Turin. 

9.  Peter  defeats 

4.  English  cap- 

the  Swedes  at 

9.  Pultowa. 

ton  Gibraltar. 

Pultowa. 
11.  War  with 

Peter  sends  14,000 
Swedish  prison- 

13. Siege  of  Barce- 

13. Peace  of 

Turkev. 

ers  to  colonize 

40.  Maria  Theresa, 

lona. 

Utrecht. 

Siberia. 

Queen  of  Hun- 

Italy divided 

25.  Catharine  I. 

gary. 

35.  Charles  con- 

30. Peter  II. 

quers  Naples. 

deposed. 
41.  Elizabeth. 

59.  Charles  III. 

96-97.  Bonaparte's 

62.  Catharine  the 

Great. 
63-84.  Conquest  of 

06.  War  with 

first  victories  in 

the  Crimea. 

Kugland. 

Italy. 
98.  Pius  VI.  depos- 

95. Partition  of  Po- 

97. Battle  of  Cape 
St.  Vincent. 

ed  by  Bonaparte. 

land  completed. 
96.  War  with 

_                      _ 

Persia. 

1800 

2.  Italian  Repub- 
lic, Bonaparte 

1.  Alexander  I. 

3.  Humboldt 
traverses 

5.  Battle  of 

president. 

5.  Russia  joins 

Mexico. 

Trafalgar. 

5.  Napoleon 

coalition  against 

9.  Finland  ceded 

crowned  King  of 

France. 

to  Russia. 

5.  Mungo  Park 

8.  French  take 

Italy. 

murdered  in 

Madrid. 

7.  Treatyof Tilsit. 

Africa. 

Charles  IV.  abdi- 

Peace with 

cates.    Joseph 
Bonaparte,King. 

France. 

12.  Napoleon 
invades  Russia. 

14.  Union  of 

• 

13.  Battle  of  Sala- 

Burning of 

Sweden  and 

manca. 

14.  Fallot  Napo- 

Moscow. 

Norway. 

15.  Treatyof 
Vienna. 

13.  Wellington  oc- 

leon.   Kingdom 

cupies  Madrid. 

overthrown. 

15.  Alexander 
organizes  the 
"Holy  Alliance." 

14.  Ferdinand  VII. 

15.  Lombardo- 

restored. 

Venetian  King- 
dom established 
bv  Austria. 

216 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


FROM   NAPOLEON  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME 

A.D. 

England 

France 

Prussia 

Austria 

America 

1800 
1825 

1850 

1875 
1900 

20.  George  IV. 

24.  Death  of  Lord 
Byron. 

26.  Great  commer- 
cial crisis. 

29.  Catholic  relief 
bill. 

30.  William  IV. 

37.  Victoria. 
Hanover 
separated  from 
Great  Britain. 

39.  War  with 
China. 

40.  Penny  postage. 

46.  Repeal  of  the 
Corn  Laws. 

48.  Chartist  riots. 

49.  Cholera. 

51.  First  "  Great 
Exhibition." 

54.  Crimean  War. 

56.  War  with 
China. 

War  with 
Persia. 

57.  Indian  mutiny. 
Great  com- 
mercial crisis. 

58.  Jewish  disabil- 
ities removed. 

67.  War  with 
Abyssinia. 
Fenian  trouble 

69.  Disestablish- 
ment of  Irish 
Church. 

73.  Ashantee  war. 

76.  Queen  pro- 
claimed Empress 
of  India. 

78.  Great  commer- 
cial depression. 

War  in 
Afghanistan. 

79.  Zulu  war. 

80.  Famine  in 
Ireland. 

Land  League. 

82.  War  in  Egypt. 

88.  Irish  Home 
Rule  discussion 

93.  Gladstone's 
Home  Rule  bill 
passed  by  the 
Commons,  but 
defeated  by  the 
Peers. 

96.  War  with  Ger- 
many imminent. 

98.  Kichener's 
victory  at 
Omdurman. 
Gladstone  died 

24.  Charles  X. 

27.  War  with 
Algiers. 

30.  Louis  Philippe. 
Conquest  of 

Algiers. 

31.  Hereditary 
peerage 
abolisned. 

48.  Revolution. 

Republic  pro- 
claimed. 

Outbreak  of 
Red  Republicans 

Louis  Napoleon 
President. 

51.  Coup  d'etat. 

Louis  Napoleon 
re-elected. 

52.  Empire  re- 
established by 
popular  vote  and 
the  President  de- 
clared Emperor 
as  Napoleon  III. 

59.  War  with 
Austria. 

Magenta  and 
Solferino. 

70.  War  with 
Prussia.     Battle 
of  Sedan.   Napo- 
leon surrenders. 

71.  The  Commune. 
Republic. 
Thiers,  Presi- 
dent. 

73.  MacMahon, 
President. 

79.  Jules  Grevy, 
President. 

87.  Sadi-Carnot, 
President. 

89.  Boulanger  ex- 
citement. 

94.  Sadi-Carnot 
assassinated. 

Casimir-Perier, 
President. 

95.  Casimir-Perier, 
resigns.    Felix 
Faure,  President 

99.  President 
Faure  died. 

M.  Loubet 
President. 

Dreyfus  case 
re-opened. 

18.  Zollverein 
formed. 

19.  Death  of  Mar- 
shal Blucher. 

34.  Zollverein 

includes  most  of 

the  German 

States. 
40.  Frederick 

William  IV. 
48.  Revolution. 

50.  New  Constitu- 
tion. 

53.  Plot  to  over- 
throw govern- 
ment at  Berlin. 

61.  William  I. 

62.  Bismarck 
appointed 
premier. 

64.  War  with 
Denmark. 

66.  War  with 
Austria.    Battle 
of  Sadowa.  Han- 
over annexed. 

70.  War  with 
France. 

William  made 
Emperor  of 

,  Germany 

78.  Attempt  to 

assassinate  the 

Emperor. 
80.  Trouble  with 

Socialists. 
82.  Imperial 

rescript. 

88.  Accession  and 
death  of 
Frederick  III. 
William  II. 

89.  Mining  strikes. 
93.  Enormous 

increase  in 

Socialist  vote. 
Passage  of 

Emperor's  army 

bill. 
96.  Trouble  with 

England  over 

Transvaal. 
98.  Death  of 

PrinceBismarck. 

25.  Hungarian 
Diet  meets. 

36.  Ferdinand  I. 

48.  Insurrection  at 
Vienna. 

Hungarian  war. 
Francis  Joseph. 

49.  Hungarian 
revolution  put 
down. 

56.  Amnesty  to 
Hungarians. 
59.  War  w.  France 
and  Sardinia. 
Solferino. 
Death  of  Prince 
Metternich. 
61.  Disaffection  in 
Hungary. 

63.  Insurrection  in 
Poland. 

64.  War  with  Den- 
mark. 

66.  Defeat  at 
Sadowa. 

17.  James  Monroe, 
President. 

25.  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Presi- 
dent. 

29.  Andrew  Jack- 
son, President. 

33.  Martin  Van 
Buren,  President. 

41.  Wm.  H.  Harri- 
son, President. 

John  Tyler, 
President. 

45.  James  K.  Polk, 
President. 

49.  ZacharyTaylor, 
President. 

53.  Franklin 
Pierce,  Presi- 
dent. 

57.  James  Buchan- 
an, President 

58.  Atlantic  cable. 

61.  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, President. 
Civil  war. 

65.  Andrew  John- 
son, President. 

69.  TJlysses  S. 
Grant,  President. 

77.  R.  B.  Hayes, 
President. 

81.  James  A.  Gar- 
Held,  President. 

81.  Chester  A. 
Arthur,  Presi- 
dent. 

85.  Grover  Cleve- 
land, President. 

89.  Benjamin  W. 
Harrison,  Presi- 
dent. 

93.  Grover  Cleve- 
land, President. 

97.  Wm.McKinley, 
President. 

98.  War  with 
Spain. 

99.  Acquisition  of 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico 
and  Philippines. 

Austria  with- 
draws from 
German  confed- 
eration. 

67.  New  constitu- 
tion. 

73.  International 
Exhibition. 
Vienna. 

78.  Occupation  of 
Herzegovina  and 
Bosnia. 

79.  Count  An- 
drassy  resigns. 

80.  Agreement 
with  Germany 
on  Eastern 
question. 

93.  Attempt  to 
assassinate  the 
Emperor. 

98.  Empress 
assassinated  at 
Geneva. 

HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


217 


FROM  NAPOLEON  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME 

A.I). 

Spain 

Italy 

Russia 

Scandinavia 

Contemporary 

1800 
1825 

1850 

1875 
1900 

17.  Slave  trade 
abolished. 

20.  Revolution. 

23.  French  invest 
Cadiz.    Revolu- 
tion crushed. 

28.  French  evacu- 
ate Cadiz. 

29.  Cadiz  made  a 
free  port. 

30.  Saliquelaw 
abolished. 

33.  Isabella  II. 
Christina, 
Regent. 

34.  CarlistWar. 
39.  Don  Carlos  de- 
feated. 

41.  Espartero, 

Regent. 
43.  Driven  out. 
Queen  13  years 

old  declared  of 

age. 
47.  Espartero 

restored. 

56.  Insurrection. 
O'Donnell, 
dictator. 

59.  War  with 
Morocco. 

60.  Moors  defeated 

66.  Prim  insurrec- 
tion. 

63.  Successful  rev- 
olution led  by 
Prim  and  Serano 
70.  Crown  accept- 
ed by  Amadeus. 
72-7G.  Carlist  war. 
73.  Abdicates. 
Republic. 
Alfonso  XII. 

79.  Death  of 
Queen  Mercedes. 

80.  Slavery  abol- 
ished in  Cuba. 

86.  Posthumous 
son  born  to 
Queen  Christina. 

90.  Senor  de  Cas- 
tillo, premier. 

93.  War  with 
Moors. 

95.  Republican 
uprisings. 

95-97.  Cuban  revolt 
97.  Revolt  in  the 

Philippines.    - 
93.  War  with 

United  States. 
99.  Death  of  Senor 

Canovas. 

37.  Charles  Albert 
of  Sardinia  pro- 
mulgates new 
code. 

48-49.  Sardinia 
defeated  by 
Austria. 
49.  Victor 
Emanuel  II. 

Roman 
Republic. 
Overthrown. 

55.  Sardinia  joins 
alliance  against 
Russia. 

59.  War  with 
Austria. 

60.  Garibaldi 
invades  Naples. 

Sardinian 
army  defeats 
Papal  troops. 

Sicily  and 
Naples  annexed 
to  Sardinia. 

61.  Victor  Eman- 
uel, King  of  Italy 

66.  War  with 
Germany. 

70.  Rome  annexed. 

78.  Death  of  Vic- 
tor Emanuel. 

Humbert, 
King. 

Death  of  Pius 
IX. 

Leo  XIII., 
Pope. 

80.  Republican 
agitation. 

96.  Defeated  in 
Abyssinia. 

97.  Attempted 
assassination  of 
King  Humbert. 

25.  Death  of  Alex- 
ander. 

Nicholas,  Czar. 

26.  War  with 
Persia. 

28.  War  with 
Turkey. 

30.  Polish  War  of 
Independence. 

31.  Russians  take 
Warsaw. 

32.  Poland  made 
integral  part  of 
Russian  empire. 

54.  War  with 
Turkey,  France, 
and  England. 

Siege  of  Sebas- 
topol. 
Balaklava. 
Inkerman. 

55.  Alexander  II. 

56.  Amnesty. 
Treaty  of  Paris 

61.  Polish  insur- 
rection. 
63.  Serfs  freed. 

76.  Conquest  of 
Khiva. 

77.  War  with 
Turkey. 

Russians  take 
Plevna  and 
Osman  Pasha. 

78.  Occupy 
Adrianople. 

Treaty  of  Ber- 
lin. 
81.  Alexander  II. 
assassinated. 

Alexander  III. 

94.  Nicholas  III. 

96.  Coronation  of 
Nicholas  III. 

98.  Lease  of  Port 
Arthur  from 
China. 

99.  Czar's  universal 
peace  proposal . 

18.  Charles  XIV. 
(Bernadotte). 

44.  Oscar  I.,  King 
of  Sweden. 

48.  War  between 
Denmark  and 
Germany. 

59.  Charles  XV. 

64.  Christian  IX. 
of  Denmark  re- 
nounces claim  to 
Schleswig  and 
Holstein. 

72.  Oscar  II.,  King 
of  Sweden. 

98.  Norwegian 
Arctic  expedi- 
tion on  the 
"Fram." 

18.  Sir  John  Ross 
explores  Baffin's 
Bay. 

27.  Greece  inde- 
pendent. 

29-32.  James  Ross 
discovers  mag- 
netic pole. 

31.  Belgium 
independent. 

45.  Franklin's  exp. 
to  North  Pole. 

47.  Liberia  found- 
ed. 

58.  Livingstone's 
Zambezi  expedi- 
tion.   (Africa.) 

71-7.  Stanley  in 
Africa. 

78.  Montenegro  in- 
dependent. 

Servia  free 
state. 
Roumania  ind. 

81.  Thessaly  ceded 
to  Greece. 

81-5.  Greely's 
North  Pole  exp. 

85.  Congo  Free 
State  constituted 

87-9.  Stanley  pen- 
etrates to  Lake 
Albert  Nyanza. 

90.  Heligoland 
transferred  to 
Germany. 

94.  War  between 
China  and  Japan 

95.  Armenian 
massacres. 

96.  X  ray 
discovery. 

97.   Turko-Grecian 
War. 

218 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1400 


1500 


HISTORY   OF   AMERICA 


985.  The  Icelandic  discovery.— Leif  Erikson  and  the  Northmen. 

92.  Columbus  discovers  the  island  of  Guanahani,  of  the  Bahamas,  which  he  names  San  Salvador, 

Oct.  12.    He  discovers  Cuba,  Oct.  28 ;  Hayti,  Dec.  6. 
97.  Cabot  discovers  Labrador.  99.  Amerigo  Vespucci's  voyage. 

1.  Negro  slaves  imported  into  Hispaniola.  6.  Death  of  Columbus. 

13.  Balboa  discovers  the  Paciflc  Ocean.    21.  Cortez  conquers  Mexico.    28.  Narvaez  visits  Florida. 
34.  Cartier  explores  the  St.  Lawrence.  41.  De  Soto  conquers  Louisiana. 

44.  De  Soto  discovers  th3  Mississippi.  C4.  The  Huguenots  in  Florida. 

65.  St.  Augustine,  in  Florida,  founded  by  the  Spaniards. 
85.  First  settlement,  at  "Roanoke  Island,  founded  by  Walter  Raleigh,  a  failure. 


1600 


1700 


The  Colonies 


1607.  Settlement  at  Jamestown. 


9.  Hendrik  Hudson  discovers  the 
Hudson  River. 


20.  The  Puritans  land  at  Plvmouth 
Rock. 

27.  Settlement  bv  Swedes  and 
Finns  at  Cape  Henlopen. 

34.  Maryland  granted  to  Lord 
Baltimore. 

35.  Settlement  by  English  at  Win- 
drow, Hartford,  and  Wethers- 

_field.  __ 

36.  Settlements  by  English,  under 
Roger  Williams,  at  Providence. 


64.  Elizabethtown  settled. 

65.  Clarendon  Colony  settlement. 


70.  First  settlement,  English, 
Ashley  River. 

82.  First  settlement  in  Pennsvl- 
vania  by  English  under  William 
Penn. 

33.  English  settlement,  under 
Oglethorpe,  at  Savannah. 

41.  New  Hampshire  separated 
from  Massachusetts. 


Virginia 


New  York 


Massachusetts 


Delaware 


Maryland 


Connecticut 


Rhode  Island 


14.  New  Amsterdam  (now  New 
York  City),  settled  by  the  Dutch 

20.  Dutch  vessel,  with  first  negro 

slaves,  enters  James  River. 
30.  Boston  founded. 

38.  Peter  Minuit  at  Christina. 


34.  Settlement  by  English 
Catholics  at  St.  Mary's. 


New  Jersey 


(First  settlement  bv  Dutch, 
at  Bergen,  1620.) 


North  Carolina 


South  Carolina  80-  Charleston  founded. 


Pennsylvania 


Georgia 


New  Hampshire 


86.  Odious  administration  of  Sir 

Edmond  Andros. 
89.  King  William's  War. 

2.  Queen  Anne's  War. 

(First  settlement  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, Eng.,  Little  Harbor,  1623.) 
44.  King  George's  War. 


54.  French  and  Indian  War 

55.  Braddock's  defeat. 


Kentucky  settled  by  Daniel  Boone. 

58.  Fort  Du  Quesne  taken  by  Washington. 
63.  France  cedes  Canada  to  England. 
65.  Colonial  Congress  at  New  York  resists  the  stamp  act.  66.  Stamp  act  repealed. 

67.  Tax  on  tea.  63.  General  Gage  sent  to  Boston. 

70.  Boston  Massacre.    Repeal  of  the  duties  on  tea.  73.  Destruction  of  tea  in  Boston  harbor. 

74.  First  Continental  Congress  meets  in  Philadelphia,  Sept.  5.  Issues  declaration  of  rights,  Nov.  4 

75.  Revolutionary  War  begins  with  battle  of  Lexington.    Battle  of  Bunker  Hill. 

76.  Declaration  of  Independence. 
77.  Lafayette  joins  the  Americans.    Federal  government  adopted  by  Congress  and  recognized  by 
France.    Battle  of  Princeton.    Battle  of  Brandy  wine.    Burgoyne  surrenders  at  Saratoga. 

78.  Battle  of  Monmouth. 

81.  Battle  of  Cowpens.         Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown. 

83.  Treaty  of  peace.  86.  Cotton  introduced  into  Georgia. 

87.  The  Constitution  adopted. 

88.  The  Constitution  of  the  UNITED  STATES  ratified  by  eleven  States. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


219 


- 

A.D. 

United  States 

Canada 

Spanish  America 

1789 

m 

GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  President. 
John  Adams,  Vice-President. 

Indian  war  in  Ohio. 

91 

Vermont  admitted. 

91.  Canada  is  given  a 
constitution  and 

92 

Kentucky  admitted. 

divided  into  two 
provinces. 

:>4 

Whisky  insurrection. 

94.  Toronto  capital  of 
Upper  Canada. 

BS 

Tennessee  admitted. 

—                       ■ — 

1797 

JOHN  ADAMS,  President. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Vice-President. 

911 

Capital  removed  from  Philadelphia  to 

Washington. 

1801 

3. 

THOMAS  JEFFERSON,  President. 
Aaron  Burr,  Vice-President. 

Ohio  admitted. 

- 

3. 

Louisiana  purchase. 
War  with  Tripoli. 

S.  Slavery  abolished. 

3.  Hayti  republic. 

4. 

Burr-Hamilton  duel. 

5. 

George  Clinton,  Vice-President. 

7. 

Trial  of  Aaron  Burr. 

. 

8.  King  of  Portugal 
goes  to  Brazil. 

9.  War  of  Independ- 

1809 

JAMES  MADISON,  President. 

George  Clinton,  Vice-President. 

ence  in  Buenos  Ayres. 

11 

Battle  of  Tippecanoe. 

11.  Dr.  Francia  dic- 
tator of  Peru. 

12. 

Louisiana  admitted. 

12.  British  capture 

Venezuela  inde- 

War with  England.    Canada  invaded. 
Mackinaw  surrenders. 

Detroit. 

pendent. 
11-24.  Simon  Bolivar's 
struggles  for  liberty. 

U 

Commander  Perry  captures  English  fleet. 

13.  Americans  capture 

Elbridge  Gerry.  Vice-President. 

Toronto  and  Fort 

Battle  of  the  Thames. 

George. 
Death  of  Tecumseh. 

14 

Battle  of  Lundy's  Lane. 

English  capture  Washington  and  burn 

public  buildings. 

Bombardment  of  Fort  McHenry. 

15.  Brazil  made  a 

15. 

Battle  of  New  Orleans. 

16.  Sir  John  Sherbroke, 

kingdom. 
16.  Buenos  Ayres  inde- 

16. 

Indiana  admitted. 

Governor  of  Lower 
Canada. 

pendent. 

1817~ 

JAMES  MONROE,  President. 
Daniel  Tompkins,  Vice-President. 

Mississippi  admitted. 

17.  Chile  independent. 

18. 

Illinois  admitted.    Seminole  war  in 
Florida. 

18.  Duke  of  Richmond, 
Governor  of  Lower 

19 

Alabama  admitted.    Purchase  of  Florida. 

Canada. 

•jo 

Missouri  Compromise. 

17-25.   Political  agita- 
tion in  Upper  Canada. 
Robert  Gourlay. 

21.  Central  America 
independent. 

Maine  admitted. 

22.  Brazil  independent. 

21 

Missouri  admitted. 

22.  Antagonism  be- 
tween French  and 

Dom  Pedro,  Einperor. 
Iturbide,  Emperor  of 
Mexico. 

H 

South  American  republics  acknowledged. 

23 

Monroe  doctrine  declared. 

English  in  Lower 
Canada. 
24.  Welland  Canal  in- 

24. Simon  Bolivar 
dictator  of  Peru. 

24 
I 

Visit  of  Lafayette. 

corporated. 

25.  Bolivia  independ't. 

220 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1825 


1829 


United  States 


Canada 


JOHN  QUINCY   ADAMS,  President. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  Vice-President. 

28.  Protective  tariff  bill  passed. 


1837 


1841 


1845 


1849 


ANDREW  JACKSON,  President. 
John  C.  Calhoun,  Vice-President. 

32.  United  States  Bank  bill  vetoed. 
Black  Hawk  war. 

33.  Martin  Van  Buren,  Vice-President. 
Public  funds  withdrawn  from  United  States 

Bank. 
35.  Seminole  war. 


36.  Arkansas  admitted. 


25.  Agitation  in  Upper 
Canada  over  alien  bill, 

26.  Mob  destroys  Mac- 
kenzie's printing 
office. 


Spanish  America 


29.  Agitation  for  re- 
sponsible government 
in  Upper  Canada. 

30.  Lord  Aylmer  Gover- 
nor of  Lower  Canada. 

32.  Imperial  duties  sur- 
rendered to  assembly. 

35.  Pupinean  party  de- 
mand total  separation 
from  Great  Britain. 


28.  Uruguay  independ- 
ent. 

29.  Formation  of 
United  States  of 
Colombia. 

31.  Dom  Pedro  abdi- 
cates.    His  six-year- 
old  son,  Dom  Pedro 
II.,  Emperor  of 
Brazil. 

32.  The  Texans  revolt. 

33.  Defeat  of  the  Mex- 
icans. 


MARTIN  VAN  BUREN,  President. 
Richard  M.  Johnson,  Vice-President. 
Michigan  admitted. 
Financial  crisis.    Banks  suspend  specie 

payment. 
Business  failures  and  general  distress. 

40.  Northeastern  boundary  line  disputes. 


WILLIAM  H.   HARRISON,  President. 
John  Tyler,  Vice-President. 

Harrison  dies  April  4.       JOHN   TYLER, 

President.      Veto  of  bank  bill. 

43.  Dorr  rebellion  in  Rhode  Island. 

44.  Texas  applies  for  annexation. 


JAMES   K.   POLK,  President. 
George  M.  Dallas,  Vice-President. 
Texas  annexed.  Florida  admitted. 

War  -with.  Mexico. 
46.  Iowa  admitted. 

48.  Acquisition  of  New  Mexico  and  California. 
Wisconsin  admitted. 


37-38.  Insurrection. 

38.  End  of  rebellion  in 
Upper  Canada. 

.39.  Union  of  Upper  and 
Lower  C.  Lord  Syd- 
enham, Governor." 

40.  Responsible  govern- 
ment established. 


44.  Government  remov- 
ed to  Montreal. 


45.  Great  fire  at  Quebec 

47.  Lord  Elgin,  Gover- 
nor. Agitation  over 
rebellion  losses  bill. 


45.  Venezuela  inde- 
pendent. 

War  bet.  Mexico 
and  I'.  s. 

46.  Battles  of  Palo  Alto 
and  Resaca  de  la 

Pal  ma. 

47.  Buena  Vista,  Cerro 
Gordo,  Contreras. 

City  of  Mexico  cap- 
tured. 


ZACHARY  TAYLOR,  President. 
Millard  Fillmore,  Vice-President. 

50.  MILLARD  FILLMORE,  President. 
California  admitted.      Fugitive  slave  law 
passed. 


49.  Annexation  to  U.  S.  50.  Lopez'  attempt  on 


1853 


1857 


FRANKLIN  PIERCE,  President. 
William  Rufus  King,  Vice-President. 


advocated. 
Riots  in  Montreal. 
50.  Reciprocity  with 
U.  S.  urged." 


Cuba. 
61.  Lopez  garroted. 


52.  Government  remov-  53.  Santa  Ana,  dicta- 
ed  to  Quebec.  tor  of  Mexico. 


55.  Kansas-Nebraska  bill. 
Kansas. 


Commotion  in 


05.  Sir  Edmund  W. 
Head,  Governor. 


JAMES  BUCHANAN,  President. 
John  C.  Breckinridge,  Vice-President. 
Dred  Scott  decision.    Mormon  Insurrection. 
Financial  distress. 

57.  Oregon  admitted. 

58.  Minnesota  admitted. 

59.  John  Brown's  insurrection. 

60.  South  Carolina  secedes. 

61.  Kansas  admitted. 


5 '.  Walker's  expedi- 
tion to  Nicaragua. 

58.  Juarez,  President 

of  Mexico. 
60.  Walker  invades 

Honduras. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


221 


A.D. 

The  United  States 

Canada 

Spanish  America 

1861 

ABRAHAM  LINCOLN,  President. 

61.  Lord  Monck,  Gover- 

Hannibal Hamlin,  \ 

ice-President. 

nor. 

Attack  on  Fort 

Sumter. 

The  Confederate 
States 

62.  France  at  War  with 

61.  Mississippi,  Florida 

Mexico. 

Alabama,  Georgia, 

Harper's  Ferry  and       Louisiana  and  Texas 

Norfolk  seized. 

secede. 

Jefferson  Davis 
elected  President. 

Arkansas,  North 
Carolina,  and  Ten- 
nessee secede. 

Virginia  secedes. 

Battles  of  Bull  Run, 

Wilson's  Creek. 

C2.  Ft.  Donelson 

63.  The  French  enter 
City  of  Mexico. 

Archduke  Maximil- 
ian of  Austria  invited 
to  become  Emperor. 

62.  Battle  of  Antietam. 

captured. 

Battles  of  Pea 
Ridge, 

Shiloh,  Bull  Run, 
Wilson's  Creek. 

63.  Proclamation  of 

C4.  He  accepts. 

Emancipation. 

63.  Chancellorsville. 

"West  Virginia                 Siege  of  Vicksburg. 
admitted. 

Battle  of  Gettys-       64.  Battle  of  the 

65.  i  G  reat  Fire  at  Quebec 

65.  Paraguay  at  war 
with  Uruguay, 

burg.                            Wilderness. 

64.  The  Kearsarge  sinks          Siege  of  Petersburg 

Brazil,  Argentine 

the  Alabama. 

Sherman's  march 

Republic. 

Chile  and  Spain  at 
war. 

to  the  sea. 

65.  Andrew  Johnson, 

Vice-President. 

65.  Battle  of  Five  Forks 

Surrender  of  Gen. 

Petersburg  and 

66.  Reciprocity  treatv 
with  U .  S. 

66.  Juarists  in  Mexico 

Lee,  April  9. 

Richmond  captured. 

have  great  success. 

Lincoln  assassi- 

Fenian invasion. 

nated  April  14. 

Surrender  of  Gens. 

Lee,  Johnston, 

Aj\?H^ON,Pres.       ^f  ^^  "d 

The  war  ended. 

Amnesty  issued  by 

the  President 

67.  Nebraska  admitted.    Alaska  purchased. 

67.  Canada,  New  Bruns- 

67. Maximilian  surren- 

Southern States  organized  as  military 

wick  and  Nova  Scotia 

ders  and  is  shot. 

districts. 
68.  Impeachment,  trial,  and  acquittal  of 

form  the  Dominion  of 
Canada. 

1869^ 

President  Johnson. 

69.  Cuban  revolt. 

ULYSSES   S.  GRANT,  President. 

Schuyler  Colfax,  Vice-President. 

Pacific  Railroad  completed. 

70.  Fifteenth  amendment  ratified. 

71.  Great  fire  at  Chicago.    Tweed  ring  exposed. 
Geneva  award. 

71.  British  Columbia 

72.  Great  fire  at  Boston. 

becomes  part  of  the 

Political  disabilities  of  Southern  people 

Dominion. 

removed. 

Modoc  war. 

72.  Prince  Edward 

73.  Henry  Wilson,  Vice-President. 

Island  joins  the 

The  Virginia  troubles  with  Spain. 
Financial  panic. 

Dominion. 
Lord  Dufferin, 

75.  Passage  of  act  for  specie  resumption  in  1879. 

Governor-General. 

Colorado  admitted. 

76.  Centennial  Exposition,  Philadelphia. 

Custer  massacre. 

1877^ 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES,  President. 

77.  Great  Fire  at 

William  A.  Wheeler,  Vice-President. 

St.  John,  N.  B. 

Railroad  riots. 

78.  Yellow  fever  epidemic  along  Lower 

Mississippi. 

79.  Resumption  of  specie  payment. 

78.  Marquis  of  Lome 
appointed  Viceroy. 

79.  War  between  Chile 
and  Peru. 

222 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


A.D. 

The  United  States 

Canada 

Spanish  America 

1881 

JAMES  A.  GARFIELD,  President. 
Chester  A.  Arthur,  Vice-President. 
President  Garfield  shot  by  Guiteau. 
CHESTER  A.  ARTHUR,  President. 

Treaty  with  China. 

84.  Dynamite  explo- 
sions in  Parliament 

83.  Opening  of  Brooklyn  Bridge. 

buildings,  Quebec. 

Apaches  captured  by  General  Crook. 

1885^ 

General  strike  of  telegraph  operators. 

—                       — 

GROVER  CLEVELAND,  President. 

85.  Rebellion  of  Louis 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks,  Vice-President. 

Riel.    Riel  captured 
and  hanged. 

86.  Labor  agitations.       Anarchist  riot  at 

Chicago. 

88.  Lord  Stanley, 
Governor-General . 
Fisheries  treaty  re- 

88. Lord  Sackville,  British  Minister,  dismissed. 

jected  by  U.  S. 

89.  Civil  war  in  Hayti. 

1889 

BENJAMIN  HARRISON,  President. 

89.  Great  Fire  at  Quebec 

Levi  P.  Morton,  Vice-President. 

Do  in  Pedro  of  Bra- 

North  Dakota,   South  Dakota,   Wash- 

90. Reciprocity  defea- 

zil deposed. 

ington,   and   Montana  admitted  to  the 

ted  in  House  of  Com- 

Union. 

mons. 

Opening  of  Oiriahoma.    Johnstown  flood. 

Toronto  University 

Pan-American  Congress. 

burned. 

91.  Balmaceda,  Presi- 

90. Idaho  and  Wyoming  admitted. 

dent  of  Chile, 

Reciprocity  treaty  with  South  American 

deposed.    Commits 

republics. 

suicide. 

McKinley  tariff  law  goes  into  effect. 

Sioux  war.    Death  of  Sitting  Bull. 

Eleventh  census— population,  62,622,250. 

1893~ 

92.  Birth  of  the  People's  party  at  Omaha. 

93.  Revolution  in 

GROVER  CLEVELAND,  President. 

93.  The  Earl  of  Aber- 

A ilia  i  E.  Stevenson,  Vice-President. 

deen,  Governor-Gen. 

Brazil. 

Sandwich  Islands  ask  to  be  annexed. 

Revolution  in 

World's  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago. 

Argentine. 

Great  financial  depression.    Cleveland  calls 

special  session  of  Congress  to  repeal  Sher- 

95. War  for  Independ- 

man bill. 

ence  in  Cuba. 

Congress  of  Religions,  Chicago. 

96.  Maceo  assassinated. 

94.  Great  coal  strike.    Great  railroad  strike. 

95.  Free  Silver  movement. 

Venezuela  boundary  dispute  with  Great 
Britain. 

96.  Utah  admitted  to  the  Union. 

General  Weyler  re- 

1897 

WILLIAM  McKINLEY,  President. 

Garret  A.  Hobart,  Vice-President. 

called  from  Cuba . 

Arbitration  Treaty  with  Great  Britain 
signed ;  rejected  by  the  Senate. 

Attempted  assassi- 

nation of  President 

Greater  New  York  charter  granted. 

Moraes  of  Brazil. 

98.  Annexation  of  Hawaii. 

Battle-ship  Maine  blown  up. 

Spanish-American  war. 

Acquisition  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the 

Philippines  by  treaty. 
Commercial  treaty  with  France. 

98.  Earl  of  Minto, 
Governor-General. 

Meeting  of  the  U.  S. 
and  Canadian  High 
Commission. 

98.  United  States  inter- 
venes in  behalf  of 
Cuba. 

Cuba  under  the 
U.  S.  protectorate- 

C'ampos  Salles  elec- 
ted Pres.  of  Brazil. 

99.  Philippine  war. 

Many  Trusts  formed. 

U.  S.  of  Central 
America  formed. 

Gen.  Alger,  secretary  of  war,  resigned ; 
Elihu  Root  appointed  to  succeed  him. 

i9o<r 

President  Sande- 

Troubles  with  China. 

Parliamentary  elec- 

tions carried  by  Lib- 

mente   of    Colombia 

'■*.  "hsodore  Roosevelt,  Vice-President. 

erals. 

resigned. 

HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


223 


CALENDAR    OF    AMERICAN    BATTLES. 

Naval  engagements  are  indicated  by  italics;  *  means  that  it  was  a  drawn  battle ;  t  means  a  general  estimate. 


JANUARY. 


Opponent. 


1  1815 
118C3 

1  1863 

2  1863 

3  1777 

4  1862 

5  1781 

5  1813 

6  1813 

7  i&;-2 

81815 

8  1847 
8  1363 
91779 

10  1863 
10  1863 

10  1865 
111863 

11  1863 

11  1865 

12  1848 

13  1>65 

14  1813 
141863 

14  1865 
1418C5 

15  1815 

15  18G5 

16  1864 

17  1781 

18  1813 

19  1862 

20  1864 
211863 
221814 
22  1813 
231813 
24  1814 
251813 

26  1813 

27  1814 

28  1815 
291814 

29  1863 

30  1862 

30  1864 

31  1863 


New  Orleans 

Galveston 

Murfreesboro  (continued) 

Murf  reesboro  (ended) 

Princeton 

Huntersville,  Ya 

Pilgrim-Mary 

Ultor-boats 

FoxrLapwinq 

Middle  Creek 

New  Orleans 

San  Gabriel 

Springfield 

Protector-Aflm  iral  l>uff 

Arkansas  Post  (continued) 

Hartsville 

Scottsboro 

Iimtiras-Alabama 

Arkansas  Post  (ended) 

Beverly,  "W.  Ya 

San  Bias 

Fort  Fisher  (continued) 

Comet-frigate 

Carney's  Bridge 

Fort  Fisher  (continued) 

Red  Hill 

President- Endymion 

Fort  Fisher  (ended) 

Gen.  Sturgis 

Cowpens 

Frenchtown 

Mill  Spring  (Logan  Cross  Roads  ) . 

Sturgis'  Raid  (January  16-28) 

Sabine  Pass 

Emucf au 

Frenchtown  No.  2 

Stony  Creek 

Enotachopco 

Dolph  in-squadron 

Un  ion-Iris 

Camp  Defiance 

Surprise-Star 

Alligator 

Bear  River 

Kelly's  Stores  

Underurriter 

Off  Charleston 


Victor. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Opponents. 


Killed.^  i  "Wounded.    Killed.     Wounded. 


Conf. 


English, 
Confederates 
Confederates  U.  S . . . 
Confederates  U.S... 

English U.S... 

Confederates!       * 

English U.S... 

English U.S.. 

English U.S... 

Confederates  V .  S . . , 

English U.S.. 

Mexican T'.S.., 

Conf ederate^  U.8 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S. . 
Confederates  U.S. . 
Confederates  U.S.. . 
Confederates  Conf.. 
Confederates  U.  S . . 
Confederates  Conf.. 

Mexican U.S. . , 

Confederates  U.S.. 
Portuguese..  U.S.. 
Confederates  U.S... 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  U.  S . .  . 

English Eng... 

Confederates  T'.S... 
Confederates  U.S.., 

English U.S... 

English U.S... 

Confederates  U.S. . 
Confederates  U.S. . , 
Confederates  Conf.. 

Indians U.S.. 

English Eng.. , 

Indians Ind  . ., 

Indians U.S... 

English U.S... 

English Eng.. . 

U.S.. 

U.S... 

U.S... 

U.S... 


Indians. 
English. 
English. 
Indians. 
Confederates!  * 
Confederates  Conf. 
Confederates  Conf. 


FEBRUARY. 


1  1864  Bachelor's  Creek 

2  1800  Constellation-  Yengeame  ... 

2  1864  Patterson  Creek 

3  1863  Dover,  Col.  Harding 

3  1863;  Mingo  Swamp 

3  1865  Sakelhatchie 

4  1863  Batesville 

5  t865iDabnev's  lulls  (continued  . 

6  1862'  Fort  Henry 

6  1865  Dabnev's  Mills  (continued). 

7  1832  Qualld  liattoo 

7  1835  Dabnev's  Mills(ended) 

8  1862  Roanoke  Island 

8  1835  Williston  Station 

9  1799  Constellation-Insurgent 

10  1862  Elizabeth  City 

10  1863 .  Old  River 

11  1865  j  Aikens 

12  1864. Rock  House 

13  1862  Blooming  Gap 

14  177C  Moore's  Creek 

14  1813  Lottery-boats 

15  1862  Fort  Donelson 

16  1804  Philadelphia  (frigate) 

16  1847  San  Jose 

17  1781  Holker-H\ifK>erite 


Confederates 

French 

Confederates 
|  Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Malays 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

French  

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Tripolitans . . 

Mexican 

English i 


Conf.. 
U.S.. 

Conf.. 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 

U.S.. 

U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S.. 
U.S... 

U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S.. 

U.S... 

Eng... 
U.S... 
U.S... 
U.S... 

US... 


17 

"2 

2C2 
47 
2 
2 
2 
5 
Ot 
3 
0 
0 
8 

560 
0 
3 
3 


77 

13 

25 

50 

3t 

4 

60 

1.-0 

0 

8 

70 

20 

4 

ot 

27 

5 

11 

120t 

1,062 

V49 

198 

25 

3 

3 

3 

29 

2 

4 

7 

4 

9t 

31 

5 

15 

2 

13 

3 

13 

10 

2 

746 

466 

1 

loot 

8 

13 

1 

4 

224 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


FEBRUARY—  Continued. 


1813 
1815 
1802 
1815 
1864 
1865 
1865 
1812 
1847 
1864 
1813 
1847 
1813 
1863 
1815 
1863 
1847 
1863 
1812 


Name  of  Battle. 


Highflyer- Poictiers 

George  Little-Cranicus 

Winion,N.C. 

Constitution-Cyane  and  Levant. 

Olustee 

Town  Creek 

Cumberland,  Mil 

Hazard- Caledonia 

Buena  Vista  (continued) 

Tunnel  Hill 

Cora-boats 

Buena  Vista  (ended) 

Hornet- Peacock 

Indianola 

Chasseur-St.  Lawrence 

Falmouth 

Chihuahua 

Van  Buren,  Ark 

Courier-Andromache 


Opponent. 


English.. . 

English... 

Confederates 

English.. . 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

English.. . 

Mexican. . 

Confederates 

English 

Mexican 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

Mexican 

Confederates 
English 


Victor. 


Eng.. 
Ens.. 

* 

U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


1 
2 
0 
4 
193 
5t 
1 
0 

'  150t 

1 

267 

1 

1 

5 

5t 

3 

0 

0 


3 
6 
0 
10 
1,175 
8t 
3 


aoot 

3 
456 
4 
1 
8 
8t 
5 
3 
3 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


0 
0 

1 

35 
150 

8t 

2 

2 

"sot 

1 

568 
5 
2 

15 
6 

33 
2 
0 


MARCH. 


li  1813 
2  1815 
31863 
41863 
51863 
5!  1863 
611862 
711778 
7,1862 
81862 
81862 

8  1865 

9  1862 
91865 

10  1865 

11  1863 

12  1863 
121864 

13  1863 

13  1863 

14  1862 

14  1863 

15  1781 

16  1779 
16  1863 
16  1866 
171813 
18  1865 

18  1865 

19  1776 

20  1863 
211864 

22  1865 

23  1815 

23  1862 

24  1847 

25  1865 

26  1865 

27  1H14 

28  1814 

29  1779 
291813 

30  1814 

30  1863 

31  1865 


Canonnier-  Warspite 

America- Elizabeth 

Fort  McAllister 

Thompson's  Station  (continued). 

Spring  Hill 

Thompson's  Station  (ended) 

Pea  Ridge  (continued) 

Randolph-  Yarmouth 

Pea  Ridge  (continued) 

Merrimac  in  Hampton  Roads . . . 

Pea  Ridge  (ended) 

Wilcox's  Bridge  (continued) 

Monitor-Mem/mac 

Wilcox's  Bridge  (continued) 

Wilcox's  Bridge  (ended) 

Fort  Pemberton  (continued) 

Fort  Pemberton  (continued) 

Fort  De  Russey 

Port  Hudson 

Fort  Pemberton  (continued) 

New  Berne 

Fort  Pemberton  (continued).   ... 

Guilford  Court-Housc 

Hazard-Active 

Fort  Pemberton  (ended) 

Avervsboro 

Antelope-Zephyr 

Bentonville  (continued) 

Bentonville  (ended) 

Industry-brig 

VaughUs  Hill 

Henderson's  Hill. . .  

Wilson's  Raid  (to  April  24) 

Hornet- Penguin 

Kernstown 

Vera  Cruz 

Fort  Stedman 

Spanish  Fort  (to  April  8) 

Horseshoe  Bend 

Fast .i-l'hn  be  ami  (lirriib 

Ti/rn  nnicide-Revervge 

/{err  age-Narcissus 

La  ColleMill 

Somerset 

Boydton  and  White  Oak  Road.. . 


English I  Eng.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 


Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 

Eng.. 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
English 

Confederates  jU.  S . 
Confederates  Conf 
Confederates  U.S. 
Confederates  Conf 
Confederates  U.  S . 
Confederates  jConf 
Confederates  |  Conf 
Confederates  Conf 
Confederates  Conf 
Conf  ederates  i  U.  S . 
Conf  ederates  I U.  S . 
Confederates  j  Conf 
Conf  ederates  U.  S . 
i  Confederates !  Conf 


English 

English 

j  Confederates 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

Mexican 

Confederates 
Confederates 

Indians 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 


Eng. 

U.S.. 

Conf. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 


9 


250 
208 


123 
3 

77 

1 

'iiii 
o 

23 

1 

09 

1 

103 

11 

68 

BO 

26 

58 

0 

0 

8 

11 

177 


APRIL. 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
English 


3 
0 
1 

11 
.'{in 


314 

5 

19 

477 

3 

1,108 

3 

33 

3 

5S8 

11 

441 

56 

337 

698 

lot; 

C6 

8 

3 

till 

38 

1,134 


0 

2 

0 

.... 

152 


8 
1,040 


0 
132 


60 


231 
13 
3t 


li67 

2 

63 

5 

;-:52 

10 

80 
981 
134 
152 
557 
5 

11 
0 

11 

24 
236 


1865 

1865 

1865 
1K65 
1780 
1864 
1779 
1865 
1862 
1776 


Five  Forks 

Forts  Greggs  and  Alexander 

Selina 

Petersburg 

Boats-Black  Snake 

Col.  Gooding 

Hibernia-lirig  of  war 

Sailor's  Creek 

Pittsburgh  Landing  (continued) . 
Glasgow 


U.S.... 

124 

7116 

450 

U.S.... 

198 

304 

249 

U.S.... 

153 

347 

198 

U.S.... 

298 

22565 

341 

U.S.... 

0 

2 

3 

U.S.... 

8 

20 

18 

* 

1 

3 

3 

U.S.... 

166 

1,014 

268 

U.S.... 

Eng.... 

10 

14 

i 

HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


225 


APRIL—  Continued. 


Z    > 


Name  of  Battle. 


1862  Island  No.  10 

1862  Pittsburg  Landing  (ended). 

1863  Ironclads  at  Charleston 

1864  Red  River 

1782  Hyder  Ally-Gen.  Monk 

1864  Sabine  Cross  Roads 

1864  Pleasant  Hill  (continued). . . 

1777  Trumbull-transports 

1864  Pleasant  Hill  (ended) 

1865  Appomattox 

1865  Fort  Blakely 

1863  Franklin 

1863  Prairie  d' Anne 

1863  Fort  Pulaski 

1864  Fort  Pillow 

1861  Lexington,  Red  River 

1813  ( '"  a  on  it  ier-Mediisa 

1779  Hunter-armed-  ship 

1780  Monk's  Corner 

1813  Diligent-squadron 

1863,  Vicksburg 

1865  Columbus,  Ala 

1776  Lexington- E6 'ward 

1864  Fort  Wessels 

1814  York-Lord  Somers 

1847  Tuspan 

1847  Cerro  Gordo 

1863  Fayetteville 

1775  Lexington 

1864  Soidhfteld-Albemarle 

1832  South  Mills  or  Camden 

1863  Mc3Iinnville 

1861  Plymouth 

1775  Co'ncord  and  retreat 

1847  Perote 

1862  yew  Orleans 

1864  Cane  River 

1778  Ranger-Drake 

1781  Hobkirk's  Hill 

1S6_'  Fort  Macon 

1.864  Mark's  Mills 

1863  Cape  Girardeau 

1864  Red  River 

1805  Derne 

1813  York 

1863  Streight's  Raid  (to  May  3)  . . 

1814  Peacock-Epervier 

1*62  Bridgeport,  Ala 

1863  Grand  Gulf 

i-i  4  Saucy  Jack-Pelham 

1863  (haneellorsville  (continued) 

1864  Jenkins  Ferry 


Opponent. 


Victor. 


C.S.. 
U.S.. 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Conf  ederatesl  U.  S . 
Confederates;  U.  S . . 
ConfederatesiU.  S . . 
Confederates1  U.S. . 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  Conf. 
Confederates  Conf. 
Confederates  U.  8 . . 

English Eng.. 

English * 

English ;Eng.. 

English |Eng.. 

Confederates  i  U.  S . . 
Confederates  U.S. . 

English (U.S.. 

Conf. 


Confederates 

English. 

Mexican 

Mexican 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Mexican 

I  Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 
:  Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Turkish 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 


Confederates  U.S. 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


19 

1,735 

3 

23 

4 

199 

"7 

T9 
203 
113 

17 
8 
1 
348 
0 
1 
0 

26 
1 
0 

10 
2 

20 
0 
3 

63 
4 
7 
2 

15 
0 

41 

49 
0 

37 

98 
2 

52 
0 

98 
6 

17 
6 

66 

12 
0 
3 

19 
2 

'222 


7,882 

18 

39 

11 

893 

'  "i 

688 

297 

516 

20 

15 

3 

52 

0 

3 

4 

73 

3 

3 

14 

2 

31 

0 

11 

£68 

26 

9 

12 

98 

0 

59 

34 

3 

147 

152 

6 

141 

3 

142 

18 

31 

8 

203 

69 

2 

8 

57 

9 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


1 

1,128 

0 

45 

20 

4m; 

"6 

348 

189 

242 

79 

18 

1 

19 

164 

0 

3 

3 

0 

7 

30 

5t 

29 

6 

25 

lOOf 

17 

0 

0 

12 

4 

125 

74 

0 

12 

108 

18 

38 

7 

126 

22 

28 

10t 

100t 

0 

8 

31 

8 

4 

842 


MAY. 


1  1863IPort  Gibson 

1  1863  Chancellors ville  (continued).. . 

1  1X98  Manila 

2  1863  Chancellorsville  (continued  1. . . 

3  1863  Siege  of  Suffolk,  N.  ft  (ended). 

3  1863|Chancellorsville(eontinued). . . 

4  1863  Cbancellorsville(ended) 

6  1813  Fort  Meigs 

5  1813  Rapids  of  Miami 

5  1862  Williamsburg 

5  1804  Dunn's  Bayon 

5  1x14  AlbemarU  '. 

5  1864  Wilderness  (continued) 

6  1814  Oswego 

6  1864|  Wilderness  (continued) 

7  177!)  Providence- 1  >U  mini 

7 1862  West  Point 

7  1864  Wilderness  (ended) 

8  1846  Palo  Alto 

8  1862  McDowell's 

8  1864  Spottsyl vania  (continued) 

9  1847  Resaca*  de la  Palma 

9  1864  Spottsvl  vania  (continued) 

9  1864  Swift  Creek  (continued; 


Confederates  U.  S 

130 

718 

144 

Confederates  Conf .. . 

Spanish |U.  S 

0 

7 

318 

Conf  ederates  Conf . . . 

Conf ederates,  U.  S 

15 

94 

898 

Confederates  Conf.. . 

ConfederatesConf . . . 

1,512 

9.518 

1,71* 

English ]U.S.... 

64 

124 

30t 

English U.S.... 

80 

101 

15 

Confederates  U.  S 

456 

1,400 

351 

Confederates  Conf.. . 

38 

64 

4 

Confederates  U.S 

4 

25 

0 

Confederates  U.  S 

English P.8.... 

6 

38 

70 

Confederates  I'.S  ... 

English D.S.... 

4 

10 

8 

Confederates  U.S 

84 

110 

3 

Confederates  U.S 

2,309 

12,188 

1,956 

Mexican I'.s 

4 

42 

102 

Confederates  Conf.. . 

80 

176 

71 

Confederates  I'.S 

Mexican U.S 

39 

83 

160 

Confederates  U.  S 

Confederates;  Conf . . . 





226 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


MAY—  Continued. 


91864 

10  1775 
101862 
101864 
11; 1864 

11  1777 

12  1780 

12  1863 

13  1864 

14  1863 
151780 
151847 

15  1802 

15  1864 

16  1811 

16  1863 
161864 

17  1863 

18  1864 
191863 
191864 

20  1863 

21  1*63 

22  1863 

23  1862 
231862 

24  1862 

25  1862 

25  1863 

26  1864 

26  1864 

27  1813 
27  1862 
27  1863 
27  1804 

27  1864 

28  1781 
28  1864 
291813 
291864 
30  1814 

30  1804 

31  1862 


Name  of  Battle. 


Opponent. 


Cloyd's  Mountain  and  New  River  Bridge 

Ticonderoga 

Fort  Pillow 

Swift  Creek  (ended) 

Spottsylvania  (ended) 

Hancock-Fox 

Siege  of  Charleston  (ended) 

Raymond 

Resaca 

Jackson  

Waxhaws 

Puebla 

Drewry's  Bluff 

New  Market,  Pa 

Presiderit^Little  Belt 

Champion  Hills 

Marksville 

Black  River 

Spottsylvania  (continued) . 

Vicksburg  (continued  May  22) 

Yellow  Bayou 

Fort  Blunt 

Gum  Swamp 

Vicksburg  (continued  to  May  25) 

Front  Royal 

Lewisburg 

New  Bridge 

Winchester 

Vicksburg  (ended) 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued) 

North  Anna  (continued) 

Fort  George 

Hanover  Court-House 

Port  Hudson 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued). 

North  Anna  (ended) 

Alliance-squadron 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued) 

Sackett's  Harbor 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (continued) 

Sandy  Creek 

Bermuda  Hundreds  (ended) 

Seven  Pines,  or  Fair  Oaks 


Victor. 


Casualties. 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Confederates 
English . 
Confederates 
Confederates  Oonf . 
Confederates  U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng;.. 

U.S.. 

Conf. 


English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Mexican 

Confederates 
Confederates  Conf 

English U.S. 

Conf  ederates  U.  S . 
Confederates  U.S. 
Conf  ederates  U.  S . 
Confederates  U.S. 
Confederates  Conf 
ConfederatesU.S. 
Confederates  U.S. 
Confederates  U.S. 
Confederates  Conf 
Confederates  Conf 
Confederates  r.S. 
Confederates  U.S. 
Confederates  Conf 
ConfederatesU.S. 
Confederates  r.S. 
ConfederatesiU.S. 

English U.S. 

Confederates  r.s. 
Confederates '  Conf 
Confederates  U.  S . 
Confederates  U.  S. 


English 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


United  States. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


126 

"*0 

90 

3,288 

3 

92 

69 

598 

37 

250 

18 

-422 

120 

0 

426 

9 

29 

2,031 

42 
12 
3 

".32 
11 
3 


39 

53 

293 


1 

201 
891 


585 

4 

401 

19.27s 

5 

142 

341 

2.147 

2.8 

130 

62 

2,^80 

563 

0 

1,842 

18 

242 

7,956 

108 
38 


122 

52 

5 

154 

2,378 


121 
344 

1.549 

1)406 

20 


3 

998 
3.627 


Opponents. 


Killed.      Wounded. 


248 

"2 

124 

3,342 

14 

76 

103 

861 

64 

5 

83 

514 

96 

11 

486 

32 

40 

1,752 

"74 
25 
4 

"6 
49 
4 
68 

1.420 


108 
1S8 
110 

'304 
11 


13 

864 
1,987 


6£2 
.... 

376 

20,187 

18 

189 

720 

1.949 

392 

14 

142 

1,086 

306 

21 

1,654 

64 

lc6 

7,248 

158 
37 
16 


15 
3J9 

2,151 


113 
732 
173 

1,5113 
30 


28 
2.136 
2,2^3 


JUNE. 


1  18131 

2  1780 
21864 
31770 
311776 
31864 
41780 
41782 
5  1862 

5  1864 
5' 1864 
6,1813 

6  1862 

7  1863 j 

8  1862 
9|1862 

9  1863 
10  1864 

10  1864 
111864 

11  1898 

12  1863 
12  1  61 

12  1898 

13  1776 

13  1898 
141863 
II  1863 

14  1898 

15  1847 

15  1863 

16  1862 

17  1775 
17  1770 


Chesapeake-Shannon 

Trumbull-  Watt 

Cold  Harbor  (continued) 

Boats-tender  to  Nautilus 

Lady  Washinaton-baraes 

Cold  Harbor  (ended) 

Gen.  Pickering- Achilles 

Charming  Sally-Revenge 

Harrisonburg 

Columbia,  Ark 

Piedmont 

Stony  Creek 

Memphis 

Milliken's  Bend 

Cross  Keys 

Port  Republic 

Beverly  Ford 

Brice's  Cross-Roads,  Miss 

Kellar's  Bridge 

Trevilian  Station  (continued). 
( limp  MeCalla  (continued). . . 

Middletown 

Trevilian  Station  (ended) 

( '"»//'  MeCalla  (continued).. . 

Tyrannicide-Dtspaich 

(  amp  MeCalla  (continued). . . 
IPort  Hudson 


Winchester  (continued). 
Camp  MeCalla  (ended).. 

Near  Tabasco 

Winchester  (ended) 

Secessionville 

Bunker  Hill 

I>tffi>x(-t  rnnspnrts 


English 

English 

Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Spanish 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Spanish 

English 

Spanish 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Spanish 

Mexican 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 


Eng.. 

Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 

r.s.. 
r.s.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 

* 

'Conf. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 

r.s.. 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 

.r.s.. 
r.s.. 


Conf. 

r.s.. 

U.S.. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Eng.. 

r.s.. 


47 

13 

"i 
0 

1,905 

1 

1 

15 

19 

130 

17 

10 

154 

125 

67 

156 

22:; 

13 


1 

85 

.... 

250 

6 

0 

211:; 
1:17 

116 

0 


99 

24 

50 

20 

39 

52 

8 

4 

'18 

2 

3 

11 

10,570 

364 

1,830 

3 

8 

12 

4 

3 

0 

32 

20 

50 

73 

22 

81 

050 

633 

2,:;37 

38 

20t 

30 

4 

201 

30t 

223 

14s 

284 

<M 

211 

302 

881 

104 

706 

2S9 

253 

354 

394 

124 

582 

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0 

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83 

400 

124 

582 

397 

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188 

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20t 
50 
63 

159 

is 


:!04 

1401 

301 

81 
'41 
095 

30t 


HISTORY  AND    BIOGRAPHY. 


227 


JUNE  —  Continued. 


S  X 


1815 
1863 
1863 
1864 
1864 
1781 
1864 
1864 
1864 
1863 
1813 
1896 
1812 
1864 
1813 
1898 
1862 
1S76 
1862 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1776 
1778 
1779 
1814 
1862 
1863 
1862 
1815 
1847 
1864 
1864 


Name  of  Battle. 


Opponent. 


Guerriere-Mashouda Algerine 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
English 


St.  Charles 

Weehawken- Atlanta.. , 
Lynchburg  (continued) 

Lynchburg (ended) 

Ninety-six 

Kin  rs' i  rge- Alabama Confederates 

Petersburg  (from  June  15) Confederates 

Petersburg  (continued  to  June  30) Confederates 

Upperville Confederates 

Oraney  Island English 

Santiagoforts  bombarded Spanish 

President-Belvidere English 

Weldon  Railroad Confederates 

Beaver  Dam English 

Las  Gnasimas ! Spanish 

Oak  G  rove,  near  Richmond jConf ederates 

Big  Horn ! Indians 

Mechanicsville Confederates 

Moth  ias  Point Confederates 

Gaines  Mill Confederates 

Shelbyrille Confederates 

"White  River Confederates 

Fort  Moultrie English 

Monmouth English 

Stone  Ferry English 

Wasp-Reindeer English 

Farragut  at  Vicksburg j Confederates 

Donalilsonville Confederates 

White  Oak  Swamp Confederates 

Peacock-Nautilus English 

Tamultay '. Mexican 

Petersburg  (ended) Confederates 

Wilson's  Raid  (June  22-30) (Confederates 


Victor. 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
* 

r.s.. 
r.s.. 

U.S.. 

• 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Ind  . . 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


3 

136 

0 

*99 

48 

1 

"36 

0 

1 

3 

604 

25 

16 

51 

261 

149 

1 

3,000 

143 

52 

11 

72 

51 

11 

15 

1 

34 

0 

6 

112 


11 

20 

0 

503 

107 

2 

7,474 

70 
0 

u 

19 

2,494 

50f 

50 

401 

0 

224 

4 

4,500 

361 

148 

26 

160 

99 

15 

30 

3 

42 

0 

53 

506 

265 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


12 
6 
0 

"47 

24 

9 

984 

"56 
75t 

(?) 
2 

156 
30f 
28 
60 
81 

156 

0 

2,000 

164 

162 
68 

294 
31 
25 
0 
85 
65 
6 
42 

801 
48 


JULY. 


1  1862  Malvern  Hill 

1  1863  Gettvsburg  (continued) 

1  1863  Cabin  Creek 

1 1898  El  Caney 

1  1898  i  San  Juan  (continued) 

2  1863:  Gettysburg  (continued) 

2  1898  Aguadores  (including  July  1) 

2  1898 1  San  Juan  (continued) 

3  1778:  Wyoming,  or  Fort  Forty 

3  1863, Gettvsburg  (ended) 

3  ?898  San  Juan  (ended) 

3  1838'  Spanish  squadron  destroyed 'off Santiago 

4  1863  Helena 

41863  Tibb's  Bend 

4  1863  Vicksburg  (ended) 

5  1814  Chippewa 

5  1862  Lebanon 

6  1776  Sachem-privateer 

6  1781  Jamestown  Island 

6  1864  Chattahoochee  (continued; 

7  1777  Castletown* 

7  1862  Cache  Swamp 

7  1864  Legareville 

8  1864  Chattahoochee  (continued) 

9  1780 Hazard-Duff 

9  1864  Monocacy 

10  1864  Chattahoochee  (ended; 

10  1898  Santiago  (continued) 

11 1812  Decatur-Commerce 

11 1898  Santiago  (continued) 

12  1863  Jackson 

12  1863  Near  Donaldsonville 

12  1898  Santiago  (ended)  

13  1862  Murf reesboro 

13  1863  Falling  Waters 

14 1813  Asp,  attack  on  the 

15  1862  Arkansas 

15  1863  Shepardstown 

15 1864  Tupelo,    Harrisonburg,    and    Old    Town 

I        Creek 

16  1779  Stony  Point 

16  1863  Wyoming-Japanese  butteries 

16  1863  James  Island 


Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  U.S.. 
iConf ederates  U.S.. 

Spanish ^U.S.. 

Spanish U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 

Spanish U.S.. 

Spanish 1U.S.. 

English Eng.. 

.Confederates  r.s.. 

Spanish U  S.. 

Spanish U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S. . 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Conf  ederates  ,U.  S . . 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English. 

English. 

Confederates 

English. 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

English. 

Confederates  ' 

Confederates 

Spanish.. 

English.. 

Spanish.. 

Confederates 

Confederates  Conf. 

Spanish |U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 
Conf  ederates  U.  S . . 

English iKnlj'- 

Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates       • 
I  I 

Confederates  U.  S . . 

English U.S.. 

Japanese U.S.. 

Confederates  U.'S.. 


U.S. 

Bf:: 

Eng.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S. 


2,860 


a 
n 


225 

2,834 

151 

1 

98 

6 

545 

60 

4 

1 

37 

*2ii 

8 

36 

"2 
90 
80 


88 
151 

2 
33 
25 

4 
18 
22 

85 

20 

6 

24 


3,500 


15 
356 


IS 


0 

2 

13,709 

4,000 

1,007 

204 

1 

342 

152 

205 

23 

280 

3,688 

25 

244 

199 

8 

3 

3 

2 

81 

21 

583 

35 

45 

110 

61 

12 

4 

"31 

579 

78 

450 

201 

0 

"4 

765 

n 

349 

88 

13 

0 

62 

47 

80 

125 

6 

10 

50 

10 

78 

34 

J63 

184 

70 

63 

4 

100 

76 

48 

3,023 


42 
120 


in 


228 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


JULY—  Continued. 


Name  of  Battle. 


17  1863  Honey  Springs 

18  1863  Wvtlieville.... 

18  1863  Fort  Wagner 

19, 1863  Near  Pomeroy 

20-1864' Peach  Tree  Creek 

211861  jBull  Run 

22 ,1%12,  Highflyer-Caledonia 

22  1864!  Atlanta,  Hood's  first  sortie 

231864  Martinsburg  (continued) 

2 1 1863  Manassas  G  ap 

21!186ijMartinsburg  (ended) 

25\m9\Jason-privateer 

25  1814  Niagara  (Lundy's  Lane) 

26  1863  New  Lisbon 

26  1864  Big  Creek 

27  1864  Fort  Smith 

28  1864 1  Ezra  Chapel 

29  1863  Stony  Lake 

30  1119\Holker-brig 

311812J  Julia-Gloucester 

311864  Petersburg  (from   July  1,  exclusive   of 

losses  at  the  Crater  and  Deep  Bottom) 


Opponent. 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Indians 

English 

English 


Confederates  U.  S 


Victor. 


U.S.. 
Conf . 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Killed.      Wounded. 


17 

21 
624 
2 
301 
481 
0 
499 

"30 

342 

1 

171 

1 

18 

10 

99 

12 

6 

0 

419 


60 

62 

876 

8 

1.411 

1,011 

7 

2,142 

"59 

836 
3 

572 
12 
32 
15 

601 

42 

16 

0 

2,076 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


153 
3 

26 

12 

880 

362 

3 

1,162 

"4i 

26 

3 

201 

22 

48 

12 

864 

32 

6 

0 

799 


AUGUST. 


1801  Enterprise-  Tripoli 

1812J  Yankee-Royal  Bounty 

1863  Culpepper  Court-House 

1813  Fort  Stephenson 

1HW  Attack  on  Tripoli 

1812 'Atlas-Planter  and  Pursuit. 

1814Comoeta  Creek 

1812  Brownstown 

1862  Malvern  No.  2. 

1813 

1862 

1864 

1777 

1862 

1781 

1804 

1862 

1812 

1862 

1861 


Decatur-Dominica 

Baton  Rouge 

Farragut  in  Mobile 

Fort  Schuyler 

Kirksville 

Trumbullr-Iris 

Attack  on  Tripoli 

Cedar  Mountain  (continued). 

Maguaga 

Cetfar  Mountain  (ended) 

Wilson  Creek 


1814  Stonington . 

1776  Andrea  JJoria^-Iiacehorse. 

1898  Manzanillo 

1812  Essex-Alert 

1863Pineville 

1898  Manila 

1813J  Argus-Pelican 

1814  Fort  Erie 

1777  Bennington 

1780  Camden 

1862 

1779! 

1H64  Strawberry  Plains,  etc 

1864  Six-Mile  House  (continued). 

1780  Catawba  Fords 

1812  Constitidion-Guerriere 

1847  Contreras 

1864  Six-Mile  House  (continued). 
1779,  Mars-Active 


London,Ky. . 
Paulus  Hook. 


Tripoli  tan . . . 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Tripolitan . . . 

English 

English 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Tripolitan 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Spanish 

English 

Confederates 

Spanish 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Mexican 

Confederates 
English 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 


U.S. 


1847.Churubusco iMexican 


1864  Six-Mile  House  (continued) 

1863  Lawrence 

1861  Six-Mile  House  (ended). 

1814;  Diomedc-  Upton 

1864|  Duvall's  Bluff 

isl  \  1 ! ladensburg 

1864,  Ream's  Station. 


1888  Wbite  Sulphur  Springs 

1776|Long  Island 

1K02  Manassas  Junction 

1863  Bavou  Metea 

1961  Fort  Hatteras 

1779  Newtown 

1«62  Bull  Bun  No.  2  (continued). 

1814  Moortields 

1862Bull  Run  No.  2  (ended) 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Indians 

Confederates 

English 

Confederates 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 

Eng..- 

u!s" 

U.S.. 

ju.s.. 

Eng.. 

Eng!.' 
• 

Conf. 

U.S.. 

Conf. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

Conf. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Eng.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Conf. 

U.S.. 

U.S.. 

Conf. 

Eng.. 
• 

Conf. 
Eng.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 


0 
0 

16 
1 
1 
2 
2 

17 
6 
4 

99 
145 
120 

28 
5 

22 

"l8 

450 

223 

1 

4 

0 

0 

3 

8 

6 

17 

30 

94 

12 

2 

401 

'l62 
7 
20 

'"6 
131 

iio 

212 

0 

13 
30 
127 
63 
62 
14 
2 
0 


0 
798 


16 

203 
170 
268 
60 
11 


58 
660 
721 


0 
0 

18 

40 

17 

56 

41 

281 

18 

3 

1,754 

281 

7 
40 

"3 

870 

"22 

1,155 

0 

42 

42 

516 

144 

188 

28 

8 

0 

22 

'"3 

4,023 


20 

2 
22 
50 
60 

2 
10 

0 
10 
18 
125 
12 
86 
180 

0 
50t 

"50 

223 

331 

21 

6 

10t 

0 

28 

""2 
222 
59 
80 
3 
5 
338 

""2 

15 

700 

"2 

l.OOOf 

'"a 

862 

1 

6 

183 

289 

42 

61 

11 

11 

4 

12 

"is 

1,0110 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


229 


AUGUST—  Continued. 


u 

a 

Name  of  Battle. 

Opponent. 

Victor. 

Casualties. 

United  States. 

Opponents. 

-. 

- 

Killed. 

Wounded. 

Killed. 

Wounded. 

<M1 

1862 
1864 
1  s.  ;4 

Richmond,  Kv 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

Conf... 
U.S.... 
U.S.... 

199 

689 

484 

153 
101 

248 

31 

SI 

Petersburg  ( August  1  to  August  31) 

605 

SEPTEMBER. 


1  1814  Wasp-Avon 

1  1864  Jonesboro  (ended) 

2  1812  Dolph  in-t  wo  ships 

3  ITTRRaXeigh- Druid 

3  1863  Whitestone  Hill 

4  1804  Intrepid 

5  1812  Fort  Harrison 

5  1813  Enterprise-Boxer 

6  1781  (  imi/ri  as-Savage. .   

6  1781  New  London 

7  1813  Gen.  Armstrong-Queen 

8  1781  Eutaw  Springs 

8  1862  BiKit  attack  on  Charleston 

8  1863  Sabine  Pass 

9  1847  Del  Rev 

10  1813  Lake  Erie 

10  1863  Little  Rock 

11  1777  Brand v wine 

11  1M4  Plattsburg 

11 1814  Lake  Champlain 

12  1862  Lexington,  Mo 

13  1814  Near  Baltimore 

13  1847  Chapultepec 

13  1863  Harper's  Ferry 

14  1862  South  Mountain 

14  1862  Crampton  Gap 

14  1802  Mumlordsville 

15  1814  Fort  Bow  yer 

16  1776  Harlem  Plains 

16  1812  liossie-Prineess  Amelia 

ltj  1862  Antietain  (continued) 

17  1814  Fort  Erie  (sortie) 

17  1862  Antietam  (ended) 

18  1778  Fengeanee-Sdrru  t 

18  1863  Chickamauga  (continued) 

19  1777  Stillwater 

19  1862  Iuka 

19  1863  Chickamauga  (continued).  .   

li)  1864  ( )pequan 

20  1777  I.(.riti<ittiti-Alert 

20  1  st ;3  Chickamauga  (ended) 

21  1777  Genu  Wavne 

22  1862  Wood  Lake 

23  I77:i  Bonhomme  Richard-Si  raj, is 

23  1864  Athens,  Ala 

24  1846  Monterev 

8611812  Globe-Sir  Simon  dark 

261814  Gen.  Armstrong-British  boats 

27  1864  Fort  Davidson 

28  1812  Nonesuch-privateer 

28  1818  Lak>  Ontario 

28  1864  New  Market  Heights  (continued). 

29  1864  Xew  Market  Heights  (continued). 

30  1863  Major  Montgomery 

30  1861  Xew  Market  "Heiclits  tended) 

30  1864  Preble's  Farm  < continued) 


Confederates  I ' .  s . . 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  U.S. . 

English U.S.. 

Indians U.S.. 

Tripolitan...  Trip  . 

Indians U.S. . 

English U.S.. 

English U.S.. 

English Eng.. 

English U.S.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf.. 
Confederates  Conf. 

Mexican U.S.. 

English U.S... 

Confederates  U.S. . . 

English Eng.. , 

English U.S.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates!       * 

English Eng... 

Mexican U.S. . 

Confederates  Conf . 
Confederates  U.S... 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  Conf.. 

English U.S... 

English * 

English U.S... 

Confederates  U.S. .. 

English JU.S... 

Confederates  U.S... 

English |U.S... 

Confederates  Conf. . 

English U.S... 

Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  Conf.. 
Confederates  I".  S . . . 

English Eng... 

Confederates  Conf. . 

English Eng... 

Indians U.S... 

U.S... 

U.S... 

U.S... 


English 

Confederates 

Mexican 

English |U.S.. 

English lU.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English U.S.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  U.S.. 
Confederates  Conf. 
Confederates  T".  S . . 
Confederates  U.8.. 


2 
0 
4 

1 

8 

13 

2 

2 

11 

88 

0 

130 

23 

17 

8 

27 

22 

m 

37 

52 

42 

24 

116 

80 

312 

115 

15 

4 

7 

0 

"79 

2,010 

1 

"'98 
144 

653 

3 

1,644 

94 

8 

49 

0 

142 

2 

2 

47 

3 

•    10 


1 

1,149 

7 

2 

23 

0 

2 

10 

19 

34 

1 

349 

57 

19 

31 

96 

59 

568 

62 

58 

108 

139 

671 

120 

1,234 

418 

22 

5 

8 

8 

2HS 

9,416 

3 

252 
598 

3,7i9 
10 

9,262 

162 

24 

67 

0 

364 

1 

7 

154 

8 

17 


40 
2,031 


10 

408 

3 

6 

194 

20 

8 

4 

25 

86 

10 

85 

0 

0 

46 

41 

31 

98 

50 

84 

33 

80 

l,000t 

0 

224 

98 

29 

32 

2 

3 

iio 

1,812 
3 

161 
385 

1,632 

2 

6,000 

2 

84 

49 

12 

2001 

4 

137 

245 

7 

12 


0 
399 


OCTOBER. 


1  1864 
11861 

2  1863 

3  lsl4 

3  1862 

4  1777 

4  1812 
41862 
41<63 

5  1813 

5  1864 
8  1777 

6  1782 

7  1777 
7  1780 
7  1812 


1'rebte's  Farm  (.ended) 

Harrison 

Anderson's  Cross- Roads 

Saucy  Jack-i  roup  eh  ip 

Corinth  (continued) 

(iennantown 

Ogdensburg 

Corinth  (ended) 

Baxter's  Springs 

Moravian  towns 

Allatoona 

Forts  Montgomery  and  Clinton. 

Wasp-packet 

Saratoga 

King's  Mountain 

Caledonia  and  Detroit-boats... 


Confederates  U.S. .. 
Confederates  U.S... 
Confederates  U.S. . . 

English U.S... 

Confederates  l" . S . . . 

English Eng.. . 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S... 
Confederates  Conf.. 

English U.S... 

Confederates  U.S... 

English Eng.. . 

English U.S... 

English U.S... 

English U.S.   . 

English. . . . ..  U.S... 


141 

8 
8 
8 

189 

0 

315 

80 

7 

112 

84 

3 

32 

28 

1 


7*> 
24 
16 
15 

542 

0 

1,812 

21 

22 

352 

166 

10 

61 

60 

4 


214 

16 

32 

3 

"'98 

3 

1,423 

12 

80 

338 

62 

4 

98 

168 

5 


230 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


OCTOBER—  Continued. 


Name  of  Battle. 


Opponent. 


1863  Farmington Confederates 

178C i  Saratoga-Molly English 

Confederates 

English 

English 

English 

Confederates 

English 

French 

Confederates 
English 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Indians 

English 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 
Confederates 

Mexican 

Confederates 
Confederates 


Victor. 


1862  Ferryville 

1770  Savannah 

1779!  Assault  on  Savannah 

1814J  Prince  de  Neuchatel-Ervdymion. 

1863  Blue  Springs 

YllQ\Lake  Champlain 

1800  Jlosto)i-Bcrceau 

1863  Arrow  Rock  (continued) 

1812jQueenstown 

1863  Arrow  Rock  (ended) 

1863  Bristow  Station 

1779|  Vengeance-Defiance 

1776  Ranger-privateer 

1862Fort  Ridgeley 

1812  Wasp-Frolic 

1781  Yorktown  (ended) 

1814  Cook's  Mills 

1863]Buckland's  Mills 

1864  Cedar  Creek 

1863  Philadelphia,  Tenn 

1861  Ball's  Bluff 

1777;Red  Bank 

1862  Pocotaligo  (continued) 

1862-  Pocotaligo  (ended) 

1864  Big  Blue  (continued) 

1776  White  Plains 

1812i  United  Slates-Macedonian 

1863Pine  Bluff 

1864:  Big  Blue  (ended) 

1846 1  Tabasco 

1863:  Wauhatchie  (continued) 

1864|  Albemarle 

1864  Hatcher's  Run {Confederates 

1S64  Fair  Oaks  (continued) Confederates 

1863  Wauhatchie (continued) Confederates 

1864  Fair  Oaks(ended) Confederates 

18631  Wauhatchie  (ended) Confederates 

1864  Petersburg  (September  1-October  31).    ...  Confederates 
17991  Norfolk-Picaroons Picaroons  . . . 


r.s.. 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
Erne.. 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Eng.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Eng.. 
U.S  . 
* 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 
Conf. 
U.S.. 
• 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


U.S.. 

* 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Casualties. 


United  States. 


Killed.    Wounded. 


2 
916 
M 

68 

7 

33 

30 

4 

"60 

45 

50 

3 

3 

1 

5 

8 

11 

8 

588 

26 

2-23 

11 


120 

7i; 

170 

0 


NOVEMBER. 


1779 
1813 
1813 
1863 
1812 
1812 
1861 
1863 
1863 
1863 
1811 
1861 
1861 
1863 
1813 
1813 
1813 
1813 
1813 
1776 
1813 
1779 
1776 
1776 
1847 
1863 
1813 
1847 
1780 
1856 
1847 
1856 
1776 
1856 
1863 


Jason-Perseus 

Governor  Tompkins-Ma ry  Ann * 

Talluschatches 

Near  Opelousas 

Marengo- Leonidas 

Paul  Jones-Hassan 

Belmont  (continued) 

Droop  Mountain 

Rogersville 

Campbell  Station 

Tippecanoe 

Port  Royal 

Belmont  (ended) 

Rappahannock  Station 

Globe-packets 

Talladega 

Saucy  Jack-Shcrlrrokc 

Chrysler's  Fields 

Tom-Toumsend 

Alfred-transports 

\Vile  Renn  rd-ship 

Imperii  nent-Ha  rlem 

liidiinlry-iirig 

Mount  Washington 

( i  uaymas 

Kno'xville 

1 1  illabee  towns 

Urias 

Ennoree  Ford 

Canton  Forts  (continued) 

San  Jose 

Canton  Forts  (continued) 

Lee-ship 

('anion  Forts  (ended) 

Chattanooga,  including  Orchard  Knob, 
Lookout  Mountain,  and  Missionary 
Ridge  (continued) 


English 
English 

Indians 

Confederates 

English 

English 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Indians 

Confederates 

Confederates 

Confederates 

English. 

Indians. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

English. 

Mexican 

Confederates 

Indians. 

Mexican 

English. 

Chinese. 

Mexican 

Chinese. 

English. 

Chinese. 


Confederates  I'.S 


Eng.... 

U.S.... 

18 
0 

U.S.... 

5 

* 

IV, 

U.S.... 

0 

r.s.... 

0 

Conf... 

U.S.... 

4J 

Conf... 

5 

Conf... 

112 

r.s.... 

37 

r.s.... 

8 

U.S.... 

90 

r.s..  . 

119 

r.s.... 

8 

U.S.... 

15 

U.S.... 

0 

# 

102 

U.S.... 

0 

r.s.... 

0       i 

U.S.... 

6 

U.S.... 

0 

* 

2 

Eng.... 

48 

r.s... 

0 

* 

24 

U.S.... 

0 

U.S.... 

0 

U.S.... 

3 

r.s.... 

r.s.... 

0 

U.S.... 

* 

1 

r.s.... 

ta 

16 

4 

2,943 

136 

173 

23 

62 

50 

11 

160 

162 

150 

5 

11 

6 

5 

16 

54 

23 

3,516 

73 

226 

21 

152 

"66 

7 

40 

G2 

0 

"6 

1.017 


783 

339 

822 

0 


12 

0 

41 

124 

0 

1 

79 

12 

186 

151 

23 

173 

250 

18 

86 

3 

237 


40 

1 

6 

101 

0 
79 

0 
0 
4 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded. 


6 
980 
20 
18 
33 
48 
15 

4 

"56 
84 

150 
4 

16 
44 
15 

199 
20 
4 

961 
34 
58 

142 


89 
38 
39 
78 
4 

"0 
247 


150 
153 
210 
65 


7 

1 

186 

58 
0 
1 

"s2 

3 

136 

l.'O 

11 

231 
80 

9 
299 

2 
22 

8 

3 
82 

8 

3 
252 
12 
18 
61 

8 
92 


2 
40(1 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY, 


231 


NOYEM  BER  —  -Continued. 


-    N 


N.UIt  OF  Battlk. 


Opponent. 


24  1863  Chattanooga,  etc.  (continued) 

25  1803  Chattanooga,  etc.  (ended) 

26  1863  Operations  at  Mine  Run  (continued) 

27  1863  Operations  at  Mine  Run  (continued). 

28  1812  Niagara  batteries 

28  1863  Mine  Run  (ended) 

29  1813  Autosse 

29  18C3  Knoxville 

30  1864  Franklin,  Tenn 

30  1864  Honey  Hill,  S.  C 

1 1782  Commerce-brig  and  schooners 

2  1777  Ma&sach  usetts  La  umsdale 

3  1815  Kemp-merchantmen  (armed) 

4  1781  Prosperity-privateer 

5  1863  Coffeeville 

6  1812  Montgonu  ry-armed  ship 

6  1864  Deveraux's  Neck  (continued) 

7  1777  Chestnut  Hill 

7  1802  Prairie  Grove 

71832  Hartsville 

8  1-04  Deveraux's  Neck  (continued) 

9  1862  Col.  Matthews 

!<  1864  Deveraux's  Neck(ended) 

10  1812  Saratoga-Morgiana 

11  1862  Fredericksburg  (continued) 

12  1862  Fredericksburg  (continued) 

13  1862  Fredericksburg  (ended) 

14  1>14  Lake  Borgne 

14  1862  Kinston 

15  1775  Great  Bridge 

15  1864  Nashville  (continued) 

16  1864  Nashville  (ended) 

17  1812  Massasinewa 

18  1862  Foster's  expedition  (ended) 

19  1770  Rover-Africa 

20  1862  Holly  Springs 

21  1 779  Sail  {/-transports 

22  1778  Saratogar-Chanee 

23  1813  Econocnaea 

23  1814  Near  New  Orleans 

24  1861  Fort  Fisher  (continued) 

25  1770  Trenton 

25  1861  Fort  Fisher  (continued) 

26  1781  St.  James-ship  (armed) 

27  1862  Vicksburg assaultf, continued) 

28  iM4  Near  New  Orleans 

28  1862  Vicksburg  assault  (ended) 

29  177*  Savannah 

29  1812  Constitution-Java 

30  1862  Murfreesboro(continued) 

31  1775  Quebec 

31  1862  Parker's  Cross-Roads 

31  1862  Murf  reesboro  (continued) 


Casualties. 


Victor. 


United  States 


Opponents. 


Killed.     Wounded.     Killed,   i  Wounded 


U.S.. 

U.S.. 
U.S.. 


Confederates 
Confederates 
Confederates  i 
|Confederates|U.S. . 

English U.S.. 

Confederates^.  S.. 

Indians U.S.. 

!  Confederates'  U.  S . . 
j  Confederates  V .  s . . 
i  Confederates  Conf . 


757 


11 

24 
189 


DECEMBER. 


U.S.. 
U.S.. 
U.S.. 
Conf. 


English. 
English . 
English. 
English . 
Confederates 

English U.S. 

Confederates        * 

English * 

Confederates  U.  S . . 
Confederates  Conf. 
Confederates!       * 
Confederates  U  S . . 
Confederates        * 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf . 
Confederates  Conf . 
Confederates  Conf . 

English |Eng.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 

English IU.S.. 

ConfederatesJU.S.. 
Conf ederates  U.  S . . 

Indians U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English", * 

English U.S.. 

Indians iU.S.. 

English Eng:.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English |       * 

[Confederates  Conf. 

'English U.S.. 

Confederates  Conf. 

English Eng.. 

English U.S.. 

Confederates  U.S.. 

English Eng.. 

Confederates  U.  S . . 
Confederates  U.S.. 


14 

167 
48 

"18 

39 
3 


1,152 
6 
90 
0 

399 

11 

90 

0 

3 

5 

4 

1 

24 

"*2 
20 

1 

"  7 

724 

28 

9 

"J8 
23 


2 
5 
4 
8 
62 
13 

"36 
798 
102 

"22 
390 

7 


9,101 

35 

478 

0 

1,741 

26 

478 

3 

4 

12 

9 

6 

113 

"4 
63 
4 


990 
69 
25 


42 
139 


14 
6 
3 
4 

21 
6 

"42 
161 
35 

"32 

112 

2 


505 
17 
71 
24 

'584 

39 

201 

23 

2 

6 

5 

30 


3 
3 

120 
63 
7 
60 


24 
13 
8 
9 
32 
21 

"64 
817 
115 

"68 

228 

5 


4,061 

77 


!,021 

0 

538 

0 

21 

11 

13 

0 

230 

"78 
55 
8 

i49 

134 

19 

101 


152 


THE  RULERS  OF  FRANCE  FROM  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1792. 


The  First  Republic. 

The  National  Convention  first  sat Sept. 

The  Directory  nominated Nov. 

The  Consulate. 

Bonaparte,  Cambaceres,  and  Lebrun Dec. 

Bonaparte,  Consul  for  ten  years May 

Bonaparte.  Consul  for  life" .  Aug. 

The  Empire. 

Napoleon  I.  decreed  Emperor May 

Napoleon  II.  (never  reigned)  died  July 

The  Restoration. 

Louis  XVIII.  re-entered  Paris Mav 

Charles  X.  (dep.  July  30, 1830,  d.  Nov.  0, 18^6) 
The  House  of  Orleans. 

Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French 

(Abdicated  Feb.  24,  1848,  died  Aug.  20,  1850 


21, 1792 
I,  1795 

24,  1799 
6,  1802 
2,1802 

18.  1814 
22, 1»*32 

3,  1814 
1824 


The  Second  Republic. 

Provisional  Government  formed Feb. 

Louis  Napoleon  elected  President Dec. 

The  Second  Empire. 

Napoleon  III.  elected  Emperor Nov. 

(Deposed  Sept.  4,  1870,  died  Jan.  9, 1873.) 
The  Third  Republic. 

Committee  of  Public  Defense Sept. 

L.  A.  ThiersBlected  President Aug. 

Marshal  MacMahon  elected  President May 

Jules  (irevy  elected  President Jan. 

Marie  F.  S."  Carnot  elected  President Dec. 

(Assassinated  at  Lyons,  June  24,  1894.) 

Jean  Casimir  Perier  elected" President June 

Felix  Francois  Faure  elected  President Jan. 

(Assassinated,  in  Paris,  Feb.  16,  1899.) 
M.  Emile  Loubet  elected  President Feb. 


22.1848 
19,  1848 


22,  1852 


4, 1870 
31,1871 
24,  1873 
30,  1879 

3,1887 

27,1894 
17, 1895 

18,  1899 


232 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


A  TABLE  OF  THE  KFNGS  AND  QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND. 


Name. SAXONS  AND  DANES. 

Egbert First  King  of  all  England , 

Ethelwulf Son  of  Egbert 

(  Ethelbald (Son  of  Ethelwulf 

|  Ethelbert Second  son  of  Ethelwulf 

Ethelred Third  son  of  Ethelwulf 

Alfred Fourth  son  of  Ethelwulf 

Edward  the  Elder Son  of  Alfred 

Athelstan Eldest  son  of  Edward 

Edmund Brother  of  Athelstan 

Edred Brother  of  Edmund 


Son  of  Edmund. 

Second  son  of  Edmund.. . 

Son  of  Edgar 

Half-brother  of  Edward.. 
Eldest  son  of  Ethelred  . . . 
By  conquest  and  election. 

Son  of  Canute 

Another  son  of  Canute . . . 
Son  of  Ethelred  II. 


Edwy 

Edgar 

Edward  the  Martvr 

Ethelred  II 

Edmund  Ironside 

Canute 

Harold  I 

Hardicanute 

Edward  the  Confessor. 

Harold  II Brother-in-law  of  Edward. 


THE  HOUSE  OF  NORMANDY. 

William  I (Obtained  the  Crown  by  conquest , 

William  II ;  Third  son  of  William  I 

Henry  I Youngest  son  of  William  I 

Stephen Third  son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois 

THE  HOUSE  OF  PLANTAGENET. 

Henry  II [Son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet 

Richard  I [Eldest  surviving  son  of  Henry  II 

John , Sixth  and  youngest  son  of  Henry  II 

Henry  III Eldest  son  "of  John 

Edward  I Eldest  son  of  Henry  III 

Edward  II Eldest  surviving  son  of  Edward  I 

Edward  III Eldest  son  of  Edward  II 

Richard  II Son  of  the  Black  Prince,  eldest  son  of  Edward  III 


THE  HOUSE  OF  LANCASTER. 

Henry  IV Son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  fourth  son  of  Edward  III. 

Henry  V Eldest  son  of  Henrv  IV 

Henry  VI Only  son  of  Henry  V.  (died  1471) 


Edward  IV. 


Edward  V... 
Riehard  III. 


Henry  VII. 


Henry  VIII. 
Edward  VI. 

Mary  I 

Elizabeth... 


James  I.., 
Charles  I. 


Commonwealth 


Charles  II. 
James  II.. 


William  III. 
and 

Mary  II , 

Anne 


George  I. . . 

George  II. . 
George  ill. 
George  I  V . 
William  IV 


THE  HOUSE  OF  YORK. 

His  grandfather  was  Richard,  son  of  Edmund, 
fifth  son  of  Edward  III. ;  and  his  grandmother, 
Anne,  was  great-granddaughter  of  Lionel,  third 
son  of  Edward  III 

Eldest  son  of  Edward  IV 

Younger  brother  of  Edward  TV 


THE  HOUSE  OF  TUDOR. 

Son  of  Edmund,  eldest  son  of  Owen  Tudor,  by 
Katharine,  widow  of  Henry  V.;  his  mother, 
Margaret  Beaufort,  was  great-granddaughter 
of  John  of  Gaunt 

Only  surviving  son  of  Henry  VII 

Son  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Jane  Sevmour 

Daughterof  Henry VIII., bvKatherine  of  Aragon 

Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.,  by  Anne  Boleyn 


Accession, 


THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART. 
Son  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  granddaughter  of 
James  IV.  and  Margaret,  daughter  of  HenrvVII. 
Only  surviving  son  of  .lames  I ! 

Commonwealth  declared  May  19 

Oliver  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector 

Richard  Cromwell,  Lord  Protector 


THE  HOUSE  OF  STUART— RESTORED. 

Eldest  son  of  Charles  I 

Second  son  of  Charles  I.  (died  Sept.  16, 1701).  . . 
(Interregnum,  Dec.  11, 1688— Feb.  13,  1C89.) 
Son  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  by  Mary, 

daughter  of  Charles  I .* . 

Eldest  daughter  of  James  II 

Second  daughter  of  James  II 


THE  HOUSE  OF  HANOVER. 
Son  of  Elector  of  Hanover,  by  Sophia,  daughter 

of  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Ja"mes  I 

Only  son  of  George  I 

( Jrandson  of  George  II 

Eldest  son  of  George  III 

Third  son  of  George  III , .......'.'..'.'..', '. 

Victoria..      .Daughter  of  Edward,  fourth  son  of  George  ill.'.!  I 

Edward  VII |Son  of  Victoria 


827 

837 
866  f 
858) 
8f6 
871 
901 
925 
940 
946 
955 
958 
975 
979 
1016 
1017 
1035 
1040 
1042 
1066 


1066 
1087 
1100 
1135 


1154 
1189 
1199 
1210 
1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 


1399 
1413 
1422 


1461 
1483 
1483 


1485 
1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 


1603 
1625 

1646 

1C53 
1658 


1660 
1685 


1702 


1714 
1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 
1901 


Died. 


839 

858 

860 

866 

871 

901 

925 

940 

946 

955 

958 

975 

979 

1016 

1016 

1035 

1040 

1042 

1066 

1066 


1087 

lino 

1135 
1154 


1189 
1199 
1216 

1272 
1307 
1327 
1377 
Dep.  1399 


1413 

1422 

Dep.  1461 


1483 
1483 
1485 


1509 
1547 
1553 
1558 
1603 


1625 
1649 


1658 
Res.  1659 


lf85 
Dep.  1688 

Dec.  1701 
1702 


1694 
1714 


1727 
1760 
1820 
1830 
1837 
1901 


Age. 


68 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


233 


DICTIONARY  OF  BIOGRAPHY. 

ABBREVIATION'S  :  Am.,  American.  Br.,  British.  Dan., 'Danish.  Eng.,  English.  FL, 
flourished.  Jr.,  French.  Ger.,  German.  Gr.,  Greek.  Ir.,  Irish.  It.,  Italian.  Nor.,  Nor- 
loegian.  Port..  Portuguese.  Prus.,  Prussian.  Rom.,  Roman.  Scot.,  Scottish.  Sp.,  Spanish- 
></•..  Swedish. 

The  numbers  after  each  name  indicate  the  years  of  birth  and  death.  An  interrogation 
mark  denotes  that  the  date  is  doubtful.  After  the  names  of  the  Popes  the  first  date  indicates 
time  of  accession  unless  otherwise  stated. 


Abbas  I.  (the  Great),  1557-1628,  shah  of 
Persia. 

Abbassides,  fi.  within  749-1258,  famous 
dynasty  of  Caliphs  at  Bagdad  and  Damascus. 

Abbott,  John  Stevens  Cabot,  1805-77,  Am. 
historian. 

A]sii-kl-Kader,  1807-83,  emir  of  Algeria. 

Abelakd,  Pierre,  1079-1142,  Fr.  orator  and 
philosopher. 

Abercrombie,  James,   1706-81.     Br.  gen-; 
eral  in  America. 

Abercrombie,  John,  1781-1844,  Scot,  met-  J 
aphysician . 

Abekcromby,  Sir  Ralph,  1734-1801,  Br. 
general. 

Abernethy,  John,  1764-1831,  Eng.  anato- 
mist. 

About,  Edmond,  1828-85,  Fr.  author. 

Abraham  (or  Abram),  born  about 2000  B. 
C,  and  died  at  the  age  of  175,  Hebrew  prince 
and  patriarch. 

Adams.  Charles  Francis,  1807-88,  Am. 
statesman,  son  of  J.  Q.  A.  :  negotiated  treaty 
of  Geneva. 

Adams,  John,  first  vice-president  and  sec- 
ond president  of  the  United  States  ;  one  of  the  j 
negotiators  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain,   1782  ;  defeated  by  Jefferson  for  the 
presidency  in  1800,  he  retired  to  private  life. 

Adam*.    John    Quincy.    1768-1848,   son   of 
J.    A.,  sixth  president  of  the  United  States ;  ( 
being  elected  by  the  House  ;  defeated  by  Jack- 
son in  1828  ;  elected  to  the  House  in  1830,  his  j 
oratory  gained   for  him  the  title  "Old  Man  I 
Eloquent  "  ;  member  of  the  House  until  1848, 
in  which  year,  while  in  his  seat  at  the  Capitol, 
he  received  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  which  caused 
his  death. 

Adams.  Samuel.  1722-1803,  Governor  of 
Massachusetts  ;  one  of  the  popular  leaders  of 
the  Revolution  ;  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. 

Addison,  Joseph,  1672-1719,  Eng.  poet, 
moralist,  and  dramatist. 

Adrian  I.,  pope  from  772-95  ;  II.,  867-72  : 
III.,  884-5;  IV.,  1154-9  ;  V..  1276,  died  same 
year ;  VI.,  1521-3. 

-iEschixes,  389-14  B.C.,  Athenian  orator. 

^EsciiYi.rs,  525-456  B.C.,  first  great  tragic 
poet  and  founder  of  the  drama. 


jEsop,  619?-564  B.C.,  Gr.  fabulist ;  a  slave, 
but  liberated  by  his  master  on  account  of  his 
talents. 

Affre,  Denis  Auguste,  1793-1848,  arch- 
bishop of  Paris  ;  killed  during  the  insurrection 
of  June,  1848. 

Agassiz,  Louis,  1807-73,  Swiss  naturalist; 
professor  at  Harvard ;  founded  museum  of 
comparative  zoology,  Cambridge. 

Agricola,  Cnaeus  Julius,  37-93,  Rom.  gen- 
eral. 

Agrippa,  Marcus  Vipsanius,  63-12  B.C., 
Rom.  soldier  and  statesman. 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison,  1805-82, 
Eng.  novelist. 

Akbar,  1542-1605,  most  illustrious  of  the 
Mogul  emperors. 

Akenside,  Mark,  1721-70,  Eng.  physician, 
poet,  and  scholar. 

Aladdin,  fl.  1375,  son  of  Osman  and  organ- 
izer of  the  Janissaries. 

Alaric,  350V-410,  king  of  the  Visigoths. 

Albert,  or  Albert  Francis,  Augustus 
Charles  Emmanuel,  prince  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  1819-61,  consort  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Albuquerqie,  Alfonso,  Marquis  de,  1453- 
1515,  Portuguese  conqueror. 

Ai.cibiades,  450-404  B.C.,  Athenian  gen- 
eral. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  1799-1888,  Am. 
philosopher  and  teacher. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  1833-88,  Am.  au- 
thoress. 

Ai.embert,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  1717-83,  Fr. 
geometer. 

Alexander  (the  Great),  356-323  B.C., 
king  of  Macedon  ;  taught  by  Aristotle ;  as- 
cended the  throne  of  Macedon  336.  destroyed 
Thebes  and  was  chosen  commander  of  the 
Greeks  against  Persia  ;  invaded  Asia  Minor  in 
334,  defeating  Darius  on  the  banks  of  the 
Granicus ;  in  333  he  almost  annihilated  the 
Persian  army  at  the  battle  of  Issus ;  cut  the 
Gordian  knot  and  caused  the  Ammonian  oracle 
to  declare  him  the  son  of  Jupiter  Amnion; 
captured  Tyre  in  332,  and,  having  invaded 
Egypt,  founded  Alexandria;  in  331  he  de- 
feated Darius  at  Arbela  ;  elated  by  his  success, 
he  claimed  the  homage  due  to  a  god,  stabbing 
his  foster-brother  Clitus  for  refusal  to  pay  such 


>.u 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


homage ;  invaded  India  in  327,  advancing  as 
far  as  the  Hyphasis  :  his  death  is  said  to  have 
been  caused  by  excessive  drinking. 

Alfieri,  Yittorio,  1749-1803,  It.  poet. 

Alfred  (the  Great),  849?-901,  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  ;  one  of  the  greatest  and  noblest 
of  Englishmen  ;  established  schools  and  a  sys- 
tem of  police,  and  founded  a  navy. 

Allen,  Ethan,  1737-89,  Am.  Revolutionary 
commander  ;  captured  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point  in  1775  with  only  eighty-three  men. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin,  1816-89,  Am. 
writer. 

Allston,  Washington,  1779-1843,  Am. 
painter. 

Alva,  Fernando  Alvarez  de  Toledo,  Duke 
of,  1508-82,  Spanish  commander  in  Nether- 
lands ;  infamous  for  cruelty. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  340?-97,  one  of  the  fathers 
of  the  Church. 

Americus,  see  Yespucci. 

Ames,  Fisher,  1758-1808,  Am.  orator  and 
statesman. 

Amherst,  Jeffrey  (Lord  Amherst),  1717-97, 
Br.  general  and  field-marshal  and  governor  of 
Virginia. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie,  1775-1836,  Fr.  elec- 
trician and  natural  philosopher. 

Anacreon,  B.  C.  560?-478,  Gr.  lyric  poet. 

Anaxagoras,  B.  C.  500-428,  Gr.  philos- 
opher ;   "  the  father  of  modern  science." 

Anaximander,  B.  C.  610-547,  Gr.  philos- 
opher. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  1805-75,  Dan. 
author. 

Andrassy,  Julian,  Count,  1823-90,  Hun- 
garian statesman. 

Andre,  John,  1751-80,  Eng.  spy ;  hanged 
for  connection  with  the  Arnold  treason. 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  1637-1714,  Br.  col- 
onial governor  of  New  England. 

Anne,  1664-1714,  queen  of  England;  last 
of  the  Stuarts. 

Anthony,  St.,  251-356?,  Egyptian  founder 
of  monachism. 

Antisthenes,  fl.  400  B.  C,  Gr.  philosopher  ; 
founder  of  the  Cynic  school. 

Antoinette,  Marie,  1755-93,  queen  of  Louis 
XVI.  of  France ;  guillotined. 

Antonius,  Marcus  (Mark  Antony),  B.  C. 
93?-30,  Rom.  general  and  statesman. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  Saint  (the  Angelic  Doc- 
tor), 1224-74,  theologian,  teacher,  and  writer; 
member  of  the  order  of  St.  Dominic  ;  the  great- 
est of  the  schoolmen  of  the  middle  ages. 

Aram,  Eugene,  1704-59,  Eng.  scholar;  ex- 
ecuted for  the  murder  of  one  Daniel  Clark, 
whom  he  is  said  to  have  killed  to  procure  means 
for  prosecuting  his  studies  ;  chief  character  m 
one  of  Bulwer's  novels. 


Archimedes,  B.  C.  287V-12,  Gr.  mathema- 
tician and  natural  philosopher ;  founder  of 
physics. 

Argyll  (or  Argyle),  Archibald  Campbell, 
eighth  earl,  1598-1661,  Scot.  Covenanter;  de- 
feated by  Montrose  ;  executed  for  treason. 
Ariosto,  Ludovico,  1474-1533,  It.  poet. 
Aristides,  B.  C -468?,  Athenian  gen- 
eral and  statesman. 

Aristophanes,  B.  C.  444?-380?,  Gr.  comic 
poet ;  his  genius  and  audacity  in  burlesque 
have  never  been  equaled. 

Aristotle  (the  Stagirite),  B.  C.  384-22,  Gr. 
founder  of  analytic  philosophy. 

Arius,  255?-336?,  patriarch  of  Alexandria 
and  founder  of  the  Arian  schism. 

Arkwright,   Sir    Richard,    1732-92,    Eng. 

manufacturer  ;  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny. 

Arminius,    Hermann,  B.  C.  16-21,    A.  D., 

Ger.  hero  ;  defeated  the  Romans  A.  D.  9,  near 

the  Lippe. 

Arnaud,  Henri,  1641-1721,  leader  of  the 
Waldenses. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  1740-1801,  Am.  general 
and  traitor  ;  his  plot  to  deliver  West  Point  into 
the  hands  of  the  British  was  foiled  by  the  cap- 
ture of  Major  Andre,  and  he  barely  escaped  ; 
he  became  a  colonel  in  the  British  army. 

Arnold  of  Brescia  (or  Arnaldo),  .... 
-1155,  It.  reformer  and  orator. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  1822-88,  Eng.  author, 
poet,  and  critic. 

Arnold,  Thomas,  1795-1842,  Eng.  historian. 

Arnold     von    Winkelried,   ....  -1386, 

Swiss  patriot,  who  broke  the  Austrian  phalanx 

at  the  battle  of  Sempach  by  throwing  himself 

against  the  points  of  their  spears. 

Artemisia,  fl.  350  B.  C,  consort  of  Mau- 
solus,  prince  of  Caria,  in  whose  memory  she 
erected  a  tomb  numbered  among  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van,  1300?-45,  leader  of 
people  of  Ghent. 

Artevelde,  Philip  van,  son  of  J.  v.  A., 
1340-82,  leader  of  insurrection  in  Flanders. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  1831-86,  twenty- 
first  president  of  the  United  States ;  born  at 
St.  Albans,  Vermont ;  read  law,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar,  and  began  practice  in  New  York 
city;  1860,  quartermaster  general  on  the  staff 
of  Governor  Morgan;  1871,  collector  of  the 
port  of  New  York,  but  superseded,  1878,  by 
General  Merritt ;  1880,  nominated  for  vice- 
president  by  the  Republicans  and  elected  ;  suc- 
ceeded to  the  presidency  on  the  death  of  Gar- 
field. 

Ascham,  Roger,  1515-68,  Eng.  scholar  and 
author. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord,  1774- 
1848,  Eng.  diplomatist. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


235 


Aspasia  of  Miletus,  B.  C 432  ?,  mis- 
tress of  Pericles,  the  Athenian  law  not  permit- 
ing  a  citizen  to  marry  a  foreigner  ;  Socrates 
called  himself  one  of  her  disciples. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  1763-1848,  Am.  mer- 
chant, native  of  Germany ;  settled  in  New 
York  city  and  entered  the  fur  trade,  establish- 
ing trading  posts  in  the  northwest  as  far  as 
the  Pacific  and  founding  Astoria  in  1811  ;  he 
made  extensive  investments  in  real  estate,  and 
when  he  died  his  property  was  estimated  at 
twenty  millions. 

Attila  (the  Scourge  of  God),  .  .  .  .-453, 
king  of  the  Huns. 

Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit,  1784-1871, 
Fr.  composer. 

Audubon,  John  James,  1780-1851,  Am. 
ornithologist  ;  spent  many  years  in  studying 
and  illustrating  from  life  the  birds  of  America. 

Auerbach,  Berthold,  1812-82,  Ger.  Jewish 
author  and  poet. 

Augustine,  Saint,  354-430,  Latin  father 
of  the  Church  and  founder  of  Roman  Catholic 
theology. 

Augustus  Cesar,  B.  C.  63-A.  D.  14,  first 
emperor  of  Rome. 

Aurelius  Antoninus,  Marcus  (Marcus 
Aurelius),  121-80,  Rom.  emperor  and  philoso- 
pher. 

Austen,  Jane,    1775-1817,    Eng.    author. 

Avicenna,  980-1037,  Arabian  physician. 

Baber.  Mohammed,  1483  V-1530,  founder  of 
the  Mogul  empire  in  India. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian,  1685-1750,  Ger. 
composer  and  director ;  founder  of  modern 
music. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Baron  Yerulam,  Viscount 
St.  Albans  (Lord  Bacon),  1561-1626,  Eng. 
statesman,  jurist,  and  philosopher,  and  father 
of  experimental  philosophy  ;  from  him  dates 
the  origin  of  all  industrial  science.  Son 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  keeper  of  the 
great  seal  under  Elizabeth  :  studied  at  Trinity 
College,  and  at  15  began  to  oppose  the  phi- 
losophy of  Aristotle  ;  called  to  the  bar,  and 
made  queen's  counsel  at  28  ;  solicitor-general, 
1607;  judge  of  the  marshal's  court,  1611  ; 
attorney-general,  1613  ;  lord  keeper,  1617; 
lord  high  chancellor,  1619  :  charged  with 
bribery  and  corruption  in  Parliament,  1621, 
he  pleaded  guilty  (some  say  to  save  the  king), 
and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  £40,000, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  during  the  royal  pleas- 
ure ;  he  regained  his  liberty  after  two  days' 
imprisonment,  his  fine,  too,  being  remitted  by 
King  .Tames,  who  also  allowed  him  a  pension  ; 
he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement, 
diligently  pursuing  the  study  of  literature  and 
science. 


Baffin,  William,  1580-1622,  Eng.  naviga- 
tor. 

Bailly,  Jean  Sylvain,  1736-93,  Fr.  astron- 
omer and  philosopher  ;  first  president  of  the 
States-General ;    executed    by    the    Jacobins. 

Baker,    Sir   Samuel    White,    1821- 

Eng.  explorer  and  author  ;  in  1847  he  estab- 
lished a  sanitarium  and  prosperous  agricul- 
tural settlement  in  the  mountains  of  Ceylon, 
6.200  feet  above  the  sea  level  ;  in  1861-4  ex- 
plored the  region  lying  around  the  sources  of 
the  White  Nile  ;  discovered  and  named  Lake 
Albert  Nyanza,  and  found  the  exit  of  the  Nile  ; 
in  1869  another  expedition  was  made  to  the 
great  African  lakes. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  1475  ?-1517,  Sp. 
discoverer  ;  discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
1513  ;  the  jealousy  of  his  superior  officers 
caused  his  conviction  and  execution  on  a 
charge  of  treason. 

Balfe,  Michael  William,  1808-70,  Ir.  com- 
poser ;   "  Bohemian  Girl." 

Baliol,  John  de,  1259  7-1314,  king  of 
Scotland  ;  rival  of  Bruce. 

Ballou,  Hosea,  1771-1852, Am.  theologian  ; 
founder  of  Lniversalist  denomination. 

Balmaceda,  Jose  Manuel,  1840-91,  presi- 
dent of  Chile. 

Balzac,  Honore1  de,  1799-1850,  Fr.  novel- 
ist. 

Bancroft,  George,  1800-91,  Am.  historian 
and  diplomat;  his  "History  of  the  United 
States"  has  been  translated  into  all  the  prin- 
cipal languages  of  Europe. 

Barbarossa,  Hadher,  1476  ?-1546,  Corsair 
king  of  Algiers. 

Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia,  1743-1825,  Eng. 
authoress. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  Michael,  Prince,  1755- 
1818,  Russian  field-marshal. 

Barham,  Richard  Harris,  1788-1845,  Eng. 
divine  and  humorist  ;   "  Ingoldsby  Legends." 

Barmecides,  Persian  family,  noted  for 
tragic  fate. 

Barneveldt,  Johanvan  Olden,  1549-1619, 
Dutch  statesman.    ■ 

Barras,  Paul  Francois  Jean  Nicola,  Count 
de,  1755-1829,  Fr.  statesman. 

Barrett.  Lawrence  (real  name,  Branni- 
gan),  1838-92,  Am.  actor. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Jules,  1805- 
......  Fr.  statesman  and  writer. 

Baxter,  Richard,  1615-91,  Eng.  Dis. 
minister  and  writer. 

Bayle,  Pierre,  1647-1706,  Fr.  philosopher 
and  critic. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille,  1811-88,  Fr. 
general ;  in  the  Franco-German  war  he  sur- 
rendered the  fortress  of  Metz.  with  173,000 
men,  6,000  officers,  50  generals  and  3  mar- 


236 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


shals,  and  fled  to  England ;  court-martialed 
and  sentenced  to  degradation  and  death,  but 
sentence  was  commuted  to  twenty  years'  im- 
prisonment ;  confined  at  the  isle  Sainte  Mar- 
guerite, he  escaped  and  settled  in  Madrid. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of , 
1801-80,  Eng.  statesman  and  novelist. 

Beattie,  James,  1735-1803,  Scot,  poet  and 
philosopher. 

Beaumont,  Francis,  1586-1615,  Eng. 
dramatic  writer  ;    associate  of   John  Fletcher. 

Beauregard,  Peter  Gustavus  Toutant, 
1816  Y-1893,  Am.  Confederate  general,  born 
in  Louisiana  ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  served 
in  Mexico  ;  commanded  at  Fort  Sumter  and 
at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run  ;  defeated  at 
Shiloh  by  Grant,  1862  ;  defended  Charleston, 
1863. 

Becket,  Thomas  a,  1117-70,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury  ;  high  chancellor  of  England  ;  hav- 
ing excommunicated  two  bishops  for  comply- 
ing with  the  king's  will,  he  was  assassinated 
by  four  barons  of  the  royal  household  ;  canon- 
ized in  1172. 

Bede  (the  Venerable),  673-735,  Eng.  monk 
and  ecclesiastical  writer. 

Bedford,  John  Plantagenet,  duke  of ,  1390- 
1435,  Eng.  general;    defeated  by  Joan  of  Arc. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  1813-87,  Am. 
divine  and  lecturer. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  1770-1827,  Ger. 
composer  and  considered  the  greatest  of  musi- 
cians. 

Behring,  Vitus,  1680-1748  ?,  Dan.  navi- 
gator. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  1800-72,  Scot.- 
Am.  journalist. 

Bentham,  Jeremy,  1748-1832,  Eng.  jurist 
and  utilitarian  philosopher. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  1782-1858,  Am. 
statesman;  born  at  Hillsboro,  N.  C.  ;  re- 
moved to  Tennessee,  where  he  studied  law ; 
commanded  a  regiment  under  General  Jack- 
son ;  removed  to  St.  Louis, where  he  published  a 
political  paper  ;  elected  to  the  U.  S.  Senate  in 
1820,  he  continued  a  member  of  that  body  for 
30  years ;  defeated  in  1850  by  a  division  in 
Democratic  party  on  slavery  question  ;  advo- 
cacy of  a  gold  and  silver  currency  during  his 
second  term  in  Senate  earned  for  him  sobri- 
quet "  Old  Bullion";  elected  in  1852  to  the 
House,  he  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise ;  defeated  for  governorship  of 
Missouri  in  1856;  favored  Buchanan  for  the 
presidency  in  opposition  to  his  son-in-law, 
Fremont. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  1780-1857,  Fr. 
lyric  poet. 

Berg,  Christen  Paulsen,  1829-  .  .  .  .,  Dan. 
statesman. 


Beriot,  Charles  Auguste  de,  1802-70,  Bel- 
gian violinist  and  composer. 

Berkeley,  George,  1684-1753,  Ir.  Protes- 
tant prelate  and  metaphysician  ;  founder  of  the 
philosophy  of  idealism. 

Berlioz,  Louis  Hector,  1803-69,  Fr.  com- 
poser. 

Bernadotte,  Jean  Baptiste  Jules,  1764- 
1844,  marshal  of  France  ;  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway  as  Carl  XIV.  Johan. 

Bernard.  Saint,  1091-1153,  Fr.  ecclesiastic, 
canonized  1174;  "  the  greatest  of  the  monks  ; ' ' 
abbot  at  Clairvaux,  refusing  ecclesiastical  pre- 
ferment, but  exerting  great  power  over  Europe  ; 
preacher  of  the  second  Crusade. 

Bernardo  del  Carrio,  fl.  ninth  century  ; 
Sp.  soldier. 

Bichat,  Marie  Frangois  Xavier,  1771-1802, 
Fr.  physiologist ;  the  greatest  physician  of 
modern  times  and  founder  of  general  anatomy. 

Biddle,  John,  1615-62,  Eng.  theologian; 
father  of  English  Unitarians. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  1829-82,  Ger.-Am.  land- 
scape painter. 

Binney,  Horace,  1780-1875,  Am.  lawyer. 

Bismarck-Schonhausen,  Karl  Otto,  Prince, 
1815-1898,  Ger.  statesman;  chancellor  of  the 
German  empire  ;  within  ten  years  he  ' '  humbled 
the  Austrian  empire,  destroyed  the  French 
empire,  and  established  the  German  empire  "  ; 
retired  1890. 

Black,  Jeremiah  Sullivan,  1810-83,  Am. 
jurist. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  1723-80,  Eng. 
jurist. 

Blackwood,  William,  1776-1817,  Scot,  pub- 
lisher. 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  1830-93  ("the 
Plumed  Knight");  born  in  Pennsylvania; 
removed  to  Maine,  where  he  edited  the  Port- 
land Advertiser;  served  four  terms  in  the  leg- 
islature ;  in  Congress  from  1862  to  1876,  and 
speaker  for  three  years  ;  prominent  candidate 
for  the  Republican  nomination  for  the  presi- 
dency in  1876,  1880,  1892;  chosen  United 
States  senator  in  1877,  but  resigned  to  accept 
the  secretaryship  of  state  under  Garfield  ;  sec- 
retary of  state  under  Harrison,  but  resigned 
just  before  the  Republican  convention  of  1892. 

Blair,  Hugh,  1718-1800,  Scot,  divine  and 
rhetorician. 

Blake,  Robert,  1599-1657,  Br.  admiral; 
founder  of  England's  naval  supremacy. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis,  1813-83,  Fr. 
journalist,  historian,  and  politician. 

Blatchford,  Samuel,  1820-1893,  justice 
United  States  Supreme  Court. 

Blavatsky,  Helena,  1831-91,  theosophist. 

Blennerhasset,  Harmon,  1770-1831,  friend 
and  accomplice  of  Aaron  Burr, 


HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


237 


Blessixgtox,  Margaret,  Countess  of  (nee 
Power),  1789-1849,  beautiful  and  accomplished 
Irish  lady. 

Bloomfield,  Robert,  1766-1823,  Eng.  poet. 

Bli'CHER,  Gebhard  Lebrecht  von  (Marschall 
Yorwarts),  1742-1819,  Prussian  field-marshal; 
decided  battle  of  Waterloo. 

Boahdil,  ....  -1536?,  last  Moorish  king  of 
Granada. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  1313-75,  It.  novelist. 

Boerhaave,  Herman,  1688-1738,  Dutch 
physician  and  philosopher. 

Bogardus,  James,  1800-74,   Am.  inventor. 

Boleyx.  Anne,  1507?-36,  second  queen  of 
Henry  VIII.  of  England ;  beheaded. 

Bomxgijroke,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount, 
1678- 1751,  Eng.  author,  orator,  and  politician. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  1783-1830,  liberator  of  the 
South  American  colonies. 

Boxaparte,  Charles  Louis  Napoleon  (Napo- 
leon III.),  1808-73,  son  of  Louis  Bonaparte; 
emperor  of  the  French ;  as  claimant  to  the 
throne  of  France,  attempted  in  1836  to  take 
Strasburg,  but  was  banished ;  imprisoned  in 
Havre,  1840,  for  an  attempted  insurrection  at 
Boulogne,  but  escaped  to  England,  1846  ;  re- 
turning to  France  after  revolution  of  1848,  he 
was  elected  president,  gained  support  of  the 
army,  and,  abolishing  popular  representation 
by  the  coup  d'etat  of  1851,  was  declared  em- 
peror; in  1853  he  married  Eugenie,  Countess 
de  Teba.  Having  surrendered  at  Sedan,  after 
the  decisive  battle  of  the  Franco-German  war, 
he  was  deposed  and  retired  to  Chiselhurst,  in 
England. 

Boxaparte,  Joseph,  1768-1844,  king  of 
Spain,  eldest  brother  of  Napoleon  I. 

Boxai'arte,  Louis,  1778-1846,  king  of  Hol- 
land, brother  of  Napoleon  I. 

Boxaparte,  Napoleon  (Napoleon  I.),  1769- 
1821,  emperor  of  the  French  and  greatest  of 
modern  generals.  Born,  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica. 
Attended  military  school,  1779  to  1784.  En- 
tered army  as  sub-lieutenant  in  1785,  and  in 
1792  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  captain  of  artil- 
lery. In  1793  he  submitted  a  plan  for  the  re- 
duction of  Toulon,  held  by  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  was  intrusted  with  its  execu- 
tion. His  success  won  for  him  a  commission 
as  brigadier-general.  In  the  spring  of  1795, 
on  the  remodeling  of  the  army,  he  was  sus- 
pended and  placed  upon  half-pay,  the  reason 
given  by  the  authorities  being  that  he  was  too 
young  to  command  the  artillery  of  an  army. 
In  the  fall,  on  the  breaking  out  of  an  insurrec- 
tion led  by  the  National  Guard,  the  convention 
recalled  Napoleon,  who  gained  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory after  a  brief  but  bloody  engagement. 
This  virtually  made  him  commander-in-chief 
of  the  army  of  the  interior.     In  1796  he  was  ap- 


pointed to  the  command-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
Italy,  and  in  the  same  year  he  married  Josephine 
de  Beauharnais.  In  his  very  first  campaign 
Napoleon  appeared  a  consummate  general.  In 
a  few  weeks  he  gained  four  victories,  conquered 
Lombardy  and  captured  Mantua,  almost  annihi- 
lating three  Austrian  armies.  He  then  turned 
his  arms  against  the  Pope,  compelling  him  to 
pay  30,000,000  lire  and  surrender  many  valu- 
able works  of  art.  After  defeating  another 
Austrian  army  sent  to  Italy,  Napoleon  concluded 
a  treaty  securing  his  success.  In  1798  he  was 
given  command  of  a  powerful  expedition  into 
Egypt,  the  intention  being  to  strike  at  the  power 
of  Great  Britain,  and  gained  decisive  victories 
over  the  Mamelukes  and  Turkish  auxiliaries. 
Returning  to  France  he  overthrew  the  Directory 
and  was  elected  first  consul.  In  1800  he  gained 
the  great  victory  of  Marengo.  Made  peace  with 
England,  1802,  granted  general  amnesty,  es- 
tablished public  order,  reestablished  the  Cath- 
olic faith,  and  produced  his  Civil  Code.  Napo- 
leon became  emperor  in  1804,  and  engaged  in 
war  with  England,  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Prus- 
sia. Divorced  from  Josephine  in  1809,  he  mar- 
ried Maria  Louise,  daughter  of  the  emperor  of 
Austria,  in  1810.  In  1812  occurred  the  ill- 
fated  Russian  campaign,  Napoleon's  loss  be- 
ing estimated  at  450,000  men.  Beaten  at 
Leipzig,  1813,  he  made  a  disastrous  retreat. 
In  1814  the  allies  entered  Paris,  compelled 
Napoleon  to  abdicate,  and  sent  him  to  Elba, 
granting  him  the  sovereignty  of  that  island, 
with  a  yearly  pension  of  6,000,000  francs. 
Returning  again  to  France,  he  was  enthusias- 
tically received  and  raised  an  army  of  about 
125,000,  but  was  completely  defeated  at  Water- 
loo, 1815.  He  abdicated  again,  and,  unable 
to  carry  out  his  intention  of  embarking  for 
America,  surrendered  to  the  captain  of  a 
British  man-of-war.  Carried  to  the  island  of 
St.  Helena,  he  died  there  in  1821. 

Boxavextura,  Saint,  1221-74,  It.  theolo- 
gian. 

Boxhetjr,  Rosa  (or  Rosalie),  1822-1899,  Fr. 
painter  of  animals. 

Boxiface  I.,  pope,  ruling  419-22;  II., 
530-2  ;  III.,  elected  607  and  died  same  year; 
IV.,  608-15  :  V.,  619-24,  distinguished  for  his 
efforts  to  convert  the  Britons. 

Boxiface,  Winifred,  Saint,  apostle  of  Ger- 
many, 680-755? 

IJoNXER,  Edmund  (Bloody  Bonner),  1490?- 
1569,  bishop  of  London,  noted  for  persecution 
of  Protestants. 

Boxxivard,  Francois  de,  1496-1570,  hero 
of  Byron's  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon." 

Booxe,  Daniel,  1735-1820?,  Am.  pioneer; 
born  in  Pennsylvania,  but  removed  in  boyhood 
to  North  Carolina ;  visited  Kentucky,  hitherto 


238 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


unexplored,  in  1769,  and  emigrated  to"  that 
state  with  his  own  and  five  other  families  in 
1773,  constructing  a  fort  at  Boonsborough  in 
1775  ;  captured  by  the  Indians,  he  was  adopted 
by  them,  but  escaped  and  returned  to  the  fort, 
which  was  shortly  after  attacked  by  Indians 
under  the  British  flag ;  the  fort  was  ably  de- 
fended, two  of  Boone's  sons,  however,  being 
killed.  Boone  lost  his  lands  in  Kentucky  in 
consequence  of  a  defective  title,  and,  removing 
to  Missouri,  pursued  the  occupation  of  a  hunter 
and  trapper. 

Booth,  Edwin,  1833-93,  son  of  Junius  Brutus 
Booth ;  Am.  tragedian. 

Booth,  John  Wilkes,  1 835-65,  son  of  Junius 
Brutus  Booth ;  Am.  actor ;  assassin  of  Abra- 
ham Lincoln ;  effected  his  escape,  but  was 
traced  into  Virginia,  where,  refusing  to  sur- 
render, he  was  shot. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  1796-1852,  Eng.  tra- 
gedian. 

Borgia,  Cesare,  Due  de  Valentinois,  1457- 
1507,  natural  son  of  Alexander  VI.,  It.  mili- 
tary leader  ;  made  cardinal  in  1492,  but  after- 
wards secularized ;  notorious  for  cunning,  per- 
fidy, and  cruelty. 

Borgia,  Francisco  ;  see  Francis,  Saint. 

Borgia,  Lucrezia,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  .  .  .  . 
-1523,  sister  of  Cesare  ;  distinguished  for  beau- 
ty and  talents,  and  a  patron  of  learning,  but 
contemporaneous  writers  differ  in  their  estima- 
tion of  her  character. 

Borromeo,  Carlo,  Saint,  1538-84,  It. 
cardinal. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne,  1627-1704,  Fr. 
prelate  and  controversialist,  and  considered 
the  greatest  of  Christian  orators ;  first  advo- 
cate of  papal  infallibility. 

Boswell,  James,  1740-95,  Scot,  lawyer; 
biographer  of  Dr.  Johnson. 

Bottcher,  Johann  Friedrich,  1682-1719, 
inventor  of  Dresden  china. 

Boucicault,  Dion,  1822-90,  Ir.-Am. 
dramatist. 

Boulanger,  Georges  Ernest  Jean  Marie, 
1837-91,  Fr.  general. 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  de,  1060?-1100,  leader 
of  first  Crusade. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis,  1632-1704,  Fr.  Jesuit 
orator. 

Bourne,  Hugh,  1772-1852,  Eng.  founder  of 
Primitive  Methodism. 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel,  1773-1838,  Am. 
mathematician. 

Bowles,  Samuel,  1826-78,  Am.   journalist. 

Bowles,  William  Lisle,  1762-1850,  Eng. 
poet. 

Boyesen,  Hjalmar  Hjorth,  1848-1895,  Nor. 
author  in  America. 


Bozzaris,  Marcos,  1790-1823,  patriotic 
leader  in  Greek  war  for  independence. 

Braddock,  Edward,  1715  ?-55,  Eng.  gen- 
eral in  America  ;  killed  by  Indians. 

Bradford,  William,  1590-1657,  governor 
of  Plymouth  colony. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  1815-76,  Confederate 
general. 

Brandt,  Joseph  (Thayendanega),  1742- 
1807,  half-breed  chief  of  the  Mohawks. 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  1821-75,  Am. 
statesman  and  Confederate  general ;  born  in 
Kentucky;  vice-president,  1857-61;  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  presidency  in  1860 : 
elected  to  U.  S.  Senate  in  1861,  but  resigned 
to  enter  the  Confederate  army  ;  Confederate 
secretary  of  war,  1865. 

Bremer,   Fredrika,   1802-65,    Sw.  novelist. 

Brenghel,  Jan, 1569-1825, Flemish  painter. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  1781-1868,  Eng. 
optician  and  physicist. 

Brian  Boru  (or  Boroihme),  926-1014, 
king  of  Ireland. 

Bridget,  Saint,  1302-73,  patron  saint  of 
Ireland. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  1829-89,  Am.  blind 
deaf-mute,  noted  for  mental  acquirements. 

Bright,  John,  1811-89,  Eng.  statesman 
and  orator. 

Bronte,  Charlotte  (Currer  Bell),  1816-55, 
Eng.  novelist. 

Brooks,  Phillips,  1835-93,  Am.  clergyman. 

Brougham,  Henry,  Lord,  1779-1868,  Br. 
author,  statesman,  and  orator. 

Brown,  John,  Captain,  1800-59,  born  in 
Connecticut ;  a  tanner  by  trade  ;  removed  to 
Kansas  and  became  prominent  as  an  abolition- 
ist ;  gained  the  title  of  < '  Ossawatomie  "  by  a 
victory,  in  1856,  over  a  company  of  Missou- 
rians  vastly  exceeding  his  own  force  in  number  ; 
in  pursuance  of  a  plan  for  the  invasion  of 
Virginia,  he  surprised  Harper's  Ferry  in  1859, 
and  took  the  arsenal  and  armory  and  forty 
prisoners ;  attacked  the  next  day  by  U.  S. 
marines  and  the  Virginia  militia,  two  of  his 
sons  and  most  of  his  company  of  twenty  men 
were  killed,  and  he  himself  wounded  and  taken 
prisoner  ;  he  was  tried  and  hanged  at  Charles- 
town,  Virginia. 

Browne,  Charles  F.  (Artemus  Ward), 
1835-67,  Am.  humorist. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  1605-82,  Eng.  phy- 
sician, philosopher,  and  author. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  1809-61, 
wife    of     Robert     Browning ;     Eng.    poetess. 

Browning,  Robert,  1812-89,  Eng.  poet  : 
"The  Ring  and  the  Book,"  "Strafford," 
"Men  and  Women,"  "  Fifine  at  the  Fair," 
"  A  Soul's  Errand." 

Bruce,  Robert,  1247-1329,    the  greatest  of 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


239 


the   kings   of    Scotland  ;  defeated  Edward  II. 
at  Bannockburn,  in  1314. 

Brummel,  George  Bryan  (Beau  Brummel) , 
1778-1810,  Eng.  man  of  fashion. 

Bruno,  Saint,  1040  ?-l  101,  Ger.  founder  of 
the  Carthusians. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  fl.  500  B.C.,  Rom. 
patriot. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  80-3G  B.  C,  one 
of  Caesar's  assassins. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  1794-1878,  Am. 
poet  and  journalist ;  born  in  Mass.  ;  entered 
Williams  College,  read  law,  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1816  ;  published  <<  Thanatopsis  "  in  1810  ; 
became  editor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post 
in  1826. 

Buchanan,  James,  1791-1868,  fifteenth 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  born  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1812  ;  member 
of  Congress,  1821-31  ;  minister  to  Russia,  1832- 
4  ;  U.  S.  senator,  1834-5  ;  sacretary  of  state, 
1845-9  ;  minister  to  England,  1853-G  ;  signed 
Ostend  Manifesto,  1354;  president,  1857-61  ; 
in  his  last  message,  President  Buchanan  cen- 
sured the  Northern  people  for  the  imminent 
disruption  of  the  Union,  holding  that  neither 
the  executive  nor  Congress  had  power  to  coerce 
a  state. 

Buckle,  Henry  Thomas,  1822-62,  Eng.  his- 
torian. 

Buddha  (or  Boodha),  Gautama,  624-523, 
B.  C,  Hindoo  reformer  ;  founder  of  Buddhism. 

Buffon,  Georges  Louis  Leclerc  de,  Comte, 
1707-88,  Fr.  naturalist  and  philosopher. 

Bull,  Ole  Bornemann,  1810-SO,  Norwegian 
pianist  and  violinist. 

Bulwer-Lytton, Edward  George  Earle  Lyt- 
fcon,  Baron  Lytton,  1805-73,  Eng.  novelist. 

Bunsen,  Christian  Karl  Josias  von,  Baron, 
1791-1860,  Ger.  philologist  and  diplomatist. 

Bunyan,  John,  1628-88,  Eng.  author;  the 
son  of  a  tinker,  he  followed  that  vocation  and 
led  for  many  years  a  wandering  life ;  served 
in  the  Parliamentary  army ;  joined  the  Ana- 
baptists in  1654,  and  in  1655  became  a  Bap- 
tist minister  ;  sentenced  to  transportation  on  a 
charge  of  promoting  seditious  assemblies,  but 
sentence  not  enforced  ;  was,  however,  impris- 
oned for  more  than  twelve  years,  and  during 
that  time  wrote  his  "  Pilgrim's  Progress." 

Burgoyne,  John,  1730-92,  Brit,  general  and 
dramatist ;   surrendered  at  Saratoga. 

Burke,  Edmund,  1730-97,  Ir.  orator,  states- 
man, and  writer  ;  prominent  as  the  ablest  mem- 
ber of  the  Commons  to  oppose  the  ministry's 
American  policy  ;  impeached  Warren  Hastings 
in  1788. 

Burns,  Robert,  1759-96,  Scot,  lyric  poet; 
born  at  Ayr ;  the  son  of  a  poor  farmer ; 
worked  hard  on  his  father's  farm  and  had  lit-j 


tie  opportunity  for  education ;  began  rhym- 
ing at  16,  and  studied  mensuration  and  sur- 
veying ;  his  poems  brought  him  into  society, 
where  he  acquired  dissipated  habits ;  formed 
a  liaison  in  1785  with  Jean  Armour,  whom  he 
married  in  1788  ;  intended  to  emigrate,  but 
the  popularity  of  his  poems,  published  in  full, 
1787,  induced  him  to  remain  in  Scotland;  he 
afterward  became  an  officer  of  the  excise. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett,  1824-81,  Am. 
general. 

Burr,  Aaron,  1756-1836,  Am.  states- 
man and  lawyer.  In  1800  Burr  and  Jeffer- 
son were  the  Democratic  candidates  for 
president  and  vice-president ;  receiving  the 
same  number  of  votes,  the  House  gave  the 
higher  office  to  Jefferson.  Burr's  course  in 
endeavoring  to  supplant  Jefferson  cost  him  the 
regard  of  his  party.  Unsuccessful  as  candi- 
date for  governor  of  New  York  in  1804,  Burr 
attributed  his  defeat  to  Alexander  Hamilton, 
whom  he  killed  in  a  duel.  After  the  expira- 
tion of  his  term  as  vice-president,  Burr  was 
tried  for  treason,  charged  with  the  subversion 
of  federal  authority,  and  with  raising  an  ex- 
pedition for  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  but  acquit- 
ted. 

Burritt,  Elihu  (the  Learned  Blacksmith), 
1810-79,  Am.  scholar,  journalist,  lecturer,  and 
reformer  ;  the  son  of  a  shoemaker,  and  appren- 
ticed to  a  blacksmith,  he  devoted  all  of  his 
spare  time  to  study,  and  eventually  mastered 
eighteen  languages. 

Bushxell,  Horace,  1802-76,  Am.  divine. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  1818-93,  Am. 
politician,  lawyer,  and  general ;  born  in  New 
Hampshire ;  military  governor  of  New  Or- 
leans in  1802,  ruling  with  vigor  and  efficiency 
and  preserving  the  city  from  the  yellow  fever  ; 
went  to  Congress  as  a  Republican  in  1866,  and 
was  re-elected  for  several  terms  ;  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts  in  1S82  by  the  Demo- 
crats, but  defeated  for  the  same  office  a  year 
later. 

Byron,  George  Gordon  Noel,  Lord,  1788- 
1824,  Eng.  poet.  In  1815  he  married  Anne 
Isabel  Millbank,  but  separated  from  her  and 
left  England  in  1816  ;  in  Italy  he  formed  a 
liaison  with  the  beautiful  Countess  Guiccioli ; 
espousing  the  cause  of  the  Greeks  in  their 
struggle  for  liberty,  he  left  for  Greece  in  1823, 
and  died  the  following  year  at  Missolonghi 
from  the  effects  of  exposure  while  preparing 
for  the  siege  of  Lepanto. 

Cabot,  John,  ....  -1498?,  Venetian  navi- 
gator in  service  of  England ;  discovered 
North  American  continent  1497. 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  1477?-1557,  son  of  pre- 
ceding :  Eng.  navigator. 


240 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


C^edmon,  .  .  .  .-G80?,  Anglo-Saxon  poet. 

CvEsar,  Caius  Julius,  100-44  B.  C,  the  great- 
est of  Roman  generals.  Elected  consul  60 
B.  C.  ;  formed  a  secret  alliance  with  Pompey 
and  Crassus  known  as  the  first  triumvirate. 
It  is  said  that  during  his  Gallic  wars  a  million 
}f  men  were  slam,  eight  hundred  cities  and 
towns  captured  and  three  hundred  tribes  sub- 
dued. Pompey  having  become  his  enemy 
through  jealousy,  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon 
49  B.C.,  and  in  a  short  time  became  master 
of  Italy  ;  having  conquered  all  his  enemies, 
and  subdued  Spain  and  Africa,  he  was  made 
perpetual  dictator,  and  received  from  the  sen- 
ate the  title  of  Imperator.  Although  beloved 
by  the  masses,  the  patricians  feared  and  hated 
him,  and  the  result  of  a  conspiracy  of  Cassius, 
Brutus,  and  others  was  his  assassination. 

Cagliari,  Paolo  (Paul  Veronese),  1530?- 
88,  It.   painter. 

Calderon  de  la  Barco,  Don  Pedro, 
1600-83,  Sp.  poet  and  dramatist. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwell,  1783-1850,  Am. 
statesman  ;  born  in  South  Carolina ;  elected 
to  Congress,  1810;  secretary  of  war,  1817; 
vice-president,  1825-32,  resigning  to  enter  the 
Senate  ;  secretary  of  state,  1844  ;  returned  to 
the  Senate  1845 ;  Calhoun  was  an  avowed 
champion  of  slavery  and   States'  rights. 

Caligula,  Caius  Csesar,  12-41,  emperor  of 
Rome  ;  cruel  and  sensual ;  built  a  temple  to 
himself  ;   assassinated. 

Calvin,  John,  1509-64,  Fr.  theologian ; 
established  Presbyterian  form  of  church  gov- 
ernment;  the  fundamental  principle  of  his 
theology  is  that  of  predestination  to  eternal 
happiness  or  misery  by  the  absolute  decree  of 
God. 

Cambyses,  ....  -522  B.  C,  king  of  Persia; 
conqueror  of  Egypt. 

Camoens,  Luis,  1517-79,    Portuguese  poet. 

Campbell,  Alexander,  1788-1866,  Ir. 
founder  of  the  denomination  of  "  Christians," 
or  "  Disciples  of  Christ." 

Canova,  Antonio,  1757-1822,    It.    sculptor. 

Canute  II.,  990-1035,  king  of  Denmark  ; 
conqueror  of  England. 

Capet,  Hugh,  940?-996,  founder  of  the 
Capetian  dynasty. 

Carey,  Henry  Charles,  1788-1879,  Am. 
political  economist. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  1795-1881,  Scot,  essay- 
ist, biographer,  and  historian. 

Carroll,  Charles,  1737-1832,  Am.  patriot. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  1494-1555?,  Fr.  naviga- 
tor. 

Cartwrioiit,  Edmund,  1743-1823,  Eng. 
inventor. 

Castlereagii,  Robert  Stewart,  Viscount, 
1769-1822,  second  marquis  of  Londonderry ; 


Br.  statesman,  prominent  in  suppressing  the 
Irish   rebellion   of    1798;  committed  suicide. 

Castro,  Joan  de,  1500-48,  Portuguese  gen- 
eral and  navigator. 

Catherine,  Saint,  1347-80,  It.  nun  at 
Siena  ;  mediator  between  the  rival  popes  in 
the  great  schism. 

Catherine  I.,  1682-1727,  empress  of  Rus- 
sia ;  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  death  of  her 
husband,  Peter  the  Great. 

Catherine  of  Aragon,  1486-1536,  queen 
of  Henry  VIII.  of  England;  divorced. 

Catherine  de  Medici,  1510-89,  queen  of 
Henry  II.  of  France;  opponent  of  the  Hugue- 
nots. 

Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius,  108?-62  B.  C, 
Rom.  conspirator. 

Cato,  Dionysius,  fl.  3d  century,  Latin  poet. 

Cato,  Marcus  Portius  (the  Elder),  234-149 
B.  C,  Rom.  statesman  and  author. 

Cato,  Marcus  Portius  (the  Younger),  95- 
46  B.  C,  opponent  of  Cresar ;  famed  for  pur- 
ity and  nobility  ;  committed  suicide. 

Catullus,  Caius  Valerius,  77?-45?,  B.  C, 
Latin  poet. 

Cavour,  Camillo  Benso  di,  1818-61,  first 
prime  minister  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Caxton,  William,  1412?-92,  Eng.  scholar 
and  merchant ;  introduced  printing  into  Eng- 
land. 

Cecilia,  Saint,  fl.  second  century,  Rom. 
martyr  ;  patroness  of  music. 

Cenci,  Beatrice,  1583?-99,  "the  beautiful 
parricide  "  ;  Rom.  lady  famous  for  beauty  and 
tragic  fate. 

Cervantes  Saavedra,  Miguel  de,  1547- 
1616,  Sp.  novelist. 

Cesnola,  Louis  Palma  di,  1832- .  .  .  ., 
born  in  Italy ;  colonel  in  United  States  army 
during  the  civil  war  ;  appointed  1865  consul  to 
Cyprus,  and  became  famous  for  his  excava- 
tions in  that  island. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  1780-1847,  Scot,  di- 
vine. 

Ciiamlsso,  Adelbert  von,  1781-1838,  Ger. 
traveler. 

Champollion,  Jean  Francois,  1791-1832, 
Fr.  Egyptologist. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  1780-1842,  Am. 
divine. 

Charlemagne  (Charles  the  Great,  or 
Charles  I.),  742-814,  emperor  of  Germany  and 
founder  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Franks  (now 
France)  ;  crowned  emperor  of  the  west,  with 
the  title  of  Caesar  Augustus,  by  Pope  Leo  I  IT., 
800  ;  the  most  powerful  and  enlightened  mon- 
arch of  his  time ;  his  empire  extended  from 
the  Elbe  to  the  Ebro,  and  from  Calabria  to 
Hungary  ;  first  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty. 

Charles    II.    (the   Bald — Charles   II.    of 


HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


241 


France),  823-77,  emperor  of  Germany;  in- 
vaded Italy  and  was  crowned  emperor;  III. 
(the  Fat),  832?-88;  IV.,  1316-78,  emperor  of 
Germany  and  king  of  Bohemia  ;  Y.,  1500-58, 
emperor  of  Germany ;  king  of  Spain  as 
Charles  I.  ;  in  1521,  summoned  the  Diet  of 
Worms  to  check  the  progress  of  Luther's  doc- 
trines ;  in  1527,  warring  with  Francis  I.  of 
France  and  Pope  Clement  VII.,  Rome  was 
sacked  and  the  pope  made  prisoner  ;  convened 
the  Diet  of  Augsburg  to  suppress  the  reforma- 
tion, but,  the  Protestants  having  united,  liberal 
terms  were  granted  them  ;  in  1535,  defeated 
Barbarossa  and  captured  Tunis,  liberating 
thousands  of  Christian  slaves  ;  defeated  in  1 552 
by  the  Protestant  forces  under  Maurice  of 
Saxony,  he  signed  the  treaty  of  Passau,  es- 
tablishing the  Protestant  church  on  a  firm 
basis  ;  three  years  later  he  retired  to  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Y^uste. 

Charles  I.  (Charles  Stuart),  1600-49,  king 
of  England  ;  beheaded,  after  attempting  to  sub- 
due his  rebellious  subjects;  II.,  1630-85,  witty, 
but  careless  and  voluptuous ;  the  habeas  cor- 
pus act  was  passed  during  his  reign. 

Charles  XII.,  1682-1718,  king  of  Sweden, 
ascended  the  throne  in  1697  ;  a  league  being 
formed  against  him  by  Russia,  Denmark,  and 
Poland  in  1700,  he  besieged  Copenhagen,  forced 
Denmark  to  make  peace,  and  beat  the  Russians  ; 
he  then  invaded  Poland,  compelling  King  Au- 
gustus to  resign  ;  invading  Russia,  he  was  badly 
defeated  at  Pultowa ;  he  fled  to  Turkey,  but 
soon  returned  ;  marching  into  Norway,  he  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Frederickshall. 

Charles  Martel,  694?-741,  king  of  the 
Franks. 

Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  1808-73,  Am. 
statesman  and  jurist. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste  de,  Vis- 
count, 1768-1848,  Fr.  author. 

Chatham,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  (the  Great 
Commoner),  1708-78,  Eng.  statesman  and 
orator;  opposed  taxation  of  American  colo- 
nies. 

Chatterton,  Thomas,  1752-70,  Eng.  liter- 
ary impostor. 

Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  1340?-14O0,  Eng. poet; 
"  Father  of  English  poetry." 

Chercbini,  Maria  Luigi,  1760-1842,  It. 
composer. 

Chesterfield,  Philip  Dormer  Stanhope, 
Earl  of,  1694-1773,  Eng.  orator  and  wit;  dis- 
tinguished as  a  man  of  fashion. 

Chitty,  Joseph,  1776-1841,  Eng.  jurist. 

Choate,  Rufus,  1799-1859,  Am.  lawyer  and 
statesman. 

Choris,  Louis,  1795-  1828,  Russian  painter 
and  traveler. 

Christina,     1626-89,    queen    of    Sweden ; 


daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus ;  learned  and 
eccentric;  abdicated,   1654. 

Chrysostom,  John,  Saint,  350?-407,  Gr. 
father  of  the  Church. 

Churchill,  Randolph  Spencer,  Lord,  1849- 
1895,  Eng.  statesman. 

Cibber,  Colley  (James  Rees),  1671-1757, 
Eng.  actor  and  dramatist. 

Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  106-43  B.  C.,Rom. 
author,  statesman,  and  orator;  the  greatest 
critic  of  antiquity ;  while  consul,  suppressed 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline;  exiled  58  B.  C, 
but  recalled  ;  was  an  adherent  of  Pompey,  but 
enjoyed  the  favor  of  Julius  Caesar ;  killed  by 
the  soldiers  of  Antony  ;  as  an  orator,  Cicero  is 
regarded  second  only  to  Demosthenes. 

Cid  Campeador  (Ruy  Diaz  de  Bivar), 
1040?-99,  Castilian  hero. 

Cincinnatus,  Lucius  Quintus,  520-438  B. 
C,  Rom.  patriot  and  dictator;  elected  consul 
while  cultivating  a  farm,  having  lost  his  prop- 
erty ;  conquered  the  ^Equi ;  twice  chosen  dic- 
tator, and  at  the  expiration  of  each  term  of 
office,  he  returned  to  the  plow. 

Clarke,  Adam,  1762-1832,  Irish  Methodist 
Bible  commentator. 

Claudius  (Tiberius  Claudius  Drusus  Nero), 
B.  C.  10-54  A.  D.,  Rom.  emperor;  invaded 
Britain. 

Clay,  Henry,  1777-1852,  Am.  statesman 
and  orator  ;  "The  Great  Pacificator."  Born 
in  Virginia;  removed  to  Kentucky,  1797; 
practiced  law  ;  elected  to  Kentucky  legislature 
in  1804,  and  two  years  later  chosen  to  fill  a 
short  term  in  the  U.  S.  Senate ;  re-elected  to 
the  Senate  1809,  and  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives 1811,  of  which  body  he  was  made 
speaker;  re-elected  speaker  1813  ;  signed  treaty 
of  Ghent  1815  ;  re-elected  speaker  four  times  ; 
in  1824,  he  was  one  of  four  candidates  for 
the  presidency  ;  when  the  election  devolved  on 
the  House,  his  influence  decided  the  contest  in 
favor  of  Jackson  ;  a  bloodless  duel  between 
Clay  and  Randolph,  in  1826,  was  the  result  of 
charges  against  Clay  growing  out  of  this  elec- 
tion ;  re-elected  to  the  Senate  in  1831  for  six 
years;  in  1832,  defeated  for  the  presidency  as 
the  candidate  of  the  anti-Jackson  party  ;  again 
elected  to  the  Senate  1836,  but  resigned  1842  ; 
Whig  candidate  for  the  presidency  in  1844; 
re-elected  senator  1848.  To  Clay  is  due  the 
credit  for  the  "  Missouri  Compromise,"  be- 
lieved to  have  postponed  for  ten  years  the  civil 
war. 

Cleopatra,  69-30  B.  C,  queen  of  Egypt; 
noted  for  beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  1733-95,  Eng.  general 
in  America. 

Clive,  Robert,  Lord,  1725-74,  Eng.  general 
and  founder  of  British  empire  in  India. 


242 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Clootz.  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron  (Anacharsis 
Clootz),  1753-94,  Prussian  traveler  and  Fr.  rev- 
olutionist ;  guillotined. 

Clough,  Arthur  Hugh,  1820-61,  Eng.  poet. 

Clovis  (or  Chlodwig),  465-511,  king  of  the 
Franks  ;  conqueror  of  Gaul. 

Cobden,  Richard,  1804-65,  Eng.  statesman 
and  economist. 

Coke  (or  Cook),  Sir  Edward,  1552-1633, 
Eng.  jurist. 

Cole,  Thomas,  1801-48,  Eng.  landscape 
painter. 

Coleridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  1772-1834, 
Eng.  poet. 

Coligny,  Gaspard  de,  1517-72,  Fr.  admi- 
ral ;  leader  of  the  Huguenots ;  killed  in  mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Collier,  Jeremy,  1650-1726,  Eng.  theolo- 
gian. 

Columba,  Saint,  521-97,  the  apostle  of  Cal- 
edonia. 

Columbus,  Christopher  (Tt.  :  Cristoforo  Co- 
lombo;  Sp.  :  Cristoval  Colon),  1436-1506, 
Genoese  navigator;  became  a  sailor  at  14; 
studied  mathematics  at  the  University  of 
Pavia  ;  removed  to  Lisbon  at  the  age  of  thirty  ; 
was  employed  in  several  expeditions  to  the 
west  coast  of  Africa  ;  meditated  reaching  India 
by  a  western  route,  and  unsuccessfully  solic- 
ited the  aid  of  John  IT.  of  Portugal ;  but 
finally  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain  fur- 
nished him  two  small  vessels,  and  another  was 
added  by  the  efforts  of  friends  ;  with  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  men  he  set  sail  from  Palos, 
August  3,  1492,  and  discovered  the  island  of 
San  Salvador,  October  12  of  same  year;  sup- 
posing that  he  had  reached  India,  he  called 
the  natives  Indians ;  after  visiting  Cuba  and 
Hayti,  he  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived triumphantly;  in  1493  he  again  sailed 
across  the  Atlantic,  this  time  with  seventeen 
ships,  and  discovered  Jamaica  and  Porto  Rico  ; 
in  1498  he  made  his  third  voyage,  with  six 
vessels,  discovering  the  mainland  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco;  in  1499,  complaints  having 
been  made  to  the  court  of  the  conduct  of  Co- 
lumbus at  Hispaniola,  he  was  carried  to  Spain 
in  chains  by  Francisco  de  Bobadilla ;  Colum- 
bus' last  voyage  to  America  was  made  in  1502, 
to  Honduras  ;  he  died  neglected. 

Comte,  Auguste,  1798-1857,  Fr.  philoso- 
pher. 

Conde,  Louis  II.,  Prince  de,  1621-86,  Fr. 
general ;  victorious  over  the  Spaniards  at 
Rocroi,  1643,  and  over  the  Germans  at  Nord- 
lingen,  1645  ;  again  defeated  the  Spanish  at 
Lens  in  1648,  almost  annihilating  their  infan- 
try, previously  regarded  invincible ;  seeking 
revenge  for  having  been  imprisoned  by  the 
orders   of    Mazarin    or  the  queen,  he  warred 


against  the  government,  and  next  entered  the 
service  of  Spain  ;  returned  to  France  in  1659, 
and  defeated  William  of  Orange  in  1674. 

Confucius,  or  Kong-foo-tse,  551-478  B. 
C,  Chinese  philosopher;  the  son  of  a  soldier, 
he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  mandarin  at  19  ; 
commenced  public  teaching  at  22  ;  became, 
in  499  B.  C,  minister  of  crime,  and  soon  after 
retired  from  public  life,  devoting  his  time  to 
study,  travel,  and  the  dissemination  of  his 
doctrines.  The  philosophy  of  Confucius  re- 
lates to  the  present  life  only  ;  he  placed  great 
importance  upon  the  outward  forms  of  polite- 
ness, being  the  first  to  enunciate,  in  substance, 
the  golden  rule ;  his  influence  has  been  enor- 
mous, his  teachings  affecting  two  thirds  of 
humanity  for  twenty-three  centuries. 

Coxgreve,  William,  1670-1729,  Eng. 
dramatist. 

Coxklixg,  Roscoe,  1829-88,  Am.  states- 
man, lawyer,  and  orator. 

Coxstaxtixe  I.  (the  Great),  272-337,  em- 
peror of  Rome ;  embraced  Christianity,  and 
transferred  his  court  from  Rome  to  Byzantium, 
thenceforth  called  Constantinople. 

Cooper, Sir  Astley  Paston,  1768-1841,  Eng. 
physician. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  1779-1851,  Am. 
novelist. 

Coperxicus  (Kopernik),  Nicholas,  1473- 
1543,  Ger.  astronomer ;  father  of  modern 
astronomy  ;  disproved  the  Ptolemaic  theory  ; 
in  his  great  work,  "  Tlie  Revolution  of  the 
Celestial  Orbs,"  the  first  copy  of  which  was 
handed  to  him  on  the  day  of  his  death,  he 
demonstrated  that  the  sun  is  the  center  of  the 
system. 

Corday,  Charlotte,  1768-93,  Fr.  heroine; 
assassinated  Marat. 

Coriolaxus,  Cneius  Marcus,  fl.  490  B.  C, 
Roman  hero. 

Corxeillk,  Pierre,  1606-84,  founder  of  the 
French  drama. 

Corxell,  Ezra,  1807-74,  Am.  philanthro- 
pist. 

Corot,  Jean  Baptiste  Camille,  1796-1875, 
Fr.  painter. 

Correggio,  Antonio  Allegri  da,  1494-1534, 
It.  painter  ;  known  as  "  the  divine  "  ;  his  work 
excels  in  harmony,  grace,  and  sweetness  of 
color  and  form. 

Cortez.  Hernando,  1485-1547,  Sp.  con- 
queror of  Mexico. 

Cowper, William,  1731-1800,  Eng.  poet. 

Craik,  Dinah  Maria  (xMulock),  1826-87, 
Eng.  authoress. 

Craxmer,  Thomas,  1489-1556,  Eng.  re- 
former ;  archbishop  of  Canterbury  ;  burned  to 
death. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


243 


Creasy,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd,  1812-78, 
Eng.  historian. 

Crichton,  James  (the  Admirable  Crichton), 
1560-83,  Scot,  prodigy  ;  stabbed  by  his  pupil, 
a  son  of  the  Duke  of  Mantua. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordan,  1787-1863,  Am. 
statesman. 

Crockett,  David,  1786-1836,  Am.  back- 
woodsman. 

Croesus,  590-46  B.  C,  king  of  Lydia;  fa- 
mous for  wealth. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  1599-1659,  Eng.  gen- 
eral and  leader  of  the  political  and  religious 
revolution  in  England ;  entered  the  Parlia- 
mentary army,  in  1642,  as  captain  of  cavalry  ; 
rapidly  promoted,  and  led  left  wing  at  Marston 
Moor,  1644  ;  commanded  right  wing  at  Naseby, 
1645,  and  became  leader  of  the  independents  ; 
transferred  the  custody  of  the  king  from  Par- 
liament to  the  army,  1647  ;  won  the  battle  of 
Preston,  1648  ;  signed  the  death  warrant  of 
Charles  I.,  1649;  made  commander-in-chief. 
1650,  and  defeated  the  Scotch  at  Dunbar  and 
Charles  at  Worcester;  dissolved  Parliament  in 
1653,  and  was,  in  1654,  proclaimed  by  the 
army  lord  protector  of  the  commonwealth . 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus,  Duke  of, 
1721-65,  conqueror  at  Culloden. 

Curtis,  George  William,  1824-92,  Am. 
author  and  editor. 

Cushing,  Caleb,  1800-79,  Am.  lawyer  and 
statesman. 

CuSHMAK,  Charlotte  Sanders,  1816-76, 
Am.  actress. 

Custer,  George  A.,  1839-76,  Am.  general; 
killed  by  the  Sioux. 

Cuvier,  Georges  C.  L.  F.,  Baron,  1769- 
18:52.  Fr.  naturalist;  the  greatest  of  zoologists 
and  founder  of  comparative  anatomy. 

CYRU8  (the  Great,  or  the  Elder),  .  .  .  . 
-529  B.  C,  king  of  Persia  ;  conquered  Babylon. 

CYRUS  (the  Younger),  .  .  .  .-401  B.  C, 
hero  of  Xenophon's  "Anabasis." 

Daguerre. Louis  Jacques  Mande\  1789-1851, 
Fr.  artist ;  inventor  of  the  daguerreotype. 

Dalton,  John,  1766-1844,  Eng.  chemical 
philosopher. 

Dana,  Charles  Anderson,  1819-1898,  Am. 
journalist. 

Dandolo,  Enrico,  1105-1205,  blind  doge  of 
Venice. 

Dane,  Nathan,  1752-1835,  Am.  lawyer  and 
statesman. 

Daniel,  fl.  sixth  century  B.  C,  Hebrew 
prince  and  prophet. 

Dante  Allighieri,  1265-1321,  the  great- 
est poet  of  Italy  ;   "  the  Christian  Homer." 

Danton,  George  Jacques,  1759-94,  a  leader 
of  the  French  revolution  ;  guillotined. 


D'Arblav,  Mine.  Frances  (Burney),  1752- 
1840,  Eng.  novelist. 

Darius  I. (Darius  Hystaspis),  .  .  .  .-435  B. 
C,  king  of  Persia;  II.,  .  .  .  .-405  B.  C.  ;  III. 
(Codomanus),  .  .  .  .-330  B.  C,  defeated  by 
Alexander. 

Darlev,  Felix  O.  C,  1822-88,  Am.  artist. 

Darwin,  Charles  Robert,  1809-82,  Eng. 
naturalist ;  originator  of  the  theory  of  evolu- 
tion ;  in  his  "  Origin  of  Species  by  Means  of 
Natural  Selection,"  published  1859,  he  pro- 
pounds the  theory  that  all  forms  of  life  have 
been  produced  by  a  series  of  gradual  changes 
in  natural  descent ;  in  his  ««  Descent  of  Man," 
he  infers  that  "man  is  descended  from  a 
hairy  quadruped  furnished  with  a  tail  and 
pointed  ears,  probably  arboreal  in  its  habits." 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  1731-1802,  Eng.  physi- 
cian and  poet. 

D'Aubigne,  Jean  Henri  Merle,  1794-1872, 
Swiss  historian. 

David,  1090-15  B.  C,  king  of  Israel. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  1808-89,  Am.  statesman 
and  president  of  the  Confederacy ;  born  in 
Kentucky  ;  graduate  of  West  Point ;  served  in 
Black  Hawk  and  Mexican  wars ;  elected  to 
U.  S.  Senate  from  Mississippi,  1847  ;  secretary 
of  war,  1853-7 ;  re-elected  senator,  1857 ; 
inaugurated  provisional  president  of  the  Con- 
federate States,  1861,  and  elected  for  six  years, 
1862  ;  imprisoned  in  Fortress  Monroe  for  two 
years  after  the  fall  of  Richmond. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  1778-1829,  Eng. 
chemist,  inventor  of  the  safety  lamp. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  1779-1820,  Am.  naval 
commander  ;  defeated  the  Algerines  ;  killed  in 
a  duel. 

De  Foe  (or  Defoe),  Daniel,  1661-1731, 
Eng.  novelist. 

De  Kalb,  John,  Baron,  1732-80,  Ger. 
general ;  accompanied  Lafayette  to  America, 
and  served  under  Washington  ;  killed  at  bat- 
tle of  Camden. 

De  Haas,  Maurice  F.  H.,  1830?-1895, 
Dutch  marine  painter. 

Del  Sarto,  Andrea  Vanucchi,  1486-1531, 
Florentine  painter. 

Democritus,  460-361  B.  C,  "  the  laugh- 
ing philosopher  of  Greece." 

Demosthenes,  385?-332  B.  C,  Athenian 
orator ;  conquered  an  impediment  in  his 
speech,  and  by  perseverance  and  determination 
became  the  greatest  of  orators  ;  opposed  Philip 
of  Macedon,  against  whom  he  delivered  his 
Philippics ;  condemned  to  death  by  Antipater. 
he  committed  suicide  by  poison. 

De  Quincey,  Thomas,  1785-1859,  Eng. 
author  ;  his  "  Confessions  of  an  Opium-Eater, " 
an  autobiography,  published  in  1821,  created 
a  great  sensation. 


244 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Derby,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith  Stanley, 
Earl  of,  1799-1869,  Eng.  statesman  and  orator; 
translated  Homer's  Iliad. 

Descartes,  Ren6,  1596-1650,  Fr.  philos- 
opher and  mathematician ;  represented  the 
revolt  against  scholasticism,  re-examining  all 
questions  and  discarding  the  authority  of 
great  names  ;   "  I  think,  therefore  1  am." 

De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  1460-1542,  Sp.  ex- 
plorer ;  discovered  the  Mississippi. 

Dessalines,  Jean  Jacques,  1760-1806,  negro 
emperor  of  Hayti. 

Dickens,  Charles,   1812-70,   Eng.   novelist. 

Diderot,  Denis,  1712-84,  Fr.  philosopher 
and  novelist ;  chief  editor  of  "The  Encyclo- 
paedia," and  librarian  of  Catherine  of   Russia. 

Diogenes,  died  323  B.  C,  Gr.  cynic  philos- 
opher ;  lived  in  a  tub,  affecting  contempt  for 
the  comforts  of  life. 

Dodge,  Mary  Abigail  (Gail  Hamilton), 
1839-96,  Am.  authoress;  cousin  of  James  G. 
Blaine. 

Doellinger,  John  Joseph  Ignatius,  1799- 
1890,  Ger.  theologian  and  historian  ;  leader  of 
the  "  Old  Catholic"  movement. 

Dominic,  Saint,  1170-1221,  Sp.  preacher ; 
founder  of  order  of  Dominicans. 

Domitian,  51?-96,  Rom.  emperor. 

Donatus,  fl.  300,  founder  of  the  Donatists. 

Donizetti,  Gaetano,  1798-1848,  It.  com- 
poser. 

DorE",  Paul  Gustave,  1832-83,  Fr.  artist. 

Doria,  Andrea,  1468-1560,  Genoese  patriot 
and  commander. 

Dorr,  Thomas  Wilson,  1805-54,  Am.  poli- 
tician. 

Dorset,  Charles  Sackville,  Earl  of,  1637- 
1706,  Eng.  poet  and  wit. 

Dorset,  Thomas  Sackville,  Earl  of,  1536- 
1608,  Eng.  poet  and  statesman. 

Dorsey,  John  Syng,  1783-1818,  Am.  sur- 
geon. 

Douglas,  Archibald  (Bell-the-Cat),  .  .  .  .- 
1514V,  "the  great  earl  of  Angus";  lord 
chancellor. 

Douglas,  James,  Earl  of,  .  .  .  .-1330,  Scot, 
patriot. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold  (the  Little  Giant), 
1817?-1861,  Am.  statesman;  native  of  Ver- 
mont ;  admitted  to  the  bar  in  New  York  ;  re- 
moved to  Illinois  and  gained  distinction  as  an 
orator  ;  judge  of  Illinois  Supreme  Court,  1841  ; 
elected  to  Congress,  1843;  senator,  1847; 
supported  the  compromise  measures  of  Henry 
Clay,  and  advocated  the  doctrine  known  as 
"  squatter  sovereignty"  ;  re-elected  to  Senate, 
1853,  and  reported  bill  repealing  Missouri 
Compromise  ;  candidate  for  Democratic  nomi- 
nation for  presidency  in  1 85G  ;  defeated  Lincoln 
for  U.  S.  Senate  in  1858,  they  canvassing  the 


State  together  ;  candidate  of  one  wing  of  the 
Democratic  party  for  president  in  1860;  sup- 
ported the  Union  party  in  1861. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  1817  V-95,  Am.  ora- 
tor ;  formerly  a  slave. 

Dow,  Lorenzo,  1777-1834,  Am.  preacher. 

Draco  (or  Dracon),  fl.  624  B.  C,  Athe- 
nian lawgiver. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  1540-95,  Eng.  naval 
hero ;  first  English  circumnavigator  of  the 
globe. 

Drake,  Joseph  Rodman,  1795-1820,  Am. 
poet. 

Draper,  John  William,  1811-82,  Am. 
scientist. 

Dreyse,  Johann  Nikolaus  von,  1787-1867, 
Prussian  inventor  of  the  needle  gun. 

Dryden,  John,  1631-1700,  Eng.  poet, 
critic,  and  dramatist. 

Dudevant,  Mme.  Amantine  Lucile  Aurore 
(nee  Dupin)  (George  Sand),  1804-76,  Fr. 
novelist. 

Dudley,  Robert,  Earl  of  Leicester,  1531?- 
88,  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Dufaure,  Jules  Armand  Stanislas,  1798- 
1881,  Fr.  statesman. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  1802-70,  Fr.  novelist. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  1824-1895,  son  of  A.  D., 
Fr.  novelist. 

Dumouriez,  Charles  Francois,  1739-1823, 
Fr.  general. 

Duncan  I.,  .  .  .  .-  1040,  Scot,  king;  killed 
by  Macbeth. 

Dunglison,  Robley,  1798-1869,  Am.  phy- 
sician. 

Dunois,  Jean  de  (Bastard  of  Orleans),  Fr. 
national  hero  ;  natural  son  of  the  Duke  of  Or- 
leans ;  defeated  the  English  at  Montargis  in 
1427,  and  assisted  at  the  siege  of  Orleans 
in  1429 ;  expelled  the  English  from  Nor- 
mandy and  Guienne,  and  was  created  Count 
d 'Orleans. 

Duns  Scotus  (the  Subtle  Doctor),  1265  Y- 
1308,  Scot,  theologian. 

Dupont,  Samuel  Francis,1803-65,  Am.  rear- 
admiral. 

Durer,  Albrecht,  1471-1528,  Ger.  painter 
and  engraver. 

Dwight,  Timothy,  1752-1817,  Am.  author 
and  divine. 

Dyck,  Van,  Philip,  1680-1752,  Dutch 
painter. 

Eads,  James  Buchanan,  1820-87.  Am.  en- 
gineer. 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  T^ock,  1793-1865, 
Eng.  painter. 

KinvARD  I.  (Longshanks),  1239-1307,  king 
of  England  ;  conquered  Wales  and  Scotland  ; 
II.,  1284-1327,  defeated  by  Bruce  at  Bannock- 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


245 


burn  ;  dethroned  by  the  queen  and  her  favo- 
rite, Roger  de  Mortimer,  1326  ;  murdered  the 
following  year;  III.,  1312-77,  son  of  Edward 
II.  ;  proclaimed  king  in  1327  ;  executed  Mor- 
timer, and  imprisoned  the  queen-mother  ;  car- 
ried on  war  with  France  and  won  the  great 
victory  of  Crecy  ;  IV.,  1441-83;  V.,  1470-83, 
ascended  the  throne  at  the  age  of  13,  assassi- 
nated two  months  later  ;  VI.,  1557-53. 

Edward,  Prince  of  Wales  (the  Black 
Prince),  1330-76,  son  of  Edward  II.  ;  partici- 
pated in  invasion  of  France,  commanding  the 
main  body  of  the  English  at  Crecy ;  won  the 
battle  of  Poictiers. 

Edwards,  Amelia  Blandford,  1831-92, 
Eng.  novelist. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  1703-58,  Am.  theo- 
logian and  metaphysician. 

P^dwin,  586?  -633,  king  of  Northumbria. 

Egmont,  Lamoral,  Count,  1522-68,  Flem- 
ish statesman  and  soldier. 

Eliot,  John,  "Apostle  of  the  Indians," 
1604-90,  Eng.  clergyman. 

Eliot,  Sir  John,  1590-1632,  Eng.  orator 
and  statesman. 

Elizabeth,  1533-1603,  queen  of  England; 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII. 

Elizabeth  Petrovna,  1709-62,  empress  of 
Russia  ;  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Elizabeth,  Saint,  1207-31,  queen  of  Hun- 
gary. 

Ellenborough,  Edward  Law,  Lord,  1748- 
1818,  Eng.  chief  justice. 

Ellsworth,  Oliver,  1745-1807,  Am.  jurist 
and  statesman. 

Ellwood, Thomas,  1639-1713,  Eng.  Quaker 
author. 

Elzevir,  a  celebrated  family  of  printers 
and  publishers  at  Leyden,  1570-1680. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  1803-82,  Am.  es- 
sayist, philosopher,  and  poet,  and  founder  of 
the  "  Transcendental  "  school  of  philosophy. 

Emmanuel  (the  Great),  1469-1521,  king  of 
Portugal. 

Emmet,  Robert,  1780-1803,  Ir.  patriot  and 
orator  ;  became  a  leader  of  the  "  United  Irish- 
men," and  was  implicated  in  the  killing  of 
Lord  Kil warden,  chief  justice  of  Ireland,  and 
others  ;  although  defending  himself  with  great 
eloquence,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  paid 
the  penalty  of  his  complicity. 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis,  1764-1827,  brother 
of  R.  E.  ;  a  leader  of  the  "  United  Irishmen," 
and  imprisoned  from  1798  till  1801  ;  removed 
to  America  in  1804,  and  was  in  1812  elected 
attorney-general  of  New  York. 

Encke,  Johann  Franz,  1791-1865,  Ger.  as- 
tronomer. 

Endicott,  John,  1589-1665,  colonial  gov- 
ernor of  Massachusetts. 


Exohien,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bourbon, 
Due  d',  1772-1804,  Fr.  prince;  executed  by 
order  of  Napoleon. 

Enoch  (or  Henoch),  3378-  .  .  .  .  B.  C, 
father  of  Methuselah  ;  translated  at  the  age  of 
365. 

Epictetus,  60- ,  Gr.  Stoic  philos- 
opher. 

Epicurus,  340?-270  B.  C,  Gr.  philoso- 
pher ;  founder  of  the  Epicurean  school . 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  1466-1536,  Dutch 
scholar  and  printer  of  the  first  Greek  New 
Testament. 

Erastus,  Thomas,  1524-83,  Ger.  physician 
and  writer. 

Eratosthenes,  276-196?  B.  C,  Gr.  ge- 
ometer ;  considered  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  astronomy. 

Eric  the  Red,  fl.  1000,  Scandinavian  nav- 
igator ;  discovered  Greenland. 

Ericsson,  John,  1803-89,  Sw.  engineer  and 
inventor;  constructed  the  first  "Monitor," 
with  revolving  turrets  for  guns,  which  de- 
stroyed the  Confederate  iron-clad  Merrimac. 

Erigena,  Joannes  Scotus,  fl.  850,  Ir.  phi- 
losopher. 

Erskine,  Henry,  1746-1817,  Scot,  lawyer 
and  orator. 

Erskine,  Thomas,  Baron,  1750-1823,  Scot, 
lawyer  and  orator. 

Escobar  y  Mendosa,  Antonio,  1580-1669, 
Sp.  Jesuit  and  casuist. 

Espartero,  Joaquin  Baldamero,  Duke  de 
la  Vittoria,  1792-1879,  Sp.  statesman  and  gen- 
eral ;  defeated  the  Carlists. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  second  Earl  of, 
1567-1601,  a  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  be- 
headed for  high  treason. 

Estaing,  Charles  Hector,  Count  d',  1729- 
94,  Fr.  admiral ;  beheaded. 

Esterhazy  de  Galantha,  Paul,  1635- 
1713,  Hungarian  governor-general. 

Euclid  of  Alexandria,  fl.  300  B.  C,  Gr. 
mathematician. 

Eugene  of  Savoy  (Prince  Francois  Eu- 
gene de  Savoie-Carignan),  1663-1736,  Austrian 
general ;  defeated  the  Turks  at  Peterwardein 
in  1716,  and  at  Belgrade  in  1717. 

Euler,  Leonard,  1707-83,  Swiss  mathema- 
tician. 

Euripides,  480-400  B.  C,  Gr.  tragic  poet ; 
mediator  between  ancient  and  modern  drama. 

Eusebius  Pamphili,  266-340?,  ecclesiastical 
historian,  and  bishop  of  Caesarea. 

Evans,  Marian  C.  (George  Eliot),  1820- 
81,  Eng.  novelist;  the  daughter  of  a  clergy- 
man ;  lived  with  George  H.  Lewes,  as  his  wife, 
for  several  years,  and  after  his  death  married 
J.  W.  Cross. 


246 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Eustachi,  Bartolommeo,  1510-74,  It.  anat- 
omist. 

Everett,  Edward,  1794-1865,  Am.  scholar, 
orator,  and  statesman  ;  elected  to  Congress  in 
1824,  remaining  in  that  body  for  ten  years; 
in  1835  became  governor  of  Massachusetts ; 
minister  to  England,  1841-5 ;  secretary  of 
state,  1852  ;  elected  to  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate, 1853,  but  resigned  on  account  of  illness; 
defeated  for  the  vice-presidency  in  1860. 

Eyck,  van,  Hubert,  1366-1426,  Flemish 
painter. 

Eyck,  van,  Jan  (John  of  Bruges),  1390?- 
1440  ?,  brother  of  H.  E.,  Flemish  painte 

Ezekiel,  fl.  seventh  century  B.  C,  Heorew 
prophet. 

Ezra,  fl.  fifth  century  B.  C,  Hebrew  law- 
maker. 

FabiusMaximus,  Quintus  (Cunctator),  203 
B.  C,  Roman  consul  and  general;  inaugu- 
rated the  "  Fabian  "  policy,  carrying  on  only 
a  defensive  war  against  Hannibal. 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  1686-1740, 
Ger.  inventor  of  the  thermometer. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  Lord,  1611-71,  parlia- 
mentary general ;  won  the  battle  of  Naseby. 

Faraday,  Michael,  1791-1867,  Eng.  chem- 
ist and  natural  philosopher ;  founder  of  sci- 
ence of  magneto-electricity. 

Farragut,  David  Glascoe,  1801-70,  Am. 
admiral ;  passed  the  New  Orleans  forts  and 
captured  New  Orleans  in  1862. 

Faust,  Dr.  Johann,  fl.  1500,  Ger.  necro- 
mancer. 

Faust,    Johann, 1466?    one    of  the 

inventors  of  printing. 

Fawkes,  Guy,  .  .  .  .-1606,  Eng.  conspira- 
tor. 

Fenelon,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la  Mothe, 
1651-1715,  Fr.  prelate  and  author;  "  Telema- 
chus." 

Ferdinand  V.,  1452-1516,  founded  the 
Spanish  monarchy. 

Fergusson,  James,  1808-86,  Scot,  architect. 

Ferry,  Jules  Francois  Camille,  1832-93, 
Fr.  statesman. 

Fessenden,  William  Pitt,  1806-69,  Am. 
statesman. 

Feuerbach,  Paul  Johann  Anselm,  1775- 
1833, Ger.  jurist. 

Feuillet,  Octave,  1821-90,  Fr.  author. 

Fichte,  Immanuel  Hermann,  1797-1879, 
Ger.  philosopher. 

Fichte,  Johann  Gottlieb,  1702-1814,  Ger. 
metaphysician. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  1819-92,  Am.  merchant 
and  financier  ;  established  first,  telegraph  cable 
between  America  and  Europe. 

Field,  Eugene,  1850-95,  Am.  poet. 


Fielding,  Henry,  1707-54,  Eng.  novelist 
and  dramatist. 

Fiesole, Giovanni  da  (Fra  Angelico),  1387- 
1455,  It.  painter. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  1800-74,  Am.  states- 
man ;  thirteenth  president  of  the  United  States  ; 
born  in  New  York ;  learned  fuller's  trade ; 
read  law  and  acquired  lucrative  practice  in 
Buffalo  ;  elected  to  Congress,  1832,  and  con- 
tinued a  member  till  1842 ;  elected  vice- 
president,  1848 ;  became  president  on  the 
death  of  Taylor,  1850  ;  approved  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law  and  the  compromise  measures  of 
Henry  Clay,  and  made  Daniel  Webster  sec- 
retary of  state. 

Fish,  Hamilton,  1808-1893,  Am.  states- 
man. 

Fitch,  John,  1743-98,  Am.  inventor  (steam- 
boat) . 

Fitzgerald,  Edward,  Lord,  1763-98,  Ir. 
revolutionist. 

Flaminius,  Caius,  .  .  .  ,-217  B.  C,  Rom. 
general  and  consul, 

Flaminius,  Titus  Quintius,  230-174  B.C., 
Rom.  general  and  consul. 

Flaxman,  John,  1755-1826,  Eng.   sculptor. 

Fletcher,  John,  1576-1625,  Eng.  poet  and 
dramatist ;  associate  of  Beaumont. 

Flotow,  Frederick  Ferdinand  Adolphus 
von,  1812-83,  Ger.  composer;   "Martha." 

Fontenelle,  Barnard  de  Bovier  de,  1657- 
1757,  Fr.  author. 

Forrest,  Edwin,  1806-72,  Am.  tragedian. 

Fortuny,  Mariano,   1839  74,    Sp.  painter. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins,  1826-64,  Am. 
song-writer. 

Fourier,  Frangois  Charles  Marie,  1772- 
1837,  Fr.  socialist. 

Fowler,  Orson  Squire,  1809-87,  Am.  phre- 
nologist. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  1749-1806,  Eng.  ora- 
ator  and  statesman  ;  entered  Parliament  1768 
as  a  Tory,  but  joined  the  opposition  in  1773, 
and  became  leader  of  the  Whigs,  opposing  the 
policy  of  Pitt. 

Fox,  George,  1624-90,  Eng.  founder  of  the 
society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers. 

Fox,  John,  1517-87,  Eng.  Protestant  clergy- 
man and  author  ;   "  Book  of  Martyrs." 

Fra  Diavolo  (Michael  Rozzo),  1769-1806, 
Neapolitan  brigand. 

Francis  I.,  1494-1547,  king  of  France  ;  de- 
feated at  Pavia;  II.,  1543-60. 

Francis  Borgia,  Saint,  1510-72,  duke  of 
Gandia  and  viceroy  of  Catalonia;  joined  the 
Society  of  Jesus  and  became  general  of  the 
order. 

Francis  de  Paula,  Saint,  1416-1507,  It. 
Franciscan  monk;  founded  the  order  Fratres 
Minimi. 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


247 


Francis  dk  Sales,  Saint,  1567-1022,  Fr. 
Jesuit  writer  and  orator  ;  bishop  of  Geneva. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  Saint,  1182-1226,  It. 
founder  of  the  Franciscan  order,  whose  labors 
gave  new  life  and  power  to  the  Church  of 
Rome. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip,  1740-1818,  Br.  states- 
man and  writer;  supposed  author  of  "Let- 
ters of  Junius." 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  1706-90, Am.  states- 
man and  philosopher ;  born  in  Boston  ;  the 
youngest  of  a  family  of  seventeen  children; 
his  father  was  a  tallow  chandler  ;  learned  the 
trade  of  a  printer  and  studied  diligently,  re- 
moved to  Philadelphia,  where  he  established 
the  Pennsylvania  Gazette :  began  the  publica- 
tion of  Poor  Richard's  Almanac  in  1735  ;  dis- 
covered the  identity  of  lightning  and  elec- 
tricity in  1752,  by  means  of  a  kite  ;  Franklin 
occupied  many  positions  of  public  trust  and 
was  the  recipient  of  many  honors. 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  1786-1847,  Eng.  Arc- 
tic explorer. 

Frederick  I.  (Barbarossa),  1121-90,  em- 
peror of  Germany  ;  crowned  by  Pope  Adrian 
IV.  ;  reduced  Milan  in  1158,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  Lombards  near  Legnano ;  joined  the 
third  crusade  in  1189  with  150,000  men,  and 
defeated  the  Turks  at  Iconium  ;  died  in  the 
Holy  Land;  II.,  1194-1250,  opposed  by  the 
Guelphs  and  the  pope  in  his  project  to  unite 
Italy  and  Germany  in  one  empire ;  began  a 
crusade  against  the  Moslems  in  1227,  but 
turned  back,  and  was  excommunicated  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  ;  resumed  the  crusade  in  1228, 
captured  Jerusalem  and  made  peace  with  the 
pope ;  defeated  the  Guelphs  at  Cortenuova, 
1237,  and  renewed  war  with  the  pope. 

Frederick  William  (the  Great  Elector), 
1620-68,  elector  of  Brandenburg;  founder  of 
the  Prussian  monarchy. 

Frederick  I.,  1657-1713,  first  king  of  Prus- 
sia ;  II.  (Frederick  the  Great),  1712-88,  sub- 
jected to  inhuman  treatment  in  youth  by  his 
father,  he  gave  but  little  promise  of  his  future 
greatness ;  ascended  the  Prussian  throne  in 
1740,  and  invaded  Silesia,  which  was  ceded  to 
him  by  Maria  Theresa  in  1742  ;  an  alliance 
having  been  formed  against  him  by  Austria, 
Russia,  and  France,  he  began  the  Seven  Years' 
War  in  1756  by  invading  Saxony ;  gained  a 
great  victory  at  Prague  in  1757  ;  but  was  de- 
feated at  Kolin  soon  afterward  ;  in  the  same 
year  he  defeated  a  French  army  twice  as  large 
as  his  own  at  Rossbach,  and  won  a  brilliant 
and  decisive  victory  over  the  Austrians  at 
Leuthen  ;  in  1759  he  was  defeated  at  Kunners- 
dorf,  and  Berlin  was  captured  by  the  allies, 
but  in  1760  he  gained  the  victories  of  Liegnitz 
and  Torgau,  and  peace   was   made   in   1763, 


Prussian  Poland  being  added  to  Frederick's 
dominions.  Frederick  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  a  friend  of  Yo.taire,  who  spent  several 
years  at  his  court. 

Freiligrath,  Ferdinand,  1810-76,  Ger. 
lyric  poet. 

Fremont,  John  Charles,  1830-90,  Am.  pol- 
itician, explorer,  and  general;  Republican 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  1856. 

Froebel,  Frederick,  1782-1852,  Ger.  edu- 
cator; founder  of  the  "kindergarten." 

Froissart,  Jean,  1337-1410  ?,  Fr.  histo- 
rian ;  « '  Chronicles. ' ' 

Froude,  James  Anthony,  1818-1895,  Eng. 
historian. 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  Countess  d'Os- 
soli,  1810-50,  Am.  authoress. 

Fulton,  Robert,  1765-1815,  Am.  engineer 
and  inventor,  born  in  Pennsylvania ;  after 
spending  some  years  in  London  as  an  artist, 
he  turned  his  attention  to  civil  engineering  and 
inland  navigation  ;  went  to  Paris,  and  there 
he  invented  a  submarine  torpedo  ;  returned  to 
New  York,  1801,  and,  with  the  assistance  of 
Robert  Livingston,  discovered  steam  naviga- 
tion ;  in  1806  he  built  the  steamer  Clermont, 
which  made  regular  trips  between  Albany  and 
New  York  at  a  speed  of  five  miles  an  hour  ; 
although  he  spent  a  large  amount  of  money  on 
his  invention,  the  patent  did  not  prove  of  pe- 
cuniary value  to  him. 

Fuseli,  John  H.,  1742-1825,  Swiss  histor- 
ical painter. 

Gadsden,  Christopher,  1724-1805,  Am. 
statesman. 

"Gadsden,  James,  1788-1858,  Am.  statesman. 

Gainsborough,  Thomas,  1727-88,  Eng. 
painter. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpicius,  B.  C.  4  ?-A.  D. 
69,  Rom.  emperor. 

Galen,  131-205  ?,  Gr.  physician,  medical 
writer  and  philosopher,  living  at  Rome  ;  his 
works  remained  authority  until  the  fifteenth 
century. 

Galilei,  Galileo  (Galileo),  1564-1642,  It. 
astronomer  ;  discovered,  about  1584,  the  isoch- 
ronism  of  the  vibrations  of  a  pendulum,  and 
the  law  by  which  the  velocity  of  falling  bodies 
is  accelerated  ;  adopted  in  astronomy  the  sys- 
tem of  Copernicus ;  constructed  his  wonder- 
ful telescope,  1609  ;  through  it  he  discovered 
the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  and  was  enabled  to  ex- 
plore the  surface  of  the  moon  and  view  the 
phases  of  Venus  ;  he  also  ascertained  that  the 
"Milky  Way"  was  composed  of  myriads  of 
stars  ;  in  1632  he  produced  his  "  Dialogues  on 
the  Ptolemaic  and  Copernican  Systems,"  but 
was  compelled  by  the  Inquisition  to  abjure  the 
theory  of  the  motion  of   the  earth ;  he   was 


248 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


detained  in  prison  for  several  years,  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  was  severely  treated, 
as  he  was  allowed  to  pursue  his  studies  until 
prevented  by  blindness. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  1758-1828,  Ger.  phy- 
sician ;  founder  of  phrenology. 

Gallatin,  Albert,  1761-1849,  Am.  states- 
man ;  native  of  Switzerland. 

Galvani,  Aloisio,  1737-89,  It.  discoverer 
of  galvanism. 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  1450?-1524,  Port,  naviga- 
tor. 

Gambetta,  Leon,  1838-82,   Fr.  statesman. 

Gambier,  James,  Baron,  1756-1833,  Br. 
admiral. 

Garfield,  James  Abram,  1831-81,  twen- 
tieth president  of  the  United  States ;  born  in 
Ohio ;  worked  on  a  farm  in  boyhood,  and 
learned  the  trade  of  a  carpenter ;  afterward 
became  driver  and  helmsman  of  a  canal-boat ; 
graduated  at  Williams  College  in  1856  ;  ap- 
pointed professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at  Hiram 
College,  Ohio,  and  chosen  president  of  that  in- 
stitution in  1858  ;  married  Miss  Lucretia  Ran- 
dolph, and  occasionally  acted  as  a  Campbellite 
minister;  elected  to  the  State  Senate,  1859, 
and  in  1861  was  chosen  colonel  of  an  Ohio 
regiment ;  promoted  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general  ;  elected  to  Congress,  1862,  and  re- 
mained in  that  body  until  1880,  when  he  was 
made  senator ;  nominated  for  the  presidency 
by  the  Republican  party  in  1880,  and  elected  ; 
shot  by  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  in  Washington, 
July  2,  1881,  and  died  on  September  19  of 
same  year. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  1807-82,  It.  patriot 
and  general. 

Garrick,  David,  1716-79,  Eng.  actor. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  1804-79,  Am. 
abolitionist. 

Gates,  Horatio,  1728-1806,  Am.  Revolu- 
tionary general ;  born  in  England  ;  captured 
Burgoyne's  army  at  Saratoga. 

Gauss,  Carl  Friedrich,  1777-1855,  Ger. 
mathematician . 

Gay,  John,  1688-1732,  Eng.  poet. 

Genghis  Khan,  1163-1227,  Mogul  con- 
queror ;  subdued  China  and  Persia. 

Genseric,  406  V-477,  king  of  the  Vandals  ; 
invaded  Africa,  429  ;  defeated  the  Romans  in 
numerous  battles ;  captured  Carthage,  439 ; 
captured  and  sacked  Rome,  455  ;  defeated  the 
navy  of  the  P^mperor  Marjorian,  457. 

Geoffroy  of  Monmouth,  1100?-54,  Eng. 
chronicler. 

George  I.  (Lewis),  1660-1727,  king  of  Great 
Britain;  II.  (Augustus),  1683-1760,  defeated 
the  French  at  Dettingen  in  1743  ;  Charles  Ed- 
ward Stuart  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  1746," 
by  the  duke  of  Cumberland,    and  the   latter 


part  of  the  reign  of  George  II.  was  marked  by 
victories  over  the  French  in  Canada,  in  India, 
and  on  the  ocean;  III.  (William  Frederick), 
1738-1820,  arbitrary  and  ignorant  and  through 
his  obstinacy  lost  the  American  colonies ;  be- 
came insane  in  1810;  IV.  (Augustus  Freder- 
ick), 1762-1830,  "the  first  gentleman  of  Eu- 
rope"; led  a  dissipated  life  and  incurred  an 
immense  debt;  married,  in  1786,  Mrs.  Fitz- 
herbert ;  she  being  a  Roman  Catholic,  the 
marriage  was  illegal ;  his  father  refusing  to 
pay  his  debts  unless  he  contracted  a  regular 
marriage,  he  was  induced,  1795,  to  marry  his 
cousin,  whom  he  regarded  with  great  dislike, 
a  separation  being  the  result ;  became  regent, 
1811  ;  took  little  interest  in  public  affairs  ;  one 
year  before  his  death  an  act  was  passed  reliev- 
ing Roman  Catholics  from  political  disabil- 
ities. 

George,  Saint,  fl.  third  century,  bishop  of 
Alexandria  ;  patron  saint  of  England  ;  to  him  is 
attributed  the  destruction  of  a  terrible  dragon. 

George,  Henry,  1839-1898,  Am.  author 
and  economist,  and  advocate  of  the  single  tax. 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  1744-1812,  Am.  revolu- 
tionary statesman ;  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence ;  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
1810;  vice-president,  1812. 

Ghiberti,  Lorenzo,  1378-1455,  Florentine 
sculptor. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  1737-94,  Eng.    historian. 

Gibson,  John,    1791-1866,    Eng.    sculptor. 

Gifford,  Sanford  Robinson,  1823-80,  Am. 
painter. 

Gifford,  William,  1757-1826,  Eng.  writer 
and  critic. 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  1539-83,  Eng. 
navigator. 

Girard,  Stephen,  1750-1831,  Am.  merchant 
and  banker  ;  born  in  France;  founded  Girard 
College. 

Gitjlio  Romano,  1492-1546,  It.  painter  and 
architect. 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart,  1809-1898, 
Eng.  premier. 

Gluck,  Christoph  Wilibald  von,  1714-87, 
Ger.  composer. 

Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  1058 ?-l  100,  lead- 
er of  first  crusade, 

Godiva  (Lady  Godiva),  fl.  11th  century, 
Eng.  heroine  ;  wife  of  Leofric,  earl  of  Leices- 
ter. 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  17 49-1832, 
Ger.  poet  and  author,  dramatist,  scientist  and 
statesman. 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  1728-74,  Ir.  poet  and 
writer. 

Gomez,  Sebastiano,  1616-90,  Sp.  painter;  a 
slave  of  Murillo,  who  liberated  him  and  took 
him  into  his  studio 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


249 


Goxsalvode  Cordova, Hernandez,  1443?- 
1515,  Sp.  commander. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  1800-GO,  Am.  inventor. 

Gokdox,  Charles  George  (Chinese  Gordon), 
1833-85,  Eng.  soldier. 

Goktschakoff,  Alexander  Michaelovitch, 
Prince,  1798-1883,  Russian  statesman  and 
diplomatist. 

Gottschalk,  Louis  Moreau,  1*829-69,  Am. 
composer. 

Gough,  John  B.,  1822-86,  Am.  temperance 
lecturer ;  born  in  England. 

Gould,  Jay,  1836-92,  Am.  railway  financier. 

Gounod,  Charles  Francois,  1818-93,  Fr. 
composer. 

Gracchus,  Caius  Sempronius,  159-126  B. 
C,  Rom.  statesman. 

Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  brother  of 
C.  T.  G.,  B.  C.  lGS?-33?,  Rom.  statesman. 

Graham,  John,  Viscount  Dundee  (Claver- 
house),  1650?-89,  Scot,  officer  noted  for  merci- 
less severity  toward  the  Covenanters. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  1822-85,  eight- 
eenth president  of  the  United  States  ;  born  in 
Ohio  ;  graduated  at  West  Point,  1843  ;  served 
in  Mexico ;  became  a  captain  iu  1853 ;  re- 
signed in  1S54,  and  after  passing  some  time  at 
St.  Louis  removed  to  Galena,  111.,  in  1859, 
and  engaged  in  business;  in  1861  he  was  made 
aide-de-camp  to  the  governor  of  Illinois,  but 
soon  after  was  chosen  colonel  of  the  Twenty- 
first  Illinois  Volunteers,  and  in  July  of  same 
year  was  made  brigadier-general ;  made  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Union  armies  in  March, 
1864  ;  elected  to  the  presidency  in  1868,  and 
again  in  1872,  and  after  the  expiration  of  his 
second  term  he  traveled  extensively  in  Europe 
and  Asia. 

Grattax,  Henry,  1746-1820,  Ir.  orator  and 
statesman. 

Gray,  Asa,  1810-88,  Am.  botanist. 

Gray,  Thomas,  1716-71,  Eng.  poet. 

Grekley,  Horace,  1811-72,  Am.  journal- 
ist ;  born  in  New  Hampshire ;  learned  the 
printer's  trade  and  worked  as  a  journeyman 
printer  in  New  i"ork  for  one  year ;  founded 
the  New  York  Tribune,  1841;  a  stanch  Whig 
and  Republican,  he  favored  Fremont  for  the 
presidency  in  1856,  and  Lincoln  in  1860;  ac- 
cepted the  Democratic  nomination  in  1872, 
but  was  defeated  by  Grant. 

Green,  John  Richard,  1874-83,  Eng.  his- 
torian. 

Greexe,  Nathaniel,  1742-86,  Am.  Revolu- 
tionary general. 

Greexleaf,  Benjamin,  1786-1864,  Am. 
mathematician. 

Greexleaf,  Simon,  1783-1854,  Am.  jurist. 

Greexough,  Horatio,  1805-52,  Am.  sculp- 
tor. 


Gregory  XIII.,  1572-85,  reformed  the  Ju- 
lian calendar. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Saint,  332-94,  Gr. 
father  of  the  Church. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  Saint,  540-95,  Fr.  prel- 
ate and  historian. 

Gresham,  Walter  Q.,  1832-1895,  Am. 
jurist  and  secretary  of  state. 

Grew,  Francois  Paul  Jules,  1807-91,  Fr. 
president. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  1537-54,  gifted  Eng. 
lady ;  beheaded. 

Grimm,  Friedrich  Melchior,  Baron,  1723- 
1807,  Ger.  writer. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig  (1785-1863),  and 
Wilhelm  Karl  (1786-1859),  Ger.  philologists; 
brothers. 

Grotius  (De  Groot),  Hugo,  1583-1645, 
Dutch  jurist  and  theologian. 

Grouchy,  Emmanuel  de,  Marquis,  1766- 
1847,  Fr.  general. 

Guatemozin,  1497-1525,  last  Aztec  emperor 
of  Mexico. 

Guelph  (or  Welf),  noble  German  family, 
originally  Italian. 

Guizot,  Francois  Pierre  Guillaume,  1787- 
1874,  Fr.  statesman  and  historian. 

Gustavus  I.  (Gustavus  Vasa),  1496-1559, 
king  of  Sweden  ;  II.  (Gustavus  Adolphus),  1594 
1632,  defeated  the  Polish  and  Russian  armies 
invading  Sweden ;  became  the  head  of  the 
Protestant  league  in  Germany  and  defeated 
Tilly  at  Leipsic  in  1631,  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Lech  in  1632  ;  at  the  great  battle  of  Liitzen, 
Wallenstein  now  commanding  the  imperial 
army,  Gustavus  was  killed,  histroops  neverthe- 
less gained  a  complete  victory;  III.,  1746-92, 
assassinated;  IV.,  1778-1837,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1792,  but  was  deposed  in  1809. 

Gutenberg,  Johann  (Gansfleisch),  1400-68, 
Ger.  inventor  of  movable  type  and  the  print- 
ing press ;  first  books  printed  about  1457 ; 
died  in  poverty. 

Guzman,  Alfonso  Perez  de,  1258-1309,  Sp. 
commander. 

Hahxemaxx,  Samuel  Christian  Friedrich, 
1755-1843,  Ger.  founder  of  homoeopathy. 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  1609-76,  Eng.  jurist. 

Hale,  Nathan,  Captain,  1755-76,  Am.  pa- 
triot. 

Halevy,  Jacques  F.  F.  E.,  1799-1862,  Fr. 
composer. 

Hallam,  Arthur  Henry,  1811-33,  Eng. 
critic  and  essayist. 

Hallam,  Henry,  1777-1859,  father  of  pre- 
ceding ;  Eng.  historian  and  critic. 

Halleck,  Fitz  Greene,  1790-1867,  Am.  poeto 

Halleck,  Henry  Wager,  1814-72,  Am.  gen- 
eral and  writer. 


250 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


H alpine,  Charles  Graham  (Miles  O'Reilly), 
1829-08,  Ir.-Am.  journalist  and  poet. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  1757-1804,  Am. 
orator,  statesman,  financier,  and  general ;  born 
in  the  West  Indies;  secretary  and  aide-de- 
camp to  Washington  in  Revolutionary  war ; 
chosen  to  the  Continental  Congress,  1782,  but 
resigned  in  order  to  practice  law ;  leading 
member  of  the  convention  of  1787  :  secretary 
of  the  treasury,  1789-95  ;  became  recognized 
leader  of  the  Federal  party.  Hamilton  died 
from  a  wound  received  in  a  duel  with  Aaron 
Burr,  and  his  death  was  deeply  deplored. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William,  1788-1856,  Scot, 
metaphysician. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  1809-91,  Am.  states- 
man. 

Hampden,  John,  1594-1643,  Eng.  statesman 
and  reformer;  entered  Parliament  in  1620; 
denied  the  authority  of  the  crown  to  levy  ton- 
nage without  the  consent  of  Parliament,  and 
refused  to  contribute  to  the  force  loan  ordered 
by  King  Charles,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  ; 
regaining  his  liberty  and  reentering  Parlia- 
ment, he  ably  and  firmly  resisted  the  arbitrary 
measures  of  the  crown  ;  intending,  with  his 
cousin,  Oliver  Cromwell,  to  emigrate  in  1638, 
they  were  detained  by  order  of  council ;  in 
1640  he  led  the  opposition  in  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment, and  was  the  most  popular  public  man 
in  England ;  impeached  for  high  treason  in 
1642,  together  with  four  other  members,  the 
Commons  refused  to  surrender  them,  although 
the  king  personally  led  his  guard  in  an  attempt 
to  arrest  them  in  their  seats  ;  Hampden  after- 
ward raised  a  regiment  for  the  Parliamentary 
army,  and,  after  displaying  great  courage  in 
numerous  engagements,  was  slain  in  a  skir- 
mish . 

Hancock,  John,  1737-93,  Am.  statesman  ; 
president  of  the  Continental  Congress. 

Hancock,  Winfield  Scott,  1824-86,  Am. 
general ;  second  in  command  at  Gettysburg ; 
Democratic  candidate  for  president  in  1 880. 

Handel,  George  Frederick,  1684-1759, 
Ger.  composer;  settled  in  England  in  1712; 
"  The  Messiah, "the  greatest  of  oratorios,  was 
produced,  1741  ;  Handel  was  stricken  with 
blindness,  1751,  but  continued  to  conduct  his 
oratorios  ;  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Hannibal,  247-183  B.  C,  Carthaginian 
general ;  considered  the  greatest  general  of  the 
world ;  sworn  by  his  father,  Hamilcar  Barca, 
to  eternal  enmity  toward  Rome  ;  became  com- 
mander of  the  Carthaginian  forces,  221  B.  C.  ; 
subdued  several  powerful  Spanish  tribes,  and 
in  219  captured  Saguntum  ;  crossed  the  Alps, 
218;  defeated  the  Romans  near  the  Ticiuus 
and  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia ;  routed  Fla- 
rainius  at  Lake  Thrasymene,  217  ;  almost  de- 


stroyed a  superior  Roman  army  near  Canna*, 
216  ;  captured  Capua  ;  recalled  to  Carthage  to 
repel  a  Roman  invasion  under  Scipio  Africa- 
nus,  he  was  defeated  at  Zama  in  202  ;  ban- 
ished from  Carthage  about  194,  through  the 
enmity  of  the  aristocracy ;  finally  ended  his 
life  by  taking  poison,  to  escape  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  Romans. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  766?-809,  caliph  of 
Bagdad. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  1773-1841,  Am. 
general  and  ninth  president. 

Harvard,  John,  1608 ?-88,  founder  of  Har- 
vard College. 

Harvey,  William,  1578-1657,  Eng.  physi- 
cian and  anatomist,  and  the  greatest  of  physi- 
ologists ;  discovered  the  circulation  of  the 
blood. 

Hasdrubal, 207    B.    C,    Punic 

general ;  brother  of  Hannibal ;  defeated  the 
Scipios  ;  slain  at  the  Metaurus. 

Hastings,  Warren,  1732-1818,  Br.  general 
and  statesman  ;  president  of  the  Council  of 
Bengal,  and  governor-general  of  India;  de- 
feated Hyder  Ali,  king  of  Mysore  ;  after  per- 
petrating great  outrages  in  order  to  replenish 
the  treasury,  he  resigned  in  1775  and  returned 
to  England ;  impeached  soon  afterward,  and 
opposed  in  his  trial  by  Burke,  Sheridan,  and 
Fox,  but  acquitted. 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry,  1795-1857,  Br.  gen- 
eral ;  defeated  the  Sepoys  in  India,  and  re- 
lieved Lucknow. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  1804-64,  Am.  au- 
thor. 

Haydn,  Joseph,  1732-1809,  Ger.  musical 
composer ;  his  masterpiece,  the  oratorio  of 
"  The  Creation,"  was  produced  in  1798. 

Haydon,  Benjamin  Robert,  1786-1848,  Eng. 
painter. 

Hayes,  Isaac  Israel,  1832-81,  Am.  Arctic 
explorer. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  1822-93,  nine- 
teenth president  of  the  United  States  ;  born  in 
Connecticut ;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1845  ;  brig- 
adier general  in  civil  war;  Congress,  1865-8; 
governor  of  Ohio,  1868-76  ;  Republican  can- 
didate for  the  presidency,  1876  ;  inaugurated 
president,  1877,  the  electoral  commission  to 
determine  the  result  of  the  election  of  1876 
having  decided,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to  seven, 
that  Hayes  had  received  185  electoral  votes  as 
against  184  for  Samuel  J.  Tilden,  the  Demo- 
cratic candidate. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  1791-1840,  Am. 
orator  and  statesman  ;  opponent  of  Webster  in 
discussing  the  Constitution  ;  governor  of  South 
Carolina. 

Hazlitt,  William,  1778-1830,  Eng.  critic 
and  writer. 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


251 


Hkber,  Reginald,  1783-1826,  Eng.  prelate 
and  author. 

Hegel,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,  1770- 
1831,  Ger.  philosopher,  metaphysician,  and 
pantheist. 

Heine,  Ileinrich,  1799-1856,  Ger.  lyric 
poet  and  author. 

Heloise,  1101-64,  Fr.  nun;  pupil  and 
friend  of  Abelard. 

Helvetics,  Claude  Adrian,  1715-71,  Fr. 
philosopher. 

Hkmaxs.  Felicia  Dorothea  (ne'e  Brown), 
1794-1835,  Eng.  poetess. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  Andrews,  1819-86, 
Am.  statesman. 

Hexgist, -488  Jutish  chief ;  founded 

kingdom  of  Kent. 

Hknnepix,  Louis,  1640-1702?,  Fr.  Catho- 
lic missionary  and  explorer  of  the  Mississippi. 

IIexry  I.  (Beauclerc),  1068-1135,  king  of 
England ;  defeated  his  brother  Robert  and 
usurped  the  throne  ;  II.,  1133-89;  first  of  the 
Plantagenets ;  issued  constitutions  of  Claren- 
don, which  were,  however,  repealed  about  ten 
years  later ;  conquered  Ireland  ;  during  his 
reign  Thomas  a  Becket  was  killed. 

Hexry  VI.,  1421-71  ;  his  reign  was  made 
memorable    by  the   War  of  the  Roses. 

Henry  YIL,  1456-1509  ;  founded  the  Tudor 
dynasty. 

'Hkxry  YIII.,  1491-1547;  defeated  the 
French  at  Guinegaste  and  the  Scotch  at  Flod- 
den,  1513  ;  made  Thomas  Wolsey  prime  min- 
ister ;  applied  unsuccessfully  to  the  pope  for 
a  divorce  from  Catherine  of  Aragon,  his  wife  : 
favored  the  Reformation  ;  deposed  Wolsey  and 
elevated  Thomas  Cranmer ;  had  himself  de- 
clared head  of  the  church  ;  married  Anne ! 
Bole\*n  after  the  convocations  of  York  and 
Canterbury  had  declared  his  marriage  with 
Catherine  invalid  ;  declared  the  English  church  , 
independent  of  the  papal  see  and  abolished 
the  monasteries  :  had  Anne  Boleyn  executed  j 
in  1536,  and  married  Jane  Seymour  the  day  i 
after  the  execution ;  excommunicated  by  the 
pope,  1538;  his  third  wife  having  died  in 
1537.  he  married  Anne  of  Cleves  in  1540  ;  was 
divorced  from  her  the  same  year  and  married 
Catherine  Howard,  who  was  executed  on  a 
charge  of  adultery  in  1542:  married  Catherine 
Parr  in  1543.  she  surviving  him. 

Hexry,  Patrick.  1736-99,  Am.  patriot  and 
orator  ;  member  of  the  Continental  Congress  ; 
governor  of  Yirginia. 

Heraclitus,  fl.  500  B.C.,  Gr.  philosopher. 

Herbert,  George,  1593-1632,  Br.  poet  and 
divine. 

Herder,  Johaun  Gottfried  von,  1744-1803, 
Ger.  author. 


Herod  (the  Great),  B.  C.  73-A.  D.  l,king 
of  Judea. 

Herodotus,  484?-408  B.  C,  Gr.  historian ; 
"  the  father  of  history  ;"  his  work  covers  the 
period  of  240  years  preceding  his  own  time. 

Herschel,  Sir  John  Frederick  William, 
1790-1871,  Eng.  astronomer  and  philosopher. 

Herschel,  Sir  William,  1738-1822,  father 
of  preceding ;  Ger.  astronomer ;  born  in  Han- 
over, but  moved  to  England  at  21  ;  discovered 
Uranus. 

IIksiod,  fl.  800  B.  C,  Gr.  poet. 
Hezekiah,  750-698  B.  C,  king  of  Judah. 
Hicks,    Elias,     1748-1830,     Am.     Quaker 
preacher. 

Hildreth,  Richard,  1807-65,  Am.  journal- 
ist and  historian. 

Hill,  Sir  Rowland,  1795-1879,  authorof  the 
Eng.  penny  post  system. 

Hippocrates,  460-360?  B.  C,  Gr.  physi- 
cian;  "  the  father  of  medicine";  many  dis- 
eases still  bear  the  names  he  gave  them. 

Horbes,  Thomas,  1588-1679,  Eng.  philos- 
opher. 

Hoe,  Richard  March,  1812-87,  Am.  inven- 
tor of  printing  presses. 

Hofer,  Andreas,  1767-1810,  Tyrolese  pa- 
triot ;  executed. 

Hogarth,  William,  1697-1764,  Eng.  paint- 
er and  engraver. 

Holbeix,  Hans  (the  Younger),  1497-1554, 
Ger.  painter. 

Holland,  Josiah  Gilbert,  1819-81,  Am. 
author. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  1809-94,  Am. 
physician,  author,  and  poet. 

Homer,  fl.  1000  B.  C,  Gr.  poet ;  "  the  father 
of  poets  "  ;  about  his  life  scarcely  anything  is 
known  ;  supposed  to  have  been  blind  and  poor  ; 
some  maintain  that  the  "  Iliad"  and  "  Odys- 
sey," the  two  great  epics  ascribed  to  him,  are 
collections  of  songs  from  various  poets,  and 
that  Homer  never  existed. 

Hopkixsox,  Francis,  1738-91,  Am.  author; 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Horace  (Quintus  Horatius  Flaccus),  65-8 
B.  C,  Latin  poet. 

Houston,  Sam,  1793-1863.  Am.  general 
and  statesman  :  governor  of  Tennessee,  1827- 
9  ;  passed  a  number  of  years  with  the  Chero- 
kee Indians  ;  commander-in-chief  of  the  Texan 
forces  in  revolt  against  Mexico,  and  defeated 
and  captured  Santa  Ana  in  1836 ;  elected 
president  of  Texas  same  year,  and  re-elected 
1841  ;  elected  senator  from  Texas  after  its  ad- 
mission to  the  Union,  in  1845,  and  governor 
in  1859. 

Howe,  Elias.  1819-67,  Am.  inventor. 
Hudson,  Henry   (or  Hendrik),  .  .  .  .-1611, 
Eng.  navigator. 


252 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Hughes,  Thomas,  1823-1896,  Eng.  author 
and  barrister. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  Vicomte,  1802-85,  Fr. 
poet,  novelist,  and  dramatist. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander 
von,  Baron,  1769-1859,  Ger.  scientist. 

Hume,  David,  1711-76,  Scot,  historian  and 
skeptic  philosopher. 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh,  1784-1859, 
Eng.  poet  and  author. 

Hunt,  William  Henry,  1790-1864,  Eng. 
painter  in  water  colors. 

Huss,  John,  1373-1415,  Bohemian  re- 
former ;  burned  at  the  stake. 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  1825-95,  Eng. 
scientist. 

Hypatia,  fl.  500,  female  philosopher  at 
Alexandria. 

Iberville,  Pierre le  Moyne  d',  Sieur,  1661- 
1706,  Canadian  military  and  naval  commander. 

Ingres,  Jean  A.  D.,  1781-1867,  Fr.  painter. 

Inman,  Henry,  1801-46,  Am.  portrait 
painter. 

Innocent  I.,  pope,  ruling  402-17  ;  during 
his  reign  Rome  was  sacked  by  Alaric. 

Innocent  III.,  (Lotharius),  born  in  1161, 
and  chosen  pope  1198  ;  put  France  under  the 
ban,  1190,  because  Philip  Augustus  repudiated 
his  wife ;  promoted  the  fourth  crusade,  the 
result  of  which  was  the  capture  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  deposed  Otho,  emperor  of  Germany, 
transferring  the  crown  to  Frederick  of  Sicily  ; 
subjected  John  of  England  to  the  papal  see, 
compelling  him  to  pay  an  annual  tribute ; 
crushed  the  Albigenses  in  1214,  and  died  two 
years  later. 

Iren^us,  Saint,  140?-202?,  bishop  of 
Lyons,  martyr. 

Irving,  Washington,  1783-1859,  Am.  au- 
thor ;  the  purest  prose  writer  and  humorist  of 
America;  born  in  New  York  city. 

Isabella  I.  (the  Catholic),  1451-1504, 
queen  of  Castile  ;  wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon  :  patroness  of  Columbus. 

Isabelle  of  France,  1292-1358,  queen  of 
England,  wife  of  Edward  II.,  whom  her  ad- 
herents deposed,  and  with  whose  assassination 
she  is  charged  ;  her  son  Edward  III.,  ascended 
the  throne  and  ordered  her  arrest,  and  she  died 
after  twenty  years'  incarceration. 

Isaiah,  fl.  740  B.  C,  Hebrew  prophet. 

Iturbide,  Don  Augustin  de,  1790-1824, 
emperor  of  Mexico. 

Ivax  III.  (Yasilievitch),  1438-1505,  czar  of 
Russia ;  IV.  (Vasilievitch,  the  Terrible), 
1529-84. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  1767-1 S45,  seventh  pres- 
ident ;   born    in    South    Carolina ;  son    of    an 


Irishman  ;  received  but  little  education  ;  served 
against  the  British  in  1781  ;  began  the  prac- 
tice of  law  at  Nashville,  17S8  ;  Congress,  1796  ; 
U.  S.  Senate  1797  ;  judge  Tennessee  Supreme 
Court,  1798-1804;  fought  several  duels,  killing 
Chas.  Dickinson  in  1806  ;  defeated  the  Creek 
Indians,  1814,  and  was  commissioned  briga- 
dier-general ;  defeated  the  British  at  New  Or- 
leans, 1815  ;  successfully  carried  on  war  against 
the  Seminoles,  1817-18;  Senate,  1823,  and 
nominated  for  the  presidency,  the  opposing 
candidates  being  Clay,  J.  Q.  Adams,  and  \V.  H. 
Crawford  ;  Jackson  had  the  highest  number  of 
votes,  but  not  a  majority,  and  Adams  was 
elected  by  the  House  of  Representives  ;  Jack- 
son was  elected  to  the  presidency,  however, 
in  1828  ;  he  was  the  first  president  to  remove 
public  officers  on  account  of  their  politics  ;  re- 
elected in  1832  ;  in  that  year,  the  convention 
of  South  Carolina  having  declared  the  tariff 
laws  of  1828  null  and  void,  Jackson  issued  a 
proclamation  declaring  his  intention  to  check 
by  force  of  arms  all  movements  tending  to 
disunion. 

Jackson,  Thomas  Jonathan  (Stonewall), 
1824-63,  Confederate  general,  native  of  Vir- 
ginia; defeated  General  Banks  at  Cedar  Moun- 
tain, and  captured  Harper's  Ferry  with  10,000 
prisoners,  1862  ;  killed  by  a  company  of  his 
own  men,  mistaking  him  and  his  staff  for 
Federal  cavalry. 

Jacquard,  Joseph  Marie*  1752-1834,  Fr. 
inventor. 

Jamblichus,  fl.  320,  Syrian  Neo-Platonic 
philosopher. 

James  I.,  1560-1025,  king  of  England 
(VI.  of  Scotland)  ;  executed  Raleigh  ;  a  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  was  made  under  his  direc- 
tion. 

James  IV.,  1473-1513,  defeated  and  slain 
at  Flodden. 

Jansen,  Cornells,  1585-1638.  Dutch  theo- 
logian ;  founder  of  the  Jansenists. 

Januarius,  Saint,  272-305,  patron  saint  of 
Naples. 

Jay,  John,  1745-1829,  Am.  statesman  ;  first 
chief  justice. 

Jeanne  d'  Albret,  1528-72,  queen  of 
Navarre. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  1743-1826,  Am.  states- 
man ;  third  president ;  born  in  Virginia  ;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1767  ;  elected  to  Virginia 
House  of  Burgesses.  1769;  Continental  Con- 
gress, 1775  ;  drafted  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence ;  governor  of  Virginia,  1779-81; 
minister  plenipotentiary,  1784,  to  negotiate 
treaties  with  European  powers :  minister  at 
Paris,  1785-9;  secretary  of  state,  1789-93; 
elected  vice-president,  1796,  and  president  in 
1800,  holding  that  office  from  1801  to  1809. 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


253 


Jeffrey,  Francis,  1773-1850,  Scot,  critic 
and  judge. 

Jeffreys.  George,  Lord,  1650-89,  infamous 
Br.  judge  ;  lord  high  chancellor  under  James 
II.  ;    died  in  the  Tower. 

Jexnek,  Edward,  1749-1823,  Eng.  physi- 
cian ;  introduced  vaccination. 

.Jerome.  Saint,  340?-420,  Latin  father  of 
the  Church. 

Jerome  of  Prague,  1378-1416,  Bohemian 
religious  reformer  ;  follower  of  Huss  ;  burned 
at  the  stake. 

Jehrold,  Douglas  William,  1803-57,  Eng. 
humorist  and  satirical  writer. 

Joan*  OK  Arc  (Jeanne  d'Arc),  1411  ?-31,  Fr. 
heroine  ("the  Maid  of  Orleans");  born  in 
Lorraine  of  an  humble  peasant  family ;  be- 
lieving herself  commissioned  by  heaven  to  lib- 
erate France,  and  convincing  Charles  VII.  of 
her  divine  authority,  she  was  given  command 
of  a  considerable  force,  and  by  the  victories  she 
gained  enabled  Charles  to  be  crowned  at 
Rheims  ;  although  she  wished  to  return  home 
and  resume  her  former  humble  life,  she  was  in- 
duced to  retain  her  command  in  the  army  : 
she  was  captured  in  1430  by  the  Burgundians, 
delivered  to  the  English,  and  burned  at  the 
stake  after  a  mock  trial. 

John,  1166-1216,  king  of  England  ;  granted 
Magna  Charta. 

John  of  Gaunt  (Ghent),  1340-99,  duke  of 
Lancaster  ;  son  of  Edward  III. 

John  the  Baptist,  B.  C.  5-A.  D.  28, 
prophet. 

John  the  Evangelist  (St.  John),  .  .  .  .- 
100?,  apostle. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  1808-75,  Am.  statesman  ; 
seventeenth  president ;  born  in  North  Caro- 
lina ;  learned  the  trade  of  a  tailor  in  Ten- 
nessee ;  Congress,  1843-53  ;  governor.  1853-7; 
senator,  1857  ;  military  governor,  1862  :  elected 
vice-president,  1864,  and  succeeded  to  the 
presidency  on  the  death  of  Lincoln,  1865 ; 
became  involved  in  a  bitter  quarrel  with  the 
leaders  of  the  Republican  party,  and  was  im- 
peached in  1868,  but  acquitted,  although 
thirty-five  senators  voted  for  conviction  to  only 
nineteen  against,  a  two-thirds  majority  being 
necessary  ;  he  was  subsequently  elected  to  the 
Senate  from  Tennessee  as  a  Democrat. 

Johnson,  Reverdy,  1796-1876,  Am.  states- 
man. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  1709-84,  Eng.  writer  and 
lexicographer. 

Johnston,  Albert  Sydney,  1803-62,  Con- 
federate general. 

Johnston,  Joseph  Eccleston,  1809-91,  Con- 
federate general. 

Joliet,  Louis,  1645-1700?,  Fr.  explorer  of 
the  Mississippi. 


Jomini,  Antoine  Henri,  Baron,  1779-1869, 
Swiss  military  writer. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  1747-92,  Am.  revolu- 
tionary naval  commander;  born  in  Scotland; 
captured  the  Serapis. 

Jones,  Sir  William,l746-94,  Eng.  orientalist. 

Joxsox,  Ben,  1574-1637,  Eng.  poet  and 
dramatist. 

Joseph  I.,  1676-1711,  emperor  of  Germany; 
II.,  1741-90;  abolished  feudal  serfdom. 

Josephine,  1763-1814,  empress  of  France ; 
wife  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

Josephus,  Flavius,  37?-95?,  Jewish  his- 
torian. 

Joshua,  1537-1427  B.  C,  Hebrew  leader. 

JUAREZ,  Benito  Pablo,  1806-72,  Mexican 
Aztec  statesman. 

Judas  Maccabeus,  .  .  .  .-160  B.  C,  He- 
brew* leader. 

Justin  (the  Martyr),  103-65?,  church  father 
in  Palestine. 

Justinian  I.  (the  Great),  482?-565,  By- 
zantine emperor. 

Juvenalis,  Decimus  Junius,  40?-125?, 
Latin  poet. 

Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  1820-57,  Am.  Arctic 
explorer. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  1724-1804,  Ger.  meta- 
physician and  philosopher. 

Kean,  Edmund,  1787-1833,  Eng.  tragedian. 

Kearney,  Philip,  1815-62,  Am.  general. 

Keats,  John,  1795-1821,  Eng.  poet. 

Keble,  John,  1792-1866,  Eng.  divine  and 
writer. 

Kemble,  Charles,  1775-1854,  brother  of 
J.  P.  K.,  Eng.  actor. 

Kemble,  Frances  Anne,  1809-93,  Eng.  ac- 
tress. 

Kemble,  John  Philip,  1757-1823,  Eng. 
tragedian. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  1380-1471,  Ger.  ascetic 
writer;   "  Imitation  of  Christ." 

Kent,  James,  1763-1847,  Am.  jurist. 

Kepler,  Johann,  1571-1630,  Ger.  astron- 
omer ;  discovered  the  laws  and  orbits  of  mo- 
tion of  the  planets. 

Key,  Francis  Scot,  1776-1843,  Am.  poet; 
author  of  "  The  Star- Spangled  Banner." 

Kidd,  William,  1650-1701,  Am.  pirate; 
executed. 

Kilpatrick,  Hugh  Judson,  1836-81,  Am. 
general. 

King,  Rufus,  1755-1827,  Am.  statesman. 

King,  William  Rufus,  1786-1853,  Am. 
statesman . 

Kingsley,  Charles,  1819-75,  Eng.  divine 
and  author. 

Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  1724-1803, 
Ger.  poet. 


254 


THE    CENTURY    ROOK  OF   PACTS. 


Knowlks,  James  Sheridan,  1784-1862,  Eng. 
dramatist  and  actor  ;  subsequently  became  a 
Raptist  minister. 

Knox,  John,  1505-72,  leader  of  the  Scot, 
reformation. 

Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  1746?-1817,  Polish 
patriot  and  general ;  commanded  the  Polish 
insurgent  army ;  bravely  defended  Warsaw, 
but  was  defeated. 

Kossuth,  Louis,  1802-93,  Hungarian  pa- 
triot, orator,  and  statesman  ;  leading  spirit  in 
the  insurrection  of  1848-49. 

Krupp,  Alfred,  1810-87,  Ger.  manufacturer 
of  steel  guns. 

Kullai-Khan -129G,  founder  of  Mon- 
gol dynasty  in  China. 

Lactantius,  260V-325,  Latin  father  of  the 
Church. 

La  Fayktte,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yves 
Gilbert  Motier  de,  Marquis,  1757-1834,  Fr. 
general  and  patriot;  came  to  America  in  1777 
to  aid  the  Americans  in  their  struggle  for  in- 
dependence, and  was  commissioned  major- 
general;  fought  at  Rrandywine,  where  he  was 
wounded,  and  in  numerous  other  engagements ; 
visited  France  and  obtained  supplies  and  muni- 
tions, returning  1779  ;  commanded  the  ad- 
vance guard  at  Yorktown,  1781  ;  returned 
again  to  France  ;  chosen  commandant  of  the 
French  National  Guard,  1789  ;  visited  America, 
1824,  and  was  enthusiastically  received  ;  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1830. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de,  1621-94,  Fr.  poet 
and  fabulist. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  1736-1813,  Fr. 
mathematician. 

Lamartine,  Alphonse  de,  1792-1869,  Fr. 
poet  and  statesman. 

Lamb,  Charles  (Elia),  1775-1834,  Eng.  es- 
sayist. 

Lamotte-Fouque",  Friedrich  Heinrich  Karl 
de,  Raron,  1777-1843,  Ger.  novelist  and  poet. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  1775-1864,  Eng. 
author. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,  1802-73,  Eng.  ani- 
mal painter. 

Langlande  (or  Longland),  Robert,  fl.  1360, 
Eng.  monk  and  poet. 

Lanier,  Sidney,  1843-81,  Am.  poet. 

Lansdowne,  William  Petty,  Marquis  of, 
1737-1805,  Eng.  statesman. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis,  1749- 
1827,  Fr.  astronomer  and  mathematician. 

La  Rochefoucauld,  Francois  de,  Duke, 
1613-80,  Fr.  moralist  and  statesman. 

La  Salle,  Jean  Raptiste,  1651-1719,  founder 
of  the  Christian  Rrothers. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier  de,  16357-87, 
Fr.  explorer. 


Lasker,   Eduard,  1829-84,  Ger.  statesman. 

Lassalle,  Ferdinand,  1825-64,  Ger.  social- 
ist. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  1480-1555,  Eng.  reformer; 
burned. 

Latour  d'Auvergne,  Theophile  Malo 
Corret  de,  1743-1800,  Fr.  officer;  called,  by 
Napoleon,  "  The  First  Grenadier  of  France." 

Lavater,  Johann  Caspar,  1741-1801, 
Swiss  physiognomist. 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent,  1743-94,  Fr. 
chemist ;  founder  of  modern  chemistry  ;  guil- 
lotined by  revolutionary  tribunal. 

Law,  John,  1671-1729,  Scot,  financier  in 
France;  promoted  the  "South  Sea  Rubble." 

Lawrence,  Amos,  1786-1 S52,  Am.  philan- 
thropist. 

Lawrence,  James,  1781-1813,  Am.  naval 
hero;  as  commander  of  the  Chesapeake,  he 
engaged  the  Rritish  frigate  Shannon  off  Ros- 
ton  and  was  killed  in  the  action  ;  his  last 
words  were  :   »  Don't  give  up  the  ship." 

Ledru-Rollin,  Alexandre  Auguste,  1808- 
74,  Fr.  socialist. 

Ledyard,  John,  1751-88.  Am.  traveler. 

Lee,  Henry  (Light-Horse  Harry),  1756- 
1818,  Am.  general  and  statesman  ;  governor 
of  Virginia. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  1782-94,  Am.  orator 
and  patriot. 

Lee,  Robert  Edmund,  1806-70,  Am.  gen- 
eral;  commander-in-chief  of  the  Confederate 
army  ;  son  of  Henry  Lee  ;  born  in  Virginia  ; 
graduate  of  West  Point ;  chief  engineer  of  Gen. 
Scott's  army  in  Mexico  ;  Confederate  briga- 
dier-general, 1861,  and  appointed  to  the  chief 
command,  1862;  surrendered  at  Appomattox, 
April  9,  1865  ;  subsequently  chosen  president 
of  Washington  College,  at  Lexington,  Va., 
where  he  died. 

Leibnitz,  Gottfried  Wilhelm  von,  Raron. 
1646-1716,  Ger.  philosopher  and  mathemati- 
cian, 

Leicester,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of,  1532  ? 
-88,  a  favorite  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Leonidas,  ....  -480  R.  C,  king  of 
Sparta  ;  leader  of  the  brave  three  hundred  at 
Thermopylae. 

Leopold  I.  (the  Great),  1640-1705,  em- 
peror of  Germany. 

Le  Sage,  Alain  Rene,  1668-1747,  Fr.  nov- 
elist. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  Viscount,  1805-94, 
Fr.  engineer  and  diplomatist  ;  planned  the 
Suez  Canal  and  the  interoceanic  canal  across 
Panama. 

Lessing,  Gotthold  Ephraim,  1729-81,  Ger. 
author  and  critic;  "the  Luther  of  German 
literature,  drama  and  art." 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


255 


Leutze,  Emanuel,  1816-68,  Ger.  historical  | 
painter. 

Lever,  Charles  James,  1806-72,  Ir.  novel- 
ist. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  1817-78,  Eng.  au- 
thor;   husband  of  "  George  Eliot." 

Leyden,  Lucas  van,  1494-1533,  Dutch 
painter. 

Liebig,  Justus  von,  Baron,  1803-73,  Ger. 
chemist. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  1809-65,  sixteenth 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  "  with  malice 
toward  none,  with  charity  to  all;"  born  in 
Kentucky ;  removed  to  Indiana  when  eight 
years  old  ;  captain  in  the  Black  Hawk  war, 
1832  ;  elected  to  the  Illinois  legislature,  1834  ; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1836,  and  removed  to 
Springfield,  111.  ;  elected  to  Congress  in  1846  ; 
Republican  candidate  for  U.  S.  senator  in 
185  1.  his  opponent  being  Stephen  A.  Douglas  ; 
nominated  for  the  presidency  and  elected, 
1860;  re-elected,  1864,  but  assassinated  April 
14,  1865,  by  John  Wilkes  Booth  ;  his  death 
was  universally  deplored,  for  his  wise  admin- 
istration of  affairs  during  the  civil  war  had 
won  for  him  the  regard  of  both  factions  of  the 
bloody  controversy. 

Lino,  Jenny  (Mrs.  Goldschmidt),  1821-87, 
Sw.  vocalist. 

Linn.eus,  Charles,  1707-78,  Sw.  botanist, 
and  greatest  naturalist  of  modern  times. 

Lippi,  Filippo,  1412-69,  It.  painter. 

Liszt,  Franz,  Abbe,  1811-85,  Hungarian 
pianist. 

Littleton  (or  Lyttleton),  Sir  Thomas, 
1420 ?-81,  Eng.  jurist. 

Livingston,  Edward,  1764-1836,  Am.  ju- 
rist. 

Livingstone.  David,  1817-73,  Scot,  ex- 
plorer in  Africa. 

Livy  (Titus  Livius),  59  B.  C.-17  A.  D., 
Rom.  historian. 

Locke,  John,  1632-1704,  Eng.  philosopher, 
founded  the  sensational  school  of  philosophy, 
claiming  that  all  knowledge  comes  through 
the  senses. 

Logan,  John  Alexander,  1826-87,  Am. 
general  and  statesman. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  1807-82, 
Am.  poet. 

Longinus,  fi.  third  century,  Gr.  philosopher. 

Louis  I.  (le  Debonnair),  778-840,  emperor 
of  the  West  and  king  of  France  ;  divided  the 
empire  among  his  sons  ;  VI.  (the  Fat),  1078  ?- 
1137,  king  of  France;  IX.  (Saint),  1215-70, 
led  a  large  army  against  the  Saracens  in  1248  ; 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  in  Egypt,  but 
effected  his  ransom  ;  led  another  crusade  in 
1270,  but  died  the  same  year  near  Tunis  ;  a 
wise  ruler,  and  noted  for  many  virtues. 


Louis  Philippe,  1773-1850,  "the  citizen 
king  "  of  France  ;    abdicated,  1848. 

Louvois,  Francois  Michel  Letellierde.  Mar- 
quis, 1641-91,  Fr.  statesman;  caused  revoca- 
tion of  the  edict  of  Xantes. 

Lover,  Samuel,  1797-1868,  Ir.  novelist. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  1819-91,  Am.  poet 
and  critic. 

Loyola,  Ignatius  de  (Saint  Ignatius),  1491- 
1566,  Spanish  founder  of  the  Society  of  Jesus, 
or  Jesuits  ;  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age  ; 
crippled  by  a  wound  in  1520,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  religion  ;  made  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem  in  1523,  and  subsequently  studied 
at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  he  met  Fran- 
cis Xavier  and  James  Lainez,  in  conjunction 
with  whom,  in  1543,  he  formed  the  society 
which  has  since  become  so  celebrated. 

Lucanus,  Marcus  Annseus,  38-65,  Rom. 
epic  poet. 

Luctan.  120  ?-....,  Gr.  satirist. 

LuciLius,  Caius,  148  ?-100?  B.  C,  Rom. 
satiric  poet. 

Lucretius  (Titus  Lucretius  Carus),  95- 
.  .  .  .  B.  C,  Latin  poet ;  greatest  didactic 
poet  and  most  profound  of  Latin  authors. 

Luther,  Martin,  1483-1546,  leader  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation ;  born  at  Eisleben, 
Germany,  the  son  of  a  miner ;  educated  at 
the  University  of  Erfurt,  and  in  1505  entered 
the  Augustine  convent  at  that  place  ;  ordained 
a  priest,  1507  ;  became  professor  of  philoso- 
phy at  Wittenberg,  1508  ;  visited  Rome,  1510  ; 
denounced  the  sale  of  indulgences,  1517  ;  and 
became  involved  in  numerous  controversies ; 
cited  to  appear  before  Leo  X.,  he  refused  to 
comply;  burned  the  papal  bull  containing  an 
order  to  destroy  certain  of  his  works,  and  de- 
nied the  authority  of  the  pope  ;  excommuni- 
cated ;  enjoyed  the  support  of  the  elector  of 
Saxony  ;  attended  the  Diet  of  Worms,  con- 
vened for  his  trial,  in  1521  ;  laid  aside  his 
monastic  dress  in  1524,  and  married  Cathe- 
rine von  Bora,  an  ex-nun,  in  1525  ;  enjoyed, 
during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  the  greatest 
distinction  from  the  princes  of  Germany. 
Luther  completed,  in  1522,  his  translation  of 
the  Xew  Testament,  and  in  1534  that  of  the 
Old  Testament ;  the  central  point  of  his  theol- 
ogy is  justification  by  faith. 

LUXEMBOURG,  Frangois  Henri  de  Montmo- 
renci  de,  16i8-95,  marshal  of  France. 

Lycurgus,  fl.  850  B.  C,  Spartan  law- 
giver. 

Lyell,  Sir  George,  1797-1875,  Scot,  geolo- 
gist. 

Mac  aula  y,  Thomas  Babington,  Baron, 
1800-59,  Eng.  critic,  poet,  and  essayist. 

Macbeth,  .  .  .  .-1056  ?,  king  of  Scotland. 


256 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Macciiiavelli,  Nicolo  di  Bernardo  dei, 
1409-1527,  It.  statesman  and  author  ;  among 
his  numerous  writings  are  his  "  History  of 
Florence"  and  "The  Prince,"  the  latter  of 
which  (not  intended  for  publication,  but  for 
the  private  perusal  of  the  Medici)  has  rendered 
the  name  Macchiavelli  the  synonym  of  perfidy. 
McClellan,  George  Brinton,  1826-85,  Am. 
general;  born  in  Philadelphia ;  graduate  of 
West  Point ;  served  in  the  Mexican  war,  and 
in  1855  served  on  a  commission  sent  by  the 
government  to  make  observations  on  the  Cri- 
mean war ;  became  chief  engineer  of  the 
Illinois  Central  railroad  in  1857  ;  re-entered 
the  army,  1861,  taking  command  of  the  Fed- 
eral troops  in  Western  Virginia,  and  gained 
the  victories  of  RichMountain  and  Cheat  River  ; 
November,  1861,  became  commander  of  the 
armies  of  the  United  States  ;  gained  a  victory 
at  Fair  Oaks,  1862,  but  was  forced  to  relin- 
quish the  plan  of  reducing  Richmond  ;  super- 
seded by  Gen.  Pope,  but  recalled,  and  defeated 
the  Confederates  under  Lee  at  Antietam  ; 
relieved  of  command  about  six  weeks  later  ; 
Democratic  candidate  for  the  presidency  in 
1864,  and  afterward  elected  governor  of  New 
Jersey. 

McCormick,  Cyrus  Hall,  1809-84,  Am. 
inventor  of  reaping  machine. 

McCosh,  James,  1811-1894,  Scot,  theolo- 
gian in  America. 

Macdonald,  Sir  John  A.,  1814-91,  Cana- 
dian premier. 

McDowell,  Irvin,  1818-85,  Am.  general. 

Mackenzie,  Morrell,  Sir,  1837-92,  Eng. 
physician. 

MacMahon,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice 
de,  Due  de  Magenta,  1808-93,  marshal  of 
France  and  president  of  the  Fr.  republic. 

Macready,  William  Charles,  1793-1873, 
Eng.  tragedian. 

Madison,  James,  1751-1836,  fourth  presi- 
dent of  the  United  States ;  born  in  Virginia  ; 
member  of  the  Virginia  legislature  and  dele- 
gate to  the  convention  of  1787;  joint  author 
with  Jay  and  Hamilton  of  the  Federalist; 
Congress,  1789-97  ;  secretary  of  state,  1801-9  ; 
president,  1809-17. 

Magellan,  Fernando,  1470-1521,  Port, 
navigator. 

Mahmood,  Abool-Kasim-Yemeen-ed-Dow- 
lah,  967-1030,  Mohammedan  conqueror. 

Maintenon,  Francoise  d'Aubigne'  de,  Mar- 
quise, 1635-171 9,  consort  of  Louis  XTV. 

Malibran,  Marie  Felicita  (ne'e  Garcia), 
1808-36,  Fr.  vocalist  and  actress. 

Maltiius,  Thomas  Robert,  1766-1834, 
Eng.  writer  on  political  economy. 

Mandeville,  Sir  John,  1300-72,  Eng. 
traveler. 


Manning,  Henry  Edward,  1808-92,  Eng. 
Catholic  prelate  and  author ;  united  with  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  in  1851  ;  archbishop 
of  Westminster,  1865  ;  cardinal,  1877. 

Manteuffel,  Edwin  Hans  Carl  von, 
Baron,  1800-83,  Prussian  field-marshal. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul,   1744-93,   Fr.    Jacobin 
demagogue,  assassinated  by  Charlotte  Corday. 
Marcellus,     Marcus     Claudius,    2687-208 
B.  C,  Rom.  consul. 

Margaret  (Semiramis  of  the  North), 
1353-1412,  queen  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark. 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  1429-82,  queen  of 
Henry  VI.  of  England. 

Margaret  ok  Angouleme,  1492-1549, 
queen  of  Navarre  and  author.  I' 

Margaret  of  Austria,  1480-1530,  re- 
gent of  the  Netherlands. 

Margaret  of  Valois,  1553-1615,  queen 
of  France. 

Maria  de'  Medici,  1573-1642,  queen  of 
France. 

Maria  Louisa,  1791-1847,  empress  of 
France. 

Maria    Theresa,     1717-80,      empress    of 
Austria  and  queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 
Marie  Antoinette,  1755-93,  wife  of  Louis 
XVI.  of  France  ;  guillotined. 

Marion,  Francis,  1732-95,  Am.  Revolution- 
ary general. 

Marius,  Caius,  157-86  B.  C.,Rom.  general 
and  consul. 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of, 
1650-1722,  Eng.  commander;  commanded  the 
English  forces  in  the  Netherlands,  1689  ;  com- 
manded in  Ireland,  1690;  accused  of  treason, 
deposed  and  confined  in  the  Tower,  1692  ;  re- 
instated, 1696  ;  commanded  the  allied  armies 
in  Holland,  1702  ;  won  the  battle  of  Blenheim, 
1704  ;  Ramilles,  1706  ;  Oudenarde,  1708  ; 
Malplaquet,  1709. 

Marlowe,  Christopher,  1564-93,  Eng. 
dramatist. 

Marquettf.,  Jacques,  1637-75,  Fr.  mis- 
sionary and  discoverer ;  explored  the  Missis- 
sippi. 

Marshall,  John,  175o-1835,  Am.  jurist 
and  statesman  ;  chief  justice  of  the  United 
States. 

Martel,   Charles,   Duke  of   Austrasia  (the 
Hammer),  694-741,  conquered  the  Saracens  in 
the  great  battle  of  Tours,  or  Poictiers,  732. 
Martineau,  Harriet,  1802-76,  Eng.  writer. 
Mai:x,  Karl,  1818-83,  Ger.  socialist. 
Mary  1.  (bloody  Mary),  1516-58,  queen  of 
England;   married  Philip  II.   of  Spain;    per- 
secuted the  Protestants. 

Mary  Stuart,  1542-87,  queen  of  Scots ; 
daughter  of  James  V.   and   Mary   of  Guise ; 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


257 


educated  in  France,  -where  she  was  married  to 
the  Dauphin  in  1558,  who  the  following  year 
ascended  the  French  throne  as  Francis  II.,  but 
died  childless,  1560  ;  invited  to  the  throne  of 
Scotland,  and  married  her  cousin,  Lord  Darn- 
ley  ;  suppressed,  1565,  a  revolt  of  the  Protest- 
ants instigated  by  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  joined, 
1566,  a  league  to  extirpate  heresy,  and,  weary- 
ing of  the  arrogance  and  dissoluteness  of  Lord 
Darnley,  bestowed  her  confidence  on  David  Riz- 
zio,  an  Italian  musician,  whose  murder  was 
instigated  the  same  year  by  Mary's  jealous 
husband  ;  Lord  Darnley  was  killed  in  1567,  and 
Queen  Mary  married  the  Earl  of  Bothwell  the 
same  year ;  public  sentiment  in  Scotland 
against  her  became  so  intense  that  she  was  com- 
pelled to  fly  to  England,  where  she  was  finally 
beheaded  on  an  unproved  charge  of  conspiracy. 

Masaxiello,  1620-47,  Neapolitan  insur- 
gent leader. 

Massixger,  Philip,  1584-1640,  Eng.  drama- 
tist, 

Mather,  Cotton,  1663-1728,  Am.  divine 
and  writer,  notorious  for  his  persecution  of 
witchcraft. 

Ma tfiew,  Theobald  (Father Mathew),  1790- 
1856,  It.  Catholic  priest,  called  "the  Apostle 
of  Temperance." 

Maupassant,  de,  Henri  R.  A.  G.,  1850-93, 
Fr.  novelist. 

Maurice,  1521-53,  elector  of  Saxony  ;  Ger. 
general  and  Protestant  leader. 

Maurice  of  Nassau,  1567-1625,  Dutch 
warrior  ;    prince  of  Orange. 

Maximilian  (Ferdinand  Maximilian  Jo- 
seph), 1832-67,  archduke  of  Austria  and  em- 
peror of  Mexico  ;    executed  by  the  Mexicans. 

Mazarin,  Giulio,  Cardinal,  1602-61,  Fr. 
prime  minister. 

Mazeppa,  Ivan  Stepanovitch,  1644-1709, 
Polish  nobleman  and  hetman  of  the  Cossacks  ; 
hero  of  Byron's  poem. 

Mazzixi,  Giuseppe,  1807-72,  It.  patriot. 

Meade,  George  Gordon,  1815-72,  Am.  gen- 
eral ;    won  the  battle  of  Gettysburg. 

Medici,  Alessandro  de',  1510-37,  first  duke 
of  Florence  ;    assassinated. 

Medici,  Cosimo  de'  (the  Great),  1519-74, 
first  grand  duke  of  Tuscany. 

Medici,  Lorenzo  de'  (the  Magnificent), 
1418-92,  prince  of  Florence  ;  scholar  and  pa- 
tron of  literature  and  art. 

Meissoxier,  Jean  Louis  Ernest,  1812-91, 
Fr.  painter. 

Mklaxc  hthox.  Philipp,  1497-1560,  Ger. 
reformer  ;  leader  of  the  Reformation  after 
Luther's  death. 

Melikoff,  Louis,  1824-88,  Russian  general. 

Mexdelssohx-Bartholdy.  Felix,  1809-47, 
Ger.  composer. 


Menelek,  emperor  (or  negus)  of  Abys- 
sinia ;    proclaimed  March  12,  1889. 

Mexxo  Symons  (Menno  Sirnonis),  1496- 
1561,  Frieslandic  founder  of  the  Mennonites. 

Merime"e,  Prosper,  1803-70,  Fr.  novelist. 

Mesmer,  Friedrich  Anton,  1733-1815,  Ger. 
discoverer  of  "mesmerism." 

Metellus,  Quiutus  Caecilius,  fl.  100  B.  C, 
Rom.  general. 

Metterxich,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk 
Lothar  von,  1775-1859,  Austrian  statesman. 

Meyerbeer,  Giacomo  (Jakob  Meyer-Beer), 
1791-1864,  Ger.  composer. 

Michael  Axgelo  (Michelangelo  Buona- 
rotti),  1475-1564,  It.  painter,  sculptor,  archi- 
tect, and  poet;  "the  Dante  of  the  arts;" 
patronized  by  Lorenzo  the  Magnificent  ;  in- 
vited to  Rome  by  Pope  .Julius  II.,  where  he 
designed  the  church  of  St.  Peter  ;  became 
architect  of  that  magnificent  structure  in  1546, 
and  devoted  the  rest  of  his  life  almost  ex- 
clusively to  its  completion. 

Mifflix,  Thomas,  1744-1800,  Am.  patriot ; 
president  of  Continental  Congress. 

Mill,  James,  1773-1830,  Scot,  historian  and 
writer. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  1806-73,  Eng.  philos- 
opher and  political  economist. 

Millais,  John  Everett,  1829-1896,  Eng. 
painter. 

Miltiades,  fl.  500  B.  C,  Athenian  com- 
mander ;  gained  the  great  victory  of  Marathon . 

Miltox,  John,  1608-74,  poet  of  the  Puri- 
tans ;  educated  at  Cambridge  ;  passed  several 
years  in  travel ;  advocated  the  popular  party, 
opposing  prelacy  and  the  established  church  ; 
wrote  many  political  and  controversial  works 
in  prose;  was  appointed  in  1648  Latin  secre- 
tary of  the  Council  of  State;  in  1654  he  had 
become  entirely  blind  ;  his  ' '  Paradise  Lost ' ' 
was  completed  in  1655,  and  sold  for  £10,  half 
of  which  was  not  to  be  paid  until  after  the 
sale  of  1,300  copies. 

Mixie,  Claude  Etienne,  1810-79,  Fr.  inventor 
(Minie  rifle). 

Mirabeau,  Honore"  Gabriel  de  Riquetti  de, 
Comte,  1749-91,  Fr.  orator  and  statesman; 
entered  the  army  in  1776 ;  exiled  and  im- 
prisoned for  debt  ;  separating  from  his  wife,  he 
eloped  with  a  young  woman  in  1776,  for  which 
offense  he  was  condemned  to  death  ;  escaped, 
however,  with  four  years'  imprisonment ;  led 
a  wandering  life  for  several  years,  engaging 
in  numerous  intrigues;  sent  to  Berlin  on  a 
secret  mission  in  1786,  and  elected  to  the 
States-General  in  1789,  and  later  to  the 
National  Assembly,  of  which  he  became  pres- 
ident in  1791. 

Mitciiel,  Ormsby  Macknight,  1810-62, 
Am.  general  and  astronomer. 


258 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OE   FACTS. 


Mitford,    Mary    Russell,   1786-1855,  Am. 

Mithridates  VI.  (the  Great),  132-63  B.  C, 
king  of  Pontus. 

Mohammed  (or  Mahomet),  569-632,  con- 
queror and  prophet,  and  founder  of  the  Mos- 
lem religion,  which  threatened  to  subdue  the 
Christian  world  ;  pretended,  at  the  age  of  forty, 
to  have  received  a  revelation  from  Allah,  and 
thenceforth  devoted  himself  to  the  propaga- 
tion of  his  new  religion  ;  previous  to  this  time 
he  had  been  an  idolator  ;  his  new  faith,  which 
included  the  unity  of  God,  was  rejected  at 
Mecca,  where  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  but  was  warmly  embraced  in  Medina,  to 
which  place  the  prophet  fled  in  622  ;  from  this 
flight  called  the  Hegira,  the  Mussulmans  com- 
pute their  time  ;  after  this  event,  Mohammed 
propagated  the  faith  of  Islam  by  the  sword, 
gaining  numerous  victories,  and  spreading  his 
religion  over  a  large  portion  of  Western  Asia. 

Moliere  (Jean  Baptiste  Poquelin),  1622-73, 
Er.  dramatist  and  actor ;  the  French  Shakes- 
peare. 

Moltke,  Carl  Bernhard  Hellmuth  von, 
Count,  1800-91,  commander  of  the  German 
armies  in  the  Franco-German  war  ;  he  planned 
the  entire  campaign. 

Monk,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  1608-70, 
Eng.  general ;  restored  the  monarchy. 

Monmouth,  James  Scott,  Duke  of,  1649?- 
85,  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  ;  rebelled,  but 
was  defeated  and  executed. 

Monroe,  James,  1758-1831,  fifth  president ; 
born  in  Virginia  ;  captain  in  the  war  of  1812  ; 
studied  law  under  Jefferson  ;  Congress,  1783  ; 
opposed  the  Constitution  ;  governor  of  Vir- 
ginia, 1799  ;  envoy  extraordinary  to  France, 
1802;  re-elected  governor,  1811;  appointed 
secretary  of  state  same  year  by  Madison ; 
elected  president,  1816,  and  re-elected  1820. 

Montagu,  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  1690-1762, 
Eng.  authoress. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de,  1533-92, 
Fr.  philosopher  and  essayist ;  originator  of 
the  modern  essay;  his  "  Essays  "  have  been 
called  "the  breviary  of  freethinkers."  It  is 
claimed  by  some  scholars  that  Montaigne's 
name  on  the  title  page  of  the  "  Essays  "  was 
but  a  cover  for  Francis  Bacon  or  his  brother. 

Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes  de,  Comte, 
1810-70,  Fr.  publicist. 

Montcalm,  Louis  J.  de  8ft  Veran,  Marquis 
of,  1712-59,  Fr.  commander  in  Canada. 

Montefiore,. Moses,  Sir,  1786-1885,  Eng. 
Jewish  philanthropist. 

Montesquieu,  Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron 
de,  1689-1755,  Fr.  jurist  and  philosopher  ;  his 
"Esprit  des  Lois"  is  the  first  philosophy  of 
history. 


Montezuma  II. ,  1480?-1520,  last  Aztec 
emperor  of  Mexico. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  1150?-1218,  Norman 
crusader. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester, 
1200?-65,  son  of  preceding;  led  the  barons 
against  Henry  III. 

Montrose,  James  Graham,  Marquis  of, 
1612-50,  Scot,  general;  executed. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  1761-1809,  Br.  general; 
fell  at  Corunna. 

Moore,  Thomas,  1779-1852,  Ir.  poet. 

Morales,  Luis,  1509-86,  Sp.  painter. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  1480-1535,  Eng.  states- 
man and  philosopher ;  educated  at  Oxford ; 
entered  Parliament,  1504  ;  produced  "  History 
of  Richard  III.,"  1513;  "Utopia,"  1516; 
became  a  great  favorite  of  Henry  VIII. ,  who 
made  him  lord  chancellor  in  1530;  being  an 
ardent  Catholic,  he  refused  to  sanction  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  and  resigned  his 
office  in  1532  ;  imprisoned  in  1534  for  declin- 
ing to  take  an  oath  acknowledging  the  validity 
of  the  king's  marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn,  and 
executed  the  following  year  for  denying  the 
king's  supremacy  as  head  of  the  church. 

Morris,  George  P.,  1802-64,  Am.  journal- 
ist and  poet. 

Morris,  Gouverneur,  1752-1816,  Am.  states- 
man. 

Morris,  Robert,  1734-1806,  Am.  statesman 
and  financier. 

Morris,  William,  1834-96,  Eng.  poet. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese,  1791-1872, 
Am.  inventor  of  the  magnetic  telegraph  ;  grad- 
uate of  Yale  College ;  studied  painting  in 
England,  returning  to  America  in  1832  ;  con- 
structed small  recording  electric  telegraph  in 
1835;  finally  obtained  aid  from  Congress  in 
1843,  and  constructed  a  line  between  Wash- 
ington and  Baltimore  in  1844. 

Mortimer,  Roger,  Earl  of  March,  1287?- 
1330,  favorite  of  Isabella  of  England ;  exe- 
cuted. 

Morton,  James  Douglas,  Earl  of,  1530-81, 
regent  of  Scotland  ;  executed  as  accessory  to 
Darnley's  murder. 

Moscheles,  Ignaz,  1794-1870,  Ger.  pianist 
and  composer. 

Moses,  1570-1450  B.  C,  Hebrew  lawgiver; 
led  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt. 

Motley,  John  Lothrop,  1814-77,  Am.  di- 
plomatist and  historian. 

Mott,  Lucretia  (ne'e  Coffin),  1793-18S0,  Am. 
social  reformer. 

Moultrie,  William,  1731-1805,  Am.  Rev- 
olutionary general. 

Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostomus  Wolfgang 
Amadeus,  1756-1791,  Ger.  composer;  com- 
posed short  pieces   at  the  age  of  six,  and  at 


HISTORY    AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


259 


seven  gave  concerts  in  Paris  and  London  :  dis- 
tinguished for  the  universality  of  his  genius; 
he  gave  artistic  form  to  opera. 

AfunxENBERG,  Henry  Melchior,  1711-87, 
founder  of  the  German  Lutheran  church  in 
America. 

Mi'iir.i:.\iiKi:<;.  John  Peter  Gabriel,  1740- 
1807,  Am.  general. 

MUNCHAUSEN,  Hieronymus  Karl  Friedrich 
von,  Baron,  1720-07,  Ger.  soldier  and  roman- 
cist. 

Mukat,  Joachim,  1771-1815,  Pr.  marshal 
and  king  of  Italy. 

Mtrillk,  Bartolom6  Esteban,  1G1S-82,  Sp. 
painter ;  excelled  as  a  colorist,  and  regarded 
as  the  greatest  of  the  Spanish  school. 

MURRAY  (or  Moray),  James  Stuart,  Earl  of , 
1533-70,  regent  of  Scotland  ;  opponent  of  Mary 
Stuart ;   assassinated. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James,  1782-1853,  Eng. 
general  in  India. 

Xapier,  John,  1550-1014,  Scot,  mathe- 
matician. 

Xapiek.  Sir  William  Francis  Patrick,  1785- 
1860,  Br.  general  and  writer. 

Xapiek  of  Magdala,  Robert  Cornelis 
Xapier,  Baron,  1810-7G,  Br.  general. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  ....  -561  B.  C,  Chal- 
dean king  of  Babylon  ;  conquered  Jerusalem, 
Tyre,  and  Egypt. 

NsCKER,  Jacques,  1732-1804,  Fr.  states- 
man and  financier :  father  of   Mme.  de  Stael. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  A'iscount,  1758-1805,  the 
greatest  of  Britain's  admirals;  entered  the 
navy  at  13  ;  post-captain,  1779  ;  rear-admiral. 
17i»7.  las  promotion  having  been  earned  by 
his  share  in  the  victory  of  St.  Yincent ;  lost 
his  right  arm  in  an  unsuccessful  attack  on 
Teneriffe  ;  won  the  battle  of  the  Xile  in  1798, 
for  which  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Xelson  of  the  Xile  ;  became  separated  from  his 
wife,  owing  to  an  infatuation  with  Lady  Ham- 
ilton, which  lasted  until  his  death  ;  created  a 
viscount  for  the  victory  of  the  Baltic,  where, 
being  second  in  command,  lie  disobeyed  the 
orders  directing  him  to  retreat ;  fell  at  Trafal- 
gar, where  his  fleet  gained  a  decisive  victory 
over  the  French  and  Spanish  ;  his  last  words, 
"  Thank  God,  I  have  done  my  duty." 

Xepos,  Cornelius,  fl.  5  B.  C,  Rom.  histo- 
rian . 

Neri,  Filippo  de,  Saint  (St.  Philip  Xeri), 
1515-95,  It.  founder  of  the  "  Priests  of  the 
Oratory." 

Xi>selrodf..  Charles  Robert  von,  Count, 
1780-1862,  Russian  diplomatist. 

Xestorus -140?,    Syrian   prelate: 

founder  of  the  Xestorian  schism. 

NEWMAN,  John   Henry,   Cardinal,   1801-90, 


Eng.  theologian  :  recognized  leader  of  the 
High  Church  party  until  1845,  when  he  be- 
came a  Catholic  ;  appointed  rector  of  Catholic 
University  at  Dublin,  1854,  and  made  a  cardi- 
nal by  Pope  Leo  XIII.  in  1879. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  1642-1727,  Eng.  phi- 
losopher ;  the  son  of  a  farmer ;  graduated  at 
Cambridge,  1665,  about  which  time  he  in- 
vented the  "method  of  fluxions,"  and  dis- 
covered the  laws  of  gravitation  ;  discovered, 
1668,  that  light  is  not  homogeneous,  but  con- 
sists of  rays  of  different  refrangibility. 

Xey,  Michel,  Duke  of  Echlingen  and  Prince 
of  the  Moskwa,  1796-1815,  Fr.  marshal;  the 
son  of  a  cooper;  entered  the  army  at  18  as  a 
private,  and  was  gradually  promoted  ;  Napo- 
leon called  him  "the  bravest  of  the  brave," 
and  his  titles  were  conferred  upon  him  for  his 
services  at  Echlingen,  in  1805,  and  his  victory 
at  the  battle  of  Borodino ;  commanded  the 
rear  guard  in  the  retreat  from  Moscow ;  de- 
feated by  Bernadotte  at  Dennewitz,  1813; 
submitted  to  Louis  XVIII.  upon  the  abdica- 
tion of  Napoleon,  against  whom  he  was  sent 
with  an  army  in  1815,  but  united  his  army 
with  that  of  his  old  commander  ;  had  five  horses 
shot  under  him  at  Waterloo,  where  he  fought 
with  his  usual  valor  ;  was  captured  soon  after, 
and  shot  on  a  charge  of  treason. 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  Georg,  1776-1831,  Ger. 
historian. 

Nicot,  Jean,  1530-1600,  Fr.  scholar;  in- 
troduced tobacco. 

North,  Frederick,  Lord,  1732-92,  Eng. 
statesman. 

Xohtiicote,  Sir  Stafford  Henry,  1818-87, 
Eng.  statesman. 

Notes,  George  Rapall,  1798-1868,  Am. 
theologian. 

Oates,  Titus,  1620-1705,  Eng.  informer; 
contriver  of  the  "  Popish  Plot." 

Oberlin,  Jean  Frederic,  1740-1816,  Fr.- 
Ger.  reformer  and  philanthropist. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  1775-1847,  Ir.  patriot 
and  orator  ;  advocated  Catholic  emancipation, 
but  opposed  resort  to  arms  ;  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment, 1828,  but  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat 
until  1829,  when  the  bill  for  Catholic  emanci- 
pation was  passed ;  gave  up  his  law  practice 
and  gave  his  entire  attention  to  public  duties ; 
began  advocating  the  repeal  of  the  union  in 
1840;  was  convicted  in  1844  on  a  charge  of' 
treason,  but  sentence  was  reversed  by  the 
House  of  Lords. 

Occam,  William  of  (the  Invincible  Doctor), 
12807-1347,  Eng.  theologian. 

Odoacer,  ....  -493,  Gothic  king  of  Italy  ; 
executed. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian,  1777-1851,  Dan- 


260 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


ish  natural  philosopher  ;  founder  of  the  science 
of  electro-magnetism. 

Oglethorpe,  James  Edward,  169S-17S5, 
Eng.  general ;  colonized  Georgia. 

Ollendorf,  Henri  Godefroy,  1803-65,  Ger. 
educator. 

Omar  I.,  581-644,  Arabian  caliph;  con- 
quered Jerusalem. 

Omar  Khayyam,  ....  -1123,  Persian  poet. 

Omar  Pasha  (Michael  Lattas),  1806-71, 
Turkish  commander  in  the  Crimean  war. 

Orange,  William,  Prince  of  (the  Silent), 
1553-84,  founder  of  the  Dutch  republic  ;  leader 
of  the  insurrection  which  broke  out  when  it 
was  attempted  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into 
the  Netherlands  ;  assassinated. 

O'Reilly,  John  Boyle,  1844-91,  Ir.-Am. 
poet  and  journalist. 

Origen,  1867-253,  Gr.  theologian  and 
preacher  ;  endeavored  to  harmonize  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ  and  Plato. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Due  d', 
1747-93,  took  the  popular  side  on  the  assem- 
bling of  the  States-General,  renounced  his  ti- 
tles and  assumed  the  name  of  Egalite  (Equal- 
ity) ;  voted  for  the  death  of  his  cousin,  Louis 
XVI.  ;  condemned  by  the  revolutionary  tribu- 
nal and  executed  ;  his  son,  Louis  Philippe,  af- 
terward became  king  of  France. 

Orloff,  Alexis,  Count,  1787-1861,  Russian 
general. 

Orsini,  Felice,  1819-58,  It.  conspirator; 
leader  in  the  attempted  assassination  of  Napo- 
leon III.  in  1858  ;  executed. 

Osman  I.,  1259-1326,  founder  of  Ottoman 
dynasty. 

Ossoli,  Margaret  Fuller,  Marchioness,  1810- 
50,  Am.  authoress. 

Otho  I.  (the  Great),  912-73,  emperor  of 
Germany,  Christianized  the  Danes,  deposed 
Pope  John  II. 

Otis,  James,  1725-83,  Am.  lawyer,  orator, 
and  patriot. 

Ovid  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso),  B.  C.  43-18 
A.  D.,  Rom.  poet. 

Owen,  Robert,  1771-1858,  Eng.  socialist. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  1731-1814,  Am.  law- 
yer and  statesman. 

Paine,  Thomas,  1737-1809,  Am.  political 
writer  and  freethinker  ;    born  in  England. 

Pakenham,  Sir  Edward  Michael,  1778- 
1815,  Br.  general ;    fell  at  New  Orleans. 

Paley,  William,  1743-1805,  Eng.  theolo- 
gian. 

Palissy,  Bernard,  1506-89,  Fr.  potter  and 
inventor  of  pottery  enamel ;  died  in  the  Bas- 
tille. 

Palmer ston  Henry  John  Temple,  Vis- 
count, 1784-1865,  Eng.    statesman. 


Paoli,  Pasquale  di,  1726-1807,  Corsican  gen- 
eral. 

Papineau,  Louis  Joseph,  1789-1871,  Cana- 
dian politician. 

Paracelsus,  Philippus  Aureolus  Theo- 
phrastus  Bombastus  (Von  Ilohenheim),  1493- 
1541,  Swiss  alchemist. 

Parepa-Rosa,  Euphrosyne,  1836-74,  Scot, 
vocalist. 

Parker,  Theodore,  1810-60,  Am.  rational- 
istic theologian. 

Parkman,  Francis,  1823-93,  Am.  historian. 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart,  1846-91,  Ir. 
statesman. 

Parton,  James,  1822-91,  Am.  historian. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  1623-62,  Fr.  philosopher 
and  mathematician. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  1822-1895,  Fr.  chemist  and 
pathologist. 

Patrick,  Saint,  372?-460?,  apostle  of  Ire- 
land. 

Paul,  Saint,  <  :  Tarsus  (Saul),  10?-66, 
apostle  and  foun.  of  the  Christian  church, 
making  Christianity  a  world-religion  in  place 
of  a  Jewish  religioa. 

Paul  Veronese  (Paolo  Cagliari),  1530?-88, 
It.  painter. 

Pausanias,  fl.  479  B.  C,  Spartan  general. 

Payne,  John  Howard,  1792-1852,  Am. 
dramatist  and  poet. 

Peabody,  Geo  „j,  1795-1869,  Am.  philan- 
thropist in  England  ;  acquired  great  wealth  as 
a  banker ;  expended  over  five  millions  in  be- 
nevolent enterprises. 

Peale,  Rembrandt,  1778-1860,  Am.  painter. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert  (Orange  Peel),  1788-1850, 
Eng.  statesman  ;  repealed  the  corn  laws. 

Penn,  William,  1644-1718,  Eng.  Quaker, 
statesman,  courtier,  author,  and  philanthropist ; 
founder  of  Pennsylvania. 

Pepin  (the  Short),  714?-68,  king-  of  France  ; 
son  of  Charles  Martel  and  father  of  Charle- 
magne. 

Pepys,  Samuel,  1632-1703,  Eng.  author  and 
scholar. 

Percival,  James  Gates,  1795-1856,  Am- 
poet. 

Pericles,  4957-429  B.  C,  Athenian  orator, 
statesman,  and  general  ;  became  the  leader  of 
the  democratic  party  and  the  first  man  in 
Athens  ;  erected  many  noble  public  works,  in- 
cluding the  Parthenon  ;  his  age  is  called  "  the 
golden  age  of  Athens." 

Perrault,  Claude,  1613-88,  Fr.  architect. 

Perry,  Oliver  Hazard,  1785-1819,  Am. 
commodore  ;  defeated  the  British  on  Lake 
Erie. 

Pkrsius  Flaccus,  Aulus,  34-62,  Rom.  sat- 
irist. 


HISTORY  AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


261 


Pestalozzi,  Johann  Heinrich,  1745-1827, 
Swiss  educationist. 

Peter,  Saint,  .  .  .  .-66,  apostle. 

Peter  I.  (the  Great),  1672-1725,  czar  of 
Russia  and  founder  of  the  Russian  monarch}7 ; 
organized  an  army  and  entered  it  as  a  private  : 
studied  practical  seamanship,  and  formed  a 
navy  ;  traveled  incognito  in  Western  Europe  ; 
worked  as  a  ship  carpenter  in  Holland ; 
founded  schools  and  effected  a  number  of  re- 
forms ;  defeated  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  at 
Pultowa,  1709  ;  founded  St.  Petersburg  ;  his 
second  wife,  Catherine,  was  a  prisoner  of  war, 
of  obscure  parentage  ;  the  crown  prince, 
Alexis,  opposing  the  czar's  policy,  was  forced 
to  renounce  the  succession,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  poisoned  by  his  father. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  1050?-1115,  preacher 
of  the  first  Crusade. 

Petrarch  (Francesco  Petrarca),  1304-74, 
It.  poet  and  scholar  ;  enamored  of  Laura  de 
Sade,  whose  name  he  made  immortal. 

Phidias,  490-432  B.  C,  the  greatest  of 
Greek  sculptors,  and  architect  of  the  Parthe- 
non ;  he  was  never  excelled  in  expressing  the 
ideal  majesty  of  the  human  form,  and  his 
Zeus,  at  Olympia,  is  counted  among  the  won- 
ders of  the  world. 

Philip  II.,  382-336  B.  C,  king  of  Macedo- 
nia ;  father  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Philip  II.  (Augustus),  1165-1223,  king  of 
France  ;  annexed  Normandy,  Anjou  and  Lor- 
raine ;    won  the  battle  of  Bouvines. 

Philip  IV.  (the  Fair),  1208-1314,  reduced 
the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles  ;  imprisoned 
Pope  Boniface  III.  and  caused  him  to  remove 
his  seat  to  Avignon  ;  suppressed  the  order  of 
Knights  Templars  ;  VI.  (of  Valois),  1293-1350. 

Philip  II.,  1527-98,  king  of  Spain  ;  son  of 
Charles  V.;  provoked  insurrection  in  the 
Netherlands  by  his  attempt  to  introduce  the 
Spanish  Inquisition  ;  married,  on  the  death  of 
Mary  Tudor,  his  second  wife,  Isabella  of 
France,  the  betrothed  of  his  son,  Don  Carlos  : 
equipped  the  "Invincible  Armada"  for  the 
conquest  of  England. 

Phillips.  AVendell,  1811-84,  Am.  orator 
and  abolitionist. 

Phips  (or  Phipps),  Sir  William,  1651-95, 
colonial  governor  of  Massachusetts. 

Pnociox,  402?-317  B.  C,  Athenian  general 
and  statesman. 

Pic'colomixi,  Ottavio,  1599-1656,  Austrian 
general :  conspirator  against  Wallenstein  ; 
gained  great  distinction  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War  :   led  Spanish  army  in  Flanders. 

Pickering,  Timothy,  1745-1829,  Am.  states- 
man. 

Pierce.  Franklin,  1804-69,  fourteenth  pres- 
ident of    the   United    States ;    born   in    New 


Hampshire  ;  Congress,  1832-7  :  senator,  1837- 
42;  brigadier-general  in  Mexican  war  ;  elected 
president  on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  1852, 
holding  that  office  from  1853-7  ;  opposed  coer- 
cion of  the  South  in  1863. 

Pierrepont,  Edward,  1800-92,  Am.  lawyer. 

PlLATE,  Pontius,  .  .  .  .-38,  Roman  governor 
of  Palestine. 

Pinckxey,  Charles  Cotesworth,  1746-1825, 
Am.  statesman  and  soldier;  leader  of  the 
Federalists. 

Pindar,  520? -440?  B.  C,  greatest  of 
Greek  lyric  poets. 

Pinkney,  William,  1764-1822,  Am.  lawyer 
and  orator. 

Pitt,  William,  1759-1806,  Eng.  statesman 
and  orator  ;  son  of  the  earl  of  Chatham  ;  head 
of  the  great  coalition  against  Bonaparte. 

Pius  IX.  (Giovanni  Maria  Mast ai-Ferretti), 
born,  1792  ;  chosen  to  the  pontificate,  1846  ; 
died,  1878  ;  during  his  incumbency  the 
dogmas  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  and  of 
Papal  Infallibility  were  promulgated,  temporal 
power  overthrown,  1870,  and  the  Papal  States 
annexed  to  Italy. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  1496-1541,  Sp.  con- 
queror of  Peru. 

Plato,  428-347  B.  C,  Gr.  philosopher  ; 
disciple  of  Socrates ;  held  that  the  human  soul 
has  always  existed,  and  that  an  idea  is  an  eter- 
nal thought  of  the  divine  mind  ;  Emerson  says, 
"  Plato  is  philosophy,  and  philosophy  is 
Plato." 

Pliny  (the  Elder),  23-79,  Rom.  naturalist  ; 
perished  at  an  eruption  of  A'esuvius. 

Pliny  (the  Younger),  62?-116,  Rom.  orator 
and  author. 

Plotinus,  205-70,  Gr.  Neo-Platonic  philos- 
opher. 

Plutarch,  50?-120?,  Gr.  biographer  and 
philosopher  ;   ' '  father  of  biography. ' ' 

Pocahontas,     1595?-1617,     daughter     of 

Powhatan  ;  saved  the  life  of  Capt.  John  Smith, 

an  Eng.  explorer;  was  con  verted  to  Christian- 

itv,  and  married  an  Englishman  l.amed  Rolfe. 

*Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  1809-49,  Am.  author. 

Polk,  James  Knox,  1795-1849,  Am.  states- 
man ;  eleventh  president ;  born  in  North  Car- 
olina ;  removed  to  Tennessee  ;  admitted  to  the 
bar  ;  Congress,  1825  ;  speaker  for  two  terms  ; 
governor  of  Tennessee,  1839-41;  elected  pres- 
ident on  the  Democratic  ticket,  holding  that 
office  from  1845-9. 

Polk,  Leonidas,  1806-64,  episcopal  bishop 
and  Confederate  general ;  prominent  at  Shiloh 
and  Stone  River. 

Pollok,  Robert,  1798?-1827,  Scot.  poet. 

Polo,  Marco,  1252?-1324?,  Venetian  trav- 
eler. 

Polybics,  206?-124  B.  C,  Gr.  historian. 


262 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Polycarp,  Saint,  80?-169?,  bishop  of 
Smyrna ;  martyr. 

Pompey  (the  Great),  106-48  B.  C,  Rom. 
general  and  triumvir ;  conquered  Suetonius 
and  JVlithridates  ;  became  leader  of  the  aristoc- 
racy and  opponent  of  Csesar ;  defeated  at 
Pharsalia. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Juan,  1460-1521,  Sp.  dis- 
coverer of  Florida. 

Pontiac,  1712?-69,  chief  of  the  Ottawas ; 
formed  coalition  of  Indians  against  the  whites, 
and  attempted  to  capture  Detroit. 

Pope,  Alexander,  1688-1744,  Eng.  poet. 

Powers,  Hiram,  1805-73,  greatest  of  Ameri- 
can sculptors. 

Powhatan,  1550-1618,  Tndian  chieftain  in 
Virginia. 

Praxiteles,  fl.  360  B.  C,  Gr.  sculptor,  who 
expressed  the  perfect  ideal  grace  of  the  female 
figure. 

Prentice,  George  Denison,  1802-70,  Am. 
poet  and  journalist. 

Prescott,  William  Hickling,  1796-1859, 
Am.  historian. 

Prim,  Juan,  Count  de  Reus  and  Marquis  de 
los  Castillejos,  1S14-70,  Sp.  general  and  states- 
man ;  assassinated. 

Prior,  Matthew,  1664-1721,  Eng.  poet  and 
diplomatist. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller  (Barry  Cornwall), 
1790-1874,  Eng.  poet. 

Ptolemy  I.  (Soter),  397?-283  B.  C,  king  of 
Egypt;  II.  (Philadelphus),  309-247  B.  C. 

Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptolemams),  fl.  second 
century,  Gr.  astronomer  and  geographer ;  be- 
lieved the  earth  to  be  at  rest  in  the  center 
of  the  universe,  the  heavenly  bodies  moving 
around  it. 

Pulaski,  Casimir,  Count,  1747-79,  Polish 
patriot;  general  in  the  American  Revolution- 
ary army  ;  fell  at  the  siege  of  Savannah. 

Putnam,  Israel,  1718-90,  Am.  Revolution- 
ary general  ;  conspicuous  at  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill. 

Pym,  John,  1584-1643,  Eng.  republican 
statesman  and  orator. 

Pyrrho,  376-288  B.  C,  Gr.  skeptic  and 
philosopher. 

Pyrrhus,  318?-272  B.  C,  king  of  Epirus 
and  one  of  the  greatest  of  ancient  generals ; 
defeated  the  Romans  and  conquered  Mace- 
donia. 

Pythagoras,  600?-510?  B.  C,  first  Gr. 
philosopher  ;  taught  the  doctrine  of  transmi- 
gration of  souls;  basis  of  his  philosophy, 
number  and  harmony ;  soul  distinct  from 
body. 

Rabelais,  Francois,  1495?-1553,  Fr.  scholar 
and  satirist ;  joined  the  Franciscans,  but  left  | 


the  order ;  afterward  studied  medicine ;  his 
great  work,  "  The  Pleasant  Story  of  the  Giant 
Gargantua,"  is  a  satire  upon  the  different 
branches  of  society  of  his  age,  more  particu- 
larly the  monastic  orders. 

Racine,  Jean,  1630-99,  Fr.  dramatist. 
Raleigh,     Sir   Walter,    1552-1618,     Eng. 
courtier,  statesman,   navigator,  and  author;  a 
favorite   of    Queen    Elizabeth ;     executed   by 
James  I. 

Rameau,  Jean  Philippe,  1683-1764,  Fr. 
composer. 

Randolph,  John  (of  Roanoke),  1773-1835, 
Am.  politician  and  orator. 

Randolph,  Peyton,  1723-75,  president  of 
first  Am.  Congress. 

Raphael  (Raffaelle  Sanzio,  or  Santi  d' 
Urbino),  1483-1520,  It.  painter  ;  "  the  prince 
of  painters." 

Read,  Thomas  Buchanan,  1822-72,  Am. 
poet  and  artist. 

Reade,  Charles,  1814-84,  Eng.  novelist. 
Recamier,  Jeanne,  F.  J.  A.  B.,  1777-1849, 
Fr.  lady  noted  for  her  beauty  and  accomplish- 
ments. 

Red  Jacket,  1760-1830,  Seneca  Tndian 
chief. 

Regulus,  Marcus  Atillius,  ....  -250  B.  C, 
Rom.  general  and  statesman. 

Rembrandt  van  Ryn,  Paul,  1607-69,  Dutch 
painter  ;  chief  of  the  Dutch  school ;  the  great- 
est master  of  colors,  and  unrivaled  as  an  etcher. 
Remusat,  Charles  Francois    Marie,  Count, 
1797-1875,  Fr.  statesman  and  philosopher. 

Ren  an,  Joseph  Ernest,  1823-92,  Fr.  philol- 
ogist and  writer. 

Revere,  Paul,  1735-1818,  Am.  engraver 
and  Revolutionary  patriot ;  carried  the  news 
of  Gage's  impending  attack  to  Concord. 

Reynolds,  John  Fulton,  1820-63,  Am.  gen- 
eral. 

Reynolds,  Sir  Joshua,  1723-92,  Eng.  por- 
trait painter. 

Ricardo,  David,  1772-1823,  Eng.  political 
economist. 

Richard  I.  (Coeur  de  Lion),  1157-99,  king 
of  England  ;  led  a  large  army  into  Palestine; 
conquered  Acre  and  defeated  Saladin  ;  II., 
1366-1400;  III.,  1452-85,  last  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  1689-1761,  Eng.  nov- 
elist. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessis,  Cardi- 
nal, 1585-1642,  Fr.  prelate  and  statesman  ; 
minister  to  Louis  VIII.,  but  real  ruler  of 
France  for  thirteen  years. 

Richter,  Johann  Paul  Friedrich  (Jean 
Paul),  1703-1825,  Ger.  author. 

Biin/.i,  Nicola  Gabrini,  1313?-54.  Rom. 
orator  ;  attempted  to  restore  the  republic. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY.  ' 


263 


RlTTEXHOUSE,  David.  1732-96,  Am.  astron- 
omer. 

RlZZIO,  David,  1510-G6,  It.  musician;  fa- 
vorite of  Mary  Stuart ;  assassinated. 

Robert  II.,  1310-90,  first  of  the  Stuarts. 

Robertson.  Frederick  William,  1816-53, 
Eng.  divine. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Joseph  Marie 
Isidore,  1758-94,  Fr.  Jacobin  revolutionist; 
ruler  during  the  Reign  of  Terror  ;  guillotined. 

Robin  Hood.  fl.  twelfth  century,  Eng.  outlaw. 

Rochambeau,  Jean  Baptiste  Douatien  de 
Vimeur  de,  Count,  1725-1807,  Fr.  marshal; 
general  in  America  in  1781. 

Rochefoucauld,  Francois  Due  de  la,  1613- 
80,  Fr.  wit  and  author. 

Rochejaquelin,  Henri  de  la,  Comte,  1772- 
91,  Fr.  royalist. 

Roebling,  John  Augustus,  1806-69,  Am. 
engineer. 

Roiii-iis.  John,  1500?-55,  Eng.  divine; 
burned  at  Smithfield. 

Roland,  Marie  Jeanne  Philipon,  Mme., 
1754-93,  Fr.  Girondist  and  writer;  guillotined. 

Rollix.  Charles,  1601-1741,  Fr.  historian. 

Rollo  (or  Hrolf),  860?-930?,  Norwegian 
viking  ;  first  duke  of  Normandy. 

Romanoff.  Miehael  Feodorovitch,  1598?- 
1645,  founder  of  the  Russian  dynasty. 

ROMULUS,  fl.  750  B.  C,  founder  of  Rome. 

Rosa,  Salvator,  1615-73,  It.  painter. 

Ross,  Sir  John,  1777-1856,  Br.  admiral  and 
Arctic  navigator. 

ROBS,  Sir  James  Clark,  1800-62,  nephew  of 
preceding  ;  Br.  Arctic  navigator. 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel,  1828-82,  Eng. 
painter  and  poet. 

Rossini,  Gioacchimo,  1792-1868,  It.  com- 
poser. 

Rothschild,  Mayer  Anselm,  1743-1812, 
Jewish  banker  at  Frankfort ;  founder  of  the 
house  of  Rothschild. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  1712-78,  Fr.  phi- 
losopher and  writer. 

RUBENS,  Peter  Paul,  1587-1640,  Flemish 
painter  ;  chief  of  the  Flemish  school. 

Rubinstein.  Anton  Gregor,  1829-94,  Rus. 
composer  and  pianist. 

Rudolph  I.  of  Hapsburg,  1218-91,  em- 
peror of  Germany ;  founder  of  the  Austrian 
empire;  II.,  1552-1612. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count, 
1753-1  SI 4.  Am.  natural  philosopher  in  France. 

Rupert,  Prince  (Prince  Robert  of  Bavaria), 
1619-82,  Ger.  warrior. 

Saint  Clair,  Arthur,  1734-1818,  Am.  gen- 
eral. 

Sainte-Beuve,  Charles  Augustin,  1804-69, 
Fr.  poet  and  critic. 


Saint-Pieure,  Jacques  Henri  Bernardin  de, 
1737-1814,  Fr.  author. 

Sala,  George  Augustus  Henri,  1828-95, 
Eng.  litterateur. 

Saladin,  1137-93,  sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria ;  opposed  the  Crusaders ;  defeated  the 
Christians  at  Tiberias. 

Sale,  George,  1680-1736,  Eng.  orientalist. 

Sallust  (Caius  Sallustius  Crispus),  86-34 
B.  C,  Rom.  historian. 

Salvini,  Tommaso,  1829?  -1896,  It.  tra- 
gedian. 

Santa  Anna  (or  Ana),  Antonio  Lopez  de, 
1798-1876,  Mexican  general  and  statesman. 

Sappho,  fl.  600  B.  C,  Gr.  lyric  poetess. 

Saul,  ....  -  1055  B.  C,  first  king  of  Is- 
rael. 

Savonarola,  Girolamo,  1452-1598,  It.  re- 
ligious reformer. 

Say,  Jean  Baptiste  Leon,  1816-1896,  Fr. 
statesman. 

Schelling,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  Joseph  von, 
1775-1854,  Ger.  philosopher. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  von, 
1759-1805,  the  most  popular  of  German  poets. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm  von,  1767- 
1845,  Ger.  poet,  critic,  and  philologist. 

Schlegel,  Karl  Wilhelm  Friedrich  von, 
brother  of  A.  W.,  1772-1829,  Ger.  philoso- 
pher and  scholar. 

Schliem ann, Heinrich, 1822-90,  Ger.  archae- 
ologist. 

Schoeffer,  Peter,  1430-1500,  one  of  the 
inventors  of  printing ;  partner  of  Johann 
Faust. 

Schopenhauer,  Arthur,  1788-1860,  Ger. 
pessimist  philosopher. 

Schubert,  Franz,  1797-1828,  Ger.  com- 
poser. 

Schumann,  Robert,  1810-56,  Ger.  composer. 

Schuyler,  Philip,  1733-1804,  Am.  general. 

Schwarz,  Berthold,  fl.  fourteenth  century, 
Ger.  monk  and  alchemist ;  reputed  inventor  of 
gunpowder. 

Schwatka,  Frederick,  1849-92,  Am. 
explorer. 

Scipio  Africancs  Major,  Publius  Corne- 
lius, 235-184?  B.  C,  Rom.  general;  invaded 
Africa  and  defeated  Hannibal. 

Scipio  JEmilianus  Africanus  Mlnor, 
Publius  Cornelius,  185?-29  B.  C,  Rom.  gen- 
eral ;  destroyed  Carthage. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  1771-1832,  Scot,  nov- 
elist and  poet. 

Scott,  Winfield,  1786-1866,  Am.  general. 

Sebastian,  Saint,  255?-88,  Rom.  soldier 
and  martyr. 

Selkirk,  Alexander,  1676?-1723,  Scot, 
sailor  whose  adventures  suggested  the  story  of 
"Robinson  Crusoe." 


204 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Semiramis,  fl.  1250  B.  C,  Assyrian  queen  ; 
built  Babylon  and  greatly  increased  her  do- 
minions ;  invaded  India,  but  was  defeated. 

Seneca,  Lucius  Annaeus,  5?-65,  Rom. 
statesman,  moralist,  and  Stoic  philosopher. 

Sennacherib,  fi.  700  B.  C,  Assyrian  king. 

Servetus,  Michael,  1509-53,  Sp.  theolo- 
gian. 

Sesostris  (Rameses),  £1.  1400  B.  C,  king 
of  Egypt. 

Sevigne,  Marie  de  Rabutin-Chantal,  Mar- 
quise de,  1627-96,  Fr.  lady  celebrated  for  her 
beauty  and  accomplishments. 

Seward,  William  Henry,  1801-72,  Am. 
statesman. 

Seymour,  Horatio,  1811-86,  Am.  states- 
man ;  Democratic  nominee  for  the  presidency 
in  1868. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
third  Earl  of,  1671-1713,  Eng.  philanthropist, 
author,  and  freethinker. 

Shakspere  (Shakspeare,  or  Shakespeare), 
William,  1564-1616,  reputed  author  of  the 
world's  greatest  dramas  ;  born  at  Stratford-on- 
Avon  ;  married  Anne  Hathaway,  1582  ;  went 
to  London  about  1586,  and  became  an  actor 
and  owner  of  a  playhouse  ;  acquired  a  compe- 
tence and  retired  to  his  native  town  about 
1610  ;  "  Venus  and  Adonis,"  and  "  The  Rape 
of  Lucrece,"  the  only  works  published  under 
his  own  hand,  appeared  in  1593-4;  the  first 
collective  edition  of  the  Shakespeare  plays 
appeared  in  1623. 

Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  1792-1822,  Eng- 
lish poet. 

Sheridan,  Philip  Henry,  1831-88,  Am. 
general ;  victorious  at  Winchester,  Ced^r 
Creek,  and  Five  Forks  ;  made  lieutenant-gen- 
eral, 1869,  and  promoted  to  the  chief  com- 
mand on  retirement  of  General  Sherman,  1883. 

Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  1751-1816 ; 
Ir.  orator  and  dramatist. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  1820-91, 
brother  of  J.  S.  ;  Am.  general ;  made  the  cel- 
ebrated "  March  to  the  Sea  "  ;  became  general 
of  the  army  in  1869,  retiring  in  1883. 

Siddons,  Sarah  (nee  Kemble),  1755-1831, 
Eng.  actress. 

Sidney,  Algernon,  1622-83  ;  Eng.  republi- 
can ;  executed  on  false  charge  of  complicity  in 
«  Rye  House  Plot." 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  1554-86,  Eng.  soldier 
and  poet. 

Sigourney,  Mrs.  Lydia  Howard  Huntley, 
1791-1865,  Am.  poetess. 

Silliman,  Benjamin,  1789-1864,  Am.  nat- 
uralist. 

Simon,  Jules,  1814-1896,  Fr.  statesman. 

Smith,  Adam,  1723-90,  Scot,  political  econ- 
omist. 


Smith,  John,  Captain,  1579-1031,  Eng. 
explorer  ;  founder  of  Virginia. 

Smith,  Joseph,  1805-44,  founder  of  the 
Mormon  church. 

Smith,  Sydney,  1771-1845,  English  divine 
and  essayist. 

Smollett,  Tobias  George,  1721-71,  Scot, 
novelist. 

Sobieski,  John,  1629-96,  king  of  Poland 
and  patriot ;  defeated  the  Turks  and  raised  the 
siege  of  Vienna. 

Socrates,  470?-399  B.  C,  Gr.  philosopher 
of  ethics  ;  teacher  of  Plato. 

Soliman  II.  (the  Magnificent),  1494-1566, 
sultan  of  Turkey  ;  conquered  Persia  and  part 
of  Hungary. 

Solomon  (the  Wise),  10337-975?  B.  C, 
king  of  Israel. 

Solon,  638-558?  B.  C,  Athenian  lawgiver 
and  poet. 

Sophocles,  495-405  B.  C,  Gr.  tragic  poet. 

Southey,  Robert,  1774-1843,  Eng.  poet- 
laureate. 

Sparks,  Jared,  1789-1866,    Am.   historian. 

Spartacus,  ....  -71  B.  C,  Thracian glad- 
iator in  Rome  ;  inaugurated  Servile  war. 

Speke,  John  Hanning,  1827-64,  Eng.  ex- 
plorer in  Africa. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  1553-99,  Eng.  poet. 

Spinoza,  Benedict,  1632-77,  Dutch-Jewish 
philosopher  and  pantheist. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  Iladdon,  1834-92,  Eng. 
pulpit-orator. 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Caspar,  1770-1832,  Ger. 
phrenologist. 

Stael-Holstein,  Anne  Louise  Germaine, 
Baronne  de  (Mine,  de  Stael),  1706-1817,  Fr. 
authoress. 

Standish,  Miles,  1584-1656,  captain  of 
Plymouth  colony. 

Stanford,  Leland,  1824-93,  Am.  lawyer 
and  philanthropist. 

Stark,  John,  1728-1822,  Am.  Revolution- 
ary general. 

Stein,  Heinrich  Friedrich  Karl  von,  Baron, 
1757-1831,  Prussian  statesman. 

Stephen,  Saint,  stoned  36?,  first  Christian 
martyr. 

Stephens,  Alexander  Hamilton,  1812-83, 
Am.  statesman  and  writer;  the  "Nestor  of 
the  Confederacy  "  ;  born  in  Georgia ;  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1835 ;  Congress,  1843 ;  opposed 
the  secession  of  his  State  ;  vice-president  of 
the  Confederate  States  ;  elected  to  the  U.  S. 
Senate  from  Georgia,  but  not  permitted  to 
take  his  seat ;  member  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives, however,  from  1874  until  his 
death. 

Stephenson,  George,  1781-1848,  Eng.  en- 
gineer ;  inventor  of  the  locomotive  engine. 


HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


265 


Stefiiexsox,  Robert,  1803-59,  son  of  G.  S., 
Eng.  engineer;  inventor  of  tubular  bridge. 

Sterne,  Laurence,  Rev.,  1713-68,  Ir.  hu- 
morous writer. 

Steuben,  Frederick  William  Augustus  von, 
Baron,  1730-94,  Ger.-Am.  general  in  the  Rev- 
olutionary war. 

Stevens,  Thaddeus,  1793-1868,  Am.  aboli- 
tionist. 

Story,  Joseph,  1779-1845,  Am.  jurist. 

Stowe,  Mrs.  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beecher, 
1812-96,  Am.  authoress. 

Strabo,  54  B.  C.-24  A.  D.,  Gr.  geographer. 

Stradella,  Alessandro,  1645-78,  It.  com- 
poser. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentworth,  Earl  of, 
1593-1641,  Eng.  statesman;  beheaded. 

Strauss,  Johann,  1804-49,  Ger.  composer. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  C,  1756-1828,  Am.  por- 
trait painter. 

Stuyvesant,  Peter,  1602-82,  last  Dutch 
governor  of  New  Netherland  (New  York). 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene,  1804-57,  Fr. 
novelist. 

Sulla  (or  Sylla),  Lucius  Cornelius,  138-78 
B.  C,  Rom.  statesman  and  general. 

Sumner,  Charles,  1811-74,  Am.  statesman. 

Swedexborg,  Emanuel,  1688-1772,  Sw. 
theosophist ;  in  histheosophy  the  central  point 
is  the  correspondence  of  the  natural  and  the 
supernatural. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  1667-1745,  Ir.  divine  and 
satirist. 

Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius,  55?-118?,  Rom. 
historian  :  to  him  we  owe  nearly  all  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  early  Britons  and  the  Germans. 

Taixe,  Hippolyte  Adolphe,  1828-93,  Fr. 
author. 

Talbot,  William  Henry  Fox,  1800-77,  Eng. 
author  and  discoverer  of  photography. 

Talfourd,  Sir  Thomas  Noon,  1795-1854, 
Eng.  author. 

Talleyrand-Perigord,  Charles  Maurice 
de,  Prince  of  Benevento,  1754-1838,  Fr.  di- 
plomatist. 

Tamerlane  (or  Timour),  1336-1405,  Asiatic 
conqueror. 

Taxcred,  1078-1112,  Norman  leader  in  the 
first  Crusade. 

Taney,  Roger  Brooke,  1777-1864,  Am.  jurist. 

Tasman,  Abel  Janssen,  1600?-45,  Dutch 
navigator. 

Tasso,  Torqnato,  1544-95,  It.  poet. 

Tauchnitz,  Christian  Bernhard,  Baron, 
1816-95,  Ger.  publisher. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  1825-78,  Am.  traveler, 
novelist,  poet,  and  journalist. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  1613-67,  Eng.  bishop  and 
author. 


Taylor,  Zachary,  1784-1850,  Am.  general 
and  statesman ;  twelfth  president ;  born  in 
Virginia ;  entered  the  army  in  1808  ;  served 
in  Seminole  and  Black  Hawk  wars ;  major- 
general  in  Mexican  war,  and  won  the  battles  of 
Resaca  de  la  Palma  and  Buena  Yista  ;  elected 
president  by  the  Whigs  in  1848. 

Tecumseh,  1770-1813,  chief  of  the  Shawnee 
Indians  ;  defeated  by  Harrison  at  Tippecanoe  ; 
killed  in  the  battle  of  the  Thames. 

Tell,  Wilhelm,  fl.  1305,  legendary  Swiss 
hero. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  Baron,  1809-92,  Eng. 
poet-laureate. 

Terence  (P.  Tereutius  Afer),  195?-160? 
B.  C,  Rom.  comic  poet. 

Tertullian,  1 50  ?-230?,  Latin  father  of  the 
Church. 

Tetzel,  Johann,  14607-1519,  Ger.  monk  ; 
vender  of  indulgences. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  1811-63, 
Eng.  novelist. 

Thales,  635?-546  B.  C,  Gr.  sage  and 
philosopher. 

Themistocles,  514?-449?  B.  C,  Athenian 
general  and  statesman. 

Theocritus,  fl.  275?,  Gr.  pastoral  poet. 

Theodora,  .  .  .  .-548,  empress  of  the  East ; 
wife  of  Justinian. 

Theodoric  (the  Great),  455-526,  king  of 
the  Ostrogoths. 

Theodosius,  Flavius  (the  Great), 346 ?-395, 
Rom.  emperor. 

Theophrastus,  372?-287?  B.  C,  Gr.  phi- 
losopher and  moralist. 

Thierry,  Jacques  N.  Augustin,  1795-1836, 
Fr.  historian. 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe,  1797-1877,  Fr. 
statesman  and  historian. 

Thomas,  George  H.,  1816-70,  Am.  Federal 
general ;  won  the  battles  of  Chickamauga  and 
Nashville. 

Thoreau,  Henry  D.,  1817-62,  Am.  author. 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert  D.,  1770-1844,  Dan- 
ish sculptor. 

Thucydides,  470-400  B.  C,  greatest  of 
Greek  historians. 

Tiberius,  42  B.  C.-37  A.  D.,  Rom.  emperor. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones,  1814-86,  Am. 
statesman ;  governor  of  New  Yrork ;  Demo- 
cratic candidate  for  presidency,  1876. 

Tilly,  Johann  Tzerklas  von,  Count,  1559- 
1632,  Ger.  general  in  Thirty  Y'ears'  war  ;  fell 
at  the  battle  of  the  Lech. 

Tixtoretto,  11  (Giacomo  Robusti),  1512- 
94,  It.  painter. 

Titian  (Tiziano  Vecellio),  1477-1576,  the 
greatest  of  Venetian  painters. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel 
de,  1805-59,  Fr.  statesman  and  author. 


266 


THE    CENTURY    BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Todleben,  Franz  Edu aid,  1S1S-84,  Russian 
general. 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe,  1763-98,  Ir.  patriot ; 
founder  of  the  United  Irishmen. 

Torquemada,  Tomas  de,  1420-98,  Sp.  Do- 
minican monk  ;  inquisitor-general. 

Torricelli,  Evangelista,  1608-47,  It. 
physicist. 

Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  Francois  Domi- 
nique, 1743-1803,  negro  leader  of  the  Haytian 
rebellion. 

Trajan,  52-117,  Rom.  emperor. 

Trollope,  Anthony,  1815-83,  Eng.  nov- 
elist. 

Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar,  1810-89,  Eng. 
poet  and  author. 

Turenne,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d'Auvergne, 
Vicomte  de,  1611-75,  Fr.  general. 

Turgenef,  Ivan  Sergyevich,  1818-83,  Rus- 
sian novelist. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallord  William,  1775- 
1851,  Eng.  landscape  painter. 

Tyler,  John,  1790-1862,  tenth  president 
of  the  United  States ;  born  in  Va.  ;  practiced 
law  ;  Congress,  1816-21  ;  governor  of  Virginia, 
1825  ;  senator,  1827  ;  sympathized  with  the 
milliners  and  opposed  Jackson ;  resigned, 
1836  ;  elected  vice-president  on  Whig  ticket, 
1840;  succeeded  Harrison  in  1841. 

Tyndall,  John,  1820-93,  Ir.  scientist. 

Uhland,  Johann  Ludwig,  1787-1862,  Ger. 
lyric  poet. 

Ulloa,  Antonio  de,  1716-95,  Sp.  mathema- 
tician and  naval  officer  ;  governor  of  Louisiana. 

Ulphilas  (or  Ulfilas),  313-83,  Jhe  apostle 
of  the  Goths ;  translated  the  Scriptures  into 
Gothic. 

Unger,  Johann  Friedrich,  1750-1813,  Ger. 
printer  and  engraver. 

Urquhart,  David,  1805-77,  Scot,  writer 
and  politician. 

Ussher,  James,  1580-1656,.  Ir.  prelate  and 
scholar. 

Valens,  Flavius,  328V-78,  emperor  of  the 
East. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  1782-1862,  eighth 
president  of  the  United  States  ;  enrolled  at  the 
bar  in  New  York  in  1803,  and  elected  to  the 
State  Senate;  state  attorney- general,  1815; 
leader  of  the  "  Albany  Regency  "  ;  U.  S.  sen- 
ator, 1821  ;  governor,  1828  ;  secretary  of  state, 
1829-31;  vice-president,  1833-7;  president, 
1837-41. 

Vancouver,  George,  1758?-98,  Eng.  navi- 
gator. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius,  1794-1877,  Am. 
capitalist. 

Vandyke    (or  Van    Dyck),    Sir    Anthony, 


1599-1641,  Flemish  painter;  resided  in  Eng- 
land for  several  years  before  his  death,  where 
he  became  the  most  popular  artist  of  his  time. 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  1612-62,  Eng.  republican 
statesman. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen  (the  Patroon), 
1764-1839,  Am.  statesman  and  landholder. 

Varus,  Publius  Quintilius,  fl.  7,  Rom.  gen- 
eral ;  defeated  by  Arminius. 

Velasquez,  Don  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva 
y,  1599-1660,  Sp.  painter. 

Velde,  Willem  van  der  (the  Elder),  1610- 
93,  Dutch  marine  painter. 

Velde,  Willem  van  der  (the  Younger), 
1633-1707,  Dutch  marine  painter. 

Verboeckhoven, Eugene  Joseph, 1799-1 881, 
Belgian  painter. 

Verdi,  Giuseppe,  1814-98,  It.  composer. 

Vernet,  Antoine  Charles  Horace,  1758- 
1836,  Fr.  painter. 

Vespasianus,  Titus  Flavius,  9-79,  Rom. 
emperor. 

Vespucci,  Amerigo  (Americus  Vespucius), 
1451-1512,  It.  navigator  and  astronomer. 

Victor  Emmanuel  I.,  1759-1824,  king  of 
Sardinia;  II.,  1820-78,  first  king  of  Italy; 
restored  Italian  unity. 

Vincent  de  Paul,  Saint,  1576-1660,  Fr. 
priest  and  reformer. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  1452-1519,  Florentine 
painter. 

Virgil  (or  Vergil)  (Publius  VirgiliusMaro), 
70-19  B.  C,  Latin  poet. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  1745-1827,  It.  inventor 
of  voltaic  pile. 

Voltaire,  Frangois  Marie  Arouetde,  1694- 
1778,  Fr.  author,  poet,  wit,  dramatist,  histo- 
rian, philosopher,  and  skeptic,  and  the  great- 
est critic  of  modern  times  ;  the  son  of  a  notary  ; 
imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  in  1716  on  an  un- 
founded suspicion  of  being  the  author  of  a 
libel  on  the  regent,  and  there  produced 
"  G^dipe,"  and  wrote  part  of  the  »  Ilen- 
riade " ;  in  England,  1726-9,  passing  much 
time  in  the  society  of  Bolingbroke  ;  passed  the 
years  1750-3  with  Frederick  the  Great. 

Wagner,  Richard,  1813-83,  Ger.  composer, 
poet,  and  critic. 

Waite,  Morrison  Remich,  1816-88,  Am. 
chief  justice. 

Wallace,  Sir  William,  1270?-1305,  Scot, 
general  and  patriot ;  defeated  by  Edward  I.  of 
England  ;  betrayed  and  executed. 

Wallenstein,  Albrecht  Wenzel  Eusebius 
von,  Count,  1583-1631,  Austrian  general ;  hero 
of  one  of  Schiller's  dramas  ;  entered  the  im- 
perial army  at  the  beginning  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  war ;  raised  an  army  at  his  own  ex- 
pense in  1625,  invading  Denmark;    banished 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


267 


from  court  byiEmperor  Ferdinand,  but  recalled 
on  the  death  of  Marshal  Tilly  ;  defeated  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  at  Lutzen  in  1632,  but 
gained  several  victories  in  Silesia ;  again  lost 
the  emperor's  favor,  being  charged  with  aspi- 
rations to  the  throne  of  Bohemia,  was  deprived 
of  his  command  and  assassinated. 

Walpole,  Horace,  Earl  of  Oxford,  1717-97, 
Eng.  author  and  wit. 

Waltiier  von  der  Vogelweide,  1170?- 
1230?,  greatest  of  Ger.  minnesingers. 

Walton,  Izaak,  1593-1683,  Eng.  writer; 
"  The  Complete  Angler." 

Warren,  Joseph,  1741-75,  Am.  physician  ; 
Revolutionary   general 
Bunker  Hill. 

Warren,  Samuel,  1807-77,  Eng.  author. 

Warwick,  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of  (the 
king  maker),  1420 ?-71,  Eng.  warrior;  setup 
and  deposed  Edward  IV. 

Washington,  George,  1732-99,  commander- 
in-chief  in  the  American  Revolution,  and  first 
president  of  the  United  States;  "the  father 
of  his  country;"  born  in  Virginia;  aide-de- 
camp to  Braddock  in  the  Indian  campaign  of 
175d  ;  married  Martha  Custis,  1759  ;  chosen 
to  Congress,  1774  ;  appointed  commander-in- 
chief,  1775;  president,  1789-97. 

Watt,  James,  1736-1819,  Scot,  engineer 
and  inventor  ;  improved  and  completed  the 
steam  engine  ;  also  credited  with  the  discovery 
of  the  composition  of  water. 

Watteau,  Jean  Antoine,  1684-1721,  Ft. 
painter. 

Watts,  Isaac,  1674-1748,  Eng.  Dissenting 
minister  and  sacred  poet. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  1745-96,  Am.  Revolu- 
tionary general. 

Weber,  Karl  Maria  Friedrich  Ernst  von, 
Baron,  1786-1826,  Ger.  composer. 

Webster,  Daniel,  1782-1852,  Am.  lawyer, 
orator,  and  statesman;  "the  expounder  of 
the  Constitution  ;  "  born  in  New  Hampshire  ; 
Congress,  1812-16,  1822-8;  Senate,  1828-41  ; 
secretary  of  state;  re-entered  Senate  in  1841: 
again  became  secretary  of  state  in  1850  ;  nomi- 
nated for  the  presidency  in  1834,  but  defeated  ; 
candidate  for  the  Whig  nomination  in  1818, 
but  defeated  by  Taylor,  whom  he  supported  ; 
Webster's  reply  to  fiayne,  of  South  Carolina, 
is  considered  the  greatest  speech  ever  made  in 
Congress. 

Webster,  Noah,  1758-1843,  Am.  lexicog- 
rapher. 

Wedgwood,  Josiah,  1730-95,  Eng.  potter. 

Weed,  Thurlow,  1797-1883,  Am.  journalist. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  first  Duke 


ment,  1805  ;  secretary  for  Ireland,  1807  ;  de- 
feated the  Danes  at  Kioge,  and  was  given 
command  of  an  army  sent  to  Spain  against  the 
French,  1808;  triumphantly  entered  Madrid, 
1812;  defeated  Jourdan  and  Soult,  1813;  in- 
vaded France  and  gained  numerous  victories  ; 
defeated  Napoleon  at  Waterloo,  1815;  was 
afterward  prime  minister  and  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs. 

Wenceslaus  (or  Wenzel),  1361-1419,  em- 
peror of  Germany  and  king  of  Bohemia. 

Wesley,  Charles,  1708-88,  Eng.  Methodist 
divine  and  hymn-writer. 

Wesley,  John,  1703-91,  brother  of  C.  W.  ; 
and   patriot;    fell    at  j  Eng.  founder  of  Methodism,  "the  religion  of 
feeling." 

West.  Benjamin,  1738-1820,  Am.  painter 
in  England. 

Wharton,  Francis,  1820-89,  Am.  jurist 
and  theologian. 

Whately,  Richard,  1787-1S63,  Ir.  prelate 
and  author. 

Wheeler,  William  Almon,  1819-87,  Am. 
statesman  ;  vice-president. 

White,    Henry    Kirke,     1785-1806, 
religious  poet. 

White,     Richard     Grant,     1822-85, 
author. 

Whitefield,      George,       1714-70, 
preacher,  founder  of  Calvinistic  Methodists. 

Whitman,  Walt,  1819-92,  Am.  poet. 

Whitney,  Eli,  1765-1825,  Am.  inventor  of 
the  cotton-gin. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  1807-92,  Am. 
poet ;   member  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 

Wilberforce,  William,  1759-1833,  Eng. 
philanthropist  and  statesman  ;  secured  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 

William  I.  (the  Conqueror),  1027-87,  king 
of  England ;  duke  of  Normandy ;  conquered 
England. 

William  III.  (William  Henry  of  Nassau, 
prince  of  Orange),  1650-1702,  won  battle  of 
the  Boyne. 

William  I.,  1772-1843,  king  of  the  Neth- 
erlands. 

William  I.,  1797-1888,  king  of  Prussia 
and  emperor  of  Germany. 

Williams,  Roger,  1599-1683,  Eng.  Puritan 
minister ;  founder  of  Rhode  Island  colony ; 
born  in  Wales. 

Willis,  Nathaniel  Parker,  1806-67,  Am. 
journalist  and  poet. 

Wilmot,  David,  18.14-68,  Am.  statesman. 
(Wilmot  Proviso.) 

Wilson,  Henry  (original  name  Jeremiah 
Jones    Colbath),     1812-75,     Am.     politician; 


Eng. 


Am. 


Eng. 


of,  1769-1852,  greatest  of  Br.  generals ;  gained   eighteenth  vice-president 


great  distinction  in   India,  in  the  war  against 
the  Mahrattas  ;    major-general,   1802  ;  Parlia- 


Wiseman,  Nicholas,   1802-65,    Eng.   cardi- 


nal. 


268 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Wittekind,  .  .  .  .-807,  Saxon  warrior ;  con- 
quered by  Charlemagne. 

Wolfe,  James,  1726-59,  Eng.  general ;  fell 
at  Quebec. 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  1471-1530,  Eng.  cardi- 
nal and  statesman  ;  prime  minister  of  Henry 
VIII.  ;  deposed  1529. 

Wood,  Mrs.  Henry,  1820-87,  Eng.  novelist. 

Woodworth,  Samuel,  1785-1842,  Am. 
poet. 

Worcester,  Edward  Somerset,  Marquis  of, 
1601  ?-67,  Eng.  nobleman  ;  one  of  the  invent- 
ors of  the  steam  engine. 

Worcester,  Joseph  Emerson,  1734-1866, 
Am.  lexicographer. 

Wordsworth,  William,  1770-1850,  Eng. 
poet. 

Wrangell,  Ferdinand  Petrovitch  von, 
Baron,  1795?-1870,  Russian  explorer. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  1632-1723,  Eng  ar- 
chitect. (St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London.) 

Wycliffe  (or  Wickliffe)  John  de,  1324?- 
84,  Eng.  reformer. 

Xantippe,  the  wife  of  Socrates,  notorious 
for  bad  temper,  but  credited  by  her  husband 
with  many  domestic  virtues. 

Xavier,  Francis,  Saint,  1506-52,  Sp.  Jes- 
uit missionary  to  India  and  Japan. 

Xenopiion,  445?-355?  B.  C,  Athenian  his- 
torian and  general. 

Xeres,  Francisco  de,  1504V-70,  Sp.  histo- 
rian with  Pizarro. 

Xerxes  (the  Great),  .  .  .  .-465  B.  C,  king 
of  Persia ;  invaded  Greece,  but  defeated  at 
Salamis. 

Ximenes  de  Cisneros,  Francisco  (Cardinal 
Ximenes),  1436-1517,  Sp.  prelate  and  states- 
man ;  published  Polyglot  Bible. 

Yale,  Elihu,  1648-1721,  patron  of  Yale 
College. 

York,  Edmund  Plantagenet,  first  Duke  of, 
1341-1402,  founder  of  the  house  of  York. 

ZALEucus,fl.  seventh  century  B.  C.,Gr.  leg- 
islator and  reformer ;  first  to  make  a  written 
code  of  laws. 

Zamojski,  John  Sarius,  1541-1605,  Polish 
general,  statesman,  and  scholar. 

Zechariah,  fl.  sixth  century  B.  C,  Hebrew 
prophet. 

Zeno  (or  Zenon),  355?-307?  B.  C,  Gr. 
philosopher  ;  founder  of  Stoic  school. 

Zenobia,  Septima,  .  .  .  .-275,  queen  of 
Palmyra. 

Zephaniah,  Hebrew  prophet ;  flourished  in 
the  reign  of  Josiah. 

Zimmkrmann,  Johann  Georg  von,  1728-95, 
Swiss  physician  and  philosopher. 


Zinzendorf,  Nikolaus  Ludwig  von,  Count, 
1700-60,  Ger.  theologian. 

Ziska,  John,  of  Trocznow,  1360-1424,  Bo- 
hemian general  and  leader  of  the  Hussites. 

Zoega,  Georg,  1755-1809,  Danish  archaeol- 
ogist. 

Zoroaster,  fl.  500  B.  C,  Persian  philoso- 
pher and  founder  of  the  Magian  religion. 

Zschokke,  Johann  Heinrich  Daniel,  1771- 
1848,  Ger.  author. 

Zwingli,  Ulrich,  1484-1531,  Swiss  re- 
former ;  killed  in  battle. 

DERIVATIONS    AND    FICTITIOUS 

NAMES   OF    STATES  AND 

TERRITORIES. 

Alabama  (Ala.). —  The  name  is  of  Indian 
origin,  signifying  "Here  we  rest." 

Arizona  (Ariz.). —  An  Indian  word,  mean- 
ing "  sand  hills." 

Arkansas  (Ark.). — French  and  Indian 
words,  signifying  "  Bow  of  Smoky  Waters." 
The  fictitious  name  of  the  state  is  "  Bear 
State,"  from  the  number  of  these  animals 
formerly  found  there. 

California  (Cal.). — From  Spanish  words, 
meaning  "  hot  furnace.' V,  The  fictitious  name  ^ 
is  «  The  Golden  State."  ^-^  <*  6r**\\sh  \ 

Colorado  (Colo.). — Spanish  word,  mean- 
ing "  colored." 

Connecticut  (Conn.) — An  Indian  name, 
signifying  "  The  long  river."  The  nicknames 
are,  "Freestone  State,"  "Nutmeg  State," 
and  "  Land  of  Steady  Habits." 

Dakota  (Dak.) — Indian  word,  meaning 
"  allied." 

Delaware  (Del.). —  Named  in  honor  of 
Lord  De  La  War.  It  is  called  "  The  Diamond 
State,"  from  its  small  size  and  its  intrinsic 
worth;  also  "Blue  Hen  State." 

Florida  (Fla.).  From  the  Spanish,  mean- 
ing'' flowery  "  ;  so  called  from  the  abundance  of 
flowers,  and  the  day  (Easter  Sunday)  upon 
which  it  was  discovered.  From  its  shape  it  is 
sometimes  called  "  The  Peninsular  State." 

Georgia  (Ga.). —  Named  in  honor  of  King 
George  II.  of  England.  The  nickname  is  the 
"Empire  State  of  the  South." 

Illinois  (111.). — An  Indian  word,  signify- 
ing "  Tribe  of  men."  The  sobriquet  is  "  Prai- 
rie State  "  ;  also,  "  Sucker  State." 

Indiana  (Ind.). —  So  called  from  the  In- 
dians. The  original  meaning  of  the  word  In- 
dia is  "  river."  The  nickname  is  "  The  Hoo- 
sier  State." 

Iowa  (la.). — An  Indian  word,  meaning 
"  The  Sleepy  Ones."  The  fictitious  name  is 
"  The  Hawkeye  State." 


onv 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


269 


Kansas  (Kan.). —  Indian  word,  signifying 
"  Smoky  Water."  The  sobriquet  is  "  Gar- 
den of  the  West." 

Kentucky  (Ky.). —  Indian  name  signifying 
"  The  Dark  and  Bloody  Ground.  "  The  nick- 
name is  "  The  Corn-Cracker  State." 

Louisiana  (La.) — Namedin  honor  of  King 
Louis  XIV.  of  France.     »  The  Creole  State." 

Maine  (Me.). —  So  called  from  Maine  in 
France.     "  The  Pine  Tree  State." 

Maryland  (Md.). —  Named  in  honor  of 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria  of  England. 

Mass  ach  us  kits  (Mass.). — An  Indian  name, 
signifying  "  Blue  Hills."  The  fanciful  name 
is  "The  Bay  State." 

Michigan  (Mich.). —  Indian  word,  mean- 
ing "The  Lake  Country."  It  is  nicknamed 
"The  Lake  State";  also  "The  Wolverine 
State." 

Minnesota  (Minn.). —  From  Indian  words 
meaning  "  Cloudy  Water."  It  is  called  "  The 
Gopher  State." 

Mississippi  (Miss.). —  Indian  word  for 
"  Father  of  Waters."  It  is  nicknamed  "  The 
Bayou  State." 

MISSOURI  (Mo.). —  Indian  word,  meaning 
"Muddy  Water." 

Montana  (Mont.) — From  the  Spanish, 
meaning  "Mountain  Land." 

Nebraska  (Neb.). — An  Indian  word,  mean- 
ing "  Shallow  River." 

Nevada  (Xev.) — Spanish  word,  signify- 
ing "Snow-clad."  The  fictitious  name  is 
"  The  Sage  Hen  State." 

New  Hampshire  (X.  H.). —  Named  from, 
Hampshire  county,  Eng.  The  sobriquet  is  i 
"The  Granite  State." 

New  Jersey  (N.  J.). —  Named  for  the  Isle 
of  Jersey.  The  sobriquet  is  "  The  Jersey 
Blue." 

New  Mexico  (X.  Iff.)  —  Spanish.     Named  j 
from  the  country  of  Mexico,  meaning  "The 
Place  of  Aztec,  God  of  War." 

New  York  (X.  Y.). —  Named  in  honor  of 
the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany.  It  is  called 
"The  Excelsior  State"  and  "The  Empire 
State." 

North  Carolina  (N.  C.) — Named,  with 
South  Carolina,  in  honor  of  Charles  II.  of 
England.  "  The  Old  North  State,"  "  The  Tar 
State,"  and  "  The  Turpentine  State." 

Ohio. — An  Indian  word,  signifying  "  Beau- 
tiful."    Called  "  The  Buckeye  State." 

Oklahoma  (Okl.). —  Signifies  in  Cherokee 
"  Home  of  the  Red  Man." 

Oregon  (Ore.). —  Signifies  "River  of  the 
West." 

Pennsylvania  (Pa.). — "Penn's  Woodland" 
is  t lie  signification.  The  sobriquet  is  "The 
Keystone  State." 


Rhode  Island  (R.  I.). —  Named  from  the 
Isle  of  Rhodes,  in  the  Mediterranean.  Rhodes 
signifies  a  "rose."  It  is  nicknamed  "  Little 
Rhody." 

South  Carolina  (S.  C). — Named  in  the 
same  manner  as  North  Carolina,  which  see. 
The  sobriquet  is  "  The  Palmetto  State." 

Tennessee  (Tenn.) — Derived  from  Indian 
words  signifying  "  River  of  the  Big  Bend." 
It  is  nicknamed  "  The  Big  Bend  State." 

Texas  (Tex.). — Spanish  ;  said  to  signify 
"Friends."  It  is  nicknamed  "The  Lone 
Star  State." 

Utah. —  Named  from  the  Utes,  or  Utah 
Indians. 

Vermont  (Vt.)  —  From  the  French,  signi- 
fying "Green  Mountain."  It  is  called  the 
"  Green  Mountain  State." 

Virginia  (Va.). —  Named  for  Elizabeth, 
Queen  of  England  —  the  "Virgin  Queen." 
It  is  nicknamed  "  The  Mother  of  States,"  also 
"The  Old  Dominion." 

Washington  (W.). —  Named  for  President 
Washington. 

West  Virginia  (W.  Va.). —  It  is  nick- 
named the  "  Panhandle  State." 

Wisconsin  (Wis.). —  Named  from  its  prin- 
cipal river,  and  that  from  the  French,  mean- 
ing ' '  flowing  westward. ' '  The  fictitious  name 
is  "  The  Badger  State." 

Wyoming  (Wyo.). —  An  Indian  term,  mean- 
ing "  large  plains." 

THE  SPANISH  AMERICAN    WAR. 

War  began  Thursday,  April  21,  1898,7.00 
A.  M. 

Peace  Protocol  signed  Friday,  August  12, 
1898,  4.23  P.  Iff. 

Treaty  of  Peace  signed  December  10,  1898. 

Chronological  Record. 

January  1-12.  The  North  Atlantic  Squad- 
ron assembled  in  the  neighborhood  of  Dry 
Tortugas,  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

January  15-20.  Hostile  demonstrations  at 
Havana  by  Spanish  volunteers  against  Ameri- 
cans caused  the  Governor-General  to  place  a 
guard  around  the  United  States  Consulate. 

January  25.  The  battle-ship  Maine  arrived 
at  Havana  on  a  friendly  visit. 

February  8.  A  letter  by  Minister  De  Lome, 
in  which  he  wrote  disparagingly  of  President 
McKinley,  was  published.  On  learning  of  the 
exposure  the  Minister  requested  his  govern- 
ment to  accept  his  resignation. 

February  9.  The  United  States  Senate  dis- 
cussed intervention  in  Cuba. 

February  14.  Resolutions  requesting  the 
President  to  transmit  information  relative  to 


270 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


the  situation  in  Cuba  were  adopted  by  Con- 
gress. 

February  14.  Seilor  Luis  Polo  y  Bernabe 
was  appointed  Spanish  Minister  to  the  United 
States  to  succeed  Seilor  De  Lome. 

February  15.  The  battle-ship  Maine  was 
blown  up  in  the  harbor  of  Havana  by  a  float- 
ing mine  ;  260  American  lives  were  destroyed. 

February  16.  Spain  officially  expressed  re- 
gret for  the  Maine  "  incident." 

February  17.  A  naval  court  of  inquiry  into 
the  cause  of  the  destruction  of  the  Maine  was 
appointed  by  the  United  States  Government. 

February  18-25.  The  Spanish  cruiser  Viz- 
caya  visited  New  York  harbor.  On  the  last 
date  she  sailed  for  Havana. 

February  20.  The  Court  of  Inquiry  began 
its  session  in  Havana. 

February  22.  The  cruiser  Montgomery  pro- 
ceeded to  Havana. 

March  5.  Spain  asked  for  the  recall  of 
Consul-General  Lee,  which  was  promptly  re- 
fused by  the  United  States  Government. 

March  7.  A  bill  appropriating  $50,000,000 
for  the  national  defense  was  introduced  in  the 
House  of  Representatives.  It  passed  the 
House  March  8  and  the  Senate  March  9,  and 
was  signed  by  the  President. 

March  11.  The  War  Department  began 
the  mobilization  of  the  army. 

March  12.  The  battle-ship  Oregon  sailed 
from  San  Francisco  to  join  the  Atlantic  squad- 
ron. 

March  12.  Armistice  was  offered  by  Spain 
to  the  Cuban  insurgents. 

March  14.  The  Spanish  fleet  sailed  from 
Cadiz  for  the  Canary  Islands. 

March  14.  Senator  Proctor's  report  on  Span- 
ish atrocities  in  Cuba  was  published. 

March  19.  The.  Maine  Court  of  Inquiry 
completed  its  labors.  Its  report  was  deliv- 
ered to  the  President  March  25,  and  trans- 
mitted by  him  to  Congress  March  28. 

March  25.  Commodore  Schley  took  com- 
mand of  the  Flying  Squadron  in  Hampton 
Roads. 

March  30.  The  President,  requested  per- 
mission of  Spain  to  relieve  the  reconcentrados, 
which  was  granted. 

April  2.  The  Spanish  fleet  arrived  at  the 
Cape  de  Verde  Islands. 

April  4.  The  pope  appealed  to  Spain  in  the 
interests  of  peace. 

April  5.  United  States  consuls  in  Cuba 
were  recalled. 

April  7.  The  diplomatic  representatives  of 
the  great  powers  of  Europe  waited  on  the  Pres- 
ident with  a  plea  for  peace. 

April  9.  Consul-General  Lee  with  many 
Americans  departed  from  Havana. 


April  1 1 .  The  President  sent  a  message  to 
Congress  outlining  the  situation,  declaring  that 
intervention  was  necessary,  advising  against 
the  recognition  of  the  Cuban  Government, 
and  requesting  Congress  to  take  action. 

April  19.  Congress  adopted  resolutions  de- 
claring Cuba  independent  and  directing  the 
President  to  use  the  forces  of  the  United  States 
to  put  an  end  to  Spanish  authority  in  Cuba. 

April  20.  The  president  signed  the  resolu- 
tions of  Congress.  An  ultimatum  to  Spain 
was  cabled  to  Minister  Woodford. 

April  20.  The  Spanish  Cortes  met  and  re- 
ceived a  warlike  message  from  the  Qu^en- 
Regent. 

April  21.  The  Spanish  Government  s  nt 
Minister  Woodford  his  passports,  thus  beg  li- 
ning the  war. 

April  21.  Congress  passed  an  act  for  in- 
creasing the  military  establishment. 

April  21 .  Great  Britain  notified  Spain  that 
coal  was  contraband  of  war. 

April  22.  Proclamation  to  the  neutral  pow- 
ers announcing  war  was  issued  by  the  President. 

April  22.  Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  sailed 
from  Key  West.  The  blockade  of  Cuban  ports 
began. 

April  22.  The  gunboat  Nashville  captured 
the  Spanish  ship  Buena  Ventura,  the  first  prize 
of  the  war. 

April  23.  The  President  issued  a  call  for 
125,000  volunteers. 

April  24.  Great  Britain  issued  a  procla- 
mation of  neutrality  and  was  followed  subse- 
quently by  the  other  powers,  except  Germany. 

April  24.  Spain  formally  declared  that  war 
existed  with  the  United  States. 

April  25.  Congress  passed  an  act  declaring 
that  war  had  existed  since  April  21. 

April  25.  Commodore  Dewey's  fleet  sailed 
from  Hong  Kong  for  the  Philippines. 

April  26.  Congress  passed  an  act  for  the 
increase  of  the  regular  army. 

April  27.  Batteries  at  Matanzas  were  bom- 
barded. 

April  30.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  left  the 
Cape  de  Verde  Islands  for  the  West  Indies. 

May  1 .  Commodore  Dewey  destroyed  the 
Spanish  fleet  at  Manila.  American  loss,  six 
men  slightly  wounded. 

May  5-7.     Riots  in  Spain. 

May  11.  Commodore  Dewey  was  made  a 
rear-admiral. 

May  11.  Attack  on  Cienfuegos  and  Carde- 
nas. Ensign  Bagley  and  four  men  on  the  tor- 
pedo-boat Winslow  were  killed. 

May  11.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  appeared 
off  Martinique. 

May  12.  Admiral  Sampson  bombarded  San 
Juau  de  Porto  Rico. 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


271 


May  13.  The  Flying  Squadron  left  Hamp- 
ton Roads  for  Eastern  Cuba,  via  Key  West. 

May  18.  A  new  Spanish  Ministry  under 
Sefior  Sagasta  came  into  office. 

May  19.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet  arrived  in 
the  harbor  of  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

May  22.  The  cruiser  Charleston  sailed  from 
San  Francisco  for  Manila. 

May  24.  The  battle-ship  Oregon  reached 
Jupiter  Iulet,  Florida. 

May  25.  The  President  issued  a  second  call 
for  volunteers,  the  number  being  75,000. 

May  25.  The  first  Manila  expedition  from 
San  Francisco  started. 

May  30.  Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  arrived 
at  Santiago  from  Porto  Rico. 

May  81.  Forts  at  the  entrance  of  Santiago 
Harbor  were  bombarded. 

June  3.  Lieutenant  Hobson  sank  the  Mer- 
rimac  in  the  entrance  to  Santiago  Harbor. 

June  4.  Captain  Gridley,  of  the  Olympia, 
died  at  Kobe,  Japan. 

June  b'.  Spanish  cruiser  Reina  Mercedes 
was  sunk  by  American  navy  at  Santiago. 

June  10.  War  Revenue  bill  was  finally 
passed  by  Congress.  It  was  signed  by  the 
President,  June  13. 

June  11.  Marines  landed  at  Guantanamo, 
and  skirmished  with  the  Spaniards  the  follow- 
ing day. 

June  12-14.  General  Shafter's  army  of 
invasion,  16,000  strong,  embarked  at  Key 
West  for  Santiago. 

June  14-15.  There  was  fighting  between 
marines  and  Spaniards  at  Guantanamo  Bay 
and  a  bombardment  of  the  fort  at  Caimanera 
by  warships. 

June  15.  Admiral  Camara's  fleet  sailed 
from  Cadiz  for  the  Suez  Canal. 

June  20-22.  General  Shafter's  army  landed 
at  Daiquiri ;  one  killed,  four  wounded. 

June  21 .  The  Ladrone  Islands  were  captured. 

June  22.  The  auxiliary  cruiser,  St.  Paul, 
repulsed  a  Spanish  torpedo-boat  attack  off  San 
Juan,  Porto  Rico. 

June  24.  Juragua  was  captured.  The  Span- 
iards were  defeated  at  Las  Guasimas.  Capron 
and  Fish  were  killed. 

.June  26.  Admiral  Camara's  fleet  reached 
Port  Said. 

June  28.  General  Merritt  departed  for 
Manila. 

July  1-2.  The  Spanish  earthworks  at  El 
Cauey  and  San  Juan,  Santiago,  were  carried 
by  assault,  with  heavy  loss,  in  which  the 
Rough  Riders  and  the  Seventy-first  Xew  York 
participated. 

July  3.  Admiral  Cervera's  fleet,  attempting 
to  escape  from  Santiago,  was  destroyed  by  the 
American  war  vessels. 


July  3.  The  surrender  of  Santiago  was  de- 
manded. 

July  6.  Hobson  and  his  comrades  were  ex- 
changed. 

July  8.  Admiral  Dewey's  vessels  took 
possession  of  Isla  Grande  in  Subig  Bay,  near 
Manila,  and  the  German  gunboat  Irene,  which 
had  been  interfering,  withdrew. 

July  8.  Admiral  Camara  started  to  return 
through  the  Suez  Canal  to  Spain.  He  reached 
Cadiz,  July  29. 

July  10.  Bombardment  of  Santiago  was  re- 
sumed. 

July  1 1 .  General  Miles  arrived  at  American 
headquarters  in  Cuba. 

July  13.  Admiral  Cervera  and  captured 
Spanish  prisoners  arrived  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 

July  17.     Santiago  surrendered. 

July  20.  General  Leonard  Wood  was  ap- 
pointed Military  Governor  of  Santiago. 

July  21.  Last  naval  engagement  on  the 
coast  of  Cuba.  Four  United  States  warships 
entered  the  harbor  of  Nipe,  and  after  a  furious 
bombardment  took  possession  of  that  port. 

July  25.  United  States  Army  under  Gen- 
eral Miles  landed  at  Guanica,  Porto  Rico. 
The  town  surrendered,  and  Ponce  followed, 
July  28. 

July  26.  The  Spanish  government,  through 
French  Ambassador  Cambon,  asked  for  terms 
of  peace. 

July  29.  General  Merritt  landed  at  Cavite, 
Manila  Harbor. 

July  30.  The  President,  through  the  French 
Ambassador,  stated  the  American  terms. 

July  31 .  The  Americans  repulsed  the  Span- 
iards, with  loss  on  both  sides,  at  Malate,  near 
Manila. 

August  7.  The  Rough  Riders  left  Santiago 
for  Montauk  Point,  L.  I. 

August  9.  General  Ernst  defeated  a  Span- 
ish force  at  Coamo.  Porto  Rico. 

August  9.  Spain  formally  accepted  the 
President's  terms  of  peace. 

August  12.  The  peace  protocol  was  signed 
and  an  armistice  was  proclaimed.  The  block- 
ade of  Cuba  was  raised. 

August  13.  Manila  surrendered  to  the  Amer- 
ican forces  after  a  short  land  fight  and  bonv- 
bardment  by  the  fleet. 

August  20.  Imposing  naval  demonstration 
in  the  harbor  of  Xew  York.  The  battleships 
Iowa,  Indiana,  Massachusetts,  Oregon,  and 
Texas,  and  cruisers  Xew  York  and  Brooklyn, 
amid  a  great  popular  ovation,  steamed  up  the 
Hudson  river  to  Giant's  Tomb  and  saluted. 

August  30.  General  Merritt  sailed  from 
Manila  for  Paris  to  attend  the  Peace  Confer- 
ence. 

September    U.      United   States    Peace   Com- 


272 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


missioners  were  appointed.     They  sailed  for 
France,  September  17. 

September  10.  The  United  States  Cuban 
Evacuation  Commissioners  arrived  at  Havana. 

September  13.  Admiral  Cervera  and  other 
Spanish  naval  officers  sailed  for  Spain. 

September  18.  Spanish  Peace  Commission- 
ers were  announced. 

September  20.  The  evacuation  of  Porto 
Rico  by  the  Spaniards  began. 

September  24.  A  commission  appointed  by 
the  President  to  investigate  the  conduct  of  the 
War  Department,  began  its  sessions  at  Wash- 
ington. 

October  1.  The  conferences  of  the  Peace 
Commissioners  began  in  Paris. 

October  12.  The  battleships  Oregon  and 
Iowa  sailed  from  New  York  for  Manila. 

October  18.  Peace  Jubilee  celebration  at 
Chicago. 

October  18.  The  American  army  and  navy 
took  formal  possession  of  the  island  of  Porto 
Rico  at  San  Juan. 

October  24.  Time  limit  for  the  evacuation 
of  Cuba  by  the  Spaniards  was  extended  to 
January  1,  1899. 

October  27.  After  a  long  and  earnest  con- 
tention the  Spanish  Peace  Commissioners  ac- 
cepted the  American  ultimatum  not  to  assume 
the  Spanish  Cuban  debt. 

October  31.  The  United  States  Peace  Com- 
missioners presented  the  demand  of  the  United 
States  for  the  Philippines'. 

November  1.  The  captured  cruiser  Infanta 
Maria  Teresa  was  abandoned  in  a  gale  off  San 
Salvador. 

November  7.  The  Cuban  Assembly  was 
organized  at  Santa  Cruz  del  Sur.  Domingo 
Mendez  Capote  was  elected  president. 

December  10.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  was 
signed  at  Paris  at  8.45  o'clock  P.  M. 

Casualties  in  the  Navy  During  the 
War. — Lost  on  the  Maine  preceding  the  war, 
2  officers  and  257  men.  Manila,  May  1,  7 
wounded.  Cienfuegos,  May  11,  1  killed,  11 
wounded.  Cardenas,  May  11,  5  killed,  3 
wounded.  San  Juan,  May  12,  1  killed,  7 
wounded.  Guantanamo,  June  11-20,  6  killed, 
16  wounded.  Santiago,  June  22,  1  killed,  9 
wounded.  Santiago,  July  3,1  killed,  1  wounded. 
On  the  Yankee,  June  13,  1  wounded.  On  the 
the  Eagle,  July  12,  1  wounded.  On  the  Ban- 
croft, July  2,  1  killed.  On  the  Amphitrite, 
August  7,  1  killed.  Total  for  the  war,  19 
killed  and  48  wounded,  exclusive  of  the  loss  on 
the  Maine.  In  addition  to  the  above.  1  man 
died  of  disease,  and  6  were  invalided.  Only 
18  were  killed  in  battle.  The  average  strength 
of  the  navy  and  marine  corps  together  was  26,- 
102  for  the  114  days  of  hostilities.     The  total 


deaths   from  disease  were  56,  while  29  died 
from  injuries  received  in  battle. 

Casualties  iu  the  Army  During  the 
War. — Losses  of  Santiago  Campaign — Killed  : 
Officers,  23  ;  men,  237.  Wounded  :  Officers, 
99;  men,  1,332. 

Losses   of   Porto    Rico    Campaign — Killed : 
Officers,  0;  men,    3.     Wounded:  Officers,  4;' 
men,  36. 

Losses  of  Manila  Campaign — Killed :  Offi- 
cers, 0;  men,  17.  Wounded :  Officers  10; 
men,  96. 

Total  losses  from  all  causes  up  to  October 
1,  1898— Killed:  Officers,  33;  men,  257. 
Wounded  :  Officers,  4  ;  men,  61.  Died  of  dis- 
ease :  Officers,  80  ;  men,  2,485.  Total  of  107 
officers  and  2,803  men  ;  or  a  percentage  of 
159-1,000,  being  an  aggregate  of  2,910  out  of 
a  total  of  274,717  officers  and  men,  the  total 
of  the  war. 

Died  in  Camps  in  the  United  States 
and  Cuha,  and  at  Sea. — Camp  Thomas, 
245;  Camp  Cuba  Libre,  246;  Tampa,  Fla., 
56  ;  Cuba  (of  disease  only),  427  ;  at  sea,  87  ; 
Camp  Wikoff,  257  ;  Manila,  63  ;  Porto  Rico, 
137;  Camp  Wheeler,  35;  Camp  Hamilton, 
29;  Camp  Alger,  107;  Camp  Meade,  64; 
Camp  Merritt,  139  ;  Camp  Poland,  23  ;  Camp 
Shipp,  12  ;  other  camps,  378. 

Arms  Captured  at  Santiago. — Mauser 
rifles,  16,902;  Argent  rifles,  872;  Remington 
rifles,  6,118;  Mauser  carbines,  833;  Argent 
carbines,  84 ;  Remington  carbines,  330 ;  re- 
volvers, 75.  Rifled  cannon — Bronze,  30  ;  cast 
iron,  10;  steel,  8;  smooth  bore  and  obsolete, 
44;  mortars,  5.  Projectiles  —  3,551  solid  shot, 
437  shrapnel,  2,577  shells.  Small-arm  am- 
munition —  Mauser,  1,471, 200 rounds;  Argent, 
1,500,000  rounds;  others,  1,680,000  rounds. 

Spanish  Vessels  Captured  or  De- 
stroyed by  the  Navy. —  By  Admiral  Samp- 
son's Squadron,  July  3 — Cristobal  Colon, 
Vizcaya,  Maria  Teresa,  Admiral  Oquendo,  all 
armored  cruisers ;  torpedo-boat  destroyers 
Furor  and  Pluton. 

Destroyed  July  18  —  Gunboats  Maria  Pon- 
ton, Delgado  Perado,  Jose  Garcia,  Cuba,  and 
Espanola,  all  burned  at  Manzanillo  ;  transport 
Gloria  sunk. 

By  Admiral  Dewey's  Squadron,  May  1  and 
subsequently — Cruisers  Reina  Cristina,  Cas- 
tilla,  Ulloa,  Tsla  de  Cuba,  General  Lozo ;  gun- 
boats Duero,  Correo,  Yelasco,  Mindano,  and 
one  transport  on  May  1.  Subsequently  cap- 
tured—  Torpedo  boat  Larcelow;  gunboats  Cal- 
lao.  Leyte,  Manila,  and  Mindanao. 

Yessels  captured  in  Cuban  waters  all  gun- 
boats of  about  300  tons,  —  Hernan  Cortez,  Pi- 
zarro,  Yasco  Xunez.  Diego  Yalasquez,  Alerta, 
Ardilla,    Tradera,    Flecha,    Ligera,    Satellite, 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


273 


Margarit,  Vigia,  General  Blanco,  Intrepida, 
and  Cauto.  The  Alvarado  was  captured  at 
Santiago.  The  Sandoval  was  sunk  in  Guan- 
tanamo  Harbor,  but  was  raised  by  Commander 
McCalla. 

DECISIVE       BATTLES      OF      HIS- 1 

tory.    A\  Xfr 

Actum.  B.  C.  31.  The  combined  fleets  of 
Antony  and  Cleopatra  defeated  by  Octavius, 
and  imperialism  established  in  the  person  of 
Octavius. 

Philippi,    B.    C.    42.     Brutus  and    Cassius 
defeated  by  Octavius  and  Antony.     The  fate  of  I 
the  Republic  decided. 

Metaikus,  B.  C.  207.  The  Carthaginians 
under  Hasdrubul  were  defeated  by  the  Romans 
under  Caius  and  Marcus  Livius. 

Arbela,  B.  C.  331.  The  Persians  defeated 
by  the  Macedonians  and  Greeks  under  Alexan- 
der the  Great.     End  of  the  Persian  empire. 

Syracuse,  B.  C.  414.-  The  Athenians  de- 
feated by  the  Syracusans  and  their  allies,  the 
Spartans,  under  Gylippus. 

Marathon,  B.  C.  490.  The  Athenians 
under  Miltiades  defeated  the  Persians  under 
Datis.     Free  government  preserved. 

Winfeld-Lippe,  A.  D.  9.  Teutonic  inde- 
pendence established  by  the  defeat  of  the  Ro- 
man legions  under  Varus  at  the  hands  of  the 
Germans  under  Arminius  (Hermann.) 

Chalons,  A.  D.  451.  The  Huns  under  At- 
tila,  called  the  "Scourge  of  God,"  defeated 
by  the  confederate  armies  of  Romans  and  Vis- 
igoths. 

Tours,  A.  D.  732.  The  Saracens  defeated 
by  Charles  Martel  and  Christendom  rescued 
from  Islam. 

Hastings,  A.  D.  1066.  Harold,  command- 
ing the  English  army,  defeated  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  a  new  regime  established 
in  England  by  the  Xormans. 

Siege  of  Orleans,  A.  D.  1429.  The  Eng- 
lish defeated  by  the  French  under  Joan  of  Arc. 

Defeat  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  A.  D. 
15SS.     England  saved  from  Spanish  invasion. 

Lutzen,  A.  D.  1632.  Decided  the  relig- 
ious liberties  of  Germany.  Gustavus  Adolphus 
killed. 

Blenheim,  A.  D.  1704.  The  French  and 
Bavarians  under  Marshal  Tallard  defeated  by 
the  English  and  their  allies  under  Marlborough. 

Pultowa.  A.  D.  1709.  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  defeated  by  the  Russians  under  Peter 
the  Great. 

Saratoga.  A.  D.  1777.  Critical  battle  of 
the  American  War  of  Independence.  The 
English  defeated  by  the  Americans  under  Gen- 
eral Gates. 

Valmy,  A.  D.  1792.     An  invading  army  of 


Prussians,  Austrians,  and  Hessians  under  the 
Duke  of  Brunswick,  defeated  by  the  French 
under  Kellermann.  The  first  success  of  the 
Republic  against  foreigners. 

Trafalgar.  On  the  21st  of  October,  A. 
D.  1805,  the  great  naval  battle  of  Trafalgar 
was  fought.  The  English  defeated  the  French 
and  destroyed  Napoleon's  hopes  to  successfully 
invade  England. 

Waterloo,  A.  D.  1815.  The  French  un- 
der Napoleon  defeated  by  the  allied  armies 
of  Russia,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  England  un- 
der Wellington. 

Siege  of  Sebastopol,  A.  D.  1854-5.  The 
Russians  succumbed  to  the  beleaguering  armies 
of  England,  France,  and  Turkey,  and  the  re- 
sult was  delay  in  the  expansion  of  the  Russian 
Empire. 

Gettysburg,  July,  A.  D.  1863.  The  de- 
ciding battle  of  the  war  for  the  Union.  The 
Confederates  under  General  Lee  defeated  by 
the  Union  forces  under  Meade. 

Sedan,  A.  D.  1870.  The  decisive  battle  of 
the  Franco-German  war. 

RECENT  DESPERATE  WARS. 

Indian  Mutiny.  General  disaffection 
from  a  variety  of  real  or  supposed  grievances 
had  been  for  a  long  time  smoldering  amongst 
the  Sepoys,  who  were  the  flower  of  the  British 
East  India  Company's  forces,  but  when  a  re- 
port spread  that  cartridges  smeared  with  cow 
and  pork  fat  Avere  to  be  used  by  the  native 
soldiers,  open  mutiny,  attended  with  great 
cruelty,  broke  out.  The  war,  which  may  be 
said  to  have  commenced  in  March,  1857,  raged 
until  June,  1858.  It  was  marked  by  a  suc- 
cession of  romantic,  pathetic,  and  heroic  inci- 
dents—  the  siege  of  Delhi,  the  massacre  of 
Cawnpore,  the  relief  and  capture  of  Lucknow  — 
but  was  suppressed  in  the  latter  year,  when 
the  East  India  Company  ceased  to  exist,  and 
the  government  of  India  was  assumed  by  the 
British  crown.  A  cruel  vengeance  was  taken 
on  the  mutineers,  hundreds  of  whom  were 
strung  together  and  blown  to  pieces  at  the 
mouths  of  cannon. 

The  Abyssinian  War  arose  out  of  the 
imprisonment  of  Consul  Capt.  C.  Cameron, 
Rev.  H.  Stern,  a  missionary,  and  others  by 
King  Theodore,  in  consequence  of  a  supposed 
slight  by  the  British  government,  1864.  Mr. 
Rassam  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Abyssinia 
for  their  release.  On  the  refusal  of  the  king 
to  surreuder  the  prisoners,  an  English  army, 
some  12,000  strong,  under  Sir  Robert  (after- 
wards Lord)  Napier,  defeated  the  Abyssinian 
forces  at  Arogee,  April  10,  1868,  and  three 
days  later  stormed  the  fortress  of  Xa£v!ala. 
In  consequence  of  this  King  Theodore  com- 


274 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


mitted  suicide.     The  prisoners  were  released, 
and  the  war  terminated. 

American  Civil  War.  This  began  April 
13,  1861,  with  the  capture  of  Fort  Sumter, 
Charleston,  by  the  Confederate  forces.  The 
North  prepared  for  the  contest  with  energy, 
and  blockaded  the  Southern  ports.  Through- 
out the  war  the  Confederates  chiefly  acted  up- 
on the  defensive,  the  Federals  or  Northern 
forces,  being  the  attacking  party,  and  possess- 
ing the  advantage  of  superior  forces,  money, 
and  war  material.  The  principal  generals  of 
the  South  were  Lee,  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson, 
Hood,  Albert  Sidney  Johnston,  Longstreet, 
Bragg,  Beauregard,  Stuart,  Joseph  E.  Johns- 
ton ;  and  of  the  North,  Grant,  Sherman,  Sher- 
idan, McClellan,  Thomas,  Rosecrans,  Pope, 
Butler,  Halleck,  Baker,  Burnside,  Fremont, 
Meade,  Banks,  and  McDowell.  In  the  com- 
paignof  1861  the  advantage  was  chiefly  on  the 
side  of  the  Confederates,  who  were  victorious 
at  Bull  Run  (Manassas,  Va.)  and  Ball's  Bluff, 
Va.  (October  21),  but  suffered  a  reverse  at 
Springfield,  Mo.  (Aug.  10),  and  lost  Fort  Hat- 
teras,  N.  C,  captured  by  Butler  (August  29). 
During  1862  the  Confederates  were  successful 
at  Bull  Run  (August  20)  and  in  Virginia 
(June)  at  Fredericksburg,  Va.  (Dec.  10-15), 
but  sustained  severe  defeats  at  Mill  Springs, 
Ky.  (January  19),  Pea  Ridge,  Ark.  (March 
6-8),  Winchester,  Va.  (March  23),  Williams- 
burgh,  Va.  Great  battles  were  fought  at  Shi- 
loh,  Term.  (April  7),  Fair  Oaks,  Va.  (May 
31,  June  1),  on  the  Chickahominy  (June  25- 
July  1)  and  Antietam  Creek,  Md.  (September 
17),  in  none  of  which  either  party  could  claim 
a  victory  ;  but  the  battle  of  Antietam  Creek 
obliged  Lee  to  abandon  his  invasion  of  the 
North.  During  this  year  the  naval  operations 
of  the  Federals  were  generally  successful,  Ad- 
miral Farragut  running  past  the  forts  of  the 
Mississippi  and  seizing  New  Orleans  (May). 
The  memorable  conflict  between  the  "  Merri- 
mac  "  (Confederate)  and  the  Federal  "  Moni- 
tor" resulted  (March  9)  in  the  repulse  of  the 
former,  the  "  Merrimac"  being  burned  by  the 
Confederates  on  the  capture  of  their  arsenal  at 
Norfolk,  Va.  (May  11).  The  war  duringl#03 
was  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  Federal/?6rces, 
r  although  the  Confederates,  under  "  Sldnewall " 
\~.-  Jackson,  defeated  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville 
(May  2-4),  Jackson  subsequently  dying  from 
his  wounds  (May  10),  and  Lee  invaded  Mary- 
land and  Pennsylvania.  At  Gettysburg,  Pa. 
(July  1-3),  Lee  was  defeated,  and  retreated 
into  Virginia,  while  at  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 
(Nov.  24,  25),  the  Confederates,  under  Bragg, 
sustained  a  severe  repulse.  Grant  made  a  suc- 
cessful campaign  in  Tennessee,  gaining  sev- 
eral battles  and    capturing  Vicksburg,  Miss., 


which,  after  a  gallant  defense,  surrendered 
(July  4).  In  August,  the  siege  of  Charleston 
began,  and  Fort  Sumter  was  destroyed  (Au- 
gust 21,  22),  but  the  city  was  not  taken  until 
1865  (February  18).  With  the  appointment 
of  Grant  as  commander-in-chief,  in  the  early 
part  of  1864  (March  3),  and  his  vigorous  reor- 
ganization of  the  army,  the  power  of  the  North 
was  greatly  strengthened.  Taking  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  Grant  op- 
posed the  Confederates  under  Lee,  while  Sher- 
man operated  against  Joseph  E.  Johnston.  In 
the  Virginian  campaign,  after  two  days'  severe 
fighting  (.May  3-6)  at  the  Wilderness,  the  re- 
sult was  indecisive,  and  Grant's  attempt  to  cut 
off  Lee's  army  from  Richmond  was  unsuccess- 
ful. At  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Sherman,  in  three  bat- 
tles (July  20,  22,  28),  defeated  the  Confeder- 
ates under  Hood.  In  the  Shenandoah  valley 
the  Federals  were  victorious  in  several  engage- 
ments (August),  and  under  Sheridan  at  Win- 
chester (September  9),  and  Cedar  Creek  (Oc- 
tober 19).  In  November  General  Sherman 
!  marched  through  Georgia  to  Savannah,  which 
was  entered  December  21,  while  at  Nashville, 
j  Tenn.,  the  Confederates  under  Hood  were  de- 
I  feated  (December  14-16)  by  the  Federals  un- 
I  der  Thomas.  Among  the  incidents  of  this 
i  year  were  the  sinking  (June  19)  by  the  Fed- 
eral corvette  "  Kearsarge  "  of  the  Confederate 
steamer  "  Alabama,"  commanded  by  Captain 
Semmes,  which  had  caused  great  devastation 
among  the  Federal  shipping,  and  the  destruc- 
tion (August  5),  by  Admiral  Farragut,  of  the 
Confederate  flotilla  at  Mobile.  The  war  closed 
in  1865  by  the  defeat  of  Lee  at  Five  Forks, 
Va.  (March  31-April  2),  by  Sheridan,  who 
again  defeated  Lee  at  Sailor's  Creek  (April  6). 
Lee  subsequently  surrendered  (April  9)  his 
army  to  Grant,  who  had  occupied  Richmond, 
the  capital  of  the  Confederate  Slates  (April  2) 
on  its  evacuation  by  the  Southern  forces.  The 
other  Confederate  armies  soon  afterwards  sur- 
rendered. An  amnesty,  witTi  certain  limita- 
tions, was  proclaimed  (May  29)  by  President 
Andrew  Johnson  (1865-69),  who.  as  vice- 
president,  succeeded  Abraham  Lincoln,  assas- 
sinated in  Ford's  Theater,  Washington,  by  J. 
Wilkes  Booth  (April  14),  Lincoln  having  but 
newly  entered  on  his  second  term  of  office. 

Russo-Turkish  Wars.  Of  the  many 
wars  between  the  Muscovite  and  Mohamme- 
dan powers,  we  cite  the  two  latest:  (1)  The 
first  arose  from  a  demand  on  the  part  of  Nich- 
olas, the  Czar  of  Russia,  of  a  protectorate 
over  the  Greek  Christians  in  Turkey.  The 
Sultan  refused  the  demand,  and  appealed  to 
his  allies.  Russia  declared  war  against  Tur- 
key, November  1.  1863.  England  and  France 
declared  war  against   Russia,   March  27,  28. 


HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


1854.  Sardinia  joined  the  allies,  January  26, 

1855.  Among  the  great  battles  of  this  war 
were  Alma  (September  20,  1854),  Balaklava 
(October  25.  1854),  during  which  occurred  the 
memorable  "Charge  of  the  Six  Hundred." 
Inkerman  (November  5,  1854),  Tchernaya 
(August  1<S,  1855),  in  all  of  which  the  Russians 
were  defeated.  The  great  event  of  the  war 
was  the  siege  of  Sebastopol  (commenced  Octo- 
ber 17,  1854),  which  fell  September  8,  1855. 
The  war  which  is  usually  termed  the  Crimean 
war.  was  ended  by  the  treaty  of  peace  con- 
cluded at  Paris,  March  30,  1856.  One  of  the 
articles  of  this  treaty  was  that  the  Christians 
of  Turkey,  without  any  preference  to  Russia, 
should  have  the  protection  of  all  the  Powers 
concerned  in  the  treaty.  (2)  The  second 
war  arose  (1877-8)  from  substantially  the  same 
cause  as  the  war  of  1853-6,  viz.,  the  desire  of 
Russia  to  protect  the  Greek  Christians  of  Tur-  ! 
key.  By  a  protocol  of  March  31,  1877,  the 
Great  Powers  agreed  to  see  the  promised  re- 
forms of  Turkey  carried  out.  This  protocol 
was  repudiated  by  Turkey,  and  war  was  de- 
clared by  Russia  against  Turkey,  April  24. 
Among  the  more  prominent  events  of  this  war 
were  General  Gourko's  march  through  the  Bal- 
kans (July  13),  his  defeat  by  Suleiman  Pasha 
at  Eski  Sagra  (July  30),  and  Suleiman  Pasha's 
desperate,  but  fruitless,  attempt  to  gain  the 
Schipka  Pass,  held  by  General  Gourko ;  the 
fall  of  Kars  (November  18),  and  of  Plevna 
(December  10),  and  Suleiman  Pasha's  defeat 
by  Skobeloff  and  Radetsky  at  Senova  (Janu- 
ary 9,  1878),  the  battle  which  virtually  ended 
the  war.  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  (March  3), 
modified  by  treaty  of  Berlin  (July  13),  by  j 
which  Bulgaria  was  created  an  automatic  and 
tributary  principality,  Servia  and  Roumania 
were  declared  independent,  and  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  were  ordered  to  be  occupied  and 
administered  by  Austria. 

Zulu  War  (1879).  Cetewayo,  king  of 
Zululand,  became  embroiled  with  the  British, 
on  the  annexation  by  the  latter  of  the  Trans- 
vaal and  the  British,  under  Lord  Chelmsford, 
crossed  the  Tugela.  and  entered  Zululand 
(January  12).  They  suffered  a  terrible  re- 
verse at  Tsandhlwana  (January  22),  with  a  loss 
of  eight  hundred  men,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
heroic  defense  of  Rorke's  Drift  (January  22), 
had  to  retreat.  Eventually  reinforcements  ar- 
rived, and  the  Zulus  were  defeated  at  Ging- 
hilono  (April  2),  and  Ulundi  (July  4).  Cete- 
wayo was  captured  (August  2S),  and  a  dis- 
patch from  Sir  Garnet  AYolseley  (September 
3)  announced  the  end  of  the  Mar.  Cetewayo 
died  (February  8,  1884),  the  New  Repub- 
lic was  formed  by  a  party  of  Transvaal  Boers 
(1886-87),  and  the  annexation  of  the  remain- 


der of  Zululand  as  a  British  possession  was 
proclaimed  (June  21,  18S7).  Trouble  subse- 
quently arose,  and  several  Zulu  chiefs  were 
convicted  of  high  treason  and  sentenced  to 
various  terms  of  imprisonment  (1888-9).  To- 
wards the  end  of  1891,  the  resolution  of  the 
colonial  authorities  to  impose  Zibebu  as  chief 
upon  the  northern  tribes,  was  protested  against 
by  Miss  Colenso  as  likely  to  lead  to  further 
troubles  in  Zululand. 

Franco-German  War.  The  friction 
between  France  and  Prussia,  arising  from  the 
proposed  cession  of  Luxembourg,  became  ac- 
centuated by  the  demand  of  France  that  the 
I  Crown  of  Spain,  offered  (1870)  to  Prince  Leo- 
pold of  Hohenzollern,  should  not  be  accepted 
by  that  Prince.  On  the  refusal  of  Prussia  to 
accede  to  this  request,  war  was  declared  by 
France  (July  19,  1870).  The  Prussian  forces, 
i  about  640, 000  strong,  in  which  were  associated 
!  the  states  of  the  North  and  South  German  Con- 
J  federation,  were  divided  into  four  armies,  the 
first,  that  of  the  North,  commanded  by  General 
A^ogel  von  Falkenstein  :  the  second,  that  of  the 
Center,  commanded  by  General  Steinmetz  ;  the 
third,  that  of  the  Right,  under  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles,  and  the  fourth,  that  of  the  Left, 
led  by  the  Crown  Prince,  the  King  (William) 
of  Prussia  being  commander-in-chief,  with 
General  Yon  Moltke  as  head  of  the  staff.  The 
whole  army  was  in  the  highest  state  of  prepa- 
ration and  efficiency. 

The  French  army,  about  300,000  strong,  on 
the  other  hand,  badly  organized  and  practically 
unprepared  for  the  contest,  was  formed  into 
six  army  corps,  respectively  commanded  by 
Generals  Frossard,  De  Failly,  Bazaine,  Mac- 
Mahon,  Ladniexault  and  Marshal  Canrobert. 
The  Emperor,  nominally  commander-in-chief, 
had  as  his  second  in  command,  General  Le 
Bceuf,  to  whom,  later,  Marshal  Bazaine  suc- 
ceeded. The  war  resulted  in  an  almost  un- 
broken series  of  successes  for  the  Germans. 
After  victories  at  Woerth  and  Forbach  (both 
on  August  6),  the  Germans  invested  the  for- 
tress of  Strasburg  (August  10  —  capitulated 
September  28),  and  sat  down  before  Mete, 
which  capitulated  (October  27),  after  the  bat- 
tles of  Longueville  (August  14),  Mars  La  Tour 
(August  16),  Gravelotte  or  Rezonville  (August 
18),  and  unsuccessful  attempts  at  a  sortie  by 
Marshal  Bazaine  (August  26  and  October  6). 
At  Sedan  the  French  under  Marshal  MacMa- 
hon  were  hopelessly  beaten  (September  1), 
and  the  Emperor  surrendered  to  the  Prussian 
king  (September  2),  and  was  deported  as  pris- 
oner to  Wilhelmshohe  (Cassel).  At  Paris 
(September  4)  the  deposition  of  the  Irqperial 
dynasty  was  declared,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  Republic  proclaimed  by  M.  Gambetta  and 


276 


THE    CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


other  members  of  the  Left  in  the  Legislative 
Assembly.  A  government  of  defense  was  pro- 
claimed, with  General  Trochu  as  President, 
M.  Gambetta  as  Minister  of  the  Interior,  M. 
Jules  Favre  (Foreign),  General  Le  Flo  (War). 
The  Empress  Eugenie  fled  from  Paris  (Septem- 
ber 4),  and  settled  at  Chiselhurst.  Negotia- 
tions for  peace  between  M.  Favre  and  Count 
Bismai'ck  ended  in  failure  (September  24),  and 
a  proclamation  from  the  Government  at  Tours 
was  issued  calling  upon  the  people  < '  to  fight 
to  the  bitter  end." 

The  siege  of  Paris  was  commenced  by  the 
Germans  (September  15),  and  five  days  later 
the  troops  at  Versailles  surrendered,  and  the 
Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  occupied  the  place. 
A  levee  en  masse  of  all  under  twenty-five  years 
of  age  was  ordered  by  the  Government  (Sep- 
tember 23),  and  all  Frenchmen  between  twenty 
and  twenty-five  years  were  prohibited  (Septem- 
ber 26)  leaving  France,  those  between  twenty- 
one  and  forty  years  being  organized  as  a  na- 
tional garde  mobile.  M.  Gambetta,  escaping 
by  means  of  a  balloon  from  the  beleaguered  city 
(October  7),  was  appointed  by  the  government 
at  Tours,  Minister  of  War. 

An  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Red  Repub- 
licans at  Paris,  headed  by  Blanqui,  Le'dru-Rol- 
lin,  and  others  to  establish  a  Commune  in  that 
city,  was  successfully  defeated  (October  14). 
The  news  of  the  capitulation  of  Metz  caused 
riots  at  Paris  (October  31).  As  the  result  of 
a  plebiscite  to  confirm  the  powers  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Defense,  the  votes  recorded  were 
557,976  for,  62,638  against.  The  successes  of 
the  German  arms  continued,  the  army  of  the 
Loire  was  defeated  by  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Mecklenburg  (November  17),  the  fortresses  of 
Verdun  (November  8)  and  Thionville  (Novem- 
ber 27)  capitulated.  The  army  of  the  Loire  un- 
der General  Chanzy  was  again  attacked  and  de- 
feated at  Beaugency  (December  8).  After 
various  battles,  the  army  of  the  Loire,  fighting 
and  retreating,  was  defeated  by  Prince  Fred- 
erick Charles  at  Le  Mans  (January  11,  1871), 
and  near  Vosges  (January  15,  16). 

The  army  under  General  de  Paladines,  in- 
trenched at  Orleans,  suffered  defeat  by  Prince 
Frederick  Charles  (December  4),  and  Orleans 
surrendered,  Rouen  being  two  days  later  oc- 
cupied by  General  Manteuffel,  who  engaged 
the  army  of  the  North  under  General  Faid-, 
herbe  atPointe  a  Noyelles  (December  23),  and 
at  Bapaume  (January  2,  3,  1871),  the  French 
retreating  in  each  case.  General  Bourbaki 
was  also  defeated  by  the  German  general  Von 
Werder,  near  Belfort  (January  15-17),  and 
General  Von  Goeben  gained  a  victory  over  the 
French  under  Faidherbe  at  St.  Quentin  (Janu- 
ary 19) .     After  gallant  but  unsuccessful  sorties 


from  Paris  by  Generals  Trochu  and  Ducrot 
(November  20  and  January  21),  the  city, 
which  had  been  bombarded,  capitulated  (Jan- 
uary 28) .  Following  the  fall  of  Paris,  General 
Bourbaki's  army  was  defeated  (January  30- 
February  1)  by  the  Germans  under  Genera. 
Manteuffel,  and  driven  across  the  frontier  into 
Switzerland.  The  fortress  of  Belfort  capitu- 
lated (February  16)  with  military  honors  after 
a  long  defense.  An  armistice  took  place  pre- 
paratory to  negotiations  for  peace.  On  the  res- 
ignation of  M.  Gambetta  a  National  Assembly 
was  elected  (February  8)  of  which  M.  Gr6vy 
was  chosen  president,  M.  Thiers  becoming  head 
of  the  executive  power.  The  French  Govern- 
ment was  recognized  by  the  chief  European 
powers  (February  18),  and  (February  26) 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  by  MM. 
Thiers  and  Favre  and  fifteen  delegates  of  the 
National  Assembly  on  the  part  of  France,  and 
Count  Bismarck  on  the  part  of  Germany.  By 
this  France  was  to  cede  certain  parts  of  Lor- 
raine, including  Metz  and  Thionville  and 
Alsace,  excluding  Belfort.  In  addition,  five 
milliards  of  francs  ($1,000,000,000)  were  to 
be  paid  as  war  indemnity  to  Germany  ;  certain 
departments  to  be  occupied  by  German  troops 
until  this  was  fully  discharged.  The  treaty, 
signed  February  26,  was  accepted  by  the 
National  Assembly  sitting  at  Bordeaux  (March 
1),  by  546  votes  to  107,  at  the  same  time 
unanimously  confirming  the  fall  of  the  Em- 
pire. The  Germans,  after  occupying  Paris  for 
forty-eight  hours  (March  1-3),  withdrew  from 
Versailles  (March  12).  A  Peace  Conference 
met  at  Brussels  (March  28),  and  at  Frankfort 
a  definite  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  (May  10), 
and  ratified  by  the  French  Assembly  (May  21 ). 
The  last  installment  of  the  indemnity  was  paid 
September  5, 1873,  and  the  last  of  the  German 
troops  quitted  French  soil  (September  16). 
The  Red  Republicans  under  the  lead  of  Blan- 
qui, Gustav  Flourens,  and  Felix  Pyat  rose 
in  revolt  (March  18,  1871)  against  the  Gov- 
ernment, held  Paris  and  established  the  Com- 
mune, which  was  not  suppressed  until  the  insur- 
gents had  committed  many  outrages  and  de- 
stroyed much  property,  after  holding  possession 
of  Paris  until  May  28,  when  the  troops  under 
Marshal  MacMahon  captured  the  city ;  some 
eight  hundred  troops  were  killed,  the  Com- 
munist forces  losing  fifty  thousand.  One 
fourth  of  Paris  was  destroyed,  the  loss  to  prop- 
erty being  estimated  at  $160,000,000.  Great 
numbers  of  the  Communists  were  subsequently 
tried,  some  executed,  and  the  remainder  trans- 
ported. Since  this  period  France  has  enjoyed 
a  respite  from  martial  dissensions,  though  the 
temper  of  the  people  is  a  continual  menace  to 
stability  of  rule. 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


277 


PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


•  Presidents, 


BORN. 


1'arexts. 


Term  of  Office. 


« 


1  Washington. 

2  Adams,  John 

3  Jefferson 

4  Madison 

5  Monroe 

6  Adams,  J.  Q. 

7  Jackson 

8  Van  Puren  . . 

9  Harrison,  W. 
lOTvler 

11  Polk 

12  Taylor 

13  Fillmore 

14  Pierce 

15  Buchanan  . . . 
10  Lincoln 

17  Johnson 

18  Grant 

19  Haves 

20  Garfield 

21  Arthur 

22  Cleveland 

23  Harrison,  ]?.. 

24  Cleveland.. .. 
25McKinley.... 


Date. 


Birthplace. 


Father. 


Mother. 


From 


To 


Feb.  »»,  1732  Bridges  Creek,  Va. . . . 

Oct.  H,  1735  Brairitree,  Mass 

Apr.  A, 1743  Shadwell,  Va 

Mar.  ,56, 1751  Port  Conwav,  Va 

Apr.  28, 1758  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va 

July'll,  1767  Quincv,  Mass 

Mar.  15, 1767  Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.C 

Dec.   5, 1782  Kinderhook,  N.  Y 

Feb.    9, 1773  Berkelev,  Va 

Mar.29, 1790  Charles'City  Co.,  Va. 
Nov.  2, 1795  Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.C 

Nov.  24, 1784  Orange  Co.,  Va 

Jan.    7, 1800  Summer  Hill,  N.  Y. . . . 
Nov. 23, 1804  Hillsborough,  N.  H. . . 

Apr.  23, 1791  Stony  Batter,  Pa 

Feb.  12, 1809  Nolin  Creek,  Kv 

Dec.  29, 1808  Raleigh,  N.C 

Apr.  27, 1822  Point  Pleasant,  Ohio.. 

Oct.    4, 1822  Delaware,  Ohio 

Nov.  19, 1831!Bedford,  Ohio 

Oct.    5, 1830  Fairfield,  Vt 

Mar.  18, 1837  Caldwell,  N.  J 

Aug.20, 1833  North  Bend,  Ohio 

Mar.  18, 1837  Caldwell,  N.  J 

Jan.  29, 1843  Niles,  Ohio 


Augustine Mary  Ball Apr.  30, 1789 

John Susanna  Boylston Mar.  4, 1797 

Peter Jane  Randolph Mar.  4,1801 

James Nellie  Conway Mar.  4, 1809 

Spence '  Elizabeth  Jones Mar.  4, 1817 

John Abigail  Smith Mar.  4,1825 

Andrew Elizabeth  Hutchinson  Mar.  4,1829 

Abraham Mary  Hoes  jMar.  4, 1837 

Benjamin Elizabeth  Bassett Mar.  4, 1841 

John Mary  Armistead 'Apr.   6, 1841 

Samuel [Jane  Knox jMar.  4, 1845 

Richard Sarah  Strother [Mar.  4, 1849 

Nathaniel [Phebe  Millard July  10, 1850 

Benjamin <  Anna  Kendrick Mar.  4, 1853 

James (Elizabeth  Speer Mar.  4, 1857 

Thomas Nancy  Hanks Mar.  4, 1861 

Jacob Mary'McDonnoiigh  . . .  Apr.  15, 1865 

Jesse  Root !  Harriet  Simpson Mar.  4, 1869 

Rutherford.. .  ;  Sophia  Birchard Mar.  4, 1877 

Abram Eliza  Ballou [Mar.  4,1831 

William Malvina  Stone Sep.  20, 1881 

Rich'd  Falley .  Anne  Neale Mar.  4, 1885 

John  Scott. . .  Elizabeth  F.  Irwin I  Mar.  4, 1889 

Richard  F 'Anne Neale 'Mar.  4,  1893 

William Nancy  C .  Allison Mar.  4, 1897 


Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Apr.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
July  10 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Apr.  15 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 
Sep.  19 
Mar 
Mar 
Mar.  4 
Mar.  4 


,1797 
,1801 
,1809 
,  1817 
,1825 
,1829 
,1837 
,1841 
,1841 
,1845 
,1849 
,1850 
,1853 
,1857 
,1861 
,1865 
,1869 
,1877 
,1881 
,1881 
,1885 
,1889 
,1893 
,1897 


Biographical  Statistics. 


Washington..  57 
Adams,  John.  61 

Jefferson 57 

Madison 57 

Monroe 58 


Adams,  J.  Q..  57 
Jackson 61 


Died. 


When. 


Where. 


Cause. 


Dec.  14, 1799  Mt.  Vernon,  Va. 
July    4, 1826  Quincy,  Mass.. . . 


[Membraneous  croup. 
Natural  decline 


July    4,  1826  Monticello,  Va 

June28.  1836  Montpelier,  Va 

July    4, 1831  New  York  City,  N.  Y. 


Feb.  23,  1848  Halls  of  Congress, Wash- 
I    ington,  D.  C 

June  8,  1845  Hermitage,  near  Nash- 
I    ville.Tenn 


Van  Buren. . .  54  July  24,  1862  Kinderhook,  N.  Y 

Harrison 68  Apr.    4, 1841  White  House,  Washing- 

I    ton,  D.  C 

Tyler 51  Jan.  17, 1862  Ballard     House,     Rich- 

I    mond,  Va 

Polk 49  June  15, 1849  Nashville,  Tenn 

Taylor 64  July    9,  1850  White  House,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C 


Chronic  diarrhoea. 
Natural  decline... 
Natural  decline. . . 


Wiiere  Buried. 


Fillmore 50  Mar.    9, 1874  Buffalo,  N.  Y  . 

Pierce 48  Oct.    8,  1869  Concord,  N.  H. 


Buchanan 65  June  1,  1868  Lancaster,  Pa 

i     '  I 

Lincoln 52  Apr.  15, 1865  Washington,  D.  C. 


Johnson 56  Jul v  31 ,  1875  Greeneville,  Tenn 

Grant 46  Julv  23, 1885  Mt.  McGregor,  N.  Y 

Haves 54;  Jan.  17,  1893  Fremont,  Ohio 

Garfield 49  Sep.  19,  1881  Elberon,  Long  Branch, 

!    N.J 


Paralysis 80 

Dropsy |78 

Asthma 79 

Pleurisy  fever !68 

Bilious  attacks,  with  bron- 

I .   chitis 71 

Chronic  diarrhoea 53 

Cholera   morbus   and   ty- 
phoid fever 65 

Paralysis 174 

Dropsy  and  inflammation 
of  the  stomach 64 

Rheumatic  gout , 

Assassinated  by  Booth 


67  Mt.  Vernon,  Va. 

90  Cnitarian  Church,  Quincy, 
Mass. 

83  Monticello,  Albemarle  Co., Va. 

85  Montpelier,  Hanover  Co.,  Va. 

73  Originally  2d  Ave.  Cemetery, 
N.  Y.,  transferred,  lf'58,  to 
Hollywood  Cemetery,  Rich- 
mond, Va. 


Unitarian  Church,  Quincv, 
Mass. 

Hermitage,  near  Nashv'lle, 
Te:in. 

Village  Cemeterv,  Kinder- 
hook, N.  Y. 

North  Bend,  Ohio. 


Hollywood,  Richmond,  Va. 
Nashville,  Tenn. 


Near  Louisville,  Ky.  (Spring- 
field). 
Forest  Lawn,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Minot  Cemetery,  Concord, 
N.H. 

Woodward  Hill  Cemetery, 
Wheatland,  Pa. 

Oak  Ridge  Cemeterv,  Spring- 
field, 111. 

Greeneville,  Tenn. 

Riverside,  New  York  Citv. 

Fremont,  Ohio. 


Arthur 50  Nov.  18,  1886  New  York,  N.  Y. 


Cleveland ....  47 

Harrison 55 

McKinley 53 


*  Upon  accession  to  office. 


Paralysis 

Cancer  of  the  tongue 

Neuralgia  of  the  heart.., 

Assassinated bvGuiteau..  49  Lake  View  Cemetery,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 
Bright's    disease,    culmi- 
I    nating  in  paralysis  and 
I    apoplexy 56  Rural  Cemetery,  Albany,  N.Y. 


•At  death. 


278 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Biographical   Statistics  {Continued). 


Educational  Advantages.    Profession,   vocation       Ancestry 


Father's 
Business. 


Religious 
Connection.* 


Washington . 

Adams 

Jefferson 


Madison. 
Monroe . . 


Adams,  J.Q. 

Jackson   

Van  Buren  .. 
Harrison,  W. 


Tyler 
Polk. 


Common  school !  Planter Surveyor. . 

Harvard  College,  1755 Lawyer Teacher  . . 

College  William  and  Mary, 

j    1762 (Lawyer Lawyer... 

Princeton  College,  1771. Lawyer Lawyer . . . 

Entered     College     William 

and  Mary jPolitician..  Lawyer... 

Harvard  College,  1787 Lawyer (Lawyer... 

Lawyer \  Lawyer . . . 

Lawyer ]  Lawyer . . . 


English. 
English. 

Welsh . . 
English. 


Taylor 

Fillmore... 

Pierce 

Buchanan. 

Lincoln 

Johnson... 
Grant 


Haves 

Garfield 

Arthur 

Cleveland.... 
Harrison,  B. 
McKinley 


Self-taught 

Academy 

Entered  Hampden  -  Sydney 

I    College 

College  William  and  Mary, 
1806 iLawyer... 

University  of  North  Caro-| 

1    lina Lawyer. . . 

Common  school Army 

Public  school... 'Lawyer 

Bowdoin  College,  18-24...   ..JLawyer 

Dickinson  College,  1803 Lawyer. . . 

Self-taught Lawyer . . . 

Self-taught Politician. 

[West  Point  Military  Acad- 

I    emy,  1843 Army , 

Kenyon  College,  O.,  1842 jLawyer 

!  Williams  College,  1856 jLawyer 

Union  College,  1848 (Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 


Armv .Medicine. 


Scotch 

English 

Scotch-Irish. 
Dutch 


Planter Episcopalian. 

Farmer Unitarian. 

Planter Liberal. 

Planter Episcopalian. 

Planter Episcopalian. 

Lawyer Unitarian, 

Farmer Presbyterian. 

Farmer Dutch  Reformed. 


English. 
Lawyer English. 


Common  school. 

Miami  University,  O.,  1851.. 

Entered  Allegheny  College. 


Lawver . . 
Soldier  . . 

Tailor 

Lawyer . . 
Lawyer.. 
Parmer. . 
Tailor. . . . 


Scotch-Irish. 

English 

English 

English 

Scotch-Irish. 

English 

English 


Tanner . . 
Lawyer . . 
Teacher . 
Teacher . 
Teacher . 
Lawyer . . 
Lawyer . . 


Scotch 

Scotch.  

English 

Scotch-Irish. 

English 

English 

Scotch-Irish. 


Statesman Episcopalian. 

Jurist Episcopalian. 

Farmer Presbyterian. 

Planter Episcopalian. 

Farmer Episcopalian. 

Farmer Episcopalian. 

Merchant Presbyterian. 

Farmer Liberal. 

Sexton Liberal. 

Tanner Methodist. 

Merchant Methodist. 

Fanner Disciples. 

Clergyman Episcopalian, 

Clergyman Presbyterian. 

Farmer Presbyterian. 

IronMfr Methodist. 


*  Washington,  Garfield,  and  Harrison  were  the  only  Presidents  who  were  church  members,  but  all,  with  one 
exception,  were  men  who  revered  Christianity.  Adams  married  a  minister's  daughter,  and  was  inclined  to 
Unitarianism.  Jefferson  was  not  a  believer,  at  least  while  he  was  Chief  Magistrate.  .Madison's  early  connections 
were  Presbyterian.  Monroe  is  said  to  have  favored  the  Episcopal  Church.  John  Quincy  Adams  was  like  bis 
father.  Jackson  was  a  Presbyterian  and  died  in  the  communion  of  that  church.  Van  Buren  was  brought  up  in 
the  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  but  afterward  inclined  to  the  Episcopal  Church.  Harrison  leaned  toward  the 
Methodist  Church,  and  Tyler  was  an  Episcopalian.  Polk  was  baptized  by  a  Methodist  preacher  after  his  term  of 
office  expired.  Taylor  was  inclined  to  the  Episcopal  communion.  Fillmore  attended  the  Unitarian  Church,  and 
Franklin  Pierce  was  a  member,  but  not  a  communicant,  of  a  Congregationalist  church  at  Concord.  Buchanan 
was  a  Presbyterian,  as  is  also  Benjamin  Harrison.  General  Grant  attended  the  Methodist  Church,  and  President 
Garfield  the  Church  of  the  Disciples.    President  McKinley  attends  the  Methodist  Church. 


Biographical  Statistics  (Continued). 


Married. 


Chil- 
dren. 


Wife. 


Washington.. 
Adams,  John. 

Jefferson 

Madison , 

Monroe 

Adams,  J.  Q. 

Jackson , 

Van  Buren . . . 

Harrison 

Tyler 


Polk 

Taylor... 
Fillmore. 


Date. 


To  Whom. 


Pierce  

Buchanan , 

Lincoln 

Johnson.. . 

Grant 

Hayes 

Garfield  . . 
Arthur  . .. 
Cleveland  , 
Harrison  . 
McKinlev. 


Jan.  17,  1759  Mrs.  Martha  Custis 

Oct.  25, 1764  Abigail  Smith 

:  Jan.    1, 1772  Mrs.  Martha  Skelton. . . . 

[Oct.        1794  Mrs.  Dorothy  Todd 

Feb.  23, 1786  Eliza  Kortwright 

July  26, 1797  Louisa  C.  Johnson 

I  Jan.        1791  Mrs.  Rachel  liobards  . . . 
Feb.        1807  Hannah  Hoes  (Goes) .... 

Nov.  22, 1795  Anna  Svmmes 

Mar.  29, 1813  Letitia  "Christian 

June 26, 1814  Julia  Gardiner 

Jan.    1,  1824  Sarah  Childress 

1810  Margaret  Smith 

Feb.    5,  1826  Abigail  Power 

I  Feb.  18,  1858  Mrs.  Caroline  Mcintosh 
Nov.  19, 1834  Jane  Means  Appleton... 

] Unmarried 

'Nov.   4, 1842  Marv  Todd 

May  17, 1827  Eliza  McCardle 

Aug.  22, 1818  Julia  Dent 

Dec.  30, 1852  Lucy  Ware  Webb 

Nov.  11, 1858  Lucretia  Rudolph 

Oct.  29, 1859  Ellen  Lewis  Herndon  . . . 

June  2, 1886  Frances  Folsom 

Oct.  20, 1853  Caroline  Lavinia  Scott . 
Jan.  25,  1871  Ida  Saxton 


Where. 


- 


Williamsburg,  Va... 

Weymouth,  Mass 

The'  Forest,  Va 

Hare  wood,  Va 

New  York,  N.  V 

London,  Eng 

Natchez,  Miss 

Kinderhook,  N.  Y. . . 
North  Bend,  Ohio.. . 

Cedar  Grove,  Va 

New  York  City,  N.  Y. 
Murfreesboro,  Tenn. 
Near  Louisville,  Ky. 

Moravia,  N.  Y 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Amherst,  N.  H 


6 

3 

0 
0 
0 

3 
3 

1 
6 
3 

4      •_' 
0      0 


- 


Birthplace. 


Date. 


New  Kent  Co.,  Va... 
Weymouth,  Mass  . . . 
Charles C.  Co.,  Va... 

North  Carolina 

New  York.X.  V 

London,  Eng 


(i     (i 
3      0 


Kinderhook,  X.  v. . . 
Morris  town,  X.  J. . . . 

Cedar  Grove,  Va 

East.  Hampton.  X.  Y. 

Murfreesboro,  Tenn. 

Calvert  Co..  Md 

Stillwater.  X.  Y 


Lexington,  Ky 

Greenville,  Tenn. . . 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. . . 

Hiram,  Ohio 

New  Y'ork,  X.  Y. . . . 
Washington,  i>.  c . 

Oxford,  Ohio 

Canton,  Ohio 


Hampton,  X.  H. 


1  3 
1  1 
ii     2 


Lexington,  Ky... . 
Leesburg,  Tenn.. . 

St.  Louis.  Mo 

Chilllcothe.Ohio. 

Hiram,  Ohio 

Culpeper  C.  H.,  v. 
Buffalo,  N.  Y... 

Oxford,  Ohio 

Canton.  Ohio.   ..  . 


May,  173.' 
Nov.  12, 1744 
Oct.  A,  1748 
Ma\    20,  1172 

1788 
Feb.  11,  1775 

17.7 
Mar.  8,  1783 
July  25,  1775 
Not.  12, 1790 

1820 
Sept.  4.  1803 

1790 
Mar.  13,  1798 
Oct.  21,  1813 
Mar.  12,  1800 
I  nuiairied. 
Dec.  12, 1818 
Oct.  4,  1810 
Jan.  26,  1826 
Aug.  28,  1881 
Apr.  19.  1832 
Au<:.  30,  1837 
July  21,  1864 
Oct.  1,1832 
June  8, 1847 


HISTORY   AND    BIOGRAPHY. 


279 


VICE-PRESIDENTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Birthplace. 


Paternal 
Ancestry. 


,  - 
o  c 


Place  of  Death. 


-5 


1  John  Adams 

2  Thomas  Jefferson 

:s  Aaron  Burr 

4  George  Clinton 

5  Elbridge  Gerry 

6  Daniel  D.  Tonipkins.. 

7  John  C.  Calhoun 

*  Martin  Van  Buren. . . 
9  Richard  M.  Johnson. 

10  John  Tyler 

_1  George  M.  1  >allas 

12  Millard  Fillmore 

1?  William  K.  King 

14  John  C.  Breckinridge 

15  Hannibal  Hamlin.... 

16  Andrew  Johnson 

17  Schuyler  Colfax 

18  Henrv  AVilson 

19  William  A.  Wheeier.. 

20  Chester  A.  Arthur.... 

21  Thos.  A    Hendricks. . 
23  Levi  P.  Morton 

23  Adlai  K.  Stevenson... 

24  Garret  A.  Hohart  ... 


Ouincv,  Mass 1735 

Shadwell,  Va 1743 

Newark,  N.  J 1.50 

Ulster  Co.,  X.Y 1739 

Marhlehead.  Mass 1741 

Scarsdale,  N .  V 1774 

Abbeville,  8.C 1782 

Kinderhook,  X.  V 1782 

Louisville,  Ky 1780 

Greenwav,  Va 1790 

Philadelphia,  Pa 179-' 

Summerhill,  X.Y 1800 

Sampson  Co.,X.  C 1780 

Lexington.  Kv 1821 

Paris,  lie " 1888 

Raleigh.  N.C 1808 

New  York  city.  X.  Y...  1823 

Farmington,  N.  H 1812 

Malone.  X.  Y 1819 

Fairfield.  Vt 1830 

Muskingum  Co.,  Ohio.  1819 

Shorebam,  Vt 1821 

Christian  Co.,  Kv 1835 

Long  Branch,  N.J...  1844 


English 

Welsh 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Scotch-Irish. 

Dutch 

English 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Scotch 

English 

English 

English 

English 

English 

Scotch-Irish. 
Scotch-Irish. 

Scotch 

Scotch-Irish. 
English 


Mass. 
Va... 
X.  T. 
X.  Y. 
Mass. 
X.  Y . 
S.C.. 
N.Y. 
Kv... 
Va... 
Pa... 
X.  Y. 
Ala .  . 
Kv... 
Me... 
Tenn. 
tad.. 
Mass. 
X.  Y. 
X.  Y. 
tad.. 
X.  Y. 
111.... 
X.J.. 


1789 

1797 
1*01 
1805 
1813 
1817 
1825 
1833 
1837 
1841 
1*45 
1849 
1853 
1857 
1801 
1865 
I860 
187! 
1.-77 
1881 
'1885 
Issn 
1*93 
is:  '7 


Fed.. 
Rep. . 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Dem . 
Dem. 
Whig 
Dem. 
Dem. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep.. 
Rep. . 
Rep.. 
Dem. 
Rep.. 
Dem. 
Rep.. 


Quincy,  Mass 

Monticello,  Va 

Staten  Island,  X.  Y. , 

Washington,  D.  C 

Washington,  D.  C... 
Staten  Island.  N.Y.. 
Washington,  D.  C... 

Kinderhook,  X.  Y 

Frankfort,  Ky 

Richmond,  Va 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Buffalo,  N.Y 

Dallas  Co.,  Ala 

Lexington,  Ky 

Bangor,  Me 

Carter  Co.,  Tenn 

Mankato,  Minn 

Washington,  D.  C. . 

Malone,  X.  Y.   

Xew  York  city,  N.  Y 
Indianapolis,  Ind... 


.  1826 
.  18-6 
.1836 
.  1812 
.  1814 
.  1825 
.  1850 
.  1862 
.  1850 
.  18H2 
.  1864 
.  1874 
.  1853 
.  1875 
.  1891 
.  1875 
.  1885 
.  1875 
.  1887 
.  1886 
.  1*85 


SPEAKERS  OF  THE  Y.   S.  HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 


Con- 
gress. 

l 

3 

4.  5 

6 

7-9 
10.  11 
12.  18 

13 
14  -10 

16 

17 

is 

19 
20-23 

23 
24,  25 

26 

27 


Years. 


1789-91 
1791-93 

1793-95 
I7J5-99 

1799-l>-0; 

j  18H-07 

I  1807-11 
1M1-14 
1-14-15 
1815-20 

:  1820-21 
1821-23 

|  1823-25 

1827-34 

I  1834-35 

,  1839-11 
I  1841-13 


Xame. 


l\  A.  Muhlenburg... 
Jonathan  Trumbull. 
I-".  A.  Muhlenburg... 
Jonathan  Dayton . .. 

Thco.  SedgwJck 

Nathaniel  Macon 

Joseph  B.  Varnum. . 

Henry  (lay 

Langdon  Chorea 

Henrv  Clav 

John' W.Taylor 

Philip  P.  Barbour. . . 

Henrv  Clav 

John'W.  Taylor 

Andrew  Stevenson. . 

John  Bell 

James  K.  Polk 

R.  M.  T.  Hunter 

John  White 


Pa... 

ct.... 

Pa... 
X  J.. 
Mass. 
X.  C. 
Mass. 

Kv... 

s.'c. 
Kv... 
N.Y. 

Va . . . 
Ky.  . 
X.Y. 
Va . . . 
Tenn. 
Tenn. 
Va... 
Kv... 


Born. 

Died. 

1  Con- 
gress. 

28 

1  1750 

1801 

1740 

180-J 

29 

1750 

1801 

30 

1780 

1824 

31 

!  1746 

1813 

32,  33 

1757 

1837 

34 

1750 

1821 

!     3» 

1777 

1852 

1     36 

1776 

1*57 

37 

1777 

1852 

38-40 

|  1784 

1*54 

41-13 

1783 

1841 

|     44     ! 

1777 

1852 

44-46 

1784 

1854 

47 

1784 

1857 

48  BO 

17:7 

1889  ! 

51 

1795 

1849 

52,  53 

18(>9 

1887  , 

64,  55  ; 

1805 

1845 

56 

Years. 


Xame. 


State.  Born.  Died. 


1843-45 
1845-17 
1847-49 
1819-51 
1851-55 
18-.5-57 
1857-59 
1859-61 
1861-63 
1863-69 
1889  75 
1*75  76 
1876-81 
1881-83 
1883-89 
1889-91 
1891-88 
1895-99 
18rJ- 


John  W.  Jones 

Va. 

!  1805 

1848 

Ind... 

I  1799 

1850 

Robert  C.  Winthrop 

Mass.. 

1  1809 

1894 

Howell  Cobb 

Ga.... 

1815 

1868 

LinnBovd 

Kv.... 

1800 

1859 

Xathaniel  P.  Banks 

Mass. . 

1  1816 

1894 

James  L.  Orr 

s.  c... 

1822 

1873 

Wm.  Pennington... 

N.J... 

1  1796 

1862 

Galusha  A.  Grow . . . 

Pa.... 

1823 

Schuvler  Colfax 

Ind... 

|  1823 

1885 

James  G.  Blaine 

Me.... 

1  1830 

1893 

Michael  C.  Kerr — 

Ind... 

j  1827 

1876 

Samuel  J.  Randall. 

Pa 

1828 

1890 

John  W.  Keifer 

[Ohio.. 

1  1836 

John  G.  Carlisle 

Kv.... 

1  1835 

Thomas  B.  Reed. . . . 

Me.... 

I  1839 

Charles  F.  Crisp 

Ga . . . . 

I  1845 

1896 

Thomas  B.  Reed. . . . 

;Me.... 

1  1839 

|  1840 

.... 

PRESIDENTIAL  CABINET  OFFICERS. 

SECRETARIES  OF  STATE. 


Presidents. 


Cabinet  Officers. 


Resi- 
dence. 


Date  of 

Appoint-     Presidents. 

1     Hunt.      \ 


Washington.  Thomas  Jelferson Va. . . 

Edmund  Randolph "... 

Timothy  Pickering Mass. 


Adams. 


Jefferson . 
Madison.. 


Monroe 

J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson .... 


Van  Buren . 
Harrison  .. 
Tvler 


John  Marshall Va . . . 

James  Madison 

Robert  Smith Md... 

James  Monroe Va . . . 

John  Qui  my  Adams Mass. 

Henry  Clay." Ky... 

Martin  Van  Buren X.Y. 

Edward  Livingston La.  .. 

Louis  McLane Del.  . 

John  Forsyth Ga 


Daniel  Webster Mass. 


Polk. 


Hugh  S.  Legare S.  C . . 

Abel  P.  Upshur Va.  .. 

John  C.  Calhoun B.C.. 

James  Buchanan Pa 


1789 
1794 
1796 
1797 
1800 
1801 
1809 
1811 
1817 
1825 
1*29 
1831 
1833 
1834 
1-  17 
1841 
1*41 
1843 
1*43 
1844 
1845 


Cabinet  Officers. 


Resi- 
dence. 


Taylor John  M.  Clayton Del... 

Fillmore I  Daniel  Webster Mass. 

"        ;Ed ward  Everett ■     . 

Pierce William  L.  Marcy, X.  Y. 

Buchanan . . .  Lewis  Cass Mich . 

"         ...  Jeremiah  S.  Black Pa.  . . 

Lincoln......  William  H.Seward IN.  Y. 

Johnson.  "  "        "        "    • 

Grant Elihu  B.  Washburne ....  111. . . . 

"      Hamilton  Fish X.Y. 

Hayes William  M.  Evarts **    . 

Garfield Tames  G.  Blaine Me. .. 

Arthur F.  T.  Frelinghuvsen X .  J . . 

Cleveland...  Thomas  F.  Bayard Del... 

Harrison James  G.  Blaine    Me. . . 

"        Tohn  W,  Foster Ind . . 

Cleveland  . . .  Walter  Q.  Gresham 111.... 

Richard  Olney Mass. 

McKinlev....  John  Sherman Ohio. 

"      "....  William  R.  Day Ohio 

-       ..  .JohnHav Ohio. 


Date  of 
Appoint- 
ment. 


1849 
1850 
1852 
1853 
1857 
1860 
1861 
1865 
1869 
1869 
1877 
1881 
1881 
1885 
1889 
1892 
1893 
1895 
1897 
1897 
1898 


280 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Presidential  Cabinet  Officers — Continued. 


SECRETARIES  OF  THE  TREASIRY. 


Presidents. 


Washington 

Adams    

Jefferson . . . 
Madison 

Monroe 

J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson 

Van  Buren., 

Harrison 

Tyler , 

Polk.  '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
Taylor 


Cabinet  Officers. 


Alexander  Hamilton. 
Oliver  Wolcott 


Resi- 
dence. 


N.Y. 

Ct . . . 


Samuel  Dexter Mass  . . 


Albert  Gallatin Pa . 


Thomas  Ewing Ohio 


Walter  Forward  Pa ... . 

John  C.  Spencer N.  Y. . 

George  M.  Bibb Ky 

Robert  J.  Walker |Miss. . 

William  M.  Meredith ...  Pa 


Date  of 
Appoint- 
ment. 


George  W.  Campbell...  Tenn  .. 

Alexander  J.  Dallas Pa 

William  H.  Crawford. . .  Ga 


Richard  Rush Pa 

Samuel  D.  Ingham i  " 

Louis  McLane Del 

William  J.  Duane Pa 

Roger  B.  Taney Md  — 

Levi  Woodbury N.H  . . . 


1789 
1795 
1797 
1801 
1801 
1801 
1809 
1814 
1814 
1816 
1817 
1825 
1823 
1831 
1833 
1833 
1834 
1837 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1849 


Presidents. 


Fillmore.. 
Pierce. . . . 
Buchanan 

Lincoln.. . 

Johnson . . 
Grant 

Hayes 

Garfield... 
Arthur . . . 

Cleveland. 

Harrison  . 

Cleveland. 
McKinley. 


Cabinet  Officers. 


i   Resi- 
dence. 


Date  of 

Appoint- 
ment. 


Thomas  Corwin Ohio  ..  1850 

James  Guthrie Ky  ....  1853 

Howell  Cobb Ga 1857 

Philip  F.  Thomas Md....  1860 

John  A.  Dix N.Y...  1861 

Salmon  P.  Chase Ohio  .J  1861 

William  P.  Fessenden    .Me  ....  1864 

Hugh  McCulloch Ind ... .  1865 

"   ....  1865 

George  S.  Boutwell Mass  . .  1869 

William  A.  Richardson.      "      ..  1873 

Benjamin  H.  Bristo-v. ..  Ky 1874 

Lot  M.  Morrill Me  ....  1876 

John  Sherman Ohio  . .  1877 

William  Windom Minn  . .  1881 

Charles  J.  Folger N.Y...  1881 

Walter  Q.  Gresham Ind ....  lss4 

Hugh  McCulloch "   ....  1884 

Daniel  Manning N.  Y. . .  1885 

Charles  S.  Fairchihl  ....     "     ...  1887 

William  Windom Minn  . .  |  1889 

Charles  Foster Ohio  . .  1891 

Ijohn  G.  Carlisle |Ky  ....  1897 

Lyman  J.  Gage Ill 1897 


SECRETARIES  OF  WAR. 


Washington 
Adams 

Jefferson 

Madison 

Monroe 

J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson  

Van  Buren . . 

Harrison 

Tyler  

poik..;;..."; 

Adams 

Jefferson 

Madison 


Monroe.. . 

J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson . . . 

Van  Buren 

Harrison .. 
Tyler 


Henry  Knox 

Timothy  Pickering. . . 
James  McHenry 


John  Marshall 

Samuel  Dexter 

Roger  Griswold 

Henry  Dearborn  

William  Eustis 

John  Armstrong 

James  Monroe 

William  H.  Crawford. 

Isaac  Shelby 

Geo.  Graham  (ad.  in.). 

John  C.  Calhoun 

James  Barbour 

Peter  B.  Porter 

John  H.  Eaton 

Lewis  Cass 

Benjamin  F.  Butler. . . 

Joel  R.  Poinsett 

John  Bell 


John  McLean 

John  C.  Spencer  ... 
James  M.  Porter  . . . 
William  Wilkins... 
William  L.  Marcy. 


Mass  . . 

1789 
1795 

Md  .... 

1796 

<< 

1797 

Va 

Mass  . . 
Ct 

1800 
1800 
1801 

Mass  . . 

1801 

" 

1809 

iN.Y... 

1813 

jVa 

1814 

iGa 

1815 

Ky  .... 

1817 

Va 

1817 

B.C.... 

1817 

iVa 

1825 

|N.Y... 

1828 

Tenn  .. 

1829 

Ohio  .. 

1831 

!N.  Y... 

1837 

S.C.... 

1837 

Tenn  . . 

1841 

i 

1841 

Ohio  . . 

1841 

N.Y... 

1841 

Pa 

1843 

u 

1844 

N.Y... 

1845 

Taylor 

Fillmore  .. 
Pierce..  .. 
Buchanan . 

Lincoln  . . . 

Johnson. .. 


George  W.  Crawford. 

Edward  Bates 

Charles  M.  Conrad. . . 

Jefferson  Davis 

John  B.Floyd 

Joseph  Holt 

Simon  Cameron 

Edwin  M.  Stantou  . . 


U.  S.  Grant  (ad.  In  I  . . 

Lor.  Thomas  ('/'/.  In.  | . 

John  M.  Schotield 

Grant John  A.  Rawlins 

William  T.  Sherman.. 

William  W.Belknap.. 

Alphonso  Taft 

James  Don  Cameron . . 

Hayes George  W.  McCrary  . . 

"      I  Alexander  Ramsey 

Garfield .   ...  (Robert  T.  Lincoln 

Arthur 

Cleveland . 
Harrison  . . 


Ga 

Mo  ... 

La 

Miss. . 

Va 

Ky  ... 

Pa 

Ohio... 

in. ;;; 


N.  V.. 

111.... 

Ohio  . 
la  .... 
Ohio  . 
Pa.... 
la  .  .. 
Minn . 
Ill 


Cleveland  . 
McKinley  , 


William  C.  Endicott.. 

Redfield  Proctor 

Stephen  B.  Elkins 

Daniel  S.  Lamont 

Russell  A.  Alger 

Elihu  Root 


.  .Mass  . . 

.  i  Vt- 

.  W.  Va. 
•  N.Y... 
.Mich.. 
.  N.Y... 


1849 
1850 
1850 
1863 
1857 
1*61 
1861 
1862 
1865 
1867 
1868 
1868 
1869 
1869 
1869 
1876 
1876 
1877 
1879 
1881 
1881 
1886 
1889 
1891 
1893 
1897 
1899 


SECRETARIES  OF  THE  NAVY. 


George  Cabot 

Benjamin  Stoddert . 


Robert  Smith 

Jacob  Crowninshield . 

Paul  Hamilton 

William  Jones 

B.  W.  Crowninshield  . 


Smith  Thompson  . . . 
Samuel  L.  Southard 

John  Branch 

Levi  Woodbury 

Mahlon  Dickerson . . 


James  K.  Paulding  . , 
George  E.  Badger 


Abel  P.  Upshur . 
David  Henshaw. 


Mass  .. 

1798 

Md.... 

1798 

«'    , 

1801 

"    . 

1801 

Mass  . . 

1805 

S.  C... 

1809 

|Pa 

1813 

Mass  .. 

1814 

1    "    ■ . . 

1817 

!N.  Y... 

1818 

N.J... 

1823 

II 

1825 

N.  C . . . 

1829 

N.H  .. 

1831 

N.J... 

1834 

"     . 

1837 

N.Y... 

1838 

N.  C... 

1841 

"    . 

1841 

Va 

1841 

Mass  .. 

1843 

Tyler Thomas  W.  Gilmer  . 

"      John  Y.Mason 

Polk George  Bancroft 

"    ;  John  Y.  Mason 

Taylor William  B.  Preston 

Fillmore William  A.  Graham 

"         ! John  P.  Kennedy. . . 

Pierce I  James  C.  Dobbin  . . . 

Buchanan . . .  Isaac  Toucey 

Lincoln Gideon  Welles 

Johnson 
Grant  . . 


Adolph  E.  Borie 

George  M.  Robeson 

Haves Richard  W.  Thompson. 

"      Nathan  Golf,  Jr 

Garfield William  H.  Hunt 

Arthur William  E.  Chandler . . . 

Cleveland  . . .  William  C.  Whitney . . . 

Harrison Benjamin  F.  Tracy 

Cleveland  . . .  Hilary  A.  Herbert 

McKinley  . . .  John  D.  Long 


Va. 


Mass 
Va... 


N.  ('.. 
Md  ... 
N.C.. 

Ct.... 


Pa 

N.J... 
Ind.... 
W.  Va. 

La 

N.  H  . . 
N.Y.    . 

Aia.;;; 

Mass  . . 


1844 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1853 
1857 
1861 
1865 
1869 
1869 
1877 
1881 
1881 
1882 
1885 
1889 
1893 
1897 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY 


281 


Presidential  Cabinet  Officers. — Continued. 


POSTMASTERS-GENERAL* 


Presidents. 


Washington 


Adams 

Jefferson . . . 


Cabinet  Officers. 


Samuel  Osgood 

Timothy  Pickering  . 
Joseph  'Habersham . 


Madison 
Monroe  . 


Gideon  Granger  

Return  J.  Meigs,  Jr. 
u 

John  McLean 


J.  Q.  Adams 
Jackson  


William  T.  Barry . 
Amos  Kendall  ..'.. 


Van  Buren  , 


Harrison 

Tyler 


Polk 

Taylor... 
Fillmore 


Pierce 

Buchanan . 


John  M.  Niles... . 
Francis  Granger. 


Charles  A.  Wickliffe. 

Cave  Johnson 

Jacob  Collamer 

'Nathan  K.  Hall 

Samuel  I).  Hubbard  . 

James  Campbell 

I  Aaron  V.  Brown 


Resi- 
dence. 


Ga... 


Ct... 
Ohio  . 

Ky... 


Ct... 
N.  v. 


Ky  .. 
Tenn 
Vt... 
N.  V. 
Ct... 
Pa... 
Tenn 


Date  of 
Appoint- 
ment. 


1789 
1791 
1795 
1797 
1801 
1801 
1809 
1814 
1817 
1823 
1825 
1829 
1835 
1837 
1840 
1811 
1841 
1841 
1845 
1849 
1850 
1852 
1853 
1857 


Presidents. 


Buchanan . 
Lincoln  .  . . 
Johnson. .. 
Grant  


Hayes . . . 

Garfield . 
Arthur  . . 


Cleveland  , 


Harrison  . 
Cleveland 


McKinley . 


Cabinet  Officers. 


Joseph  Holt 

Horatio  King 

Montgomery  Blair . 
William  Dennison . 


Resi- 
dence. 


Alexander  W.  Randall . . 
John  A.  J.  Cresswell  . . . 

James  W.  Marshall 

Marshall  Jewell 

James  N.  Tyner 

David  McK.  Key 

Horace  Maynard 

Thomas  L.  James 

Timothy  O.  Howe 

Walter  Q.  Gresham 

Frank  Hatton 

William  F.  Vilas 

Don  M.  Dickinson 

John  Wanamaker 

Wilson  S.  Bissell 

William  L.  Wilson 

James  A.  Gary 

Charles  Emory  Smith. . . 


Ky  .... 
Me  .... 
Md  .... 
Ohio  .. 

Wis  . '. '. 
Md  .... 
Va  .... 

ICt 

Ind.... 
Tenn  . . 

m.Y.'.'. 

Wis  .., 
Ind 

Iowa  . . 
Wis  ... 
Mich  . , 
Pa.... 
N.  Y... 
W.  Va. 
Md  .... 

Pa 

I 


Date  of 
Appoint- 
ment. 


SECRETARIES  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 


Taylor Thomas  E wing 

Fillmore ]  James  A.  Pearce 

Thos.  M.  T.  McKernon 
Alexander  H.  H.  Stuart 

Pierce Robert  McClelland 

Buchanan. . .  Jacob  Thompson . . 

Lincoln Caleb  B.  Smith 

John  P.  Usher 

Johnson. 


Grant 


James  Harlan 

Orville  H.  Browning 

Jacob  D.  Cox 


Ohio  .. 

1849 

( 

Md  .... 

1850 

Pa 

1850 

Va 

18M) 

< 

Mich.. 

1853 

'Miss.. . 

1857 

i 

Ind.... 

1861 
1863 
1865 

! 

Iowa  . . 

1865 

Jill 

1866 

. 

'Ohio  .. 

1869 

Grant 


Hayes 

Garfield . . . 

Arthur 

Cleveland . 

Harrison  . . 
Cleveland . 

McKinley . 


Columbus  Delano Ohio 

Zachariah  Chandler  .. .    Mich 

Carl  Schurz Mo  . . 

Samuel  J.  Kirk  wood  . . .  Iowa 

Henry  M.  Teller  Colo . 

Lucius  Q.  C.  Lamar Miss. 

William  F.  Vilas  Wis  . 

John  W.  Noble Mo  . . 

Hoke  Smith Ga. . . 

David  R.  Francis 'Mo  . . 

Cornelius  N.  Bliss N.  Y . 

Ethan  A.  Hitchcock Mo  . . 


1870 

1875 

1877 

1881 

1882 

1885 

1888 

1889 

1893 

1896 

-  1897 

1899 

SECRETARIES  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Cleveland  . . .  Norman  J  Colman IMo I 

Harrison Jeremiah  M.  Rusk Wis 


1889 


Cleveland . 
McKinley  . 


.  | J.  Sterling  Morton [Neb  . 

.  James  Wilson Iowa 


ATTORNEYS-GENERAL. 


Washington.  Edmund  Randolph Va. . 

"  William  Bradford Pa.  , 

"  Charles  Lee Va. , 


Adams 

Jefferson . . . 


Madison . 


Theophilus  Parsons Mass. 

Levi  Lincoln j    "    . 

Robert  Smith Md  . . 

John  Breckinridge Ky... 

Caesar  A.  Rodnev Del . . 


William  Pinkney Md 

Richard  Rush Pa . 


J.  Q.  Adams. 
Jackson. 


William  Wirt Va. 


Van  Buren  . . 


Harrison  . . . 
Tyler 


John  McP.  Berrien Ga. . . 

Roger  B.  Taney Md  . . 

Benjamin  F.  Butler N.  Y. 

Felix  Grundy Tenn 

Henry  I),  Gilpin Pa. .. 

John'j.  Crittenden Ky.. . 


Polk . 


Hugh  S.  Legare S.  C. . 

John  Nelson Md  . . 

John  Y.  Mason Va  .  . . 

Nathan  Clifford Me... 


1789 
1794 
1795 
1797 
1801 
1801 
1805 
1805 
1807 
1809 
1811 
1814 
1817 
1817 
1825 
1829 
1831 
1833 
1837 
1838 
1840 
1841 
1841 
1841 
1843 
1845 
1846 


Polk (Isaac  Toucey 

Taylor Re verdy  Johnson . . . 

Fillmore John  J  ."Crittenden . 


Pierce 

Buchanan . 


Lincoln. 


Johnson. 


Caleb  dishing 

Jeremiah  S.  Black 

Edwin  M.  Stanton 

Edward  Bates 

Titian  J.  Coffey  {ad.  in.) 
James  Speed 


Ct  ... 
Md  .. 
Ky... 
Mass. 
Pa... 
Ohio. 
Mo... 
Pa... 
Ky... 


Henry  Stanbery 

William  M.  Evarts 

Grant Ebenezer  R.  Hoar 

Amos  T.  Acker  man 

George  H.  Williams 

Edwards  Pierrepont 

Alphonso  Taf  t 

Hayes Charles  Devens 

Gaf field Wayne  MacVeagh 

Arthur Benjamin  H.  Brewster. . 

Cleveland  . . .  Augustus  H.  Garland.. . 

Harrison William  H.  H.  Miller  . . . 

Cleveland  . . .  Richard  Olney 

"  .Tudson  Harmon 

McKinley  . . .  Joseph  McKenna 

"  John  W.  Griggs 


Ohio. 
N.  Y. 
Mass. 
Ga... 
Ore.. 
N.  Y. 
Ohio. 
Mass. 
Pa... 


Ark.. 
Ind.. 
Mass. 
Ohio. 
Cal  .. 
N.J. 


Note. —  Since  the  foundation  of  the  Government,  the  individual  States  have  been  represented  the  following 
number  of  times  in  Cabinet  positions:  Massachusetts,  30 ;  New  York,  29:  Pennsylvania,  26;  Virginia,  22;  Ohio, 
22;  Maryland,  16;  Kentucky,  15;  Connecticut, 9:  Indiana, 9;  Georgia,  8;  Tennessee, 8;  Illinois,  7;.  Maine,  6;  South 
Carolina,  6;  Missouri,  6;  Delaware,  5;  Wisconsin,  5;  Michigan,  5:  New  Jersey,  5;  Mississippi,  4;  North  Carolina, 
4;  Iowa,4;  Louisiana, 3;  Minnesota, 3;  New  Hampshire,  3;  West  Virginia,  3;  Vermont,  2;  Alabama,  1 ;  Arkansas, 
1 ;  Colorado,  1 ;  Nebraska,  1 ;  California,  1 ;  Oregon,  1.  The  States  which  have  not  been  represented  in  the  Cabinet 
are :  Florida,  Idaho,  Kansas,  Montana,  Nevada,  North  Dakota,  Rhode  Island,  South  Dakota,  Texas,  Washington, 
Wyoming.    *  The  Postmaster-General  was  not  considered  a  Cabinet  officer  until  1829. 


282 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


JUSTICES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  SUPREME  COURT. 

(Names  of  the  Chief  Justices  in  Italics.) 


Name. 


Service. 


Term.    Yrs 


John  Jay,  ^.Y  1789-1795 

John  Rutledge,  S.  C 1789-1 791 

William  Gushing,  Mass 1789-1810 

James  Wilson,  Pa 1789-1798 

John  Blair,  Va 11789-1796 

Robert  H.  Harrison,  Md !  1789-1790 

James  Iredell,  N.  C '1790-1799 

Thomas  Johnson,  Md 1791-1793 

William  Paterson,  N.  J 1793-1806 

John  Rutledge,  S.  C 1795-1795 

Samuel  Chase,  Md 1796-1811 

Oliver  Ellsxvorth,  Ct 1796-1800 

Bushrod  Washington,  Va 1798-1829 

Alfred  Moore,  N.  C 1799-1804 

John  Marshall,  Va 1801-1835 

William  Johnson,  S.  C 1804-1834 

Brock.  Livingstone,  N.  Y     ...  1806-1823 
Thomas  Todd,  Ky 11807-1826 


Joseph  Story,  Mass. 

Gabriel  Duval,  Md 

Smith  Thompson,  N.  Y. 

Robert  Trimble,  Ky 

John  McLean,  Ohio 

Henry  Baldwin,  Pa . 

James  M.  Wayne,  Ga 

Roger  B.  Taney,  Md 

Philip  P.  Barbour,  Va. . 

John  Catron,  Tenn 

John  McKinlev,  Ala 

Peter  V.  Daniel,  Va 


1811-1845 
1811-1836 
1823-1843 
1826-1828 
1829-1861 
1830-1844 
1835  1867 
1836-1864 
1830-1841 
1837-1865 
1837-1852 
1841-1860 


Born. 


1745 
1739 
1733 
1742 
1732 
1745 
1751 
1732 
1745 
1739 
1741 
1745 
1762 
1755 
1755 
1771 
1757 
1765 
17-9 
1752 
1767 
1777 
1785 
1779 
1790 
1777 
1783 
1786 
1780 
1785 


Died. 


1829 
1800 
1810 
1798 
1800 
1790 
1799 
1819 
1806 
1800 
1811 
1807 
1829 
1810 
1835 
1834 
1823 
1826 
1845 
1844 
1843 
1828 
1861 
1844 
1867 
1864 
1841 
1865 
1852 
1860 


Name. 


Service. 


Term.    Yrs 


Born.  Died. 


Samuel  Nelson,  N.  Y 1845-1872 

Levi  Woodlmrv,  N.  H 1845-1851 

Robert  C.  Grier,  Pa 1846-1870 

Benjamin  R.  Curtis,  Mass :1851-1857 

John  A.  Campbell,  Ala 1853-1861 

Nathan  Clifford,  Me 1858-1881 

Noah  H.  Swayne,  Ohio 1861-1881 

Samuel  F.  Miller,  Iowa 1802-1890 

David  Davis,  111 1862-1877 

Stephen  J.  Field,  Cal 1863-1897 

Salmon  P.  Chase,  Ohio 1864-1878 

William  Strong,  Pa 1«70-1880 

Joseph  P.  Bradlev,  N.J 1870-1892 

Ward  Hunt,  N.  Y 1872-1882 

Morrison.  R.  Watte,  Ohio 1874-1888 

John  M.  Harlan,  Ky 1877- 

William  B.  Woods,  Ga 188>-1887 

Stanley  Matthews,  Ohio 1881-1889 

Horace  Gray,  Mass 1881- 

Samuel  Blatchford,  N.  Y 1882-1893 

Lucius  0-  C.  Lamar,  Miss 1888-1893 

Melville  W.  Fuller,  111 1888- 

David  J.  Brewer,  Kan 1889- 

Henry  B.  Brown,  Mich 1890- 

(ieorge  Shiras,  Jr.,  Pa 1892- 

Howell  E.  Jackson,  Tenn 1893-1895 

Edward  D.  White,  La 1893- 

Rufus  W.  Peckham,  N.  Y 1895- . '. '. '. 

Joseph  McKenna,  Cal 1897- 


1792 
1789 
1794 
1809 
1811 
1803 
1804 
1816 
1815 
1816 
1808 
li-08 
1813 
1811 
1816 
1833 
1824 
1824 
1828 
1820 
1825 
1833 
1837 
1836 
1832 
1832 
1845 
1837 
1843 


1873 
1851 
1870 
1874 

1889 
1881 
1884 
1890 
1885 

1873 

181)5 
1892 
1886 
1888 

1887 
1889 

1893 
1893 


SOME  FAMOUS  NAVAL  BATTLES. 


From  the  naval  battle  of  Salamis  to  the  great  sea  fight 
at  Manila  is  a  "far  cry,"  B.  C.  480  to  A.  D.  1898,  more 
than  2,000  years.  Salamis  was  the  first  great  recorded 
battle  of  the  world.  Salamis  drove  the  Persians  from 
Greek  soil;  Manila  drives  Spain  from  Asiatic  waters. 
The  loss  of  life  at  Salamis  has  been  variously  estimated 
at  from  5,000  to  50,000 ;  at  Manila  from  400  to  2,000.  Tri- 
remes were  at  Salamis,  and  shield  and  sword  and  brute 
numbers;  at  Manila  the  hell  of  monster  guns  and  iron- 
clads, the  scream  of  shell,  and  the  carnage  of  high  ex- 
plosives. Salamis  was  fought  in  the  youth  of  nations; 
Manila  in  the  dawn  of  the  greatness  of  the  American 
people,  the  night  of  Spain.  One  notable  parallel  to 
Manila  is  foundin  the  battle  of  the  Nile,  fought  August 
1, 1798 — Lord  Nelson  and  the  English  fleet  against  Ad- 
miral Brueys  and  the  French  fleet.  Nine  French  line- 
of-battle  snips  were  taken,  two  burned,  and  two 
escaped.  The  French  L'Orient,  with  Brueys  and  1,000 
men  on  board,  blew  up,  and  only  seventy  or  eighty 
escaped.  Nelson's  cry  for  this  engagement  was: 
"Victory or  Westminster  Abbey!"  Other  famous  sea 
contests  of  the  world  are : 

Winchelsea — English  defeat  40  Spanish  vessels  and 
capture  36,  August  29, 1350. 

Hartteur — English  capture  or  destroy  500  French  ves- 
sels, August  15, 1416. 

Gibraltar  Bay— Dutch  defeat  the  Spanish,  April  25, 
1607. 

Dover  Strait— Dutch  destroy  the  English  fleet,  Novem- 
ber 29, 1662. 

Portsmouth— English  defeat  the  Dutch  and  destroy 
11  men-of-war  and  36  merchantmen,  February  18,  1653. 

North  Foreland— 100  English  and  Dutch  men-of-war 
engaged  ;  11  Dutch  taken  and  6  sunk,  June  2, 1683. 

Coast  of  Holland— English  sink  30  Dutch  men-of-war, 
July  31, 1653. 

Santa  Cruz — Spanish  fleet  burned  bv  the  English, 
April  20, 1627. 

Harwich— Dutch  lose  18  ships  to  the  English,  June  3, 
1605. 

Thames— Dutch  lose  to  English  24  men-of-war,  4  ad- 
mirals killed,  and  4,000  seamen,  July  25,  1666. 

Messina— Spanish  fleet,  29  vessels,  destroyed  bv  Eng- 
lish, July  11,  1718. 

Gibraltar—  English  defeated  combined  fleets  of  Spain 
and  France,  September  13,  1782. 

Trafalgar— Nelson  sunk  10  French  and  Spanish  vessels 
after  fighting  with  27  ships,  33  of  the  combined  fleet ; 
Nelson  killed,  October  21, 1805. 


Navarino— The  fleets  of  England,  France,  and  Russia 
destroy  30  Turkish  men-of-war,  October  20, 182V. 

Most  notable  of  American  naval  battles  preceding 
Manila  are  the  following : 

Coast  of  Scotland— Paul  Jones  captures  the  Serapis 
and  Scarborough,  70  guns,  September  23,  1779. 

Off  St.  Kitts— The  Constellation,  26  guns,  captures  the 
French  L'Insurgent,  40  guns,  February  9,  1799. 

Coast  of  United  States— Constitution,  44  guns,  sinks 
the  Guerriere,  38  guns,  in  30  minutes,  August  19. 1812. 

Madeira — United  States,  44  guns,  captures  the  Mace- 
donian, 40  guns,  October  25, 1812. 

Brazil— Constitution  captures  the  Java,  Dec.  29,  1812. 

Demerara  River — Hornet  captures  the  Peacock,  Feb- 
ruary 24. 1813. 

Lake  Erie— Perrv,  with  54  guns,  defeats  English  fleet 
with  63  guns,  September  10,  1813. 

Lake  Champlain — McDonough,  with  86  guns,  defeats 
English  fleet  with  96  guns,  September  11, 1814. 

Manila  Bay — Rear  Admiral  Dewey,  with  six  ships: 
the  Olympia  (flagship),  Boston,  Baltimore,  Petrel,  Ra- 
leigh, and  Concord,  destroyed  Spain's  Asiatic  Squad- 
ron, 13  vessels,  under  Admiral  Montejo:  Isla  de  Cuba, 
Isla  de  Luzon,  Castilla,  Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa,  Don  Juan 
de  Austria,  Keina  Cristina,  Callao,  El  Cano,  El  Correo, 
General  Lezo,  Hercules,  Marques  del  Duero,  Rapido; 
also  the  navy  yard  and  nine  batteries.  American  loss, 
eight  wounded'  and  about  85,000  damage  to  ships.  Span- 
ish loss,  about  1,200  killed  or  wounded  and  some  §6,000,- 
000  in  vessels  destroyed  or  captured.    May  1, 1898. 

Santiago  de  Cuba— Cervera's  squadron  of  six  vessels: 
the  Vizcaya,  Almirante  Oquendo,  Maria  Teresa,  Cristo- 
bal Colon,  Furor,  and  Pluton,  made  a  bold  dash  to 
escape  from  the  harbor,  and  was  destroyed  by  Samp- 
son's fleet:  The  Oregon,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Texas,  Brook- 
lyn, Gloucester,  and  Vixen.  American  loss:  1  killed,  2 
wounded.  Spanish  loss:  300  killed,  165  wounded,  1,650 
taken  prisoners.    July  3. 1898. 

At  Santiago  de  Cuba  the  armies  and  navies  were  both 
engaged.  Army  losses:  United  States,  800  killed,  1,0  0 
wounded;  Spain,  2,000  killed,  1.500  wounded,  1.650  taken 
prisoners.  Total  armv  and  navy  losses  :  United  States, 
801  killed,  1.002  wounded.  Spain,  2,3(0  killed,  1,665 
wounded,  3,300  taken  prisoners. 

In  all  her  naval  conflicts  with  England,  France,  Spain, 
and  the  Tripoli  pirates,  the  United  States  has  never  sus- 
tained what  would  be  considered  a  crushing  defeat. 
She  has  lost  individual  vessels,  but  only  after  the  most 
desperate  resistance,  giving  proof  of  the  saving  that 
"  Americans  do  not  fight  to  save  their  skins.''' 


HISTORY    AND    BIOGRAPHY. 


283 


DICTIONARY  OF  HISTORY. 

Abbeys  and  Monasteries  robbed  of  their  plate  and 
jewels  by  William  the  Conqueror,  1069;  entirely  dis- 
solved by  Henry  the  VIII.,  1040.  This  ruler  suppressed 
in  England  and  Wales  643  monasteries,  90  colleges,  2374 
churches  and  chapels,  and  110  hospitals;  and  had  the 
abbots  of  Reading,  Glastonbury,  and  St.  John's,  Col- 
chester, hanged  and  quartered  "for  refusing  to  surren- 
der their  abbeys,  and  denying  his  supremacy. 

Aberdeen,  University  'of ,  founded  1477  :  King's  Col- 
lege founded  1500;  Marechal  College  founded  1593:  the 
town  of  Aberdeen  and  its  vicinity  was  visited  by  a 
destructive  inundation  Augusts,  1829. 

Aboukir,  in  Egvpt,  surrendered  to  the  English  forces 
March  18, 1801. 

Abydos  is  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the 
Hellespont.  Tradition  places  here  the  story  of  Hero 
andLeander;  history  tells  that  this  was  where  Xerxes 
led  his  vast  army  over  the  Hellespont  on  a  bridge  of 
boats;  and  Bvron  here  swam  the  Hellespont,  and  ren- 
dered it  ever  famous  by  his  "  Bride  of  Abydos." 

Acre,  taken  by  Richard  I.  and  other  Crusaders  July 
12, 1191,  after  a  siege  of  two  years  and  the  loss  of  300,000 
men ;  attacked  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  who, 
failing  in  the  twelfth  assault,  retired  with  great  loss  of 
men,  May  21, 1799. 

Actium,  in  Epirus,  naval  battle  of,  which  rendered 
Augustus  master  of  the  Roman  Empire,  September  2, 
31  B.  C. 

Adrianople,  taken  by  the  Ottomans,  1360;  taken 
from  the  Turks  by  the  Russians,  1829. 

Agincourt,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Eng- 
lish, gained  by  Henry  V.,  October  25, 1415 ;  10,000  of  the 
French  killed  and  14,000  taken  prisoners,  the  English 
losing  only  40.  In  the  French  army  were  four  times  as 
many  men  as  in  the  English. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  taken  by  the  French,  1793;  and 
again,  September  21,  1794;  Congress  at,  September  29, 
1818. 

Albans,  St.,  the  first  battle  between  the  Houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster,  in  which  the  former  was  victori- 
ous, May  22, 1455;  another  battle  was  fought,  February 
2,  1461,  between  the  Yorkists,  under  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick, and  the  Lancastrians,  under  Queen  Margaret; 
the  latter  were  the  victors. 

Alderton  Moor,  Yorkshire,  Battle  of,  where  the  Roy- 
alists routed  the  Parliamentarians,  June  29, 1643. 

Alessandria,  Italy,  taken  by  the  French,  1798;  sur- 
rendered to  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  July  24, 1799. 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  built  by  Alexander  in  17  clays, 
the  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  B.  C.  333; 
taken  by  Caesar,  B.  C.  46;  by  Dioclesian,  296  A.  D.-,  by 
the  Persians,  615  A.  D. ;  by  the  Saracens,  640  A.D;  by 
the  French,  1798.  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and 
English,  in  which  the  former  were  defeated,  but  the 
English  general,  Abercromby,  was  killed,  1801, 

Alhambra,  The,  is  a  palace  and  fortress  of  the 
Moors,  founded  about  1253,  by  Mohammed  I.  Cele- 
brated as  the  palace  of  the  kings  of  Granada.  Its  two 
courts,  that  ofthe  Myrtles  and  that  of  the  Lions,  are 
beautiful  examples  of  Arabian  art  in  Spain.  The  Al- 
hambra was  surrendered  to  the  Christians  by  the  Moors 
about  1491. 

Albinos,  called  also  Leucoethiopes,  or  white  negroes, 
and  by  the  Dutch  and  Germans  Kukerlaken,  were  at 
one  time  considered  a  distinct  race,  but  closer  observa- 
tion has  shown  that  the  same  phenomenon  occurs  in 
individuals  of  all  races,  and  that  the  peculiar  white 
appearance  rises  from  an  irregularity  of  the  skin.  The 
iris  of  the  eye  is  red  in  the  Albino.  Albinoism  occurs 
also  in  other" mammalia,  birds,  and  insects. 

Alabama,  tirst  settlement  was  made  by  the  French, 
at  Mobile,  in  1711.  The  commerce  of  the  state  is  consid- 
erable, and  its  manufacturing  interests  are  increasing 
rapidly;  chiefly  cotton  and  cotton  goods,  yarn,  thread, 
iron,  leather,  aiid  lumber.  Its  mining  interests  are  being 
rapidly  developed;  but  the  principal  industry  is  agri- 
culture, cotton  and  corn  being  the  leading  productions. 
Various  cereals,  sugar  cane,  rice,  and  tobacco  are  also 
produced. 

Alaska  was  purchased  by  the  United  States  from 
Russia  in  1867,  for  $7,200,000' in  gold,  and  was  formally 
taken  possession  of  October  9th  of  the  same  year  by 
General  Rousseau  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  at 
New  Archangel,  on  the  Island  of  Sitka.  With  the 
islands,  it  comprises  580.107  square  miles,  or  nearly  one 
sixth  of  the  entire  area  of  the  United  States  previous  to 
this  purchase.  The  land  abounds  in  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals; the  seas  yield  fur-bearing  seals  and  others,  and 


fish  in  immense  quantities.  Among  other  important 
resources  of  the  Territory  are  lumber  and  minerals  of 
all  kinds.  The  southwestern  part  \a  covered  for  thou- 
sands of  miles  with  dense  forests  of  yellow  cedar,  white 
spruce,  and  balsam  fir.  Among  the  valuable  minerals, 
coal  has  been  found  at  different  places  along  the  coast : 
petroleum,  lead,  iron,  and  graphite  at  various  points; 
copper,  marble,  and  sulphur  in  great  abundance;  also 
gold  and  silver  and  valuable  stones,  such  as  amethysts, 
garnets,  agates,  and  carnelians.  The  climate  of  the 
Territory  is  very  severe  in  the  inland  districts,  but  mild 
along  the  coast.  At  Fort  Yukon  the  thermometer  sinks 
as  low  as  seventy  degrees  below  zero  in  the  winter;  the 
summers  are  short  and  hot,  the  winters  long  and  cold. 
In  Southern  Alaska  the  winter  climate  is  the  average 
winter  climate  of  Kentucky,  and  the  summer  climate 
about  that  of  Minnesota.  The  capital  of  Alaska  is 
Sitka,  and  the  Territory  is  governed  by  a  Governor  and 
other  necessary  officers  appointed  by  the  authorities  at 
Washington.  The  trade  of  seal  hunting  is  entirely  in 
the  hands  of  the  Alaska  Commercial  Company,  who  in 
1870  secured,  by  Act  of  Congress,  a  monopoly  of  this 
business  for  twenty  years.  They  are  not  allowed,  how- 
ever, to  kill  the  animals  except  during  certain  months 
in  the  year,  nor  more  than  a  specified  number  annually. 

Alexandrian  Library,  consisting  of  4^0,000  manu- 
scripts, destroyed  by  fire  B.  C.  47.  The  second  library, 
consisting  of  700,000  Volumes,  was  destroyed  by  the  Sar- 
acens, under  Caliph  Omar,  at  whose  command  they  for 
six  months  burned  books  instead  of  wood,  for  the'pur- 
pose  of  heating  water  for  their  baths,  640  A.  D. 

Algiers,  formerly  the  country  called  Numidia,  as 
united  under  Massiiiissa  and  Jugurtha.  It  became  a  Ro- 
manprovince44B.C. ;  afterwardsit  was  independent, till 
the  inhabitants  invited  Barbarossa  the  pirate  to  assist 
them  against  the  Spaniards,  who,  however,  seized  it, 
1516.  Sometime  afterward  it  became  the  property  of 
the  Turks ;  reduced  by  Admiral  Blake,  1655 :  bombarded 
by  the  French,  1761 ;  bombarded  by  the  British  fleet, 
and  the  Christian  captives  set  free,  August  27,  1816. 
The  French  army,  under  the  command  of  General  Bour- 
mont,  landed  in  the  Kay. of  Sidi  Feraeh,  June  14, 1830; 
the  city  was  taken  July  5th ;  and  the  whole  of  the  terri- 
tory of  Algiers  was  subsequently  reduced,  and  became 
a  province  of  France. 

Altars,  instituted  by  Pope  Sixtus  I.,  117  A.  D.;  first 
Christian  altar  erected'in  Britain,  634;  first  consecrated 
by  Pope  Sylvester,  1334. 

Amazons,  The,  made  an  irruption  into  Attica  about 
1209  B.C.;  a  queen  of,  visited  Alexander  the  Great  and 
cohabited  with  him,  in  the  hopes  of  having  issue,  but 
died  soon  after  her  return  home,  330  B.  C. 

America,  first  discovered  by  Columbus,  1492;  South 
America,  completely,  by  Americus  Vespucius,  a  Floren- 
tine, and  North  America  by  John  Cabot,  a  Venetian, 
1497 ;  thirteen  colonies  declared  themselves  independent 
of  the  British  crown,  July  4,  1776,  and  recognized  as 
such  by  England,  1783.  South  American  independence 
was  established  and  recognized  by  the  United  States 
and  England,  who  sent  consuls  to  "the  new  state,  1824. 
American  Congress,  first  met  at  Philadelphia  Septem- 
bers, 1775;  removed  to  Washington,  1801. 

Amerigo  Vespucci  was  a  naval  astronomer,  from 
whom  America  accidentally  received  its  name.  He  was 
born  at  Florence,  March  9, 1451,  and  was  at  the  head  of 
a  large  Florentine  firm  in  Seville  in  1496.  He  fitted  out 
Columbus'  third  fleet,  and  in  1499  himself  sailed  for  the 
New  World  with  Ojeda,  and  explored  the  coast  of  Ven- 
ezuela. The  accident  which  fastened  his  name  on  two 
continents  may  be  traced  to  an  inaccurate  account  of 
his  travels  published  at  St.  Die  in  Lorraine  in  1507.  in 
which  he  is  represented  to  have  reached  the  mainland 
in  1497  —  which  would  have  been  before  either  Cabot  or 
Columbus  —  and  in  which  the  suggestion  is  made  that 
he  should  give  his  name  to  the  world  he  had  discovered. 

Anglesey,  the  Mona  of  the  Romans,  reduced  by 
Julius  Agrieola,  76  A.  1).;  by  the  English,  1295. 

Anjon,  Battle  of,  where  the  Duke  of  Clarence  and 
1,500  English  were  slain,  1421. 

Anglo-Saxons,  first  landed  in  Britain  449. 

Anointing,  first  used  at  the  coronation  of  Alfred. 
872. 

Antioch,  in  Svria,  built  by  Seleucus  after  the  battle 
of  Ipsus,  B.C.  300 ;  100,000  of  its  inhabitants  killed  by  the 
Jews  in  onedav,  B.  C.  115. 

Antonio,  Battle  of,  in  Mexico,  between  the  Royalists 
and  Independents,  August  18,  1813;  the  latter  were 
defeated. 

Appian  Way,  aqueducts-  etc.,  constructed  at  Rome, 


284 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Arkansas  (Bear  State) — First  settlement,  by  the 
French,  at  Arkansas  Post,  1C85.  Admitted  to  the  Union 
in  1836.  Ranks  lifth  in  cotton,  ninth  in  mules,  twenty- 
second  in  miles  of  railway,  twenty-fifth  in  population 
and  in  square  miles,  thirty-first  in  wealth.  The  mineral 
resources  of  the  State  are  very  large,  and  receiving 
much  attention.  Stock  raising  is  extensive.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  chief  industry;  corn,  cotton,  and  wheat 
being  the  leading  productions.  Oats,  tobacco,  sweet 
potatoes,  and  fine  fruits  are  also  produced  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

Arbela,  Battle  of,  when  Alexander  conquered  Persia, 
B.  C.  331. 

Arcadians,  Colony  of,  conducted  by  Evander  into 
Italy,  B.  C.  1243. 

Areopagus,  The  famous  senate  of,  established  at 
Athens  in  the  reign  of  Cecrops,  B.  C.  1509. 

Argentria,  in  Alsace,  Battle  of,  where  the  German 
tribe,  the  Alemanni,  were  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
with  a  loss  of  35,000  out  of  40,000  men,  May,  378  A.  D. 

Arizona  was  first  explored  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1526,  and  missions  were  established  in  this  region  before 
1600.  It  ranks  fifth  in  silver,  eighth  in  sheep,  ninth  in 
gold.  Mining  and  cattle  raising  are  the  chief  in- 
dustries. 

Armada,  The  Spanish,  consisting  of  130  ships,  with 
50,000  men,  arrivecl  in  the  English  channel  July,  1583, 
but  was  dispersed  by  a  storm. 

Arms,  Coats  of,  became  hereditary  in  families  in  the 
latter  end  of  the  twelfth  century.  They  took  thcr  rise 
from  the  knights  painting  their  banners  with  different 
figures,  to  distinguish  them  in  the  Crusades.  The  arms 
or  England  and  France  were  first  quartered  by  Edward 
the  III.,  1358;  the  French  arms  discontinued  by  the 
English  kings,  January  1, 1801. 

Army,  first  standing  one  in  modern  times,  established 
by  Charles  VII.  of  France,  1445 ;  introduced  into  England 
by  Charles  I.,  1638;  declared  illegal,  together  with  the 
Royal  Guards,  1679. 

Ascalon,  Judea,  Battle  of,  where  Richard  I.  defeated 
Saladin's  army  of  three  hundred  thousand  men,  1191. 

Assyria,  Kingdom  of,  began  under  Ninus,  called  As- 
sur,  B.  C.  2084;  lasted  about  one  thousand  two  hundred 
and  sixty-fours  years,  ending  with  Sardanapalus. 

Athens,  founded  by  Cecrops,  B.  C.  1571;  kingdom 
ended  in  Codrus,  1070 ;  governed  by  annual  archons,  C84 ; 
city  taken  by  Xerxes,  480 ;  by  the  Romans,  87 ;  by  the 
Venetians,  A.  D.  1204;  by  the  Turks,  1687 ;  by  the  Greeks, 
1826. 

Austerlitz,  Battle  of,  December  2, 1805. 

Austria,  anciently  the  Belgic  Gaul  of  the  Romans, 
taken  from  Hungary  and  annexed  to  Germany,  when  it 
received  its  present  name,  1040;  erected  into  a  duchy, 
1156;  made  an  empire,  August  11,  1804;  Francis  II., 
emperor  of,  made  a  formal  resignation  of  the  high  office 
of  Emperor  of  Germany,  August  7,  1806.  Austria  and 
Russia  united  against  France,  August,  1805.  The  Aus- 
trian armv,  under  Mack,  surrendered  at  Ulm  to  Napo- 
leon, October  20, 1805. 

Avignon,  taken  from  the  Pope  by  the  French,  1769; 
restored,  1773;  declared  to  belong  to  France  by  the  Na- 
tional Assembly,  1791 ;  and  confirmed  by  the  congress  of 
allied  sovereigns,  1815. 

Aztecs  The,  were  the  early  inhabitants  of  Mexico,  who 
became  highly  civilized,  and  adopted  a  monarchical 
form  of  government  in  1352.  Their  most  celebrated  king 
was  Montezuma-Illumicamina,  whoerected  several  mag- 
nificent buildings,  the  remains  of  which  are  still  to  be 
seen.  They  believed  in  a  Supreme  Being,  whom  they 
never  represented  bv  sculpture  or  painting,  as  they  be- 
lieved him  to  be  invisible.  The  Aztecs  were  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez,  1521. 

Babylon,  founded  by  Nimrod,  the  grandson  of  Ham, 
B.  C.  2640;  city  walled,  1243;  taken  by  Cyrus,  588:  by 
Darius,  511.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  ancient  city 
of  Babylon  stood  on  a  broad  plain,  and  was  an  exact 
square,  120  stadia  (equal  to  fourteen  miles)  each  way,  so 
that  the  entire  circuit  of  the  city  was  480  stadia.  1 1  was 
surrounded  by  a  broad  and  deep  moat,  full  of  water,  be- 
hind which  rose  a  wall  50  royal  cubits  (equal  to  93%  feet) 
in  width,  and  200  in  height.  On  the  top,  along  the  edges 
of  the  wall,  were  constructed  buildings  of  a  single 
chamber,  facing  one  another,  leaving  Detween  them 
room  for  a  four-horse  chariot  to  turn.  In  the  circuit  of 
the  walls  were  a  hundred  gates,  all  of  brass,  with  brazen 
lintels,  and  side-posts.  Subsequent  writers  reduce  the 
circuit  of  the  city  to  360  stadia,  and  the  height  of  the 
wall  to  from  60  to  70  feet.  The  other  walls  ran  along  the 
banks  of  the  Euphrates,  and  the  quays  with  which  it 


was  lined,  each  contained  twenty-live  gates,  which  an- 
swered to  the  number  of  the  streets  they  led  into.  The 
most  remarkable  edifice  in  the  city  was  the  Temple  of 
Bel,  a  pyramid  of  8  Bquare  stadia,  the  basement  stage 
being  over  200  yards  each  way.  On  the  summit  were  a 
golden  image  bf  Bel,40feet  high,  two  other  statuesof 
gold,  a  golden  table  40  feet  long  and  15  broad,  anil  many 
other  colossal  objects  of  the  same  precious  metal.  At  the 
base  was  a  second  shrine,  with  a  table  and  Images,  and 
altars.  A  similar  temple  stood  at  Borsippa,  the  suburb 
of  Babylon  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  the  ancient  Babel  of 
the  Bible  was  also  at  Borsippa,  a  little  below  the  later 
Babylon.  The  city  came  prominently  into  notice  about 
747  B.  C.,but  its  great  importance  dates  from  the  fall  of 
Nineveh,  when  Nabopolassar  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
Chaldean  empire,  and  began  the  series  of  fortifications 
and  public  works,  completed  by  his  son,  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. It  was  several  times  dismantled,  and,  when  Alex- 
ander the  Greattook  possession  of  it,  was  a  comparative 
ruin.  Much  of  the  material  from  which  it  was  built  was 
used  by  his  successors  to  build  Seleucia.  That  city,  in 
its  turn,  fell  into  decay,  and  from  its  material  several 
other  cities  were  built,  among  them  Bagdad.  Since 
1847  it  has  been  established  beyond  reasonable  doubt 
that  the  village  Hilleh  is  located  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Babylon. 

Baltimore,  Battle  of,  in  which  9,000  British,  under 
General  Ross  were  repulsed  by  the  Americans,  and  Gen- 
eral Ross  killed,  September  12",  1814. 

Bannockburn,  Battle  of,  between  31,000  Scotch  and 
200,000  English,  when  the  latter  were  routed  with  a  loss 
of  50,000  slain,  and  30,000  prisoners,  June  25, 1314. 

Barbers,  the  profession  first  brought  to  Rome  from 
Sicily,  B.  C.  299;  barbers  and  surgeons  in  London  made 
one  company,  1549;  separated,  1744.  They  formerly  ex- 
hibited ahead  or  poll  at  their  doors,  and  the  barber's 
pole  now  used  by  them  is  a  burlesque  imitation  of  it . 

Barcelona,  said  to  be  built  by  iiamilcar,  the  Car- 
thaginian general,  who  subdued  Spain  :  reduced  by  Louis 
XIV.  of  France,  1714. 

Baron,  Title  of,  first  used  in  England.  1388.  The  bar- 
ons attended  Parliament  in  complete  armor,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III. 

Baronets,  English,  first  created, 1011 ;  Scotch,  1625; 
thirteen  new  ones  created,  December  9,  1827. 

Bastille,  at  Paris,  taken,  and  the  governor  killed,  July 
14,  1789. 

Bastille.this  famous  French  stronghold  was  originally 
built  by  Charles  V.,  asa  chateau,  in  1309.  The  high  wail 
around  it  was  subsequently  erected  by  I'hilippe-Auguste. 
Louis  XI.  first  used  it  asa  state  prison,  and  it  was  even- 
tually demolished  by  the  people  during  the  Revolution, 
July 'l 4,  1789.  The  •'•Man  in  the  Iron  Mask"  was  i in-  . 
prisoned  there,  and  died  in  170::. 

Battle  of  Lake  Erie,  between  the  British  squadron,  • 
commanded  by  Captain  Barclay,  and  the  United  States, 
commanded  by  Captain  Perry,  in  which  the  whole  Brit-   / 
ish  force  was  captured,  September'  10,  1813. 

Belgium,  incorporated   with  the    French  republic(Ui 
September  30,1794:  incorporated  with  Holland  bythe'll 
Congressof  Vienna,  1815:  declared  itself  independent, 
<  October  4, 1830,  and  has  since  chosen  a  king  as  its  ruler. 

Belgrade,  Battle  of,  between  the  Germans  and  Turks, 
when  the  latter  were  beaten  and  lost  40,000  men,  1456;  the 
city  taken  by  the  Turks.  1690:  battle  of,  between  the 
Hungarians  under  Prince  Eugene,  and  the  Turks,  when 
the  latter  were  defeated,  July  16, 1717. 

Bermuda  Islands,  discovered  1609;  settled  KH*j  set- 
tlements destroyed  by  a  hurricane,  October  11, 1780. 

Bedouins,  The,  are  that  class  of  Arabs  who  lead  a 
nomadic  life.  Living  in  the  desert  of  Arabia,  they  have 
evolved  characteristics  as  robbers  and  herdsmen  in- 
timately connected  with  their  mode  of  life.  Keen  of 
physical  sense,  with  active  imagination,  yet  destitute 
of 'solid  knowledge,  the  Bedouin  unites  independence 
and  love  of  liberty,  with  a  violent  passion, an  infamous 
love  of  plunder,  and  an  entire  disregard  of  the  rights  of 
property.  They  are  professedly  Mohammedan.  Big- 
amy is  fare;  polygamy  scarcely  known. 

Bible  Societies,  first  commenced  tinder  the  auspices 
of  Granville  Sharp,  March  7,1804;  the  pope  issued  a 
bull  against  them,  March  20, 1807. 

Bitlivnia,  a  kingdom  of  Asia,  conquered  by  Croesus, 
king  of"  I.vdia,  15.  C.  560;  by  Alexander,  332.  From  its 
ruins  rose  the  Ottoman  Turks,  who  made  Prnsa  their 
capital  before  thev  possessed  Constantinople,  1327. 

Blenheim,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and 
French,  when  the  latter  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of 
27,000  killed  and  13,000  prisoners ;  while  the  total  loss  of 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


285 


the  English  amounted  to  no  more  than  13,000  in  killed, 
wounded, and  prisoners,  August :;.  1704. 

Boadicea,  queen  of  Ieeni,  at  the  head  of  the  Britons, 
attacked  the  Romans, burned  London,  and  massacred 
70,000  of  its  Inhabitants;  but  being  shortly  afterward 
captured  by  Suetonius,  poisoned  herself.  85  A.  D. 

Boulogne,  France,  besieged  and  taken  by  Henry 
V1II..1544;  sold  to  Frame  for  400,000  crowns.1550;  Sir 
Sidney  Smith  failed  in  an  attack  on  the  flotilla  there, 
November,  1  J08. 

Boyne,  battle  of,  between  King  William  and  King 
James,  when  the  latter  was  defeated,  July  1. 1690. 

Brazil,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese"  1500,  who  set- 
tled there  1549;  diamond  mines  discovered  1730;  the 
royal  family  arrives  at,  1807:  revolution  took  place, 
1821;  its  independence  declared  and  the  prince  regent 
declared  emperor,  18-'2:  tlie  king  of  Portugal  ratified 
the  treaty  and  took  the  title  of  emperor  OX,  1825;  war 
with  Buenos  Ayres,  1826 :  death  of  the  dowager  princess 
of,  at  Lisbon,  August  8, 1829 ;  revolution  and  expulsion  of 
the  emperor,  Dom  Pedro,  and  the  appointment  of  a  re- 
gencv  in  the  name  of  his  son,  1830;  became  a  republic, 
1889. 

Brochs  are  prehistoric  structures  in  Scotland  re- 
sembling low,  circular,  roofless  towers)  with  walls  of 
great  thickness  of  unhewn  stones,  and  inclosed  by  a 
narrow  passage,  chiefly  in  Orkney,  Shetland,  etc.  Ibe 
brochs  of  Mousa  is  a'  typical  arid  the  best  preserved 
example. 

Buenos  Ayres,  founded  1535  by  Pedro  de  Mendoza  ; 
rebuilt  1580;  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Sir  Home 
Popham,  June  21, 1806:  retaken  after  an  attack  of  three 
days,  August  12:  British  attack  on,  under  Lieutenant 
General  Whitelock.  in  which  the  British  were  repulsed, 
.Tulv  6,  1807;  declaration  of  independence  published, 
July  19,  1816. 

Bulgarians,  defeated  by  Basilius.  Emperor  of  the 
East,  who  made  15,000  of  them  prisoners  and  caused 
their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  except  one  in  a  hundred,  whom 
he  left  "one  eve,  that  they  might  serve  as  leaders  to  the 
rest,  1014. 

Byzantium,  built  by  a  colony  of  Athenians,  B.  C.  670. 
The  Beat  of  empire  removed  thither  from  Rome,  A.  D. 
300,  and  its  name  changed  to  Constantinople. 

California,  first  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  1769,  at 
San  Diego.  Banks  first  in  barlev,  grape  culture,  gold, 
and  quicksilver;  second  in  woof;  third  in  hops;  fifth 
in  wheat  and  salt ;  seventh  in  silk  goods ;  eighth  in  soap 
and  silver:  and  ninth  in  wealth.  Mining,  manufactur- 
ing, stock  raising,  and  agriculture  form' the  principal 
industries  of  the  state.  Commerce  is  extensive  with 
China,  Japan,  the  East  Indies,  and  Australia,  and  with 
other  states  and  territories.  No  state  in  the  Union  has 
developed  so  rapidly. 

Caledonia  is  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  that 
part  of  Scotland  lying  between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde ; 
so  called  from  the"  tribe  of  Caledonii.  The  name  disap- 
pears in  the  fourth  century,  anil  the  people  of  Scotland 
began  to  be  called  Pietstto  the  east)  and  Scots  (to  the 
west).  In  more  modern  times  Caledonia  is  a  poetical 
name  for  Scotland. 

Canada,  discovered,  1499:  settled  by  the  French,  1534; 
Quebec  built  by  Samuel  Champlain.  1608;  conquered  by 
the  English.  17._>;> :  ceiled  to  them,  1763. 

Canary  Islands,  discovered  by  a  Norman,  1405;  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards,  1481. 

Candia,  the  ancient  Crete,  once  subject  to  Greece, 
sold  to  the  Venetians  till  taken  by  the  Turks  after  22 
years'  siege,  II  89. 

<  anna.  Battle  of,  where  40.000  Romans  were  killed  by 
the  Carthaginians,  B.  C.  216. 

Carthage,  founded  by  the  Tvrians,  B.  C.  1259;  built 
by  Queen  Dido,  about  869 ;  destroyed,  B.  C.  704. 

Catalonia,  Kingdom  of,  conquered  by  the  Goths,  414 ; 
by  the  Saracens,  714:  taken  by  the  Moors,  800;  united  to 
Spain,  1492. 

Central  America.  Cnder  the  name  of  Central 
America  are  included  the  republics  of  Guatemala, 
Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  and 
the  territory  known  as  British  Honduras.  In  1502  Co- 
lumbus discovered  the  eastern  shore  of  Central  America, 
and  sin  >r tly  afterward  the  Spaniards  took  possession  of 
it,  retaining  it  until  1S20,  when  it  rebelled,  and  many  of 
the  states  which  then  composed  it  were  annexed*  by 
Mexico.  Three  years  afterwards  was  formed  the  Cen- 
tra: American  Confederation,  but  in  1839  Nicaragua 
withdrew,  as  did  also  Costa  Rica  in  1840,  and  Guatemala 
in  1847.  In  1872  Guatemala.  Costa  Rica,  San  Salvador. 
and  Honduras  became  united,    forming   the    Central 


American  Union,  the  object  of  the  union  being  the 
maintenance  of  peace  in  the  several  states  and  of  the 
republican  form  of  government. 

The  representatives  of  the  Greater  Republic  of  Cen- 
tral America,  which  was  formed  by  the  treaty  of  Ama- 
pala.  concluded  June 20, 1895.  on  August  27, 1898, adopted 
a  federal  constitution,  in  which  the  name  was  changed 
to  "  the  United  States  of  Central  America."  It  was 
composed  of  the  states  of  Honduras,  Nicaragua,  and 
Salvador.  The  Republics  of  Costa  Rica  and  Guatemala 
did  not  enter  into  this  union. 

November  30,1898,  the  Federal  Organizers  formally 
declared  the  union  dissolved,  the  three  States  resuming 
respectively  absolute  sovereignty.  The  collapse  was 
due  to  the  failure  of  the  troops  of  Honduras,  acting  in 
behalf  of  the  Federal  Organizers,  to  suppress  an  out- 
break in  Salvador  against  the  proposed  federation,  and 
to  force  Salvador  into  the  union. 

The  Central  American  coalition  lasted  nominally  just 
one  month.  The  new  regime  was  ushered  in  by  elab- 
orate celebrations  at  Amapala  on  November  1.  Under 
the  proposed  form  of  government,  the  administration 
was  to  jpass  into  the  control  of  a  representative  from 
each  of  the  three  republics  —  Dr.  Salvador  Callego,  of 
Salvador ;  Seflor  Miguel  Agnelugarte,  of  Honduras,  and 
I  Dr.  Manuel  Corrolel  Matus,  of  Nicaragua.  These  were 
to  continue  in  power  until  March  14,  1899,  when  they 
were  to  elect  a  president  of  the  United  States  of  Cen- 
tral America,  to  hold  office  four  years.  It  was  under- 
stood that  the  three  States  had  virtually  agreed  upon 
Senor  J.  Rosa  Pacose,  of  Salvador,  for  the  Executive 
chair.  In  the  meantime  the  presidents  of  the  three  re- 
publics were  to  assume  the  grade  of  governors. 

From  the  outset  the  Salvadorians  opposed  the  coali- 
tion, as  the  expense  of  maintaining  the  federal  govern- 
ment would  have  fallen  chiefly  upon  them.  General 
Regalado  headed  an  insurrection,  whose  avowed  pur- 
pose was  to  defeat  the  plans  of  the  Federal  Organizers. 
President  Zelaya,  of  Nicaragua,  declined  to  allow  the 
Nicaraguan  troops  to  suppress  the  outbreak,  and  the 
task  was  assigned  to  the  armies  of  Honduras.  The  lat- 
ter entered  Salvador,  but  were  compelled  to  retire 
unsuccessful.  Thus,  unable  to  bring  Salvador  into  the 
union,  the  promoters  of  the  coalition  scheme  had  no 
alternative  but  to  abandon  it. 

Chartists,  The,  were  a  body  of  the  English  people 
who,  on  the  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill  (1832)  demanded 
the  People's  Charter,  the  points  of  which  were :  (1) 
Universal  suffrage ;  (2)  vote  by  ballot ;  (3)  annual  parlia- 
ments; (4) payment  of  members;  (5) abolition  of  prop- 
erty qualification ;  (6)  equal  electoral  districts.  Great 
demonstrations  and  damage  done  in  1838-9.  After  dem- 
onstration and  presentation  cf  petition,  April  10, 
1848,  the  movement  subsided,  although  the  government 
had  meanwhile  dealt  severely  with  some  of  the  leaders. 

Chaldeans,  The,  or  Akkadians,  are  a  non-Semitic 
race,  who  came  originally  from  the  mountain  country 
of  Elam,  and  were  formerly  the  dominant  people  of 
Babylonia.  One  of  the  four  great  cities  of  Shinarwas 
Accad.  The  Babylonians  were  indebted  totheSumero- 
Akkadians  for  their  cuneiform  writing,  religion,  and 
mythology. 

Champ  de  Mars,  The,  or  "Field  of  March,"  was  a 
grand  general  assembly  of  Frank  warriors,  held  from 
time  to  time  in  Gaul, "from  the  fifth  century  till  the 
time  of  Charles  le  Chauve  (877),  when  all  trace  of  them 
disappears.  The  objects  of  these  conventions  were  two- 
fold :  (1)  That  of  military  reviews,  in  which  the  free- 
men came  to  pay  homage  "to  their  chief  and  bring  their 
annual  gifts ;  arid  (2)  consultative  deliberations  upon 
what  expeditions  should  be  made,  what  should  be  done 
for  the  defense  of  the  nation,  and  what  laws  should  be 
passed  for  the  better  government  of  the  State.  From 
755  these  assemblies  were  held  in  May.  Napoleon  I. 
announced  a  gathering  to  he  held  in  the  great  plain 
called  the  Champ  de  Mars  of  Paris,  on  May  20;  hut  it 
was  not  held  till  June  1, 1815.  The  object  was  to  pro- 
claim V  Arte  a ihlitionelaux  constitutions  de  V 'Empire. 

Charing  Cross  was  originally  a  London  suburb, 
where  was  erected  the  last  of  the"  crosses  in  memory  of 
Eleanor,  queen  of  Edward  I.  The  cross  was  destroyed 
in  1047.  but  a  new  one  was  placed  on  the  spot  in  1865. 

Chillon  is  a  celebrated  castle  of  Switzerland,  at  the 
eastern  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  It  stands  on  an 
isolated  rock,  and  long  served  as  a  state  prison.  Here 
for  six  years  (1530-36)  Bonnivard  endured  the  captivity 
immortalized  by  Byron's  "  Prisoner  of  Chillon"  (1821). 

China,  Monarchy  of,  commenced  B.  C.  2367;  but  its 
history  does  not  extend  above  the  Greek  Olympiads. 
Fohi  is  by  many  writers  supposed  to  be  the  founder  of 


286 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  Empire,  ami  its  first  sovereign,  B.  C.  2247.  The 
country  conquered  by  the  eastern  Tartars,  when  the 
emperor  and  his  family  killed  themselves,  A.  D.  1641. 
First  voyage  to  China  from  the  United  States  made 
from  New  York,  February  22,  17*4. 

Cimbri,  The,  were  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Jut- 
land, of  disputed  nationality.  They  made  serious  in- 
cursions into  Italy,  but  were  utterly  routed  by  the 
Romans,  101  B.  C,  and  were  afterwards  merged  in  the 
Saxons. 

Colorado  (Centennial  state).  First  settlement,  bv 
Americans,  near  Denver,  about  1850.  Organized  as  a 
territory,  1861.  Ranks  first  in  silver,  fourth  in  gold, 
eighth  in  square  miles,  seventeenth  in  miles  of  railway, 
thirty-fifth  in  population  and  wealth.  About  one  third 
of  the  state  is  good  agricultural  land  and  easy  of  irriga- 
tion, bringing  forth  bountiful  harvests  of  all  the  cereals. 
As  a  grazing  and  dairy  country  it  is  unsurpassed,  its 
nutritious  grasses  having  peculiar  advantages  for  herd- 
ing. Its  chief  production  is  mining;  in  its  yield  of 
gold  and  silver,  it  is  the  leading  state  of  the  Union. 

Commune,  The,  is  the  unit  or  lowest  division  in  the 
administration  of  France,  corresponding  in  the  rural 
districts  to  our  township,  and  in  towns  to  a  munici- 
pality. The  rising  of  the  Commune  at  Paris  In  1871, 
and  which  should  not  be  confounded  with  communism, 
was  a  revolutionary  assertion  of  the  autonomy  of  Paris, 
that  is,  of  the  right  of  self-government  through  its 
commune  or  municipality.  The  theory  of  the  rising 
was  that  every  commune  should  have  a  real  autonomy, 
the  central  government  being  merely  a  federation  of 
communes.  The  movement  was  based  on  discontent  at 
Paris,  where  the  people  found  themselves  in  possession 
of  arms  after  the  siege  by  the  Germans.  The  rising  be- 
gan on  the  18th  of  March,  1871,  and  was  only  suppressed 
ten  weeks  later,  after  long,  bloody  lighting  between  the 
forces  of  the  Commune  ami  a  large  army  of  the  central 
government;  6,500  Communists  having  fallen  during 
20-30th  of  May,  and  38,578  having  been  taken  prisoners. 

Covent  Garden,  originally  the  garden  of  the  Abbot 
of  Westminster,  is  a  spacious  square  in  London,  cele- 
brated for  a  great  market  held  within  it  of  fruit,  vege- 
tables, and  flowers.  The  square  was  formed  about  1081, 
and  is  famous  from  its  connection  with  the  modern  his- 
tory of  London. 

Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  The,  formed  July  12, 
1806,  was  a  federation  of  the  Germanic  States,  formed 
by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  whose  disastrous  Russian  cam- 
paign (1812)  caused  the  dissolution  of  the  confederation, 
the  Germanic  Confederation  taking  its  place. 

Connecticut,  first  settled  by  the  English  at  Windsor 
1633.  Ranks  first  in  clocks ;  third  in  silk  goods ;  fourth 
in  cotton  goods ;  eighth  in  tobacco;  fourteenth  in  wealth. 
Manufactures  cotton,  woolen,  and  worsted  goods,  hard- 
ware, jewelry,  plated  ware,  leather  goods.  Agricul- 
ture and  manufacture  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
extent.  Several  extensive  granite  and  freestone  quar- 
ries are  successfully  worked  as  are  also  mines  of  lead, 
copper,  and  iron.  Many  of  the  towns  have  an  extensive 
coasting  trade,  and  foreign  commerce  with  the  West 
Indies. 

Comedy,  the  first  acted  at  Athens  on  a  stage,  B.  C. 
562;  those  of  Terence  first  acted,  B.  C.  154;  the  first  reg- 
ular one  performed  in  England,  1551. 

Constantinople,  founded  by  Argives,  B.  C.  658-  be- 
sieged and  destroyed,  193;  received  its  present  name 
from  Constantine  the  Great,  who  removed  there  the 
seat  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  324 ;  suffered  greatly  by  fire, 
pestilence,  famine,  and  an  earthquake,  that  overturned 
its  walls  and  towers,  446;  had  first  an  emperor,  1268; 
taken  from  the  Greeks  by  Mahomet  II.,  who  slew  the 
emperor  and  60,000  inhabitants— this  put  an  end  to  the 
eastern  empire,  which  began  with  the  reign  of  Arcadus, 
39.j,  and  continued  1055  years;  the  embassadors  of  Eng- 
land and  France  arrived  at,  June  20, 1829. 

Convention,  for  forming  the  constitution  of  the 
United  States,  met  at  Philadelphia,  May  25, 1787  and  re- 
ported the  same  to  the  States  for  adoption,  September 
17,  of  the  same  year. 

Cook,  Captain,  sailed  July  30,  1768,  to  go  round  the 
world;  returned  August,  1771;  again  to  explore  the  south- 
ern hemisphere,  July  13,  1772  ;  returned  July  29,  1775. 
Killed  by  savages  on  a  voyage  to  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
1879  ;  ship  returned,  1780. 

Copenhagen  burned,  77  streets  destroyed,  1723  ;  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  and  Lord  Nelson  passed  the  sound,  and 
after  destroying  the  fleet,  made  peace  with  the  Danes 
April  2,  1801  ;  garrison  of,  capitulated  to  the  British 
troops  after  a  severe  bombardment  of  three  days.  Seu- 
tember  6, 1807. 


Cordova,  the  first  Roman  colony  in  Spain,  settled  by 
Marcellus ;  the  residence  of  the  Moorish  princess,  759 ; 
kingdom  of,  destroyed,  1014. 

Corsica,  dependent  on  Genoa  until  1730 ;  became  free, 
1733;  elected  Theodore  king,  1736;  ceded  to  France  by 
Genoa,  1779;  sold  to  Germany,  1781 ;  the  Corsicans  ac- 
knowledged George  III.  as  their  king,  1794;  the  island 
evacuated  by  the  English,  November.  \'\k<. 

Crusades',  or  Holy  Wan,  between  the  Christians  and 
Mohammedans,  which,  in  the  end,  cost  the  lives  of  two 
hundred  million  men.  The  first,  in  1095,  was  under 
Peter  the  Hermit  and  Godfrey  de  Bouillon ;  the  second, 
in  1146,  under  Emperor  Conrad  II.  and  Louis  VII.  of 
France;  the  third,  in  1188,  by  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
joined  in  1190  by  Philip  II.  of  France  and  Richard  1.  of 
England;  the  fourth,  in  1204,  under  Baldwin,  Count  of 
Flanders;  the  fifth,  in  1228,  under  Frederick  II.;  the 
sixth,  in  1248,  under  Louis  IX.  of  France  against  Egypt ; 
the  seventh,  in  1270,  also  by  Louis  IX.,  against  Tunis, 
where  Louis  lost  his  life. 

Curfew  Bell  was  established  in  England  in  1068, 
which,  to  prevent  fires,  obliged  people  to  put  out  their 
fire  and  candles  at  eight  in  the  evening,  when  the  bells 
rang;  abolished  in  1100.  I 

Danes,  their  first  descent  upon  England  was  at  Port- 
land, 787;  their  second  in  Northumberland.  794,  when 
they  were  repelled  and  perished  by  shipwreck.  Suc- 
cessive invasions  took  place  up  to*  the  year  998 ;  de- 
feated the  English  at  Ipswich,  1010;  took  Canterbury 
and  put  nine  out  of  ten  of  the  inhabitants  to  death, 
1011;  settled  in  Scotland,  1020;  expelled  the  English, 
1041 ;  landed  again  at  Sandwich,  1047,  and  carried  off 
great  plunder  to  Flanders;  joined  the  Northumbrians, 
burned  York,  and  slew  3,000  Normans,  1069;  invaded 
England  again,  but,  bribed  by  William  II.,  quitted 
it,  1140. 

Dakotas,  The,  first  settled  by  Americans  at  Pembina. 
Admitted  into  the  Union  as  two  states,  North  and 
South  Dakota,  1889.  Ranks  third  in  gold,  ninth  in  sil- 
ver, thirty-ninth  in  population. 

Delaware,  first  settlement  made  by  Swedes  at  Cape 
Henlopen,  1658.  The  principal  industries  are  agricul- 
tural pursuits  and  mining.  Fruit  grows  in  great 
abundance.  Considerable  manufacturing  is  done  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  state. 

Delft,  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of  South  Hol- 
land, is  situated  on  the  Schie,  eight  miles  northwest  of 
Rotterdam  by  rail,  and  is  intersected  by  numerous 
canals.  Delft  was  noted  from  the  sixteenth  to  the 
eighteenth  century  for  its  Delft  ware,  but  has  now  en- 
tirely lost  its  high  reputation  for  this  manufacture. 

Decemvirs,  The.  were  men  who  drew  up  a  code  of 
Roman  laws,  and  who,  in  451  B.  C,  had  the  whole  gov- 
ernment of  Rome  in  their  hands.  They  were  successful 
in  their  administration  till  the  incident  of  Appius 
Claudius  and  Virginia  led  to  the  appointmentof  consuls. 
Delphi  was  an  ancient  northern  Greek  town,  cele- 
brated for  the  oracles  pronounced  by  the  Pythian 
priestess  in  the  temple  of  Apollo.  The  oracle  was  known 
as  early  as  900  B.  C,  and  the  temple  became  the  reposi- 
tory of  immense  treasures.  It  was  plundered  by  the 
Phocians  and  Nero,  the  latter  taking  away  three  hun- 
dred costly  statues  in  67  A.  D. 

Denmark,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Goths;  its 
first  king  reigned  714;  embraced  Christianity,  9)0; 
united  with  the  Crown  of  Norway,  1412.  and  with  Swe- 
den, 1497;  separated  from  Sweden  in  1528;  crown  made 
hereditary  and  absolute,  1660;  Copenhagen  bombarded 
by  the  English,  1807;  commercial  treaty  between  Den- 
mark and  England,  1824. 

Diana,  Temple  of,  at  Ephesus,  burned  by  the  Am:.- 
zons,  about  1182;  again  by  Erostratus,  in  order  to  per- 
petuate his  name,  B.  C.  356;  again  by  the  Goths,  in  their 
third  invasion,  about  256. 

Dionysius,  Usurpation  of,  B.  C.  409;  besieged  Rhe- 
gium,  388,  and  took  it  after  eleven  months;  began  the 
first  Punic  war,  3s4  :  expelled  from  Syracuse  by  Dion,  357. 
Doomsday  Book,  The,  or  "Domesday  Book"  (1085- 
10n6),  was  a  statistical  survey  of  that  part  of  England 
which  was  under  the  sway  of  William  the  Conqueror. 
So  called,  probably,  because  it  was  of  authority  in  all 
dooms,  i.  c,  judgments  in  disputed  questions  which 
afterwards  arose  on  matters  contained  therein.  It  was 
anciently  known  as  the  "  Liber  de  Wintonia"  (Book  of 
Winchester),  because  at  one  time  it  was  preserved  in 
the  royal  treasury  of  that  city,  under  three  locks  and 
kevs.  It  was  printed  and  published  in  1783,  in  two  folic 
volumes.  In  1816  two  supplementary  volumes  were 
published. 


HISTORY  AXD   BIOGRAPHY. 


287 


Dublin,  city,  -wall  built  about  838;  stormed  l>y  Der- 
mond,  1171 ;  its  first  charter  granted,  1173;  castle  built, 
1220;  its  University  founded.  1591:  Parliament  House 
begun,  1729;  finished,  1739;  insurrection  in  and  murder 
of  Lord  Kilwarden,  July  23, 1803. 

Duke,  Title  of.  first  given  in  England  to  Edward,  son 
of  Edward  III.,  March  17, 1336;  quite  extinct,  1572,  but 
has  since  been  renewed  in  many  instances. 

Egypt,  The  kingdom  of,  began  under  Misraim,  the 
son  or  Ham,  the  second  son  of  Noah,  B.  C.  2188,  and 
lasted  1.663  vears ;  conquered  by  Cambyses,  525 ;  revolted 
from  the  Persians,  assisted  by  the"  Athenians,  463; 
taken  by  Alexander,  332;  reduced  to  a  province,  31; 
conquered  by  the  Turks,  A.  D.  1517:  invaded  by  the 
French  under  Bonaparte,  1798,  who,  by  the  aid  of  the 
British,  were  eventually  expelled,  1800.  Egypt,  since 
the  year  1>07,  has  been  under  the  dominion  of  the  Mo- 
hammedans. 

England,  originally  inhabited  by  the  Britons,  a 
branch  of  the  ancient  Gauls  or  Celtae  |  the  western  part 
in  the  time  of  the  Romans  was  inhabited  by  the  Belga? ; 
the  northern  part  by  the  Brigantes ;  South  Wales  by  the 
Silures.  and  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  bv  the  Iceni.  Invaded 
by  Julius  Ca-sar,  B.  C.  54 ;  subdued  by  Claudius,  44,  and 
completely  so  by  Agricola,  in  85  A.  D.  The  Romans 
kept  possession  of  it  until  41^.  Conquered  by  the  Sax- 
ons. 455,  who  were  invited  over  by  the  ancient  inhab- 
itants, and  who  divided  it  into  seven  kingdoms,  called 
the  Heptarchy.  Ravished  bv  the  Picts  and  Scots,  448. 
Erected  into  a  kingdom  by  Egbert,  by  a  union  of  all 
the  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  827.  Conquered  by  the 
Danes,  877;  recovered  by  Alfred,  880.  Divided  "into 
counties  and  hundreds,  886;  invaded  bv  the  Scots,  who 
were  defeated  by  Athelstan,921 ;  by  the  Welsh,  984;  by 
Sweyn,  king  of  Denmark,  1003;  again  by  Sweyn  and 
almost  subdued  by  him,  1013;  by  the  Irish,  1069;  by 
Malcolm,  king  of  Scotland,  1071,  and  again  1091 ;  again, 
1093.  when  Malcolm  and  his  son  were  killed  at  Alnwick; 
by  Robert,  Duke  of  Nonnandv.  1101 :  bv  David  of  Scot- 
land, 1136;  by  the  Scots  again',  in  11*3:  by  Henry,  Duke 
of  Richmond",  1185 ;  England  declared  wnf  against  Spain, 
January  4. 1762 ;  the  famous  dynasty  of  the  Plantagenets 
commenced  with  the  reign  of  Henrv  of  Anjou.  The 
Magna  (  harta  was  adopted  during  John's  reign,  in  1215. 
The  reign  of  Elizabeth  was  signalized  by  the  defeat  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  1088.  James  "VI.,  of  Scotland,  was 
the  first  ruler  of  Great  Britain. 

Epirns,  Kingdom  of,  first  known  in  history  by  the 
great  warlike  achievement  s  of  Pyrrhus,  about  B.  C.  950 ; 
a  second  Pyrrhus  was  renowned  for  his  wars  against 
the  Romans,  B.  C.  280;  became  a  republic,  240,  but  was 
subdued  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  167.  It  was  finally  con- 
quered by  "Mahomet  II.,  1466,  and  became  part  of  the 
Otti  iruan  "Empire. 

Falk  Lawn,  The,  1873,  were  so  called  from  Dr.  Falk, 
who  insisted  on  the  compulsory  education  of  the  clergy 
of  Prussia.  The  laws  are  four  in  number:  (1)  The 
first  w.is  directed  against  the  abuse  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline  for  political  purposes,  such  a*  -'boycotting." 
excommunication,  and  anathemas;  (2)  the  next  regu- 
lated the  effect  of  secession  from  the  Church  on  the  ob- 
ligation to  meet  certain  taxes;  (3)  the  third  law  was 
directed  at  the  evasions  bv  Roman  Catholics  of  state 
education  incumbent  on  all  Germans;  and  (4) abolished 
the  legality  of  papal  tribunals,  recognizing  the  judg- 
ments of  the  German  ecclesiastical  courts  as  the  only 
authority  on  Church  matters.  In  1874  these  four  laws 
were  supplemented  by  others,  to  insure  more  perfect 
obedience.  Dr.  Adalbert  Falk  was  appointed  by  Prince 
Bismarck  "  Minister  of  Public  "Worship,"  January  22, 
1872.  In  1872  Prince  Bismarck  carried  through'  the 
Prussian  Houses  a  bill  to  transfer  the  control  of  primary 
education  from  the  Church  to  the  State  authorities. 

Famous  Retreat,  The,  of  the  ten  thousand,  occurred 
B.  C.  401-399.  It  was  conducted  by  Xenophon,  the  his- 
torian, who  had  joined  the  expedition  of  Cyrus.  In  the 
battle  of  Cunaxa,  Cyrus  lost  his  life,  and  the  Greeks 
were  left  without  a  "leader.  Xenophon  volunteered  to 
lead  them  back  to  Greece,  and  has  left  a  historical  nar- 
rative of  this  famous  retreat,  called  "  Xenophon's 
Anabasis." 

Feudal  Law.  introduced  1070.  This  consisted  in 
dividing  the  kingdoms  into  baronies,  giving  them  to 
certain  persons  and  requiring  those  persons  to  furnish 
the  king  with  money  and  a  stated  number  of  soldiers. 

First  French  Revolution.  —  Its  chief  leaders: 
Com te  de  Mi ra beau.  1789-1791 ;  Danton.  from  the  death 
of  Mirabeau  to  1793;  Robespierre,  from  June,  1793,  to 


July  27,  1794.  Next  to  these  three  were  St.  Just,  Cou- 
tho'n,  Marat,  Carrier,  Hebert,  Santerre,  Camille  Des- 
moulins,  Roland  and  his  wife,  Brissot,  Barnave,  Sieves, 
Barras,  Tallien,  etc.  Its  great  days:  1789,  June  17, "the 
Tiers  Elat  const  ituted  itself  into  the  "  National  Assem- 
bly "  ;  June  20,  the  day  of  the  Jen  de  Pmnne,  when  the 
Assembly  took  an  oath  not  to  separate  till  it  had  given 
France  a* constitution ;  July  14,  Storming  of  the  Bastille ; 
October  5,  6,  the  king  and  National  Assembly  trans- 
ferred from  Versailles  to  Paris.  This  closed  the  ancient 
rt'jime  of  the  court.  1791,  June  20,21,  flight  and  cap- 
ture of  the  king,  queen,  and  royal  family.  1792,  June 
20,  attack  on  the  Tuileries  by  Santerre;  'August  10,  at- 
tack on  the  Tuileries  and  downfall  of  the  monarchy; 
September  2,  3,  4,  massacre  of  the  state  prisoners.  1793, 
January  21,  Louis  XVI.  guillotined ;  May  31,  commence- 
ment o"f  the  Reign  of  Terror;  June  2," the  Girondists 
proscribed;  October  16,  Marie  Antoinette  guillotined; 
October  31,  the  Girondists  guillotined.  1794,  April  5, 
downfall  of  Danton ;  July  27,  downfall  of  Robespierre. 

Florida  (Peninsular  State).— First  settlement  by  the 
Spaniards,  at  St.  Augustine,  1565.  Admitted  to  the 
Union,  1845.  Ranks  third  in  sugar  and  molasses;  sixth 
in  rice;  tenth  in  cotton;  twenty-first  in  square  miles; 
twenty-seventh  in  miles  of  railway;  thirty-fourth  in 
population;  thirty-sixth  in  wealth"  The  inhabitants 
confine  themselves  to  agriculture.  The  chief  products 
are  cotton,  sugar  cane,  rice,  corn,  and  sweet  potatoes, 
and  tropical  fruits  of  great  variety.  There  is  considera- 
ble trade  also  in  lumber. 

France,  the  country  of  the  ancient  Gauls:  a  colony 
of  the  Belgae  from  Germany  were  permitted  to  settle 
in  it  B.  C.  200;  conquered  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  25;  by 
the  Goths,  Vandals,  Alans,  "Suevi,  and  Burgundi,  who 
divided  it  amongst  them,  from  400  to  486.  The  Franks, 
from  whom  the  French  are  derived,  occupied  part  of 
Brabant,  one  hundred  and  thirty  years  before  the  reign 
of  Clovis:  it  is  the  only  state  in  Europe  that  can  boast 
a  perpetual  succession  from  the  conquerors  of  the  west- 
ern empbe.  Its  first  king  was  Pharamond,  who  began 
to  reign  in  418 ;  Clovis  was  the  first  Christian  king,  481 ; 
the  Assemblies,  called  the  States-General,  first  met, 
1302,  and  continued  to  1614;  the  English  crown  lost  all 
its  possessions  in  France  between  1341  and  13i>9.  The 
Revolution  in  France  began  178J;  the  nobility  and  all 
religioue'orders  suppressed,  1790;  Louis  XVI.  beheaded, 
Janua/y  21,  1793;  his  queen,  Marie  Antoinette,  be- 
headed", October  16,  1793;  Bonaparte  made  first  consul, 
179e;  Louis  XV HI.  made  his  second  entry  into  Paris, 
July  8,  1815;  Louis  was  succeeded  in  1824_,  by  his 
brother,  Charles  X.,  who  was  expelled,  with  his  family, 
in  July,  18?0,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  raised  to  the 
throne"  under  the  title  of  Louis  riiilippe,  king  of  the 
French.  In  1830  war  was  commenced  with  Algeria, 
I  which  country,  as  a  consequence,  was  ceded  to  France. 
In  1848,  the  Bourbons  were  again  driven  out,  and  a 
republic  established,  with  Napoleon  III.  as  president. 
In  December,  1851,  Napoleon  seized  the  absolute  power, 
set  aside  the  constitution,  and  shortly  afterward  was 
crowned  emperor.  A  war  with  Prussia'was  precipitated 
in  ]<ro,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  the  present  republic 
was  established. 

Franks,  The,  arose  from  a  confederacy  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Lower  Rhine  and  AVeser  about  240. 

Freemasons,  The  society  of,  are  said  to  have  taken 
rise  from  a  set  of  foreigners  who  called  themselves  f ree- 
niasons,  whose  secrets  were  kept  intact;  they  are  said 
to  have  introduced  the  art  of  building  with  stone  into 
England  about  670 ;  another  version  has  it  that  the  insti- 
■  tution  is  as  early  as  the  building  of  Solomon's  Temple. 
'  The  first  lodge  opened  in  America  was  at  Boston,  July 
30,  1733. 

Friedland,  The  great  battle  of,  between  the  Russians 
and  French,  in  which  the  former  were  completely  over- 
thrown, with  the  loss  of\80  pieces  of  cannon,  and  17,000 
men  killed,  Maj-,4, 1807.  4^jA/VV>-  \  H" 

Games,  Olvmpic,  first  celebrated  inElis  by  the  Idaei 
Dactyli,  B.  C.  1453;  instituted  by  Pelops.  1307;  celebrated 
by  Hercules,  1222  ;  restored  at  Elis  by  Iphitus,  Lycurgus, 
and  Cleosthenes,  884  :  Isthmian,  instituted  at  Corinth  by 
King  Sisvphus,  B.  C.  1326;  restored,  581 ;  Pythian,  first 
celebrated  bv  Adrastus,  king  of  Argos,  B.  C.  1263;  in- 
stituted at  Delphi,  in  Greece.  591;  Capitoline,  instituted 
by  Domitian,  A.  D.  86;  Secular,  celebrated  at  Rome, 
A.  I).  88. 

Genoa,  Republic,  founded  B.  C.  63;  the  present  one, 
A.  I>.  950:  the  first  Duke  of ,  chosen  1337;  republic  re- 
stored to  its  liberties  bv  Doria.  1528:  bank  failed,  1750;  the 
citv  in  1799,  then  in  possession  of  the  French,  was  taken 


288 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


by  the  united  forces  of  Austria  and  England,  and  in 
1815  was  united  to  the  Sardinian  monarchy. 

Georgia  (Empire  State  of  South).  First  settlement, 
hy  the  English,  Savannah,  1T33.  Ranks  second  in  rice 
and  sweet  potatoes ;  third  in  cotton  and  molasses ;  fourth 
in  sugar;  seventh  in  mules;  tenth  in  hogs;  thirteenth 
in  population ;  fifteenth  in  miles  of  railway ;  nineteenth 
in  square  miles;  twenty-fifth  in  wealth.'  The  leading 
Industry  is  agriculture,  the  products  being  corn,  rice, 
cotton, and  sweet  potatoes,  and  manufacturing,  in  which 
it  leads  all  other  Southern  States,  having  fine  facilities. 
Gold,  iron,  marble,  and  slate  abound. 

Germany,  from  Germann  or  warlike  man,  being  an- 
ciently divided  into  several  independent  states,  was  in- 
significant in  history  until  15.  C.  25,  when  the  people 
withstood  the  power  of  the  Romans,  and  expelled  them 
in  290;  Charlemagne  became  master  of  the  whole,  802. 
The  Emperor  of  Oermanv  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor 
of  Austria,  August  11,  1804.  In  1521,  at  the  Diet  of 
"Worms,  Luther  made  his  famous  defense ;  religious  dis- 
sensions occupied  the  country  for  a  long  period  after 
the  retirement  of  Charles  V.,  in  155C,  and  in  1618,  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  broke  out;  Germany  secured  her 
religious  freedom  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  in  164*. 
The  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monarchy  was  laid  in 
1675.  Numerous  wars  took  place  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  constant  mutations  occurred  in  the  map  of 
Germany.  Under  the  famous  Fredericks,  the  Kingdom 
of  Prussia  developed  into  a  first-class  power.  German 
unification  began  under  William  I. ;  the  war  with  Prus- 
sia was  declared  on  July  19,  1870,  and  resulted  in  the 
complete  unification  of  Germany;  the  king  of  Prussia, 
by  this  treaty,  was  proclaimed  Emperor  of  Germany. 

Ghent,  Belgium,  stands  on  26  islands,  connected  with 
each  other  by  80  bridges.  The  city  of  Venice  is  built  on 
80  islands,  connected  by  nearly  400  bridges.  In  Venice 
canals  serve  for  streets,  and  gondolas  for  carriages. 

Gibraltar,  taken  by  Sir  George  Rooke,  July  24,  1704; 
besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  February  24,  1727;  again, 
May,  1731 ;  besieged  again  bv  the  Spaniards,  from  1780  to 
September  13,  1782,  when  their  floating  battery  was 
burned  with  red  hot  balls  from  the  garrison  commanded 
by  General  Elliott.  Gibraltar  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  English  in  1704. 

Girondins,  The,  in  English  "  The  Girondists,"  were 
the  pure  republican  party  in  the  National  Assembly  and 
National  Convention  of  the  first  French  Revolution.  So 
called  because  it  consisted  mainly  of  the  deputies  of  the 
Gironde.  This  party  was  distinguished  for  its  oratory, 
and  for  a  time  dominated  the  assembly;  but,  horrified 
at  the  September  massacres,  they  condemned  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  and  tried  to  bring  in  more  moderate  meas- 
ures. This  drew  upon  them  the  hatred  of  the  dema- 
gogues,  and  on  May  31,  1793,  some  twenty-nine  of  the 
irondists  were  arrested  at  the  instigation  of  Robes- 
pierre, and  on  October  31  twenty  of  them  were  guillo- 
tined, among  whom  were  Brissot,  Gensonne,  Vergniaud, 
DucoSj  and  Sillery.  Valaze  stabbed  himself  while  he 
stood  in  the  dock. 

Gordian  Knot,  the  knot  of  the  thong  in  the  wagon 
of  Gordius,  who  was  elected  king  of  Phrygia  from 
driving  a  wagon,  and  which  he  afterwards  deposited  in 
the  temple  of  Jupiter.  Whoever  loosed  this  knot,  the 
ends  of  which  were  not  discoverable,  the  Oracle  declared 
should  be  emperor  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut 
away  the  knot  till  he  found  the  ends,  and  thus  inter- 
pretated  the  Oracle,  B.  C.  330. 

Goths,  The,  who  inhabited  all  the  countries  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Euxine  seas,  first  mentioned  as  invading 
the  Romans,  250;  waged  war  with  them,  366;  from 
which  time  may  be  derived  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. The  whole  nation,  a  million  in  number,  through 
fear  of  the  Huns,  removed  to  the  waste  land  in  Thrace, 
376;  rebelled  against  the  Romans,  377,  and  were  quelled ; 
afterwards  attacked  by  Yalens,  the  Roman  army  was 
cut  to  pieces,  and  the  emperor  killed.  The  Goths  capit- 
ulated with  and  submitted  to  the  Romans,  October  3, 
382.  Embraced  Christianity.  400;  pillaged  Rome  and 
massacred  the  inhabitants,  410;  slew  300,000  inhabitants 
of  Milan,  539. 

Granada,  Kingdom  of,  conquered  by  the  Moors,  715; 
in  1235  it  became  the  capital  of  a  new  kingdom,  and 
attained  to  almost  matchless  splendor;  the  last  Moorish 
prince  was  Abou-Abdillah,  who  was  conquered  by  the 
Castilians,  1492. 

Grecian  Monarchy,  commenced  by  Alexander  the 
Great's  victory  over  Darius,  the  last  Persian  monarch. 
B.C.  328;  empire  began  under  Nicephorus,  1811,  ended, 
1453. 

Greece,  The  early  history  of,  is   surrounded   with 


legend  and  myth.  The  heroic  age  of  Greece  is  a  frag- 
ment of  the  poetic  imagination.  Hellen  was  claimed 
by  the  Greeks  as  their  common  ancestor,  the  popular,  be- 
lief being  that  from  his  sons,  Dorus  and  .Kolus,  and  his 
grandsons,  Ion  and  ..Echams,  sprang  the  four  different 
branches  of  the  nation  —  the  Dorians,  the  .Kolians,  the 
Ionians,  and  the  .lEchpens.  From  first  to  last,  Greece 
was  divided  into  numerous  independent  states.  Au- 
thentic history  begins  776  B.  C,  when  the  first  Olympiad 
was  held.  In  B.  C.  431,  began  the  Peloponnesian  war. 
Greece  passed  under  Macedonian  rule  about  344  B.  C. ; 
in  B.  C.  214  occurred  the  first  collision  between  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans;  from  the  fifth  to  the  eighth 
centuries  Slavic  and  other  foreign  people  appeared  in 
Greece,  but  were  finally  expelled ;  in  the  eleventh  century 
the  Normans  plundered  and  ravaged  the  cities  of 
Thebes,  Athens,  and  Corinth.  In  1203,  the  Latin  princes 
appeared  in  the  Crusades,  conquered  Constantinople, 
and  divided  Greece  among  them,  which  divisions  were 
swept  away  by  the  Turks  in  1453.  In  1687  the  Christian 
league  besieged  and  took  Athens,  and  the  Moslem  rule 
was  again  established;  the  Ottoman  yoke  was  com- 
pletely thrown  off  in  1821,  and  was  accomplished  by 
what  is  known  as  the  modern  revolution.  Moslem  rule 
was  again  attempted  in  1822,  but  the  allied  powers  of 
Europe  decided  to  create  Greece  an  independent  king- 
dom: in  1866a  revolution  in  Crete  strained  the  relations 
of  Greece  and  Turkey;  a  renewed  outbreak  in  1896  led 
to  a  war  with  Turkey,  which  resulted  in  favor  of  Tur- 
key, but  did  not  imperil  the  independence  of  Greece. 

Gretna  Green  is  a  village  in  Dumfriesshire,  Scot- 
land, and  the  place  where,  for  nearly  a  century,  runa- 
way couples  were  made  man  and  wife.  These  irregular 
marriages  were  discountenanced  by  law  in  the  year 
1856. 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines.— At  the  great  battle  of 
Weinsberg,  in  Suabia,  A.  1).  1140,  the  Emperor  Conrad 
of  Hohenstaufen,  and  Welf,  uncle  of  Henry  the  Lion, 
Duke  of  Saxony,  rallied  their  followers  by  the  respective 
war  cries,  "Hie  Waiblingen  !  "  "  Hie  Welf!"  As  the 
chief  theater  of  the  conflict  of  these  parties  was  Italy, 
the  original  names  took  the  Italian  form  of  Ghibellini 
atid  Guelfi,  and  under  these  names  they  became  two 
great  part&S,  whose  conflicts  may  almost  be  said  to 
make  up  the  history  of  Italy  and  Germany  from  the 
eleventh  till  the  fourteenth  century.  The  Ghibellinj 
may,  in  general,  be  described  as  the  supporters  of  the 
imperial  authority  in  Italy,  the  Guelphs  as  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  emperors  and  adherents  of  the  popes.  Five 
great  crises  in  the  strife  of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibelline 
parties  are  commonly  noted  by  historians:  Under 
Henry  IV.,  in  1055;  under  Henry  the  Proud,,  in  1127; 
under  Henry  the  Lion,  in  1140;  under  Frederick  Barba- 
1'iissa.  in  1150 ;  and  in  the  pontificate  of  the  great  cham- 
pion of  Church  temporal  power,  Innocent  III.  The 
cities  of  northern  Italy  were  divided  between  the  two 
parties  —  Florence,  Bologna,  Milan,  and  other  cities,  as 
a  general  rule,  taking  the  side  of  the  Guelphs;  while 
Pisa,  Verona, and  Arezzo  were  Ghibelline.  In  general, 
it  may  be  said  that  the  nobles  of  the  more  northern 
provinces  of  Italy  inclined  to  the  Ghibelline  side,  while 
those  of  the  central  and  southern  provinces  were 
Guclph.  After  the  downfall  of  the  preponderance' of 
the  German  emperors  In  Italy,  the  contest  ceased  to  be 
a  strife  of  principles  and  degenerated  into  a  mere 
struggle  of  rival  factions.  From  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  Guelphsor  Ghibellines  are  seldom  heard  of  as 
actually  existing  parties;  but  in  the  sense  already  ex- 
plained, the  conflict  of  principles  which  they  repre- 
sented is  found  In  every  period  of  political  history. 

Gypsy  Tribes.— Gypsies,  a  term  applied  to  a  mysteri- 
ous," vagabond  race,  scattered  over  the  whole  of  Europe, 
and  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Whence  they 
originally  came,  is  not  definitely  known,  but  India 
seems  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  tribe.  They  are 
called  Bohemians, in  France;  Zingari,  in  Italy.  For  cen- 
turies past  they  have  drifted  about  over  Europe,  in  small 
bands,  naving  no  permanent  homes;  living  by  begging, 
fortune  telling,  and  various  tricks.  The  first  notice  of 
them,  which  occurs  in  European  literature,  is  embodied 
in  a  free  paraphrase,  in  ( lerman,  of  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
written  by  an  Austrian  monk,  about  1122.  On  August 
17.  1427,  a  band  of  them,  coming  from  Bohemia,  made 
their  appearance  before  Paris,  which,  however,  they 
were  not  allowed  to  enter,  but  were  lodged  at  La  Chapelle 
Saint  Denis.  Other  hordes  succeeded  these  in  the  fol- 
lowing years,  spreading  in  rapid  succession  over  all 
parts  of  Germany,  over  Spain.  England,  Russia,  Scan- 
dinavia, and,  indeed,  over  the  remotest  parts  of  Europe. 
The  account  which  they  most  frequently  gave  of  them- 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


289 


selves  was.  that  they  originally  came  from  "  Little 
Egypt,"  that  the  king  of  Hungary  had  compelled  about 
4.000  of  them  to  be  baptised,  had  slain  the  remainder, 
and  had  condemned  the  baptized  to  seven  years'  wander- 
ing. In  France,  Germany,  Scotland,  anil  other  coun- 
tries, the  most  stringent*  laws  were  formerly  enforced 
against  them,  and  they  were  slain  by  thousands.  The 
jargon  spoken  by  the  Gypsies  is  styled  Romany,  and 
contains  many  Sanscrit  words  and  corrupted  Hebraisms. 

Hanseatic  League,  The,  was  a  trades-union  to  pro- 
tect merchandise  from  pirates  and  the  pillage  of  nobles. 
It  began  with  the  three  towns  of  Hamburg,  Bremen, 
and  Lubeck,  but  ultimately  contained  eighty-five  trad- 
ing towns.  The  league  was  divided  into  four  colleges, 
viz.,  Lubeck,  Cologne,  Brunswick,  and  Dantzig.  Of 
these,  Lubeck  wTas  the  chief,  and  presided  in  all  the  con- 
ferences. 

Hebrew  Bace,  The,  is  distributed  over  the  Eastern 
continent  as  follows:  In  Europe  there  are  5.400,000 ;  in 
France,  63,000;  Germany,  562.000,  of  which  Alsace- 
Lorraine  contains  39,000":  Austro-Hungarv,  1,544,000; 
Italy,  40.000;  Netherlands,  82.000;  Roumariia,  265,000; 
Russia,  2,552,000 ;  Turkey,  105,000,  and  in  other  countries 
35,000,  Belgium  containing  the  smallest  number,  only 
3.000.  In  Asia  there  are  310.000;  Asiatic  Turkey,  47,000, 
in  Palestine  there  being  25.000;  Asiatic  Russia",  47,000; 
Persia,  18,000;  Middle  Asia,  14,000;  India,  19,000,  and 
China,  1,000.  Africa  contains  350,000;  Egypt,  8.000; 
Tunis,  55.00'>;  Algiers,  35,000;  Morocco,  60,000;  Tripoli, 
6.000,  and  Abyssinia,  J00.0O0.  The  entire  number  of 
Hebrews  in  the  world  is  nearly  6,300,000. 

Heptarchy,  The  Saxon,  consisting  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Kent,  the  'South  Saxons,  the  West  Saxons,  the  East 
Saxons,  Northumberland,  the  East  Angles,  and  Mercier, 
commenced  in  the  sixth  century,  and  continued  till  800, 
when  Egbert  reigned  alone.  The  Saxons,  notwithstand- 
ing this  division  of  the  kingdom,  were  subject  to  one 
monarch,  who  was  called  King  of  Britain;  the  mon- 
archy was  not  then  hereditary,  but  that  person  suc- 
ceeded who  had  the  greatest  power. 

Herculaneum,  first  suffered  by  an  earthquake,  Feb- 
ruary 5,  63  A.  D. ;  totally  overwhelmed,  with  Pompeii, 
by  an  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  November  1,  79  A.  D. 

Hittites,  The,  were  one  of  the  most  important  tribes 
in  the  south  of  Canaan.  They  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  x. 
as  the  descendants  of  Heth,*a  son  of  Canaan.  In  the 
age  of  Abraham  the  Hittites  inhabited  Hebron  and  its 
neighborhood  (Gen.  xxiii.).  The  primitive  seat  of  the 
Hittites  was  probably  the  Taurus  mountains  of  Asia 
Minor,  from  whence,  as  indicated  by  the  cuneiform  re- 
cords of  Tel-cl-Aniarna,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth Egyptian  dynasty,  they  invaded  Syria,  and  later, 
in  the  reign  of  Rameses  II*.,  were  settled  at  Kadesh. 
ultimately  spreading  to  the  south  of  Palestine.  In  race 
the  Hittites  were  probably  Turanian,  and  in  their  lan- 
guage allied  to  the  Alarodian  family.  The  peculiar 
hieroglyphic  writings  found  on  Hittite  monuments  in 
Syria.  Asia  Minor,  etc..  are  beginning  to  be  deciphered. 
In  common  with  the  Hyksos,  the  deity  of  the  Hittites 
was  Seti,  the  Egyptian" Typhon,  and  the  local  goddess 
of  Kadesh  Anata",  the  Canaanitish  goddess  of  war. 

Hiyites,  The.  were  a  Canaanitish  people,  specially  as- 
sociated with  the  Amorities,  dwelling  in  the  time  of 
Joshua  (Josh,  ix.)  near  the  center  of  Palestine,  and 
near  Mount  Hermonand  Mount  Lebanon,  the  latter  be- 
ing regarded  as  the  country  of  the  Amorites  in  the  Egyp- 
t  tan  texts,  and  Tel-el-AmaVna  tablets.  The  -Hivites  are 
first  mentioned  In  Scripture  in  Gen.  x. :  17;  they  were 
subjected  to  tributeby  Solomon,  after  whose  reign  their 
name  no  longer  appears. 

Holland,  in  the  fourteenth  century, after  being  ruled 
for  four  centuries  as  a  province  of  France  or  Germany, 
came  under  the  rule  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy.  Several 
w  ars,  growing  out  of  an  attempt  to  extend  the  power  of 
the  inquisition,  occurred  between  Holland  and  Spain, 
the  last  ending  in  1048,  when  the  Netherlands  achieved 
their  independence ;  was  overrun  by  the  French,  Janu- 
ary.,  1786;  secret  expedition  against"  commenced  by  the 
Duke  of  York.  August,  1799;  British  troops  evacuated, 
November,  1799;  Louis  Bonaparte  proclaimed  king  of , 
June  11, 1*00;  decree  for  annexing  it  to  France.  July  9, 
1810;  the  French  expelled,  1813. 

Holy  Alliance,  The.  was  a  league  formed  by  the 
Emperors  Alexander  I.  of  Russia,  Francis  of  Austria, 
and  King  Frederick  William  III.  of  Prussia,  after  the 
second  abdication  of  Napoleon.  The  main  principles  of 
the  alliance  were  :  1.  That  the  different  Governments  of 
Europe  belonged  to  one  family  of  nations.    2.  That  all 


the  different  creeds  of  Christendom  were  to  be  accorded 
full  and  equal  rights  in  the  alliance.  3.  That  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  to  be  regarded  as  the  moral  principle 
governing  in  the  international  conduct  and  comity  of 
the  states.  4.  That  the  Christian  religion  was  to  regu- 
late the  whole  system  of  public  law.  6.  That  the  allied 
sovereigns  were  to  give  one  another  united  aid  in  all 
cases  when  required.  A  special  article  of  the  treaty 
also  provided  that  no  member  of  the  Bonaparte  family 
should  ever  sit  upon  a  European  throne.  Alexander  of 
Russia  drew  up  the  agreement  and  gave  it  a  name.  It 
was  signed  by  the  three  monarchs,  September  26, 1815, 
but  it  was  not  wholly  made  public  until  February  2, 1816. 
All  the  Governments  of  Europe,  except  Rome,  which 
had  not  been  invited,  probably  through  fear  that  the 
Pope  would  claim  the  first  place  in  its  councils,  and  thus 
revive  the  old  difficulty  of  the  supremacy  of  the  Church 
over  Christian  Governments,  and  England,  which  had 
declined,  became  members  of  the  alliance.  The  alliance 
accomplished  but  little,  and  after  Alexander's  death,  in 
1825,  the  compact  lost  authority,  and  the  French  Revo- 
lution of  1830  caused  a  wide  breach  between  the  parties 
to  it.  The  formation  of  the  Prussian  Diet,  in  1847,  the 
European  uprising  in  1848,  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Napoleon  dynasty  in  1850,  and  finally  the  war  of  Russia 
against  England,  France,  and  Turkey  in  1854,  brought 
about  the  complete  dissolution  of  the  alliance. 

Hottentots,  The,  are  an  African  native  race,  occupy- 
ing the  country  north  from  the  Cape  Colony  to  Mossa- 
medes,  stretching  westward  to  the  Atlantic,  and  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Kalahari  desert.  Formerly  a  numer- 
ous nation,  the  Hottentots  have  been  greatly  diminished 
by  the  oppression  of  the  Boers,  and  the  race  is  now  nearly 
extinct.  The  Hottentots  include  the  Griquas,  Bushmen, 
Korannas,  Namaquas,  and  Damaras. 

Huguenots,  Protestants  first  called  so  in  France,  from 
a  German  word  signifying  "allied  by  oath,"  1560;  mas- 
sacre of  them  at  Paris,  August  24, 1572. 

Hungary,  the  Pannonia  of  the  ancients,  was  subject 
to  the  Romans,  B.  C.  11 ;  conquered  by  the  Huns  under 
Attila.when  the  kingdom  of  began,  A.  fo.433;  annexed  to 
Germany  under  Charlemagne,  but  became  independent, 
920 ;  the'Turks  contended  with  the  Germans  for  it  from 
1540  to  1739,  when  by  the  treaty  of  Belgrade,  it  was  ceded 
to  the  latter;  in  1848  occurred  the  Hungarian  revolu- 
tion, led  by  Kossuth,  and  which  ended  in  the  independ- 
ence of  Hungary,  July  8,1867;  the  dual  monarchy  be- 
tween Austria  arid  Hungary  was  established  in  1867. 

Huns,  savage  inhabitants  of  part  of  Siberia;  their 
kingdom  was  founded  B.  C.  230 ;  kingdom  taken  and 
divided  A.  D.  48 ;  embraced  Christianity,  416 ;  conquered 
Scythia  and  Germany,  about  432 ;  the  kingdom  destroyed 
soon  after  the  death  of  Attila,  453. 

Idaho.— Ranks  sixth  in  gold,  seventh  in  silver,  twelfth 
in  square  miles,  forty-third  in  miles  of  railway,  forty- 
fifth  in  population.  Population,  1890,  84,385.  First  set- 
tlement, by  Americans,  1842.  Organized  as  a  Territory, 
1863.    Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1890. 

Independents,  The,  or  Puritans,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.  were  called  "Roundheads."  The  royalists 
were  nicknamed  "The  Cavaliers."  The  former  wore 
their  hair  short,  and  dressed  with  great  simplicity;  the 
latter  wore  their  hair  flowing  over  their  shoulders,  and 
dressed  showily  and  expensively.  The  two  came  into 
collision  about"  the  expulsion  of  the  bishops  from  the 
House  of  Lords.  The  Roundheads  insisted  on  their 
expulsion,  and  the  severance  of  the  clergy  from  all 
secular  and  6tate  offices.  It  was  in  this  brawl  that  the 
two  parties  gave  each  other  the  nicknames  of  Round- 
heads and  Cavaliers. 

Indian  Territory  was  originally  set  apart  as  a  res- 
ervation for  peaceful  tribes.  Organized  in  1834,  but  not 
under  the  same  forms  of  government  as  the  other  ter- 
ritories. The  lands  are  held  in  common  by  the  Indians, 
each  being  allowed  to  cultivate  as  much  as  desired, 
and  whites  can  hold  land  only  by  marrying  an  Indian. 
Grazing  and  agriculture  are"  the  leading  industries. 
Oklahoma  was  opened  up  to  white  settlers  in  1889,  and 
organized  as  a  territory  in  the  following  year,  its  cap- 
ital being  fixed  at  Guthrie. 

Indian  AVar,  King  Philip's,  commenced  in  New 
England  and  ended  by  his  death,  August  12, 1767. 

Indiana,  first  settlement  by  the  French  at  Yincennes, 
1730.  Ranks  second  in  wheat,  fourth  in  corn,  hogs,  and 
agricultural  implements,  sixth  in  coal,  and  population ; 
seventh  in  horses,  oxen,  and  other  cattle,  malt  and  dis- 
tilled liquors,  and  wealth  ;  ninth  in  hay  and  milch  cows. 
The  inhabitants  are  largely  engaged  in  agriculture. 
Large  quantities  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  pork,  and  beef 


290 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


are  exported.  Its  mining  and  manufacturing  interests 
are  constantly  increasing. 

Indies,  East,  first  discovered  by  the  Romans;  Alex- 
ander marched  into,  B.  C.  328;  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese, A.  D.  1487;  conquered  in  1500.  and  settled  by 
them  in  1506;  the  first  settlement  was  Goa;  the  East 
India  Company,  established  1600. 

Illinois,  first  settlement  made  by  the  French  at  Kas- 
kaskia,  1682.  Illinois  is  in  the  front  rank  as  an  agricul- 
tural state,  surpassing  all  others  in  the  production  of 
wheat  and  corn,  and  second  to  none  in  the  extent  of 
stock  raising.  It  ranks  fourth  in  population,  and  next 
to  Missouri  in  manufacturing,  and  the  sixth  in  the 
Union;  its  fruit  anrl  orchard  products  are  very  large. 
The  state  abounds  in  mineral  production,  coal,  lead, 
and  salt  being  the  chief.  Its  great  rivers  and  lakes  pre- 
sent natural  facilities  for  an  extensive  commerce.  The 
railroads  of  the  state  are  greater  in  the  number  of  miles 
within  the  state  than  any  other. 

Iowa,  first  settlement  made  by  the  French  Cana- 
dians at  Burlington,  1788.  Agriculture  and  mining  are 
the  leading  pursuits.  The  state  takes  a  leadingposition 
in  the  production  of  wheat,  corn,  and  cattle.  The  man- 
ufactures are  important  and  show  great  progress  an- 
nually. It  ranks  first  in  hogs,  second  in  milch  cows, 
oxen,  and  other  cattle,  corn,  hay,  and  oats;  third  in 
horses,  fifth  in  barley,  sixth  in  potatoes  and  rye,  seventh 
in  coal  and  wheat. 

Ireland,  was  originally  occupied  by  the  Celts;  in  432 
Christianity  was  introduced  by  St.  Patrick;  from  the 
eighth  to  the  twelfth  centuries  perpetual  warfare  ex- 
isted between  the  petty  kings  and  their  chiefs;  con- 
quered in  1174  by  Henry  II.  of  England,  and  appor- 
tioned among  his  Anglo-Norman  followers;  Parliamen- 
tary union  with  Great  Britain  took  place  in  1800 :  Catholic 
Emancipation  Act  passed,  1829;  Fenian  riots,  1867. 

Iron  Crown  of  Lorribardy,  The,  is  not  an  iron 
crown,  but  a  magnificent  gold  diadem  containing  a 
narrow  iron  band  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  broad 
and  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  This  band  was 
made  out  of  a  nail  given  to  Constantine  by  his  mother, 
and  said  to  be  one  of  the  nails  used  in  the  crucifixion. 
The  outer  circlet  of  the  crown  is  of  beaten  gold,  set 
with  large  rubies,  emeralds,  and  sapphires,  and  the  iron 
band  is  within  this  circlet.  The  first  Lombard  king 
crowned  with  it  was  Agilulph,  at  Milan,  in  591.  Charle- 
magne was  crowned  with  it  in  774;  Friedrich  III.,  in 
1452;  Karl  V.,  in  1530;  and  Napoleon  I.,  May  23.1805, 
crowned  himself  with  it  as  "  King  of  Italy  "'  in  Milan 
Cathedral.  It  was  given  up  to  Victor  Emmanuel  on  the 
conclusion  of  peace  with  Austria,  in  1866.  The  motto 
on  the  crown  is,  "God  has  given  it  me;  beware  who 
touches  it." 

Israel,  kingdom  divided,  B.  C.  979;  ended,  and  the 
ten  tribes  carried  captive  by  Shalmanezar,  king  of 
Syria,  720. 

Issus,  Battle  of,  between  Darius  and  Alexander,  in 
which  the  former  lost  100,000  men,  B.  C.  333. 

Italy,  the  successor  of  ancient  Rome,  suffered  con- 
siderable political  change  by  the  aggressions  of  Napo- 
leon I.  In  1801  Savoy  and  Piedmont  were  united  to 
France,  the  Duchy  of  Milan,  formed  the  Cis-Alpine  re- 

Fublic,  to  which,  in  1805,  the  Duchy  of  Venice  was  added, 
orming  together  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Genoa  was 
incorporated  with  France ;  Naples  was  seized,  the  Pope 
was  deposed,  and  all  Italy,  except  Sardinia  and  Sicil'v, 
were  subjected  to  France.  In  1814,  the  states  were  re- 
stored to  their  former  rulers,  except  the  Duchies  of 
Milan  and  Venice,  which  were  given  to  Austria,  and 
formed  the  Lombardo-Venetian  kingdom.  In  1848  the 
great  revolution  was  inaugurated,  originating  from  a 
simultaneous  insurrection  in  Lombardy  and  Venice. 
March  14, 1861,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  declared  king  of 
Italy,  under  whom  the  kingdom  was  strengthened  and 
consolidated.  He  was  succeeded  by  Humbert,  the  pres- 
ent ruler,  in  1878. 

Jacobins  were  the  members  of  a  political  club  which 
exercised  a  great  influence  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. It  was  oritrinallv  called  the  Chtb  Breton,  and  was 
formed  at  Versailles,  when  the  States-General  assembled 
there  in  1789. 

.1  i<  <>i>it<s  (from  the  Latin  Jacobus,  "  James  "),  was 
the  name  given  after  the  Revolution  of  1C88  to  the  ad- 
herents of  the  exiled  Stuarts  —James  II.  (1633-1701 ),  and 
his  son  and  two  grandsons,  James  Francis  Edward,  the 
Chevalier  de  st.  George  (1688-1766),  Charles  Edward 
(1720-88),  and  Henry  Benedict,  Cardinal  York  (1725-18071 
Those  adherents  were  recruited  from  the  Catholics,  the 


Nonjurors,  the  High  Churchmen,  and  Tories  generally, 
discontented  and  place-seeking  Whigs,  the  Episcopa- 
lians and  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  and  the  great  body  of 
the  Irish  people. 

jHinaica,  discovered  by  Columbus.  1494:  settled  bv 
the  Spaniards,  1509;  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Ad- 
miral Penn,  May  7, 1655. 

Japan,  Empire  of,  founded  by  Jimmu,  660  B.C.;  first 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  1549;  Buddhism  was  in- 
troduced into  Japan  in  the  sixth  century;  in  1519  St. 
Francis  Xavier  introduced  Christianity;  in  1615  the 
priests  were  exiled,  and  all  foreigners  expelled  from 
the  island;  in  1637,  massacre  of  the  Christians  began; 
commercial  treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Japan 
ratified  in  1854. 

Jerusalem,  Temple  of,  built  B.  C.  1094;  city  taken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  after  a  siege  of  eighteen  months,  587 ; 
the  second  temple  finished  under  Darius,  B.  ('.  515,  de- 
stroyed by  Titus,  A.  D.  70 ;  pillaged  by  the  Persians,  and 
90,000  inhabitants  killed,  613;  taken  by  the  Saracens, 
637;  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Boulogne,  who  was  elected 
king  of  it,  Jiily  5,  1100;  conquered  by  Saladin,  1187  ,  now 
subject  to  the  Turks. 

JiiRurtliine  War,  begun  B.  C.  Ill,  and  continued 
five  years. 

Juries,  first  instituted,  970;  trial  of  civil  causes  by  in 
Scotland  enacted,  1815. 

Justice  of  the  Peace,  first  appointed,  1076. 

Justinian  Code,  first  published,  529. 

Kansas  (Garden  of  the  "West).  Settled  by  Americans. 
Admitted  to  the  Union,  1861.  Ranks  fifth  in  cattle,  corn, 
and  rye,  seventh  in  hay  and  miles  of  railway,  ninth  in 
hogs,' horses,  wheat,  and  coal,  fourteenth  "in  square 
miles,  twenty-first  in  population,  twenty-fourth  in 
wealth.  Agriculture  and  stock  raising  form  the  chief 
pursuits  ot  the  inhabitants.  Every  variety  of  cereal 
and  farm  products  is  raised  in  great  quantities.  Nearly 
2,000,000  acres  are  mineral  lands.  Three  fourths  of  the 
state  is  suited  for  agriculture. 

Kentucky,  first  settled  at  Boonesboro,  1775,  by  the 
English.  Agriculture  is  the  main  pursuit.  Wheat, 
corn,  hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco  are  leading  productions. 
Fruits  of  an  excellent  quality  abound.  Horses  and  cat- 
tle are  reared  in  great  numbers.  Thousands  of  swine 
fatten  la  the  woods.  Mining  is  carried  on  to  a  large 
extent.  Kentucky  produces  nearly  one  half  the  tobacco 
raised  in  the  United  States. 

Knights  Templars,  a  religious  order  instituted  1119; 
nourished  in  England  during  the  reign  of  Henry  II.; 
all  of  them  arrested  in  France  in  one  day;  they'were 
charged  with  great  crime  and  great  riches ;  59  of  them 
were  burned  alive  at  Paris,  October  13,  1307;  their  order 
destroyed  by  Philip  of  France,  1311. 

La  Belle  Alliance  is  the  name  of  a  farm  some  thir- 
teen miles  from  Brussels;  ever  memorable  for  being 
the  position  occupied  by  the  center  of  the  French  in- 
fantry in  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (June  18.  1815).  Napo- 
leon himself  was  in  the  vicinity  of  this  farm,  but 
Wellington  was  at  Mont  St.  Jean,  two  miles  further 
north.  Between  these  two  spots  was  I.a  Have  Sainte, 
where  were  posted  the  French  tirailleurs.  The  Prus- 
sians call  the  battle  of  Waterloo  the  "  Battle  of  la  Belle 
Alliance,"  and  the  French  call  it  the  "  Battle  of  Mont 
Saint  Jean." 

Liberia,  First  settlement  of,  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  made  in  1820,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Ameri- 
can Colonization  Society. 

Ligny,  Battle  of,  Prussians  under  Blucher,  totallv  de- 
feated by  the  French,  June  16,  1815. 

Lincoln's  Inn,  London,  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of 
Chichester,  about  1226;  converted  into  an  inn  of  court 
about  1310. 

Louisiana  (Creole  state).  First  settlement,  by  the 
French,  at  Iberville,  1699.  Admitted  to  the  Union',  1812. 
Ranks  first  in  sugar  and  molasses:  third  in  rice;  ninth 
in  salt ;  twenty-second  in  population  ;  twenty-seventh  in 
wealth:  twenty-eighth  in  square  miles;  twenty-ninth 
in  miles  of  railway.  Holding,  as  it  does,  the  outlet  to 
the  Mississippi  Valley,  the  state  is  able  to  control  both 
the  foreign  and  domestic  trade  of  this  large  and  rich 
section,  hence  commerce  is  large  and  important.  The 
manufacturing  interests  are  comparatively  small,  ex- 
cept in  sugars  and  molasses.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
pursuit.  This  state  is  the  only  part  of  our  country  pro- 
ducing sugar  In  large  quantities.  Cotton  is  largely 
cultivated,  Louisiana  ranking  fourth  in  its  production. 
The  rice  crop  is  also  large.    Indian  corn  ami  other  cere- 


HISTORY   AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


291 


als  are  also  produce^  to  a  considerable  extent.  The 
tropical  fruits  are  aUundant. 

Lombard^,  kinmoiii  of,  began  573;  made  numerous 
conquests  till  KTf.  wben  Desiderius,  their  last  km;'. 
was  taken  by  Charlemagne  and  territories  annexed  to 
the  German  empire. 

London,  formerly  called  Augusta,  founded  by  the 
Romans.  49:  walled  and  a  palace  built,  368;  city  re- 
paired by  Alfred,  885;  burned  to  the  ground,  about 
912  :  nearly  destroyed  by  fire.  1077, and  again  in  1110;  the 
chief  magistrate  in  the  time  of  William  I.  was  called 
port-reeve;  Richard  I.  ordained  two  bailiffs,  but  King 
John  changed  them  to  a  mayor;  obtained  their  first 
free  charter  for  electing  their  own  magistrates,  1208 ; 
gates  of  the  city  taken  down,  1760 ;  the  common  council 
ordered  to  wear  blue  silk  gowns  at  court,  September  16, 
1761;  practice  discontinued,  1775;  London  bridge  built 
about  1098.     The  largest  and  richest  city  in  the  world. 

Louisburg,  taken  by  the  French,  July  27, 1758. 

Lycurgus,  established  his  laws  at  Lacedaemon,  B.  C. 
884 ;  his  institutions  renounced  by  the  Spartans,  188. 

Mahrattas,  The,  are  a  native  Indian  race  which 
founded  an  empire  in  Central  and  Western  India,  1674. 
After  1795,  Scindia,  Holkar,  and  Berar  became  inde- 
pendent; the  confederacy  of  Mahratta  states  came  to 
an  end  in  1818,  and  all  the  chiefs  became  dependants  of 
the  British  Crown. 

Massachusetts,  first  settled  by  the  English  at  Ply- 
mouth in  1620.     Ranks  first  in  "cotton,    woolen,   and 
worsted  goods,  cod  and  mackerel  fishing ;  second  in  com- 
merce ;  third  in  manufactories,  printing,  and  publish-  i 
ing:  fourth  in  silk  goods;  fifth  In  soap  and  in  wealth, 
sixth  in  iron  and  steel;  ninth  in  agricultural  imple-  I 
ments.    Its  manufactured  articles  include  leather  and 
morocco,  flour  and  meal,  lumber  and  furniture,  refined 
molasses  and  sugar,  machinery,  ship-building,  animal 
and  vegetable  oils.  Manufacturing  and  commerce  chiefly  I 
engage  the  attention  of  its  inhabitants.  The  middle  ana 
western  parts  are  fertile.    Farms  are  highly  cultivated. 

Madagascar,  first  seen  by  the  Portuguese,  1506;  at-  ! 
tempts  at  colonization  were"  made  by  the  English  and 
French  from  1644  to  1773.    The  island  IB  at  present  under 
a  native  ruler,  though  tributary  to  France. 

Madeira  Islands,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  1411. 

Madrid,  built  B.C.  936;  occupies  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Mautua-Carpepanorum,  called  Majoritium  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  Its  importance  commenced  in  1563,  when 
it  was  made  the  capital  of  Spain  by  Philip  II.  It  was 
held  by  the  French  from  1808  to  1812,  and  here  Napoleon 
placed  his  brother  Joseph  on  the  throne  of  Spain. 

Marriage,  fii>t  institution  of,  by  ceremony,  ascribed  ! 
to  Cecrops.  king  of  Athens,  B.  C.  1556;  celebration  in  I 
churches  first  ordained  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  about 
1200,  before  which  the  only  ceremony  was  that  of  a  man  | 
leading  his  bride  home  to"  his  house";  marriage  in  Lent 
forbidden    by  the    Church,  364;    forbidden  to  priests, 
1015;  publication  of  bans  instituted  about  1210. 

Maryland,  first  settled  by  the  English,  1634,  at  St. 
Mary's.    The  chief  industries  are  agriculture  and  man- 
ufacturing.   Corn,  wheat,  and  tobacco  are  the  leading 
agricultural    products.      Coal    is    mined    extensively.  I 
Among  other  commercial  products  are  flour  and  meal, 
smelted   copper,  refined   sugar  and   molasses,    cotton 
goods,  lumber  and  furniture,  malt  and  distilled  liquors, 
tobacco  and  cigars,  oysters,  fish,  and  vegetables,  leather  i 
goods, clothing,  printing  and  publishing.    Ther foreign 
commerce  of  the  state  is  carried  on  chiefly  through  the  ] 
city  of  Baltimore,  which  has  all  the  advantages  of  a 
seaport.    The  chief  exports  are  tobacco,  flour,  canned 
fruits,  and  oysters. 

Maine  (Pine  Tree  State).— Settled  bv  French  at  Bris- 
tol, 1626;  admitted  to  the  Union,  1820*.  Ranks  fifth  in 
buckwheat  and  copper;  eighth  in  hops  and  potatoes; 
eleventh  in  hay;  twenty-first  in  wealth ;  twenty-seventh  | 
in  population;  thirty-third  in  miles  of  railway;  thirty- 
sixth  in  square  miles.  Industries:  Extensive  lumber 
and  ship-building  trade,  fisheries,  cotton,  woolens, 
tanned  and  curried  leather,  boots  and  shoe*,  lime,  etc. 
T'-ie  agricultural  portion  of  the  state  lies  in  the  valley 
of  St.  John,  and  between  the  Penobscot  and  Kennebec  i 
rivers. 

Magna  Charta,  The,  was  the  great  charter  or  docu- 
ment, founded  mainly  upon  earlier  Saxon  charters, 
which  the  English  barons  compelled  King  John  to  sign 
at  Runny  mede 'June  15, 1215).  The  most  important  pro- 
visions are:  <1)  Xo  scutage  or  aid  shall  be  raised, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  king's  captivity,  the  knighting 
of  his  eldest  son.  or  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter, 
except  by  the  general  council  of  the  kingdom ;  (2;  no  • 


freeman  shall  be  imprisoned  or  disseised,  outlawed,  or 
proceeded  against  other  than  by  the  legal  judgment  of 
his  peer,  or  by  the  law  of  the  la'nd ;  (3)  that  right  or  jus- 
tice shall  not  "be  sold,  delayed,  or  denied  to  any  ;  .4)  that 
the  civil  court  shall  be  stationary,  and  not  follow  the 
king's  person.  Other  provisions  were  directed  against 
the  abuse  of  the  power  of  the  king  as  lord  paramount, 
the  tyranny  of  the  forest  laws,  and  grievances  connected 
with  feudal  tenure.  The  Charter  of  Forests  was  granted 
at  the  same  time.  Both  documents  have  been  confirmed 
by  Act  of  Parliament  thirty-two  times. 

Manitoba  was  first  settled  by  the  French  in  1731,  and 
English  traders  first  made  their  appearance  in  1767.  It 
is  a  wheat- growing  country,  and  furs  are  also  a  leading 
product.  All  kinds  of  garden  vegetables,  as  wellas  oats, 
barley,  Indian  corn,  hops,  flax,  hemp,  potatoes,  and 
other" root  crops  are  easily  raised.  The  grassy  savanuas 
of  the  Red  River  afford  abundant  pasturage.  The 
climate  is  very  severe  in  winter,  but  occasionally  hot  in 
summer.    Winnipeg  is  the  capital. 

Massacres  at  Alexandria  of  many  thousand  citizens 
by  order  of  Antoninus.  213;  of  Thessalonica, Vhen  up- 
wards of  7,000  persons  were  put  to  the  sword  by  order  of 
Theodosius,  390 ;  of  35,010  persons  at  Constantinople,  532 ; 
of  the  Jews,  1189;  of  the  Huguenots  at  Paris,  by  order 
of  Charles  IX.,  when  70,000  where  destroyed,  June  12, 
1411;  of  the  Swedish  nobility  at  a  feast,  by  order  of 
Christian  II.,  1520;  at  Paris,  when  the  king  led  the  way 
and  nearly  10,000  Protestants  were  slain,  1572;  of  the 
Christians  in  Croatia  by  the  Turks,  when  65.000  were 
slain,  1592;  of  the  English  factory  by  the  Dutch  at  Am- 
boyna,  1623,  in  order  to  dispossess  them  of  the  Spice 
Islands;  of  the  Irish  at  the  Island  of  Magee,  when 
40,000  English  Protestants  were  killed,  1641;  of  the 
whites  in  San  Domingo  by  the  negroes,  1803  and  1804;  of 
the  Greeks  at  Scio,  1823. 

Memnon,  the  Egyptian,  invented  letters,  B.  C.  1822. 

Mexico,  first  conquered  by  Spain,  1521,  by  Cortez;  a 
revolution,  fomented  by  the  "clergy,  took  place  in  1810; 
a  constitution  was  proclaimed  in  1812,  and  in  May,  1822, 
Don  Augustin  Iturbide  was  elected  ernperor  of  Mexico; 
he  abdicated  in  1823;  became  a  federal  republic  in  1824: 
in  1863,  a  French  army  invaded  Mexico  and  occupied 
the  capital.  Under  the  patronage  of  Xapoleon  the  III., 
Maximilian  of  Austria  became  emperor  of  Mexico  from 
1864  till  1867,  when  he  was  shot  and  a  republic  re- 
proclaimed. 

Minnesota  (Gopher  State). —  First  settlement,  by 
Americans,  Red  River,  1812.  Admitted  to  the  Union, 
1858.  Ranks  fourth  in  wheat  and  barley;  eighth  in  oats 
and  hay;  twelfth  in  miles  of  railway;  thirteenth  in 
square  "miles:  seventeenth  in  wealth ;"  twenty-sixth  in 
population.  The  leading  industries  are:  1."  Agricul- 
ture; the  staple  productions  being  corn,  wheat,  and 
oats,  while  other  cereals  are  largely  raised.  2.  Lumber- 
ing ;  great  quantities  of  lumber  are  sawed  in  this  state, 
and  immense  rafts  of  logs  are  floated  down  the  Missis- 
sippi, to  be  sawed  in  other  states.  3.  Manufacturing; 
the  principal  articles  being  sawed  lumber  and  flour. 

Missouri  (Pennsylvania  of  the  West).— First  settle- 
ment, by  the  French,  at  St.  Genevieve,  1764.  Admitted 
to  the  Union,  1821.  Ranks  first  in  mules ;  third  in  oxen, 
hogs,  corn,  and  copper;  fifth  in  population;  sixth  in 
iron  ore,  wool,  milch  cows,  and  horses;  seventh  in  oats; 
eighth  in  wealth,  wheat,  and  tobacco ;  ninth  in  sheep 
and  potatoes;  tenth  in  miles  of  railway;  sixteenth  in 
square  miles.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation. 
Mining  is  extensively  carried  on  in  the  section  south  of 
St.  Louis.  The  iron"resources  of  the  state  exceed  those 
of  any  other.  The.  manufacturing  interests  are  large 
and  increasing.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
great  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  rye,  tobacco,  hemp,  and 
grapes. 

Mississippi.— First  settlement  made  by  the  French  at 
Natchez,  1716.  This  state  ranks  second  in  cotton ;  fifth 
in  rice;  fifth  in  mules  and  molasses:  seventh  in  sugar. 
It  is  almost  exclusively  an  agricultural  state.  Great 
quantities  of  rice,  corn",  sugar,  and  sweet  potatoes  are 
produced.  Many  tropical  fruits  grow  in  abundance. 
The  labor  is  largely  performed  by  negroes.  Horses, 
mules,  swine,  and  cattle,  are  extensively  raised. 

Microscopes.— First  used  in  Germany,  1621 ;  with  two 
glasses,  invented  by  Drebbel,  1624;  solar,  invented  by 
Lieberkuk,  1470. 

Milan,  anciently  Lijruria,  the  seat  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, 303;  conquered  by  the  Goths  in  the  fifth  century, 
who  were  dispossessed"  by  the  Lombards,  572;  subdued 
by  the  Emperor  Charlemagne.  801;  the  French  expelled 
about  1525;  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  1706:  recovered 
by  France  and  Spain,  1743;  restored  to  Austria,  1748;  in 


292 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1805  the  French  made  it  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy;  retaken  by  Austria  in  1814;  in  1859  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Lombardy  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Minstrels,  originally  piers  appointed  by  the  Lords 
of  Manor  to  divert  their  copyholders  whilst  at  work ; 
owed  their  origin  to  the  gleemen  or  harpers  of  the 
Saxons ;  continued  until  about  1500 ;  female  harpers  not 
uncommon  in  Britain,  680. 

Mint.— First  established  in  London  as  a  privileged 
place,  1066 ;  for  the  coinage  of  money,  1813;  mint  of  the 
United  States  first  established  at  Philadelphia,  April  2, 
1792 ;  coinage  of  gold  commenced  July  31, 1795. 

Michigan  (Wolverine  State).— First  settled  by  the 
French,  at  Detroit,  1650.  Admitted  to  the.  Union,  1837. 
Ranks  first  in  copper,  lumber,  and  salt;  second  in  iron 
ore ;  third  in  buckwheat  and  wool ;  fifth  in  hops  and 
potatoes;  sixth  in  wheat,  barley,  and  wealth;  seventh 
in  agricultural  implements;  ninth  in  oats,  population, 
and  miles  of  railway,  and  twentieth  in  square  miles. 
Agriculture,  mining^  lumbering,  manufacturing,  and 
commerce  command  the  attention  of  the  inhabitants. 
Large  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  pro- 
duced, as  also  great  quantities  of  wool,  butter,  and 
cheese.  Fruit  raising  is  extensively  followed,  the  value 
of  the  orchard  products  exceeds  that  of  New  Jersey  or 
California.  The  copper  mines  of  the  state  are  the  rich- 
est known,  and  are  extensively  worked.  The  produc- 
tion of  sawed  lumber  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
state.  The  value  of  manufacturing  exceeds  $100,000,000. 
The  fisheries  form  one  of  the  secondary,  yet  important 
sources  of  wealth,  large  quantities  being  taken  for  home 
use  and  export. 

Montana  ranks  fourth  in  silver,  and  square  miles ; 
fifth  in  gold ;  fifteenth  in  cattle ;  thirty-sixth  in  miles  of 
railwav,  and  forty-fourth  in  population.  The  popula- 
tion of  Montana,  according  to  census  of  1880,  was  39,159, 
but  in  1884  the  total  vote  cast  for  delegate  to  Congress 
was  26,969,  and  in  1886,  32,262.  In  1890,  the  population 
numbered  132,159.  First  settlement,  by  Americans,  1852. 
Organized  as  a  territory,  1864.  Admitted  to  the  Union 
in  1889. 

Mogul  Empire.— First  conquered  by  JenghisKahn,  a 
Tartar  prince,  who  died  1226;  Tiiriur  Bek  became 
great  mogul  by  conquest,  1399 ;  the  dynasty  continued 
in  his  family  until  the  conquest  of  Tamerlane  in  the 
fifteenth  century;  Kouli  Khan,  the  famous  Sophi  of 
Persia,  considerably  diminished  the  power  of  the  mogul, 
and  since  that  event  many  of  the  nabobs  have  made 
themselves  independent;  the  last  sovereign,  Shah 
Allum,  died  in  1806,  a  pensioner  of  England. 

Monkery  began  in  Egypt  and  Persia  ;  tolerably  well 
established  about  330;  in  Egypt  alone  there  were  96,000 
monks.  St.  Anthony,  the  first  example  of  a  monastic 
life,  306,  established  the  first  monastery  on  Mt.  Colzim, 
near  the  Red  Sea.  Athanasius  introduced  monastic  life 
into  Rome,  341. 

Mount  Vernon,  memorable  as  the  residence  and  the 
burial  place  of  George  Washington,  is  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Potomac,  in  Virginia,  fifteen  miles  below  Wash- 
ington. In  1856  the  mansion  and  surrounding  property 
were  saved  from  the  auctioneer's  hammer,  and  secured 
as  a  national  possession. 

Moors,  driven  out  of  Spain,  after  they  had  continued 
there  900  years,  1620;  for  attempting  to  free  themselves 
from  the  Inquisition;  they  were  in  number  about 
900,000. 

Morocco,  Empire  of,  anciently  Mauritania,  first 
known,  1008;  possessed  by  the  Romans,  B.  C.25;  about 
1116  Abdallah,  the  leader  of  a  sect  of  Mohammedans, 
founded  the  dynasty  of  Almahides,  which  ended  in  the 
last  sovereign's  total  defeat  in  Spain,  1212;  Morocco 
was  afterwards  seized  by  the  King  of  Fez,  but  the  de- 
scendants of  Mahomet,  about  1650,  subdued  and  united 
the  three  kingdoms,  and  formed  what  is  called  the  Em- 
pire of  Morocco.  The  present  sovereign  of  Morocco 
belongs  to  the  ninth  dynasty,  founded  in  1648. 

Moscow,  burned,  30,000  houses  destroyed,  in  1739: 
entered  by  the  French,  September  14, 1812,  and  burned 
by  the  Russians,  in  consequence  of  which  the  French 
retreated  with  great  loss. 

Munch m.  The  British,  established  1753;  large  addi- 
tion- made  to  the  building  and  the  librarv  of  George 
III.  given  to  the  institution  by  George  IV.,  1827. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  passed  by  Henry  IV.,  by  which 
Protestants  enjoyed  toleration  'in  France,  1598,  'revoked 
by  Louis  XIV.,  1685;  in  consequence  of  which  50,000 
French  Protestants  emigrated  to  England  :  they  engaged 
largely  in  the  manufacture  of  silk;  Borne  Introducedthe 
art  of  making  crystal  glasses  for  watches  and  pictures. 


Naples,  anciently  Capua  and  Campania,  kingdom  of, 
began  1020;  given  by  the  pope  to  the  Cointe  D'Anjou, 
1266;  Alphonsusof  Arragon  united  Sicily  to  it,  and  tin- 
kings  have  since  been  called  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
1442;  taken  from  the  French  and  annexed  to  Spain, 
1504;  order  of  the  Crescent  founded,  1464;  taken  by  the 
French,  January  24.  1799;  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  made 
king  of  Naples  in  1805,  but  replaced  by  Murat  in  1808; 
the  Austrians  took  possession  in  1814;  in  1861  the  last 
king  of  Naples  was  expelled  by  Garibaldi,  and  the  two 
Sicilies  were  merged  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Nebraska.— First  settlement  made  by  Americans. 
Beef,  cattle,  and  other  livestock  are  raised  "in  great  num- 
bers upon  the  grazing  sections.  Corn,  wheat,  and  other 
cereals,  and  fruit  growing  are  carried  on  extensively 
and  with  great  success.  The  cheap  and  fertile  land's 
offer  great  inducements  for  settlement  to  immigrants. 

New  Hampshire  (Granite  State). —  First  settlement 
by  the  English  at  Little  Harbor,  1623.  Ranks  third  in 
manufacture  of  cotton  goods;  fifteenth  in  potatoes; 
twenty-second  in  wealth ;  thirty-first  in  population ; 
thirty-seventh  in  miles  of  railway ;  forty-first  in  square 
miles.  Largely  engaged  in  manufacturing;  the  abun- 
dant water  power  affords  great  advantages.  Agricul- 
ture, pasturage,  and  drainage  occupy  a  large  number. 

New  Mexico. — First  settled  by  the'  Spaniards  at  Santa 
Fe,  1537;  organized  as  a  territory,  1850.  Ranks  eighth 
in  silver;  eleventh  in  gold;  nineteenth  in  sheep,  and 
twenty-second  in  cattle.  Chief  industries,  mining  and 
cattle"raising. 

Nevada.— First  settled,  by  Americans,  in  1850.  Ranks 
second  in  gold;  fourth  in  silver,  and  thirty-seventh  in 
wealth.  The  leading  industry  is  mining.  The  mines  of 
the  state  yield  over  three  fifths  of  all  the  silver  pro- 
duced in" the  United  States.  Stock  raising  is  also 
largely  followed,  owing  to  the  large  amount  of  good 
pasture  land. 

Netherlands  were  placed  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  house  of  Orange  and  became  a  kingdom,  1815;  in 
1816,  the  Prince  of  Orange  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of 
King  of  the  Netherlands,  with  increased  territories,  ex- 
tending over  the  present  kingdom  of  Belgium ;  Bel- 
gium was  then  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and  the  present 
limits  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  were  defined 
in  1833. 

New  England,  First  settlement  of ,  madeat  Plymouth, 
November  10, 1620;  states  united,  1643. 

Newfoundland,  discovered  by  Cabot  about  1500; 
began  to  be  settled  by  the  English,  1520 ;  in  1713  it  was 
declared  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  to  belong  wholly  to 
Great  Britain. 

New  Jersey  (Jersey  Blue). —  First  settlement  by  the 
Dutch  at  Bergen,  1620.  Ranks  first  in  fertilizing  inarl, 
zinc,  and  silk  goods;  fourth  in  iron  ore;  fifth  in  iron 
and  steel;  sixth  in  buckwheat,  manufactories,  and 
soap ;  seventh  in  rye,  twelfth  in  wealth ;  nineteenth  in 
population ;  twenty-sixth  in  miles  of  railway ;  forty- 
third  in  square  miles.  Manufactures :  Molasses  arid 
sugar  refining,  flour,  machinery,  leather  and  leather 
goods,  hats,  caps,  and  clothing,  woolen  and  cotton 
goods,  bleaching  and  dyeing,  glass.  Industries:  The 
commerce  of  the  state  is  small,  its  manufactures  large 
and  various.  Its  shad  and  oyster  fisheries  are  exten- 
sive. Mining  is  also  a  leading  industry.  But  its  chief 
industry  is  agriculture  and  market  gardening,  the  state 
being  one  immense  garden,  the  mildness  of  its  climate 
being  such  that  small  fruits  are  very  productive,  and, 
being  adjacent  to  the  markets  of  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, farmers  and  fruit  raisers  find  large  profits  from 
their  labor. 

New  Orleans.— First  laid  out  by  the  French,  1720; 
battle  of,  January  8,  1815. 

New  Zealand,  in  the  South  Seas,  first  discovered 
Abel  J.  Tasnian,  1642;  visited  by    Pope  Marcus,  3  .  , 
formally  taken  possession  of  as  a  British  colony  in  1840. 

New  Tork  (Empire  State).— First  settlement  by  the 
Dutch  at  New  York(New  Amsterdam),  1614.  Ranks  first 
in  value  of  manufactories,  population,  soap,  printing, 
and  publishing,  hops,  hay,  potatoes,  buckwheat,  milch 
cows,  and  wealth  ;  second  in  salt,  silk  goods,  malt  and 
distilled  liquors,  and  barlev;  third  in  agricultural  im- 
plements, iron  ore,  Iron  and  steel,  oats  and  rye;  fourth 
in  wool  and  miles  of  railway;  twenty-seventh  in  square 
miles.  In  population, wealth, and  commerce, New  York 
is  the  first  in  the  Union.  The  commerce  extends  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.  Manufacturing  is  large,  and  con- 
stantly increasing.  Agriculture  is  one  of  the  chief  pur- 
suits, wheat  and  corn  being  the  Staple  productions.  The 
development  of  the  salt  springs  of  the  interior  is  also  one 
of  the  industries  of  the  state.    Its  magnificent  system 


ed  by/ 
,  330< 


HISTORY   AND  BIOGRAPHY. 


293 


of  canals  and  railroads  has  done  much  to  increase  its 
domestic  trade. 

North  Carolina  (Old  North  State).— First  settlers, 
English,  Cowan  river,  1650.  Ranks  first  in  tar  and  tur- 
pentine: second  in  copper;  third  In  peanuts  and  to- 
Daceo  ;  fourth  in  rice  :  ninth  in  cotton ;  fifteenth  :n  pop- 
ulation: twentieth  in  miles  of  railway;  twenty-third 
in  wealth:  twenty-sixth  in  square  miles.  Agriculture 
is  the  leading  industry,  the  chief  articles  heingcorn, 
wheat,  tobacco,  sweet"  potatoes,  oats,  rice,  and  cotton. 
Vast  forests  furnish  three  times  as  much  pitch,  tar, 
and  resin  as  all  the  other  states  together.  There  are 
valuable  gold  mines,  and  iron,  copper,  and  coal  abound. 

Normandy,  erected  into  a  dukedom,  876;  ceded  to 
France  by  Henry  III.,  May  20, 1259;  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1419,  and"  retained 'until  1125;  finally  joined  to 
France  under  Charles  VII. 

Norway,  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  including  Sweden, 
united  with  Denmark,  998;  in  1319  Norway  and  Sweden, 
for  a  short  time,  became  united  under  Magnus  V.;  in 
1397  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  were  again  united, 
which  union  remained  in  force  until  1523,  when  Sweden 
emancipated  herself:  Norway  was  annexed  to  Sweden, 
November  4,  1814,  by  the  treaty  of  Kiel. 

Notaries  Public,  originally  appointed  by  the  Fathers 
of  the  Christian  Church  to  collect  the  acts  and  memoirs 
of  martyrs  in  the  first  century ;  sincechanged  into  com- 
mercial offices. 

Nova  Scotia,  charter  granted,  1621;  afterwards  in  the 
possession  of  the  French,  but  ceded  to  England,  1713; 
peopled  by  England,  I74:t. 

Nova  Zembla,  discovered  by  Capt.  Hugh  Willoughby, 
1553 ;  has  no  permanent  inhabitants. 

Oath,  swearing  on  the  Gospels,  first  used,  528;  first 
administered  in  judicial  proceedings  hv  the  Saxons 
about  600. 

Ohio  was  first  settled  by  the  English,  at  Marietta,  in 
1788.  Ranks  first  in  agricultural  implements  and  wool ; 
second  in  petroleum,  iron,  and  steel;  third  in  popula- 
tion, wheat,  sheep,  coal,  malt,  and  distilled  liquors; 
fourth  in  printing  and  publishing,  salt,  soap,  and 
wealth  :  fifth  in  milch  cows,  hogs,  horses,  hay,  tobacco, 
iron  ore,  and  miles  of  railway.  The  agricultural  inter- 
est is  very  large.  Great  crops  of  wheat,  corn,  oats,  bar- 
ley, hay,  potatoes,  garden  and  orchard  products  are 
raised:  also  flax,  tobacco,  and  grapes.  Coal  and  iron 
mining  are  extensively  carried  on  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  parts,  and  large  numbers  of  live  stock  are  sent 
to  the  eastern  markets.  Its  commerce  by  lake,  river, 
canal,  and  railroad  transportation,  is  very  large. 

Olympiads,  games  instituted  at  Olympia  by  Pelops, 
in  honor  of  Jupiter,  B.  C.  1307;  they  were  revived  by  the 
Greeks  about  400  years  after  the'destruction  of  Troy, 
and  continued  until  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Great, 
when  a  new  code  of  reckoning  began;  the  first 
Olympiads  began  July  23,  776,  Corsebus  being  then  the 
Olympic  victor  ;  the  last  ended  about  440  B.  C. 

Ontario  is  the  most  important  province  of  Canada. 
Principal  products  are  grain,  fruit,  lumber,  petroleum, 
copper,  and  iron.  The  population  of  Ontario  is  one 
third  of  the  whole  Dominion.  Toronto,  the  capital,  is 
the  manufacturing  and  educational  center.  The  popu- 
lation of  the  province  is  largely  of  British  descent. 

Oregon  was  first  settled  by  the  Americans  in  1811. 
Agriculture,  stock  raising,  anil  lumbering  are  the  chief 
pursuits;  wheat  being  the  staple  article  of  the  former, 
while  most  of  the  cereals  of  the  middle  states  flourish. 
Cutting  timber  from  the  immense  pine  forests  of  the 
state  gives  employment  to  great  numbers  of  inhabitants. 

Orange,  Title  of,  first  in  the  Nassau  family  by  the 
marriage  of  Claude  <le  Chalons,  the  Prince  of  Orange's 
sister,  with  the  Count  of  Nassau,  1530;  the  Prince  of 
Orange  was  applied  toby  England  for  assistance,  1688; 
landed  at  Torbay.  in  England,  with  an  army,  November 
5, 1688:  took  on  him  the  government  at  the  invitation  of 
the  Lords ;  declared  king  of  England,  February  13, 1689. 

Organs. — First  introduced  into  churches  by  Pope 
Vitallian  L.G83;  into  the  western  churches,  826. 

Ostrogoths,  their  kingdom  began  in  Italy,  47G  : 
ended  554. 

Ottoman,  or  Turkish  Empire,  founded  by  Othman  I., 
in  1299.  in  Asia  Minor,  and  soon  extended  i'nto  Europe. 
With  the  capture  of  Constantinople,  in  1453,  it  suc- 
ceeded to  the  Byzantine  Empire. 

Paganism,  finally  overthrown  in  the  Roman  Empire 
in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  between  388  and  395. 

Palatines.— Seven  thousand  families  of  these  poor 
Protestants  were  driven  by  the  French  from  their  habi- 


tations on  the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  came  to  Eng- 
land ;  a  brief  was  granted  to  collect  alms  for  them. 
Five  hundred  families  went  under  the  protection  of  the 

Government  to  Ireland  and  the  rest  were  sent  to  New 
ork  and  Hudson's  Bay ;  they  finally  went  to  Pennsyl- 
vania, where  they  settled,  1709". 

Pandects,  a  svstem  of  laws  accidentally  discovered  at 
Amalfi,  Italy,  1137. 

Pantheon,  The,  at  Rome,  built  by  Agrippa  B.  C.  25. 

Paris,  made  the  capital  of  France,"  510;  consumed  by 
fire,  588 ;  barricaded  to  oppose  the  entry  of  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  15s8;  again  1688,  in  opposition  to  the  regency; 
first  parliament  held,  1302 ;  general  confederation  in  the 
<  'ha nip  de  Mars,  July  14, 1799 ;  an  armed  mob  forced  the 
Tuilenes  and  insulted  the  king  of  France,  June 
20,  1792;  Tuileries  again  attacked  and  Swiss  Guard 
massacred  by  the  Populists,  August  10, 1792 ;  royal  fam- 
ily imprisoned  in  the  temple,  August  14 ;  massacre  of  the 
state  prisoners,  September  2-5,  1792;  Lord  Malmesbury 
negotiated  for  peace,  October  28, 1796  j  Napoleon  arrived 
at  midnight,  December  18,  1812;  allied  sovereigns  en- 
tered, March  31, 1814;  Louis  XVIII.  entered  May  3, 1811 ; 
Napoleon  returned  to,  from  Elba,  March  21, 1815;  left  ic 
to  meet  the  allied  forces,  May  2, 1815 ;  capitulated  to  the 
allies,  July  3,  1815;  treaties  of  general  peace  signed 
November  20,  1815. 

Pauls,  St.,  London,  built  by  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent, 
on  the  foundation  of  an  old  temple  of  Diana,  596; 
burned,  964;  rebuilt  and  consecrated,  1240;  it  was 
150  years  building;  again  burned  down,  it  was  re- 
built, 1631 ;  first  stone  of  the  present  building  laid,  1675 ; 
finished,  1710,  at  an  expense  of  about  $5,000,000. 

Persecution,  by  the  Jews,  the  first  in  33;  second,  44; 
first  general  of  the  Christians  under  Nero,  64;  second 
under  Domitian,  93;  third  under  Trajan,  107;  fourth 
under  Marcus  Aurelius,  154;  fifth  under  Severus,  202; 
sixth  under  Maximinus,  235 ;  seventh  under  Decius,  250 ; 
eighth  under  Valerian,  257;  ninth  under  Aurelian,272; 
tenth  under  Diocletian,  302;  eleventh  by  the  Arians 
under  Constantius,  337;  twelfth  under  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate, 361;  Luther's  followers  persecuted  in  Franconia, 
1525.  The  Protestants  persecuted  in  England,  1556 ;  in 
France,  1723. 

Persian  Empire,  began  under  Cyrus  after  his  con- 
quest of  Media,  B.  C.  536;  ended  in  the  conquest  of 
Darius,  about  330;  a  new  empire  called  the  Parthian 
was  founded  upon' its  ruins  by  the  Persians  under  Ar- 
baces,  B.  C.  250,  but  took  its  original  name  under  Arta- 
xerxes,  229;  the  Saracens, however,  A.D.  651,  put  an  end 
to  that  empire  and  Persia  became  a  prey  to  the  Tartars, 
and  the  province  of  Hindustan,  until  the  emperor  Kouli 
Kahn  raised  it  to  a  powerful  kingdom;  emperor  assas- 
sinated by  his  relatives,  1747. 

Pennsylvania  (Keystone  State). —  First  settlement, 
English,  Philadelphia,  1682.  Rank-!  first  in  rye,  iron 
and  steel,  petroleum,  and  coal ;  second  in  wealth,  popu- 
lation, manufactories,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  printing, 
and  publishing;  third  in  miles  of  railway,  milch  cows, 
hay,  soap;  fourth  in  oats  and  tobacco;  fifth  in  silk 
goods,  wool,  malt  and  distilled  liquors;  sixth  in  salt, 
copper,  and  agricultural  implements ;  eighth  in  horses 
and  sheep;  thirtieth  in  square  miles.  Pennsylvania 
ranks  next  to  New  York  in  wealth,  population,  and 
manufactures.  Industries :  The  people  are  largely  en- 
gaged in  agriculture,  mining,  and  manufactures;' wheat, 
corn,  orchard  fruits,  potatoes,  butter,  and  wool,  are  the 
chief  products.  The  farms  are  generally  large  and  well 
conducted.  The  manufactures  are  very  extensive,  and 
comprise  a  great  variety  of  articles ;  iron,  cotton,  and 
woolen  goods  being  the  leading  articles.  In  the  pro- 
duction of  coal  and  iron  Pennsylvania  surpasses  all 
other  states. 

Pharsalia,  Battle  of,  where  Pompey  was  defeated  by 
Caesar,  B.  C.  47. 

Philippi,  Battle  of,  which  terminated  in  the  Roman 
Republic,  B.  C.  41. 

Phoenicians,  by  order  of  Pharaoh  Necho,  sailed  f  rem 
the  Red  Sea,  round  Africa,  and  returned  by  the  Med- 
iterranean, B.  C.  607. 

Picts.— First  mentioned  in  history,  284 ;  kingdom  of, 
began  in  Scotland,  823;  extirpated  by  the  Scots,  840; 
Pict's  wall  between  England  and  Scotland  built,  123. 

Plagne.— Almost  the  whole  world  visited  by  one, 
B.  C.  767 ;  in  Rome,  which  carried  off  10,000  persons  in  a 
day,  78  A.  D. ;  in  England,  that  carried  off  34,000,  77^ :  in 
Scotland,  wherein  40,000  died,  954:  in  England,  1247; 
again,  1347;  in  Germany,  which  cut  off  90.000  people,  1348; 
in  Paris  and  England,  when  57,000  died  in  Enjrland,  1362 ; 
again  in  England,  30.000  killed  in  London,  1407;  at  Con- 
stantinople, when  200,000  persons  died,  1611;  at  Lyons, 


294 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


where  60,000  died,  1632;  again  at  London,  where  68,000 
were  destroyed,  1665 ;  at  Marseilles,  fatal  to  18,000  per- 
sons, 1720 ;  at  Bassora,  in  Persia,  when  80,000  persons  died, 
1773.  .    .      . 

Poet  Laureate.— The  first  mention  of  one  is  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  IV.,  though  the  present  office  under 
this  title  is  derived  from  the  "  King's  Versifier,"  of 
whom  we  hear  in  1251. 

Poictiers,  Battle  of, between  the  French  and  English, 
in  which  the  former  were  defeated,  September  19,  1356. 

Poland,  made  a  duchy,  C94  ;  kingdom  of  began,  under 
Boleslaus,  999 ;  Red  Russia  added  to  it,  1059;  Pomerania 
united  with  it,  1465;  embraced  Christianity,  965;  seized 
and  divided  between  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria,  1773 ; 
annexed  to  Russia,  1815;  revolution  commenced  at  War- 
saw, November  2i>,  1830. 

Pope,  Title  of,  formerly  given  to  all  bishops;  but 
Boniface  III.,  606,  influenced  the  emperor  Phocas  to  con- 
fine i  t  to  the  Bishops  of  Rome  ;  Hygenus  was  the  first 
Bishop  of  Rome  that  took  the  title,  138 ;  pope's  suprem- 
acy over  the  Christian  church,  first  established  by  Bon- 
iface III.,  607;  John  XIX.,  a  layman  made  pope,  1024; 
first  pope  that  kept  an  army  was  Leo  IX.,  1054;  pope 
Gregory  obliged  Henry  IV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  to 
stand  three  days,  in  the  depth  of  winter,  barefooted,  at 
his  castle  gate,  to  implore  his  pardon,  1077;  the  pope's 
authority  first  introduced  into  England,  1079;  abrogated 
by  Parliament,  1534 :  the  word  pope  struck  out  of  all 
English  books,  1541. 

Portugal,  formerly  called  Lusitania,  with  the  rest  of 
Spain,  subject  to  the  Moors,  713 ;  held  by  the  Moors  until 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century ;  Portuguese  monarchy 
established,  1139;  first  conquest  abroad  made  in  1415, 
upon  the  discovery  of  the  Island  of  Madeira;  in  1.500 
Brazil  was  discovered  by  Cabral,  which  was  followed  by 
the  establishment  of  a  colony;  taken  by  the  Spaniards, 
1580 ;  revolted  from  Spain,  and  the  Duke  of  Braganza 
sat  on  the  throne  under  Philip  IV.  of  Spain,  and  the 
III.  of  Portugal,  1640 ;  in  the  latter  year,  the  Duke  of 
Braganza  expelled  the  Spaniards,  and  ascended  the 
throne  under  the  title  of  John  IV. ;  invaded  by  France 
in  1807,  when  the  royal  family  went  to  Brazil;  from 
1827  to  1833  the  th  rone'was  usurped  by  Don  Miguel .  The 
erection  of  Brazil  into  an  independent  empire  in  1826, 
robbed  Portugal  of  her  richest  possession. 

Post,  method  of  carrying  letters  invented  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Paris  about  1470;  general  post  office,  estab- 
lished in  England,  1643. 

Potatoes. — First  introduced  into  England  from 
America  bv  Sir  Francis  Drake,  1586 ;  introduced  into 
Ireland,  1610. 

Protestants,  Name  of,  began  from  the  Diet  of  Spires, 
when  several  of  the  German  states  protested  against  a 
decree  of  the  Diet  to  support  the  doctrine  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  April  19, 1530. 

Prussia,  anciently  possessed  by  the  Venedi,  B.  C. 
320;  the  Venedi  were  conquered  by  Borussi  who  inhab- 
ited the  Riphaean  Mountains;  whence  the  country  was 
called  Borussia  or  Prussia,  which  was  subdued  by  the 
Mercian  knights,  sent  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II., 
1215;  revolted  to  Jagello,  King  or  Poland,  1219;  the 
grand  master  of  the  Teutonic  order  conquered  the 
Poles  and  kept  possession  till  1700,  when  he  was  made  a 
king. 

Public  Houses,  power  of  licensing  them,  first  granted 
to  Sir  Giles  Montesson  and  Sir  Francis  Michel,  1621. 

Punic  Wars,  First,  began  B.  C.  264,  lasted  twenty- 
three  years ;  second,  began  218,  and  ended  200 ;  third,  be- 
gan 150. 

Quakers,  founded  by  George  Fox,  1646;  sixty  trans- 
ported from  England  to  America  by  order  of  Council, 
1664;  their  affirmation  adopted  by  Act  of  Parliament 
for  an  oath,  1696. 

Quebec,  a  province  of  Canada,  was  originally  settled 
by  the  French,  and  the  present  population  is  largely 
composed  of  descendants  of  the  Voyagers.  The  capital*. 
Quebec,  is  the  oldest  city  in  the  Dominion.  Its  fortifi- 
cations were  at  one  time*  considered  next  to  Gibraltar. 
the  strongest  in  the  world.  Nevertheless,  the  fortress 
was  captured  by  General  Wolfe;  taken  by  the  English, 
December  13, 1758;  unsuccessful  attack  on,"bv  the  Ameri- 
cans, under  General  Montgomery,  December  31,  1775. 
The  metropolis.  Montreal,  is  -noted  for  its  churches. 
Ship  building  13  the  chief  manufacturing  industry. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of  iron  castings,  machin- 
ery, cutlery,  nails,  leather,  musical  instruments,  limits 
and  shoes,  paper,  India  rubber  goods,  tobacco  and  steel. 
The  staple  of  export  is  timber.  Quebec  was  first  vis- 
ited by  Jacques  Cartier  in  1535.    It  then  consisted   of 


an  Indian  village  called    Stadacona.     In   July,    1608- 
Champlain  founded  the  city,  giving  it  its  present  name. 

Reformation,  The,  first  set  on  foot  by  John  Wycliffe, 
1370;  began  in  England  by  Henry  VII l".  casting  off  the 
pope's  supremacy  and  introducing  the  Protestant  reli- 
gion, 1534;  completed  by  Edward  VI.,  1547. 

Revolution,  in  Great  Britain,  took  place  through  the 
Prince  of  Orange  taking  possession  of  the  throne,  No- 
vember 5,  1688;  in  France,  began  1789;  in  the  United 
States,  July  4,  1776:  in  Sweden,  in  1772;  second  French 
revolution,  July,  1830. 

Rhodes. —  An  island  of  the  Turks,  peopled  from 
Crete,  B.  C.  916;  the  republic  completed,  480 ;  the  city 
built,  432;  taken  by  the  Saracens  and  the  Colossus  sold, 
652;  taken  from  tlie  Turks,  1308;  retaken  bv  them  from 
the  Knights  of  Jerusalem,  1523;  almost  destroyed  by  an 
inundation,  B.  C.314;  Hipparehus  began  his  astronom- 
ical observations  here,  167. 

Rhode  Island.— First  settlement  made  by  the  Eng- 
lish at  Providence,  1636.  Ranks  second  in  cotton,  flax, 
and  linen  goods;  twentieth  in  wealth.  The  state  is 
largely  engaged  in  manufacturing.  It  has  considerable 
commerce.  Farming  is  carried  on  to  some  extent :  the 
chief  productions  are  grain,  fruit,  butter,  and  cheese. 

Romans. —  First  engaged  in  naval  affairs  and  de- 
feated the  Carthaginians,  B.  C.  260;  first  crossed  the  Po, 
pursuing  the  Gauls,  who  had  entered  Italy,  223;  de- 
feated by  Hannibal  at  Cannae,  216;  commenced  the 
auxiliary"  war  against  Philip  in  Epirus,  which  was  con- 
tinued at  intervals,  21G;  subdued  Spain  and  Sparta, 
194;  defeated  Antioehus  at  Thermopylae  194;  made  war 
against  the  Achfleans,  147;  destroyed  Carthage,  146: 
80.000  defeated  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  by  the  Ciinln  i 
and  Teutones,  105;  Cyrene  left  them  bv  Ptolemy  Apion, 
97:  first,  invaded  England,  B.  C.  54;  quitted  Britain,  426. 

Rome,  built  by  Romulus,  B.  C.  753;  republican  gov- 
ernment established,  509;  first  alliance  between  Rome 
and  Carthage,  508;  burned  by  the  Gauls,  390;  first  coin- 
ing of  silver,  269;  first  divorce  known,  235:  surgery  in- 
troduced, 219;  gold  first  coined,  206  ;  Asiatic  luxury 'first 
introduced  by  the  army,  from  the  spoils  of  Antioehus, 
190;  first  library  created  with  books  obtained  from 
Macedonia,  168 ;  philosophers  and  rhetoricians  banished. 
161;  sumptuary  law,  limiting  the  expenses  of  eating  and 
drinking,  110;  set  on  fire  by  Nero,  A.  D.C4;  Capitol  and 
Pantheon  destroyed  by  fire,  80. 

Russia,  anciently  Sarmatia.  was  inhabited  by  the 
Scythians:  came  into  renown  in  804.  when  the  natives 
attempted  to  take  Constantinople.  The  foundation  of 
the  Russian  empire  was  laid  by  the  Rus  or  Varangians, 
a  body  of  Scandinavians  led  by  Rurick,  at  Novgorod, 
about  862;  in  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  Russia  was  tributary  to  the  Mongols;  the 
country  Mas  consolidated  and  extended  under  Ivan  the 
Great,  and  Ivan  the  Terrible,  1462-1684.  Peter  the  Great 
was  the  most  distinguished  ruler  of  Russia,  1672-1726. 
Important  events  of  more  recent  times  were :  The  dis- 
memberment of  Poland r  of  which  the  greater  part  be- 
came Russian  ;  the  wars  of  Napoleon  and  the  burning  of 
Moscow,  1812;  the  Crimean  war.  1853-06 :  the  vast  in- 
crease in  area  by  war  and  treaty  of  the  Asiatic  prov- 
inces, 1858-73 ;  tlie  abolition  of  serfdom.  1851 ;  the  sale  of 
Alaska  to  tin;  United  .States.  1X07 :  the  Turko-Russian 
war,  1S77-78. 

Rubicon,  The.  is  a  river  of  Italy,  flowing  into  tlie 
Adriatic,  which  formed  the  boundary  between  Cisalpine 
Caul  and  Italy  proper.  The  passage  of  this  river  by 
Julius  Csesar  was  necessarily  the  signal  for  civil  war. 
tin-  Issne  of  which  could  not  be  foreseen,  as  Roman  gen- 
erals were  forbidden  to  cross  this  river  at,  the  head  of 
an  army. 

Rye  House  Plot,  a  plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.  at 
a  place  called  live  House  on  his  way  to  Newmarket,  was 
prevented  by  tlie  king's  house  at  Newmarket  acciden- 
tally taking  fire,  which  hastened  his  departure  eight 
days  before  the  plot  was  to  take  place ;  discovered  June 
12,1689. 

Sacred  "War,  first,  concerning  the  temple  of  Delphi, 
B.  ('.  44S:  second  war,  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the 
Phocians,  :>,:*);  war  finished  bv  Philip  taking  all  the 
cities  of  the  Phocians,  348. 

St.  Helena,  first  taken  possession  of  by  the  English, 
1000;  taken  by  the  Dutch.  1673;  retaken  by  the  English 
t  he  Mime  year ;  celebrated  as  the  place  of  exile  of  napo- 
leon Bonaparte,  1816,  where  he  died  .May  .">.  1821. 

Saints,  tutelar,  St.  George  of  England.  St.  Andrew  of 
Scotland,  St.  Patrick  of  Ireland.  St.  David  or  Wales.  St. 
l  tennis  of  France,  St.  James  of  Spain. 

Saracens,  conquered  by  Spain,   713:    70, (MM)  slain  in 


HISTORY    AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


295 


battle  by  Ramirus.king  of  Spain,  814;  empire  of,  ended 
by  the  taking  of  Bagdad  by  the  Tartars.  1258. 

Sardinia,  conquered  by  the  Spaniards,  1303,  in  whose 
iion  it  continued  until  lTos,  when  it  was  taken  by 
an  English  lleet  and  given  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  with 
the  title  of  king. 

savoy. —  Part  of  Gallia,  Narbonensis,  submitted  to 
the  Romans,  B.  C.  118  ;  the  Alemanni  seized  it  in  395 ;  the 
Franks,  406;  it  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland 
till  lii40,  when  Conrad,  Emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to 
Hubert  with  the  title  of  earl;  erected  into  a  duchy, 
1417. 

Sabines,  The,  were  an  important  tribe  of  ancient 
Italy,  allied  to  the  Latins,  Samnites,  etc.  Famous  in 
Roman  history  as  the  people  whose  daughters  were 
treacherously  seized  by  the  Romans  at  the  Consualia  or 
games  in  honor  of  the  god  C'onsus.  A  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  with  the  Sabines,  750  15.  C.  After  fre- 
quent wars,  the  Sabines  were  finally  defeated,  449  B.  C, 
by  M.  Horatius,  and  were  incorporated  with  Rome  iu 
the  third  century  15.  C. 

Salic  taw,  The,  was  the  code  of  the  Salian  Franks, 
introduced  into  France  (Gaul)  by  the  Franks.  It  con- 
tained four  hundred  articles,  chiefly  concerning  debt, 
theft,  murder,  and  battery,  the  penalty  in  every  case 
being  a  fine.  The  most  famous  article  of  the  code  is 
Title  lxii.  6,  according  to  which  only  males  could  suc- 
ceed to  th3  Salie  land  or  lod,  i.  e.  to  the  lands  given  for 
military  service.  In  1316,  at  the  death  of  Louis  le  Hutin, 
the  law  was  extended  to  the  crown,  and  continued  to  be 
observed  to  the  end  of  the  monarchy. 

San  Marino,  in  Italy,  on  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  is  the  oldest  republic  in  the  world.  It  is,  next  to 
Monaco,  the  smallest  state  in  Europe.  The  exact  date 
of  the  establishment  of  this  republic  is  not  known,  but 
according  to  tradition  it  was  in  the  fourth  century,  by 
Marions,  a  Dalmatian  hermit,  and  has  ever  since  re- 
mained independent.  It  is  mountainons  and  contains 
four  or  five  villages.  The  word  "  liberty  "  is  inscribed 
on  its  Capitol. 

St.  James's  Palace  is  a  large,  inelegant  brick  struc- 
ture, fronting  towards  Pall  Mall.  Originally  a  hospital 
dedicated  to  St.  James,  it  was  reconstructed  aid  made 
a  manor  by  Henry  VII  I. ,  who  also  annexed  to  it  a  park. 
Here  Queen  Mary  died,  1558;  Charles  I.  slept  here  the 
night  before  his  execution;  and  here  Charles  II.,  the 
Old  Pretender,  and  George  IV.  were  born.  When 
Whitehall  was  burned,  in  in97.  St.  James  became  the 
regular  London  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns, 
and  it  continued  to  be  so  till  Queen  Victoria's  time. 
The  Court  of  St.  James  is  a  frequent  designation  of  the 
British  Court.  St.  James  Park  lies  southward  from  the 
Palace,  and  extends  over  fifty-eight  acres. 

Saxons,  The  ancient,  we're  pirates,  and  inhabited 
three  small  islands  at  the  month  of  the  Elbe,  and  some 
part  of  the  shores  of  the  Baltic;  were  invited  to  Eng- 
land, A.  D.  449,  by  the  Britons. 

Scotland,  anciently  Caledonia.  History  began,  B.  C. 
328.  when  Fergus  I.  was  sent  over  by  the  people  of  Ire- 
land; accepted  the  Christian  faith  about  203;  united 
under  one  monarchy  by  Kenneth  II.  and  called  Scotland, 
838 ;  divided  into  baronies,  1032 ;  invaded  by  the  King  of 
Norway,  near  Loch  Lomond,  12(!3;  on  the  d'eath  of  Alex- 
ander III.  was  disputed  by  twelve  candidates,  who  sub- 
mitted their  cla'nis  to  the  arbitration  of  Edward  I.  of 
England,  1285,  which  gave  him  an  opportunity  to  con- 
quer it;  recovered  by  the  Scots,  1314:  first"  General 
Assembly  of  the  church  held.  December  20, 1500;  United 
with  England  under  the  reign  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland 
and  James  I.  of  England. 

Sealing  of  "Writings. — First  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, 10S5. 

Sicily.— First  colonized  from  Italy.  B.  C.  1294; 
usurped  by  Agathocles,  317;  Servile  war  began  and  con- 
tinued three  years,  135. 

Slave  Trade,  Abolition  of,  in  England  proposed  in 
Parliament,  1789;  abolished,  1807;  abolished  by  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland,  1817;  treaty  concluded' between 
Great  Britain  and  Brazil  for  the  abolition  of,  1826.  The 
importation  of  slaves  into  the  United  States  prohibited 
after  January  1,  1808:  emancipation  proclamation  is- 
sued, 1863. 

Smyrna,  built  by  the  people  of  Cumae,  B.  C.  1050; 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  1040  A.  D.,  and  again, 
1688 ;  the  chief  commercial  emporium  of  West  Asia. 

South  Carolina  (Palmetto  State). —  First  settlers, 
English,  Ashley  river,  1670.  Ranks  first  in  phosphates 
and  rice;  fifth  in  cotton;  twentieth  in  population; 
twenty-eighth  in  miles  of  railway;  thirtieth  in  wealth; 
thirty-seventh  in  square  miles.    Agriculture  is  the  prin- 


cipal industry,  the  state  producing  a  larger  amount  of 
rice  than  any  other  state.  "  Sea  Island  Cotton  "  is  of 
the  finest  quality ,  and  superior  toall  other,  and  is  raised 
on  several  islands  along  the  coast  of  this  state,  and 
Georgia.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  sweet  potatoes,  and  to- 
bacco, are  extensively  raised.  The  export  of  rice  and 
cotton  is  large.  But  few  manufactures  are  as  yet  es- 
tablished in  the  state,  though  considerable  attention  is 
being  given  to  them. 

Spain. — First  civilized  by  the  Phoenicians ;  conquered 
by  the  Romans,  B.  C.  206;  the  Goths  and  Vandals  over- 
turned the  Roman  power,  409,  and  continued  in  posses- 
sion of  the  country  till  it  was  conquered  by  the  Moors 
in  712 ;  the  Moors  kept  possession  till  the  small  kingdoms 
were  swallowed  up  in  Castile  and  Aragon ;  kingdom 
founded  by  the  union  of  the  two  crowns  of  Castile  and 
Aragon,  1504;  the  king  and  princes  of  the  House  of 
Bourbon  ceded  their  claims  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in 
1808;  Joseph  Bonaparte  became  king  in  the  same  year; 
Ferdinand's  rule  was  shortly  afterwards  re-established, 
but  was  marked  by  serious  insurrections ;  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  daughter  Isabella  II.,  who  was  forced  to 
abdicate  in  1868 ;  in  1876  a  constitution  was  proclaimed, 
providing  that  the  government  shall  be  a  constitutional 
monarchy.  War  was  declared  against  Spain  by  the 
United  States  in  April,  1898. 

Sparta,  built  by  Lacedajmon,  B.  C.  1490;  kingdom  of 
commenced  under  Euristhenes  and  Procles,  B.  C.  1U2; 
ephori  established  at,  760. 

Straits  of  Babelmandeb,  The,  the  passage  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  into  the  Red  Sea,  are  called  the  Gate  of 
Tears  by  the  Arabs.  The  channel  is  only  about  twenty 
miles  wide,  is  rocky  and  very  dangerous  for  passage  in 
rough  weather.  It  received  its  melancholy  name  from 
the  number  of  shipwrecks  that  occurred  there. 

Surnames,  first  used  among  the  nobility,  1200;  many 
of  the  most  common  were  taken  by  the  Flemings  who 
were  naturalized  in  England  about  1435. 

Sweden,  anciently  Scandinavia,  kingdom  of,  began 
481 ;  united  to  the  crbwn  of  Denmark  and  Norway  from 
1394  to  1525,  when  Gustavus  Vasa  expelled  the  Danes; 
Christianity  introduced  there  829 ;  no  nobility  before 
1500;  popery  abolished  and  the  crown  declared  heredi- 
tary, 1544 ;  the  house  of  Vasa  ascended  the  throne  in 
1523,  and  gave  to  Sweden  the  great  Gustavus  Adolphus ; 
it  was  succeeded  by  the  House  of  Deux-Ponts,  which 
furnished  the  famous  Charles  XII. ;  in  1810  Marshal 
Bernadotte  of  France  was  chosen  Crown  Prince  and  as- 
cended the  throne  as  Charles  John  XIV.  in  1818 ;  the 
union  with  Norway  took  place  in  1814. 

Switzerland,  inhabited  formerly  by  the  Helvetii.who 
were  subdued  by  Csesar  B.  C.  57;  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Burgundy,  888 ;  the  confederation  was 
founded  January  1,  1308;  in  1803  Napoleon  I.  organized 
a  new  confederation  composed  of  19  cantons ;  this  con- 
federation was  modified  in  1815,  the  number  of  cantons 
being  increased  to  22;  a  new  constitution  was  adopted 
in  1848. 

Tarpeian  Rock,  The,  was  so  called  from  Tarpeia, 
tlaughter  of  Spurius  Tarpeius,  governor  of  the  citadel 
on  the  Saturnian  Hill  of  Rome.  The  story  is  that  the 
Sabines  bargained  with  the  Roman  maid  to  open  the 
gates  to  them  for  the  "  ornaments  on  their  arms."  As 
they  passed  through  the  gates,  they  threw  on  her  their 
shields  saying,  "  These  are  the  ornaments  we  bear  on 
our  arms.'*'  She  was  crushed  to  death,  and  buried  on 
the  Tarpeian  Hill.  Ever  after,  traitors  were  put  to 
death  by  being  hurled  headlong  from  the  hilltop. 

Tarqiiin.— The  last  king  of  Rome,  expelled  B.  C.  509. 

Tartary. —  The  first  ruler  was  Genghis  Khan,  1206, 
whose  descendants  held  the  empire  until  1582,  when  the 
Mongols  revolted  to  the  Manchew  Tartars  in  China ;  the 
Eluths  became  a  separate  state  about  1400. 

Taxes.—  Originated  from  those  levied  by  Solon  at 
Athens,  B.  C.  540;  the  first  paid  in  money  in  England 
were  in  1067. 

Tea.—  First  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  a 
quantity  of  it  "was  brought  from  Holland  by  Lord' Ar- 
lington and  Lord  Ossory,  1666 ;  from  this  time'  it  became 
universal;  taxed  in  North  America,  1770,  Americans  re- 
fused to  receive  it  with  the  duty  on,  and  threw  a  cargo 
of  it  into  the  sea  at  Boston,  1773. 

Texas  (Lone  Star  State). — First  settlement  by  the 
Spaniards,  at  San  Antonio,  1692.  Admitted  to  the 
Union,  1845.  Ranks  first  in  cattle  and  cotton  and  square 
miles;  second  in  sugar,  sheep,  mules,  and  horses;  sixth 
in  miles  of  railway;  seventh  in  milch  cows;  eighth  in 
rice  and  hogs;  eleventh  in  population;  nineteenth  in 


296 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


wealth.  Stock  raising  is  the  leading  industry,  Texas 
ranking  first  in  this  production.  Agriculture  exten- 
sively engages  the  attention  of  its  inhabitants;  corn, 
wheat,  and  the  other  cereals  are  raised  in  the  northern 
part ;  sweet  potatoes,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  tropical 
fruits  in  the  southern  part.  Its  commerce  consists  of 
exports  of  cotton,  hides,  and  live  stock.  The  state  has 
vast  resources  that  have  not,  as  yet,  been  fully  devel- 
oped; an  abundance  of  most  valuable  timber,  large 
deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and  salt,  and  other  useful 
minerals. 

Teutones,  The,  were  a  German  tribe,  mentioned  by 
Roman  writers  as  inhabiting  the  northwest  part  of  Ger- 
many north  of  the  Elbe.  In  conjunction  with  the  Cim- 
bri.they  invaded  Gaul,103  B.  C,  destroying  three  Roman 
armies,  and  then  proceeded  to  invade  Italy;  but  the 
Teutones  were  defeated  and  almost  annihilated  by 
Marius  at  Aquae  Sextise,  102  B.  C.and  the  Cimbri  at 
Campos  Raudius,  near  Verullse,  101  B.  C. 

Tennessee,  settled  at  Fort  Loudon,  1757,  by  the  Eng- 
lish. Agriculture  is  the  most  important  industry,  the 
staples  being  wheat,  cotton,  corn,  hemp,  and  tobacco. 
In  the  production  of  tobacco,  the  state  ranks  third. 
The  iron  and  coal  interests  are  growing  rapidly,  and 
will  prove  one  of  the  richest  resources.  The  marbles  of 
the  state  are  esteemed  for  their  color  and  variety.  Im- 
mense numbers  of  swine  and  mules  are  raised  in  the 
state.  The  manufacturing  industries  are  better  devel- 
oped than  in  any  of  the  southern  central  states.  A  large 
internal  commerce  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  rivers 
and  railroads  of  the  state. 

Theater,  that  of  Bacchus  at  Athens,  first  ever  erected, 
built  by  Philos,  B.C.  420;  the  ruins  still  exist:  plays 
were  opposed  by  the  Puritans,  1633,  and  suspended  till 
1660,  when  Charles  II.  licensed  two  companies;  till  this 
time  boys  performed  women's  parts;  Sir  William  Dave- 
nant  introduced  operas,  1684. 

Thebes,  founded  1571  B.  C. ;  citadel  built  by  Cadmus, 
1493;  flourished  as  a  republic,  820;  destroyed  by  Alex- 
ander, with  the  slaughter  of  120,000  persons,  when  he 
left  onlv  the  house  of  Pindar,  the  poet,  standing,  335; 
rebuilt  by  Cassander,  B.C.  315. 

Thermopylae,  defended  by  Leonidas  B.  C.  480,  dur- 
ing the  invasion  of  Xerxes;  Romans  defeated  An- 
tiochus  at,  191. 

Thrace,  a  considerable  part  of  ancient  Greece  an- 
nexed to  Macedon  by  Philip  and  Alexander  about  355; 
conquered  by  the  Romans,  168 ;  Byzantium  was  its  cap- 
ital, on  the  ruins  of  which  Constantinople  was  built; 
taken  by  the  Turks,  1453. 

Tilts  and  Tournaments,  instituted  by  Henry  I.  of 
Germany,  919;  forbidden  by  the  Council  of  Rheims, 
1131 ;  in  fashion  in  England  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries;  abolished  in  France  1560,  Henry  II.  having 
been  killed  in  one.  / 

Tithes,  first  given  by  Iffoses  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  B.  C. 
1490 ;  established  in  Framce  under  Charlemagne ;  estab- 
lished by  law  by  the  I/ateran  Council,  1215. 

Tobacco  Plant,  ftound  D7  the  Spaniards  in  the  penin- 
sula of  Yucatan,  1236;  introduced  into  France  bvNicot, 
1560;  first  brought  into  England  by  Ralph  Lane."  1583. 

Tonlouse,  France,  founded  about  B.  C.  615 :  a  dread- 
ful tribunal  established  there  to  extirpate  heretics,  1229 ; 
dissolved  1242;  the  troubadours  or  rhetoricians  of,  had 
their  origin  about  1150,  and  consisted  of  a  fraternity  of 
poets  whose  art  was  extended  throughout  Europe  and 
gave  rise  to  the  Italian  and  Spanish  poetry. 

Trojan  War  commenced  B.  C.  1193.  The  kingdom 
of  Troy  began  by  Scamander,  from  Crete,  B.  C.  1546; 
city  built,  B.C.  1255;  burned,  B.  C.  1184,  when  an  end 
was  put  to  the  kingdom. 

Tunis  and  Tripoli,  formerly  the  republic  of  Car- 
thage. Carthage  stood  nearly  where  Tunis  now  stands. 
The  former  was  besieged  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  1270; 
it  remained  under  African  kings  till  taken  by  Barba- 
rossa under  Solyman  the  Magnificent;  Barbarossa  was 
expelled  by  Charles  V.  but  the  country  was  recovered 
by  the  Turks  under  Selim  II.,  since  which  it  has  been 
tributary  to  the  Grand  Seignior;  it  has  long  been  a  de- 
pendency of  Turkey. 

Turkish  Empire,  founded  about  998;  at  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  Othman  established  the  present 
empire  in  Asia  Minor;  in  the  fourteenth  centurvthev 
invaded  Europe  and  in  1453  took  Constantinople;  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  was  followed  by  other  im- 

Sortant  conquests,  among  which  were  Greece  and  Ara- 
ia;  the  glory  of  the  empire  culminated  in  the  reign  of 
Solyman  the  Magnificent,  1520-1566;  after  his  death  be- 
gan the  decline  of  the  Ottoman  empire;  Austria  expelled 
them  from  Hungary,  Russia  deprived  them  of  the  prov- 


inces between  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and  the  Cau 
casus  in  Europe,  and  those  forming  western  Trans-Cau- 
casia in  Asia ;  the  Greeks  formed  an  independent  state  : 
Algiers  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  French ;  the 
power  of  the  Porte  lias  nearly  vanished  from  the 
provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  and  finally 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78  has  deprived  the 
Porte  of  much  of  the  territory  in  Europe. 

Tuileries,  The,  is  the  name  of  a  garden  and  palace  in 
Paris,  built  on  the  site  of  an  xacleatfabrique  de  t  u&lt  s. 
It  was  composed  of  three  great  pavilions,  called  the 
pavUlonde  Alarsa  n(north), the  //</ vulon  Or  Fldre (south), 
and  the  pavilion  de  V Horloye  (center).  It  was  joined  to 
the  Louvre  by  Napoleon  III.  (1851-6).  The  land  was 
bought  by  Frangois  I.  in  1564,  and  the  original  palace 
was  made  for  Catherine  de  Medicis  after  the  design  of 
Philibert  Delorme. 

Tuscany,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Etruscans,  belonged 
to  Germany  till  1240. 

Tyre,  a  city  of  great  antiquity,  suffered  destruction 
at  an  early  period :  rebuilt  under  Nimus ;  taken  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years;  it  "became 
subject  to  the  Romans,  B.  C.  64. 

It  ali  was  first  settled  by  Americans  at  Salt  Lake  City, 
1847.  Organized  as  a  territory,  1850 :  admitted  as  a  state. 
1896.  Ranks  third  in  silver;  tenth  in  gold;  fifteenth  in 
coal. 

Varangians,  The,  were  the  Norse  vikings,  who,  in 
the  ninth  century  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Russian 
Empire.  Many  of  them  entered  the  service  of  the  By- 
zantine emperors,  and  in  the  days  of  the  Comneni  the 
Varangians  regularly  formed  the  imperial  bodyguard  at 
Constantinople.  The  Varangians  at  Constantinople  were 
largely  recruited  by  Anglo-Saxons  and  Danes  from  Eng- 
land after  the  Norman  Conquest. 

"  Vaticanus  Mons  "  is  a  hill  at  Rome,  chiefly  noted 
for  its  magnificent  palace  of  the  popes,  the  Vatican,  with 
its  superb  gardens,  its  museums,  celebrated  library,  and 
basilica  of  St.  Peter.  The  palace  was  constructed  in 
498,  but  has  often  been  enlarged. 

Valencia,  conquered  by  the  Moors  under  Abdallah 
Ciz,  and  lost  by  them,  1094;  relinquished  to  the  Moors 
again  by  the  king  of  Castile:  soon  after  taken  again  by 
James  I.  of  Aragon,  1238,  and  with  Aragon  united  with 
Spain,  1492;  capitulated  to  the  French  January  9, 1812. 

Vandals,  The,  inhabited  Germany  and  embraced 
Christianity, 400;  began  their  kingdom  in  Spain,  411 ;  in- 
vaded and  conquered  the  Roman  territories  in  Africa 
under  Genseric,  430;  sacked  and  pillaged  Rome,  455. 

Vermont  (Green  Mountain  State).— First  settled  by 
the  English,  Fort  Dummer,  1764.  Ranks  fourth  in  cop- 
per: seventh  in  hops  and  buckwheat;  twenty-sixth  in 
wealth  ;  thirty-second  in  population;  fortieth  in  square 
miles ;  forty-first  in  miles  of  railway.  The  state  is  noted 
for  its  rich  quarries  of  marble,  soapstone,  and  slate, 
which  are  worked  at  several  points.  It  is  also  noted  as  a 
good  grazing  country.  The  dairy  products  are  exten- 
sive and  valuable.  Stock  raising  is  carried  on  to  a  con- 
siderable extent. 

Vendome  Column,  The,  in  Paris  was  erected  by  Na- 

Eoleon  I.  1806,  in  the  Place  Vendome,  to  commemorate 
is  successful  campaign  in  Germany;  pulled  down  by 
the  Communists  1871,  but  restored  by  the  National  As- 
sembly,1874.  It  is  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  feet  high, 
with  a  statue  of  Napoleon  I.  at  the  top. 

Venice.— Originally  inhabitated  by  the  Veneti :  con- 
quered by  the  Gauls'  and  made  a  kingdom  about  B.  C. 
356 ;  conquered  for  the  Romans  by  Mareellus. 221.  The 
islands  on  which  the  city  now  stands  began  to  be  in- 
habited by  Italians  about  421 ;  its  university  founded, 
1592.  , 

Vesuvius,  eruptions  of,  A.  D.  79.  203,  272;  ejected 
flames  that  were  seen  at  Constantinople ;  obscured  the 
sun  at  noonday,  afUl  ravag"eTT  all  Campania;  was  in 
an  active  state  6f  eruption  upward  of  35  times,  between 
the  years  472  and  the  present. 

Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria-Hungary,  was  orig- 
inallv  Vindobona  of  Upper  Pannonla;  afterwards  cap- 
ital of  the  east  provinces  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne; 
besieged  by  the  Turks  in  1529,  and  again  In  1683;  the 
French  took  it  in  1806  and  in  1809;  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  which  fixed  for  a  time  the  limits  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  was  held  here  November,  lsu,  to  June,  1815. 

Vikings,  The,  were  the  piratical  Northmen  who  in- 
fested the  coasts  of  the  British  Islands  and  of  France  in 
the  eighth,  ninth,  and  tenth  centuries.  This  word  is 
quite  unconnected  with  "king,"  being  derived  from 
the  Scandinavian  vlk,  "  a  bay  "  (the  same  which  appears 


HISTORY  AND   BIOGRAPHY. 


297 


in  the  names  Lerwick,  Berwick,  etc.),  and  this  class  of 
marauders  were  so  called  because  their  ships  put  off 
from  the  bays  and  fiords. 

\  Islsoths,  The,  or  Western  Goths,  were  the  descend- 
ants ot  that  branch  of  the  Gothic  race  established  by 
Aurelian  in  Dacia  (270).  The  descendants  of  the  other 
branch  of  the  race,  which  remained  la  Southern  Russia, 
were  called  Ostrogoths  (Eastern  Goths).  On  the  death 
of  Theodosius,  the  Visigoths,  under  Alaric,  overran 
Greece  (3%)  and  Italy  (400).  After  Alaric's  death  (410) 
they  established  a  kingdom  at  Toulouse  (418)  which 
eventually  comprised  the  whole  of  Gaul  south  of  the 
Loire  and  west  of  the  Rhone,  as  well  as  Provence  and 
the  greater  part  of  Spain.  With  the  defeat  (and  death) 
of  Alaric  II.  by  Clovis,  on  the  held  of  Vougle'  (or  Vouill4 
or  Voclad)  near  Poitiers  (507),  the  kingdom  of  Toulouse 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  Visigoths  abandoned  to  the 
conqueror  all  their  territories  north  of  the  Pyrenees, 
with  the  exception  of  a  small  tract  of  country  in  Gaul, 
including  the  cities  of  Carcassone,  Narbonne,  and 
Nimes. 

Virginia,  first  settled  at  Jamestown  by  the  English, 
1607.  Ranks  first  in  peanuts;  second  in  tobacco ;  eighth 
in  salt  and  iron  ore;  sixteenth  in  wealth.  Agriculture 
is  the  leading  industry;  tobacco,  wheat,  corn,  and  pota- 
toes being  the  great  staples.  The  mineral  resources  are 
vast ;  the  mountains  containing  rich  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron,  valuable  marble,  slate,  and  stone  quarries  with 
important  salt  springs. 

Wales.— The  first  king  was  Edwawl,  G90:  it  was  con- 
quered and  divided  by  William  I.,  1091 ;  Griffith,  the  last 
king,  died  1137 ;  the  sovereign  from  that  time  forward 
was  the  prince ;  completely  conquered  and  annexed  to 
the  crown  of  England,  1283. 

Walloons,  The,  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  southeast- 
ern division  of  Belgium,  their  country  comprising  the 
provinces  of  Hainault,  Xamur,  Liege,  "and  Luxemburg, 
with  part  of  Brabant.  The  Walloons  are  Romanized 
Gauls,  lineal  representatives  of  the  ancient  Belgre,  dis- 
tinguished from  their  Flemish  (Teutonic)  neighbors  by 
their  Romance  language,  their  stronger  physique,  and 
their  darker  complexion.  The  Walloon  language,  how- 
ever, a  strongly  marked  dialect  of  Northern  France  (the 
Langue  d'OiT),"i8  now  merely  a  provincial  patois,  French 
being  the  written  standard  and  official  language  of  the 
whole  kingdom. 

Wrarsaw,  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  capitulated 
and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Russians,  September 
7, 1831. 

Washington  ranks  eighth  in  gold,  seventeenth  in 
square  miles,  forty-first  in  population,  forty-second  in 
miles  of  railway.  "Population,  according  to* territorial 
census  in  1885, 127,292 ;  United  States  Census,  1893,349.390. 
First  settlement,  by  Americans,  at  Astoria,  1811.  Organ- 
ized as  a  territory,  1853.    Admitted  to  the  Union,  1889. 

Wat  Tyler's  insurrection  occurred  November  5, 1380, 
a  peasant's  revolt,  immediately  due  to  the  imposition 
of  a  poll-tax  on  all  persons  above  fifteen.  Almost  the 
whole  of  the  peasantry  of  the  southern  and  eastern 
counties  of  England  rose  in  arms,  murdering  and  plun- 
dering, under  the  leadership  of  Wat  Tyler,  said  to  have 
been  a  soldier  in  the  French  wars.  On  June  12,  1381, 
they  gathered  on  Blackheath.  On  June  14,  Richard  II., 
then  a  lad  of  fifteen,  met  the  Essex  contingent  at  Mile 


End,  and,  promising  the  abolition  of  villenage,  induced 
them  to  return  home.  On  June  15,  he  met  the  Kentish 
men  at  Smithfield,  and  in  the  parley  Wat  Tyler  was 
killed  by  William  Walworth,  mayor  of  London,  and 
others.  The  peasants  were  about  to  avenge  his  death, 
when  Richard,  with  great  presence  of  mind,  rode  for- 
ward alone,  and  induced  them  to  follow  him  to  Isling- 
ton, when,  a  body  of  troops  coming  to  the  king's  aid, 
and  Richard  being  profuse  of  promises,  they  dispersed. 

Waterloo,  Battle  of,  in  which  Napoleon  with  69,000 
men  attacked  a  combined  army  of  89,000  English,  Dutch, 
Belgian,  and  Hanoverian  troops;  a  dreadful  slaughter 
continued  until  four  o'clock,  when  two  Prussian  corps 
of  30,000  and  40,000,  under  Bulow  and  Blucher,  succes- 
sively arrived,  and,  turning  his  right  wing,  the  whole 
army  fled  in  confusion  at  half  past  nine  o'clock,  June 
18, 1815. 

West  Virginia. —  The  first  settlers  were  English, 
Wheeling,  1774.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry, 
and  the  principal  staples  are  tobacco,  wheat,  and  corn. 
The  mountain  pastures  are  well  adapted  to  stock  raising. 
Its  mineral  resources  are  rich  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  and 
numerous  oil  wells,  and  salt  springs. 

Westminster  Abbey,  built  by  Sebert,  king  of  Essex, 
on  the  spot  where  the  Temple  of  Apollo  had  once  stood ; 
its  monastery,  consecrated  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
10(55 ;  rebuilt  and  consecrated,  1269 ;  turned  into  a  colle- 
giate church,  1560. 

AVills  are  of  a  very  high  antiquity;  Solon  intro- 
duced them  at  Athens ;  there  are  many  regulations  re- 
specting wills  in  the  Koran ;  the  Roman  had  this  power ; 
so  had  the  native  Mexican,  so  that  it  prevailed  at  least 
in  three  parts  of  the  globe ;  lands  were  devisable  by  will 
before  the  conquest ;  privilege  of  making  wills  granted 
by  Henry  I.  in  1100. 

Wisconsin  (Badger  State). —  First  settlement,  by  the 
French,  Green  Bay,  16G0.  Admitted  to  the  Union,'l848. 
Ranks  second  in  hops,  third  in  barley  and  potatoes, 
fourth  in  rye  and  buckwheat,  fifth  in  oats  and  agricul- 
tural implements,  seventh  in  iron,  steel,  and  wool, eighth 
in  hay  and  milch  cows, ninth  in  copper,  tenth  in  wealth, 
eleventh :  in  miles  of  railway,  sixteenth  in  population, 
and  twenty-third  in  square  miles.  The  chief  industry  is 
agriculture,  with  large  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  oats,  bar- 
ley, hay,  potatoes,  and  hops,  as  the  staple  productions. 
Live  stock  is  largely  raised.  In  the  production  of  wool 
and  cheese  it  is  among  the  leading  states.  The  manu- 
facturing interests  are  large  and  increasing.  The  great 
pine  forestsin  abundance, and  the  most  valuable  timber, 
lead,  iron,  zinc,  and  marbleminesareextensively  worked. 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior, and  the  Mississippi,  afford 
great  natural  highways  for  commerce. 

Witchcraft. —  Six  "hundred  condemned  as  wizards, 
and  most  of  them  burned  in  France,  1609;  Grandier, 
parish  priest  of  Loudan,  burned  on  the  supposition  of 
having  bewitched  a  whole  convent  of  nuns,  1634;  nine 
old  women  were  burned  at  Kalish,  in  Poland,  charged 
with  having  bewitched  and  rendered  unfruitful  the 
lands  belonging  to  a  gentleman  in  that  palatinate;  the 
last  punished  in  England  for  witchcraft,  was  October 
29,  1808. 

Wyoming. — Ranks  ninth  in  square  miles,  twelfth  in 
cattle,  fourteenth  in  gold,  sixteenth  in  coal,  forty-fourth 
in  miles  of  railway,  forty-sixth  in  population.  First 
settlement,  by  Amer'jans,  1867.  Organized  as  a  terri- 
tory,  1868.    Admitted  to  the  Union  in  1890. 


HISTORIC  TREATIES. 

843.  Contract  of  Verdun.  This  treaty  concluded  the 
war  between  Lothar,  Louis  the  German/and  Charles  the 
Bald,  over  their  respective  shares  of  the  imperial  domin- 
ions on  the  death  of  their  father.  Louis  the  Pious. 

911.  Treaty  of  St.-Clair-sur-Eitte  :  concluded  the  war 
between  the  invading  Norsemen  under  Rollo  and  the 
French  king,  Charles  the  Simple. 

1122.  Concordat  of  Worms :  an  agreement  between  the 
emperor  and  the  pope,  closing  the  long  strife  known  as 
the  war  of  investitures. 

1183.  Treaty  of  Constance:  between  the  emperor, 
Freierick  Bafbarossa,  and  the  Lombard  cities. 

1360.  Peace  of  Bretigny  :  a  treaty  that  interrupted  the 
Hundred  Vears'  war  between  France  and  England. 

1397.  Union  of  Calmar  :  the  treaty  by  which  Denmark, 
Sv.L'ilen.  and  Norway  were  united  under  Queen  Mar- 
garet of  Denmark. 

1420.  Treaty  of  Troves:  interrupted  the  Hundred 
Years'  war  oh  terms  most  favorable  to  England. 

1435.  Treaty  of  Arras :  a  compact  between  Burgundy 
and  France. 


1466.  Treaty  o«  Thorn :  settled  the  terms  of  the  Polish 
conquest  of  West  Prussia. 

1482.  Treaty  of  Arras :  settled  the  dispute  between 
Louis  XL  of  France,  and  Maximilian  of  Austria. 

1493.  Bull  of  Pope  Alexander  VI. :  arranged  the  con- 
flictrug  claims  of  Spain  and  Portugal  to  newly  discov- 
ered lands. 

1508.  League  of  Cambray  :  a  union  formed  by  Louis 
XII.  of  France  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  which  the 
pope  and  others  were  invited  to  join. 

1526.  Treaty  of  Madrid :  formed  between  Charles  V. 
of  Germany  and  Francis  I.  of  France. 

4529.  Treaty  of  Cambray :  between  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V. 

1514.  Treaty  of  Crespy  :  concluded  the  fourth  and 
last  war  between  Francis  I.  and  Charles  V. 

1579.  Union  of  Utrecht :  laid  the  foundations  of  the 
Dutch  Republic. 

1648.  Peace  of  Westphalia:  concluded  the  Thirty 
Years'  War. 

1659.  Peace  of  the  Pyrenees :  closed  the  long  war  be- 
tween France  and  Spain. 


298 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1660.  Treaty  of  Copenhagen :  between  Denmark  and 
Sweden. 

1667.  Treaty  of  Breda  ;  between  England  and  Hol- 
land. 

1668.  Triple  Alliance  :  between  Enpland.  Holland,  and 
Sweden  to  defend  Spain  against  Louis  XIV. 

1668.  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Cnapelle  :  between  France  and 
Spain. 

1668.  Treaty  of  Lisbon :  between  Spain  and  Portugal 
through  the  mediation  of  England. 

1618.    Peace  of  Nymwegen:  ended  the  Dutch  war.-     . 

16y7.  Peace  of  Ryswick  :  closed  the  war  between 
France  under  Louis  XIV.  and  the  princii  al  states  of 
Europe  —  called  the  War  of  the  Palatini)  te. 

1699.  Peace  of  Carlowitz:  between  Turkey  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  Emperor  of  Germany ,  the  King  of  Poland, 
and  the  republic  of  Venice  on  the  other. 

1713 14.  Treaties  of  Utrecht,  Rastadt,  and  Baden : 
concluded  between  the  states  taking  part  in  the  war  of 
the  Spanish  succession. 

1717.  Triple  Alliance :  between  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Holland. 

1718-19.  Quadruple  Alliance:  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  Holland,  and  the  emperor  against  the  aggres- 
sions of  Spain. 

1718.  Peace  of  Passarowitz :  between  the  sultan  and 
emperor. 

1721.    Peace  of  Nystadt:  between  Sweden  and  Russia. 

1738.  Treaty  of  Vienna:  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. 

1742.  Peace  of  Breslau  :  between  Frederick  II.  of  Prus- 
sia and  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria. 

1748.  Peace  of  Aix-la  Chapelle :  between  Great  Brit- 
ain, France,  and  Holland;  Austria,  Spain,  Sardinia, 
Genoa,  and  Modena  being  accessories. 

17i  1.  The  Family  Compact:  between  the  Bourbon 
rulers  of  France  and  Spain. 

1763.  Peace  of  Paris:  terminated  the  Seven  Years' 
war,  known  in  United  States  history  as  the  French  and 
Indian  war. 

1772.  First  Partition  of  Poland  :  executed  by  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Prussia.  » 

1774.  Peace  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji :  between  Russia 
and  Turkey. 

1783.  Treaty  of  Paris :  in  which  Great  Britain  acknowl- 
edged the  independence  of  the  North  American  colonies. 

1783.-  Treaty  of  Versailles:  between  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Spain. 

Ii92.  .First  Coalition  against  France:  involved  all  the 
powers  except  Sweden,  Switzerland,  Denmark,  Tuscany, 
Venice,  and  Genoa. 

1795.    Peace  of  Basel :  between  France  and  Prussia. 

1795.  Jay  Treaty:  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain. 

1797.  Treaty  of  Tolentino:  between  the  French  re- 
public and  the  pope. 

1797.  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio :  between  Napoleon 
and  the  emperor  of  Germany. 

1798.  Second  Coalition  against  France:  initiated  by 
Russia;  afterward  comprised  England,  Austria,  Naples, 
Portugal,  and  Turkey. 

1802.  Peace  of  Amiens :  between  Great  Britain  on  the 
one  hand,  and  France,  Spain,  and  the  Batavian  republic 
on  the  other. 


180.3.  Treaty  between  France  and  the  United  States: 
touching  the  purchase  of  Louisiana. 

1805.  Peace  of  Pressburg :  between  Austriaand  France. 

1S(»7.  Treaties  of  Tilsit:  concluded  between  France, 
Prussia,  and  Russia. 

1809.  Treaty  of  Schonbrunn :  between  France  and 
Austria. 

1814.  First  Peace  of -Paris:  between  France  and  the 
principal  European  powers;  after  the  defeat  of  Napo- 
leon at  Leipzig. 

1814.  Treaty  of  Ghent :  between  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain. 

1815.  Congress  of  Vienna:  attended  by  the  principal 
European  powers. 

1815.  Second  Peace  of  Paris  :  between  France  and  the 
allies  after  the  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 

1815.  Holy  Alliance:  formed  at  Paris  between  the 
monarchs  of  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia. 

1818.  Congress  of  Aix-la-('hapelle :  participated  in  by 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  France. 

1827.  Treaty  of  London  :  between  Great  Britain,  Rus- 
sia, and  France,  to  put  an  end  to  the  war  between  Tur- 
key and  Greece. 

1829.  Treaty  of  Adriauople  :  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key. 

1840.  Quadruple  Treaty  of  London:  between  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Russia  on  the  one  hand 
and  Turkey  on  the  other,  touching  Mehemet  Ali  of 
Egypt. 

1842.  Treaty  of  Nanking:  concluded  the  so-called 
opium  war  between  Great  Britain  and  China. 

1842.  Ashburton  Treaty :  signed  at  Washington  to 
define  the  northeastern  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  British  North  America. 

1848.  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo:  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico. 

1854.  Treaty  between  the  United  States  and  Japan: 
negotiated  by  Commodore  Perry. 

1856.    Treaty  of  Paris  :  after  the  Crimean  war. 

1858.  Treaties  of  Tientsin:  between  China  and  each 
of  the  four  nations,  Great  Britain,  France,  Russia,  and 
United  States. 

1859.  Peace  of  Zurich ;  settled  the  dispute  between 
France  and  Sardinia  on  the  one  hand  and  Austria  on 
the  other. 

1864.  Peace  of  Vienna :  concluded  the  war  between 
Austria,  Prussia,  and  Denmark,  growing  out  of  the 
Schleswig-Holstein  question. 

1865.  Convention  of  Gastein:  a  compact  between 
Prussia  and  Austria. 

1866.  Peace  of  Prague :  concluded  the  war  between 
Prussia  and  Austria. 

1871.  Treaty  of  F'rankfort :  between  France  and  Ger- 
many. 

1871.  Treaty  of  Washington:  to  adjust  the  Alabama 
claims. 

1878.  Treaty  of  San  Stefano  supplemented  by  the 
(  ongress  of  Berlin  :  closed  the  Russo-Turkish  war.' 

1879.  Triple  Alliance  :  between  Austria,  Germany,  and 
Italy. 

1895.  Treaty  of  Shimonoseki :  concluded  the  war  be- 
tween China  and  Japan. 

1898.  Treaty  of  Paris :  concluded  the  Spanish- Ameri- 
can war. 


THOMAS  A.  EDISON. 


Book  IV. 


Science,  Invention,  Discovery. 


Science,  Invention,  Discovery. 


Alcoholic  Drinks.  —  The  number  of 
alcoholic  drinks  is  surprisingly  large  and 
varied.  The  following  are  the  principal : 
Agua  ardiente,  made  in  Mexico,  from  the  fer- 
mented juice  of  agave  ;  arrack,  made  in  India 
from  the  juice  of  the  palm  and  from  rice  ; 
araka,  made  in  Tartary,  from  fermented  mare's 
milk ;  araki,  made  in  Egypt  from  dates ; 
brandy,  made  in  nearly  all  wine  countries  from 
wine  and  from  fruits  ;  Geneva  or  Holland  gin, 
made  in  Holland  from  malted  barley  or  rye,  rec- 
tified on  juniper  berries  ;  gin  made  in  England 
from  malted  barley,  rye,  or  potatoes,  and  recti- 
fied with  turpentine;  goldwasser,  made  at 
Dantzic  from  various  kinds  of  corn  and  recti- 
fied with  spices  ;  kirchwasser,  made  in  Switz- 
erland from  the  Mahaleb  cherry ;  lau,  made 
in  Siam  from  rice  ;  maraschino,  made  in  Dal- 
matia  from  the  Macarska  cherry ;  Mahwah 
arrack,  made  in  India  from  the  flowers  of  the 
madhuca  tree  ;  rum,  made  in  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America  from  cane  sugar  and  mo- 
lasses ;  rakia,  made  in  Dalmatiafrom  the  husks 
of  grapes,  mixed  with  aromatics ;  rossolio, 
made  at  Dantzic  from  a  compound  of  brandy 
with  certain  plants  ;  slatkai-trava,  made  at 
Kamtschatka  from  a  sweet  grass  ;  show-choo, 
made  in  China  from  the  lees  of  rice  wine ; 
trosta,  made  in  the  Rhenish  provinces  from 
the  husks  of  grapes  fermented  with  barley  and 
rye ;  tuba,  made  in  the  Philippine  Islands 
from  palm  wine  ;  vino  mescal,  made  in  Mexico 
by  distilling  the  fermented  juice  of  the  agave  ; 
whisky,  made  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  United 
States  from  raw  and  malted  grain,  and  south 
of  France  from  sloes. 

Air. —  The  gaseous  envelope  of  the  earth. 
Our  planet  has  two  coverings  :  one  the  water, 
which  is  distributed  as  lakes  and  seas,  filling 
up  the  deep  cavities  of  the  solid  surface,  tend- 
ing to  produce  a  more  level  superficies ;  the 
second  covering  is  the  air  or  atmosphere,  which 
rests  upon  the  top  of  the  water  and  the  dry 
land,  enveloping  the  highest  mountains,  and 
rising  upwards  to  an  altitude  somewhat  above 
forty-five  miles ;  it  is  a  true,  aeriform  ocean 
surrounding  our  earth  and  has  upon  its  upper 
surface  waves  and  tides,  and,  throughout  its 
mass,  currents  flowing  in  constant  and  vari- 
able directions,  precisely  as  those  of  the  ocean 
comport  themselves  ;  it  is  held  down  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth  by  attraction,  and  rotates 
with  the  planet ;  its  density  varies  with  its 
actual  height  at  the  place  of  observation,  of 
which  the  barometric  pressure  is  the  evidence. 
This  pressure  diminishes  as  the  elevation  above 


the  sea  increases,  owing  to  the  upper  portions 
of  the  atmosphere  pressing  upon  and  condens- 
ing the  lower  strata,  so  much  so,  that  one  half 
the  actual  weight  of  the  atmosphere  is  coin- 
prised  within  the  space  of  the  lower  five  miles 
of  its  total  height,  the  remaining  forty  miles 
in  height  containing  the  other  half.  The  air 
is  highly  compressible  and  elastic,  and  its 
volume  diminished  inversely  as  the  pressure 
increases.  This  accounts  for  the  facility  of 
setting  it  in  motion  and  its  velocity.  Like 
fluids,  it  presses  equally  in  every  direction,  and 
when  it  comes  in  contact  with  a  moreexpanded 
and  therefore  lighter  portion  of  air,  it  pushes 
it  up  and  occupies  its  place,  producing  cur- 
rents of  air  and  winds  when  it  flows  in  streams, 
and  sounds  when  it  is  thrown  into  vibrations 
or  undulations.  The  air  is  wanned  solely  by 
the  earth,  and  not  by  the  transmitted  rays  of 
the  sun,— hence  warm  air  exists  within  the 
tropics,  and  diminishes  towards  the  poles,  and 
insensibly  decreases  every  three  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  of  elevation. 

Acoustics.  —  The  doctrine  of  the  different 
sounds  of  vibrating  strings,  and  the  communi- 
cation of  sounds  to  the  ear  by  the  vibration  of 
the  atmosphere,  was  probably  first  explained 
by  Pythagoras,  about  500  B.  C.  Mentioned 
by  Aristotle,  330  B.  C.  The  speaking  trum- 
pet is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  335  B.  C.  The  discoveries  of  Galileo 
were  made  about  1000  A.  1).  The  velocity  of 
sound  was  investigated  by  Newton  before  1700. 
Galileo's  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curves  was 
demonstrated  by  Dr.  Brook  Taylor,  in  1714; 
and  further  perfected  by  D'Alembert,  Euler, 
Bernoulli,  and  LaGrange,  at  various  periods  of 
the  eighteenth  century. 

Algebra.  —  Where  Algebra  was  first  used, 
and  by  whom,  is  not  precisely  known.  Dio- 
phantus  first  wrote  upon  it,  probably  about  170 
A.  D.  ;  he  is  said  to  be  the  inventor.  Brought 
into  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  about  900  ;  and 
into  Italy  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  in  1202.  The 
first  writer  who  used  algebraical  signs  was 
Stifelius  of  Nuremberg,  in  1544.  The  intro- 
duction of  symbols  for  quantities  was  by  Fran- 
cis Vieta,  in  1590,  when  algebra  came  into 
general  use.  The  binomial  theorem  of  New- 
ton, the  basis  of  the  doctrine  of  fluxions,  and 
the  new  analysis,  1008.  Descartes  applied  al- 
gebra to  geometry  about  1037. 

Almanacs. — -The  Egyptians  computed 
time  by  instruments.  Log  calendars  were 
anciently  in  use.  The  word  almanac  is  of 
Saxon  origin.     Michael  Nostradamus,  the  as- 


SCIENCE,    INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


301 


trologer,  wrote  an  almanac  in  the  style  of  Mer- 
lin, 1556.  The  first  published  is  said  to  have 
been  by  Martin  Hykus,  at  Buda  in  1470.  The 
first  almanac  in  England  was  printed  at  Oxford, 
in  1673. 

Anatomy. —  The  human  body  was  studied 
by  Aristotl3  about  350  B.  C,  and  its  structure 
was  made  part  of  the  philosophical  investiga- 
tions of  Plato  and  Xenophon ;  it  became  a 
branch  of  medical  education,  under  Hippocra- 
tes about  420  B.  C.  Erasistratus  and  Herophi- 
lus  first  dissected  the  human  form,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  the  fathers  of  anatomy  ;  it  is  said 
that  they  practiced  upon  the  bodies  of  living 
criminals  about  300  and  293  B.  C.  Galen, 
who  died  193  A.  I).,  was  a  great  anatomist. 
In  England  the  schools  were  long  supplied 
with  bodies  unlawfully  exhumed  from  graves  ; 
and  until  1832  the  bodies  of  executed  murder- 
ers were  ordered  for  dissection.  Pope  Boni- 
face VIII.  forbade  the  dissection  of  dead 
bodies,  1297.  The  first  anatomical  plates, 
designed  by  Titian,  were  employed  by  Vesalius, 
about  1538.  The  discoveries  of  Harvey  were 
made  in  1616.  The  anatomy  of  plants  was 
discovered  in  1680. 

Angling. — ■  The  origin  of  this  art  is  in- 
volved in  obscurity  ;  allusion  was  made  to  it 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the  most 
ancient  books  of  the  Bible,  as  Amos.  It  came 
into  general  repute  in  England  about  the  pe- 
riod of  the  reformation.  Winkin  de  Worde's 
Treatijse  of  Fyeshinge,  the  first  book  printed  on 
angling,  appeared  in  1496.  Isaac  Walton's 
book  was  printed  in  1653. 

Arithmetic. — -  Where  first  invented  is  not 
known,  at  least  with  certainty.  It  was 
brought  from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales, 
about  600  B.  C.  The  oldest  treatise  upon 
arithmetic  is  by  Euclid,  about  300  B.  C.  The 
sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was  used 
A.  D.  130.  Diophantus  of  Alexandria  was  the 
author  of  thirteen  books  of  arithmetical  ques- 
tions (of  which  six  are  extant)  in  150.  Nota- 
tion by  nine  digits  andzero,  known  at  least  as 
early  as  the  sixth  century  in  Hindostan  —  in- 
troduced from  thence  into  Arabia,  about  900, 
into  Spain  1050,  into  England  1253.  Arith- 
metic of  decimals  invented  1482.  First 
work  printed  in  England  on  arithmetic  was 
by  Tonstall,  bishop  of  Durham,  1522.  The 
theory  of  decimal  fractions  was  perfected  by 
Lord  Napier  in  1017. 

Assaying. —  The  assaying  of  silver  and 
gold  is  affected  by  a  process  called  cupellation. 
Cupels  are  small  flat  crucibles  made  by  press- 
ing bone  ash  moistened  with  water,  into  cir- 
cular steel  molds,  and  they  are  ;lried  by  ex- 
posure to  the  air.  The  principle  upon  which 
the  operation  depends  is,  that  all  metals  with 


'  which  gold  and  silver  are  usually  alloyed,  are 
convertible  into  oxides  by  exposure  to  atmos- 
pheric air  at  a  high  temperature,  whereas  the 
precious  metals  remain  unacted  upon. 

To  assay  silver  by  cupellation  the  silver  is 
flattened  and  wrapped  up  in    an    envelope  of 

|  lead.  A  muffle  or  oven  is  heated  in  an  assay 
furnace  and  the  two  metals  put  into  it.  The 
metals  melt  and  the  lead  becomes  converted 
into  an  oxide,  which  as  well  vis  any  baser  met- 

j  als  before  combined  with  the  silver  is  absorbed 
by  the  substance  of  the  cupel  until  at  length 

j  the  silver  is  left  absolutely  pure. 

The  assaying  of  gold  is  performed,  to  a  cer- 

!  tain  extent  in  a  similar  way,  and  if  the  gold 

:  were  alloyed  only  with  copper,  the  process 
would  be  as  simple  as  that  of  silver  assaying. 
Usually,  however,  gold  contains  silver,  and  this 
cannot  be  got  rid  of  by  cupellation,  the  part- 
ing process  is,  therefore,  had  recourse  to  ;  this 
consists  in  dissolving  the  silver  by  dilute  ni- 
tric acid,  which  leaves  the  gold  perfectly  pure. 
Iron  ores  are  assayed  by  separating  the  oxy- 
gen from  the  iron,  by  the  greater  affinity  of 
charcoal  for  that  element  at  high  temperatures. 
The  ore,  some  charcoal,  and  an  alkaline  flux 
are  heated  in  a  crucible  ;  and  the  result  is  that 
all  the  impurities  in  the  ore  are  made  to  leave 
the  iron  so  that  the  latter  is  presented  in  a 
purely  metallic  form. 

Copper  ores  usually  contain  sulphur,  and  in 
order  to  assay  them  a  flux  is  prepared  of  fluor 
spar,  borax,  slacked  lime,  argol,  and  niter. 

Automobile. —  This  name  covers  all  forms 
of  self-propelling  vehicles  for  use  on  country 
roads  or  city  streets,  whether  driven  by  steam 
produced  by  the  combustion  of  fuel,  stored 
steam,  compressed  air,  oil  or  gasoline  engines, 
or  by  electric  motors  taking  current  from  accu- 
mulators. Automobiles  are  not  of  recent  ori- 
gin, as  many  generally  suppose,  but  date  back 
to  the  early  days  of  the  steam  engine,  to  the 
time  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who,  in  1680,  pro- 
posed a  form  of  steam  carriage  which  embodied 
the  essential  features  of  a  steam  automobile. 
In  1790  Nathan  Read  patented  and  constructed 
a  model  steam  carriage.  But  the  first  actual 
experiments  were  made  in  1769,  by  a  French 
army  officer,  Nicholas  Cugnot,  who  built  a 
three  wheel  carriage.  In  America,  Oliver 
Evans,  as  early  as  1786,  suggested  a  form  of 
road  wagon  to  be  propelled  by  steam.  In  1803 
Richard  Trevithick  built  a  full  sized  carriage 
which  was  exhibited  in  London,  having  driven 
itself  90  miles  en  route  from  Camborne,  where 
it  was  constructed.  David  Gurney  built  and 
operated  a  steam  carriage  in  1827,  in  which  he 
made  frequent  and  long  journeys,  covering  as 
much  as  85  miles  in  10  hours.  He  was  ex- 
celled  by  Walter   Hancock   who   established 


302 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


several  stage  lines.  Since  1895  the  construc- 
tion of  automobiles  has  been  carried  on  with 
great  energy,  and  many  improvements  have 
been  made.  So  far  the  most  satisfactory  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  with  the  steam,  oil, 
and  electric  carriages.  In  tire  construction 
the  pneumatic  tire  occupies  the  first  place  in 
public  favor,  although  solid  rubber  tires  are 
largely  employed.  The  highest  speed  is  ob- 
tained by  use  of  light  oils,  preferably  gasoline  ; 
steam  motors  are  most  successfully  used  with 
heavy  trucks  and  vans  ;  the  electric  motor  has 
given  the  best  satisfaction  when  employed  on 
vehicles  for  city  cab  and  carriage  work  and 
short  radius  runs. 

JEolian  Harp  was  the  invention,  it  is  be- 
lieved, of  Athanasius  Kircher,  who  lived  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  it  is  so  called 
from  iEolus,  the  god  or  ruler  of  the  winds. 
It  is  a  simple  musical  instrument,  the  sounds 
of  which  are  produced  by  the  vibrations  of 
strings  moved  by  wind.  It  may  be  composed 
of  a  rectangular  box  made  of  thin  boards,  five 
or  six  inches  deep  and  about  the  same  width, 
and  of  a  length  sufficient  to  extend  across  the 
window  it  is  to  be  set  at,  so  that  the  breeze 
coming  in  can  sweep  over  it.  At  the  top  of 
each  end  of  the  box  a  strip  of  wood  is  glued, 
about  a  half-inch  in  height;  the  strings  are 
then  stretched  lengthwise  across  the  top  of  the 
box,  and  may  be  tuned  in  unison  by  means  of 
pegs  constructed  to  control  their  tension,  as  in 
the  case  of  a  violin.  The  sounds  produced  by 
the  rising  and  falling  wind,  in  passing  over 
the  strings,  are  of  a  drowsy  and  lulling  charac- 
ter, and  have  been  beautifully  described  by  the 
poet  Thomson  as  supplying  the  most  suitable 
kind  of  music  for  the  Castle  of  Indolence. 

Aerial  Navigation. —  Pilatre  des  Rosiers 
made  the  first  balloon  ascension  at  Paris,  No- 
vember 21,  1783.  His  balloon  was  inflated 
with  heated  air.  December  1,  1783,  an  ascen- 
sion was  made  by  M.  Charles,  a  professor  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  at  Paris,  and  at  about  the 
same  time  successful  ascensions  were  also  made 
by  Messrs.  Rittenhouse  and  Hopkins,  of  Phila- 
delphia, hydrogen  gas  being  used  in  these  in- 
stances for  inflating  pin-poses.  The  valve  at 
the  top  of  the  balloon,  and  the  hoop  attached 
to  the  balloon  with  netting,  by  which  is  sus- 
pended the  car,  are  the  inventions  of  M. 
Charles.  In  1785  a  successful  passage  of  the 
English  Channel  was  made  by  M.  Blanchard, 
the  first  professional  aeronaut,  and  an  Ameri- 
can traveler  named  Dr.  Jeffries.  The  use  of 
ropes  for  the  purpose  of  steadying  balloons  was 
first  adopted  by  M.  Gay-Lussac,  in  1803. 
From  1852  to  1884  French,  German,  and 
American  aeronauts  labored  with  degrees  of 
success  to  improve  the  method  of  construction 


and  to  invent  a  means  for  the  propulsion  of 
balloons,  and  in  the  latter  year  Captains  Ren- 
ard  and  Krebs  produced  an  air  ship  which 
was  considered  the  crowning  effort  in  this 
line  of  invention.  This  ship  was  a  cigar- 
shaped  balloon,  carrying  a  platform,  on 
which  the  steering  and  propelling  apparatus 
was  placed.  The  balloon  was  made  of  strong 
silk  and  covered  with  a  light  netting  of  cords. 
It  was  197  feet  long  and  39  feet  in  diameter. 
To  the  netting  was  suspended  the  platform,  131 
feet  long  and  10  feet  broad,  on  the  front  of 
which  was  fixed  the  propeller,  a  screw  of  light, 
wooden  framework  and  air-tight  cloth.  The 
rudder  was  at  the  rear  of  the  platform.  The 
propeller  was  driven  by  electricity,  generated 
by  a  dynamo,  which  was  in  turn  driven  by 
stored  electricity.  The  first  ascension  of  this 
ship  fully  satisfied  the  most  sanguine  expecta- 
tions of  its  builders.  It  was  driven  seven 
miles  and  back  in  the  space  of  forty  minutes, 
and  obeyed  fully  every  movement  of  the  rudder. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris,  in  the  Franco-Ger- 
man war  of  1870-71,  ballooning  was  extensively 
used  by  the  besieged  for  communication  with 
the  outer  wrorld,  and  also  by  the  besiegers  for 
military  purposes,  and  since  that  date  military 
ballooning  has  become  an  important  subject  of 
study  and  experiment  by  soldiers. 

American  Clocks  and  Watches. — 
The  first  attempt  to  manufacture  watches  or 
clocks  on  a  large  scale  in  America  was  made 
by  Eli  Terry,  a  Connecticut  Yankee,  who  in- 
vented wooden  wheels  for  clocks  in  1792.  In 
1837  Chauncey  Jerome,  of  Massachusetts,  first 
applied  machinery  to  the  making  of  metal- 
wheeled  clocks,  and  as  a  result  drove  the 
wooden-wheeled  clocks  out  of  the  market. 
The  manufacture  of  watches  by  machinery, 
which  has  since  become  such  an  important 
business,  was  begun  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in 
1850,  and  was  continued  there  until  1854,  when 
the  works  were  removed  to  Waltham. 

Archimedes,  Principle  of.  —  Archi- 
medes, the  most  celebrated  of  ancient  mathe- 
maticianS;  wras  born  at  Syracuse  about  287 
B.  C.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  kinsman  of 
King  Hiero,  though  he  does  not  seem  to  have 
held  any  public  office,  but  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  science.  He  is  the  only  one  of  the 
ancients  who  contributed  anything  satisfactory 
on  the  theory  of  mechanies  and  on  hydrostat- 
ics. He  first  established  the  truth  that  a 
body  plunged  in  a  fluid  loses  exactly  as  much 
of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  the 
fluid  displaced  by  it.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  principles  in  the  science  of  hydro- 
statics, and  is  called  by  his  name.  It  was  by 
this  law  that  he  determined  how  much  alloy 
the  goldsmith,  whom  Hiero  had  commissioned 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


303 


to  make  a  crown  of  pure  gold,  had  fraudu- 
lently mixed  with  the  metal.  The  solution  of 
the  problem  had  suggested  itself  to  him  as  he 
was  entering  the  bath,  and  he  is  reported  to 
have  been  so  overjoyed  as  to  hasten  home  with- 
out waiting  to  dress,  exclaiming,  "I  have 
found  it!  I  have  found  it!"  Among  the 
numerous  inventions  ascribed  to  Archimedes  is 
that  of  the  endless  screw,  and  the  cochlea,  or 
water-screw,  in  which  the  water  is  made  in  a 
manner  to  ascend  by  its  own  gravity. 

Atlantic  Cables.— In  July,  1866,  the 
first  permanent  Atlantic  cable  was  laid  from 
Valentia  Bay,  Ireland,  to  Trinity  Bay,  N.  F., 
and  in  September  of  the  same  year  a  cable 
which  had  been  lost  in  1865  was  recovered 
and  its  laying  completed,  thus  giving  two  lines 
between  the  two  points.  These  lines  were 
known  as  the  Anglo-American  Cable,  and 
were  managed  by  a  company  of  the  same 
name.  The  French  Atlantic  Telegraph  Com- 
pany was  formed  in  1868,  and  it  laid  a  line 
from  Brest,  France,  to  Roxbury,  Mass.,  the 
following  year.  In  the  summer  of  1873  the 
fourth  Atlantic  telegraph  cable  was  laid  from 
Valentia,  Ireland,  to  Heart's  Content,  Trinity 
Bay,  N.  F.,  and  the  Brazilian  telegraph  cable 
was  laid  from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  to  a 
bay  on  the  coast  of  Portugal  a  few  months  later. 
The  Direct  United  States  Cable  Company 
was  formed,  and  laid  a  line  from  Ballenskill- 
ings  Bay,  Ireland,  to  Rye,  N.  H.,  via  Nova 
Scotia,  in  1874.  The  same  year  a  sixth  line 
across  the  Atlantic  was  laid  from  Ireland  to 
Newfoundland,  and  in  1880  another  French 
line  was  laid  from  Brest  to  St.  Pierre,  an  is- 
land in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  In  1884- 
'85,  the  companies  owning  all  these  lines  hav- 
ing previously  formed  a  combination  to  keep 
up  rates,  a  competing  company  was  formed  by 
James  Gordon  Bennett  and  Mr.  Mackay,  who 
laid  two  lines  from  Ireland  to  Nova  Scotia, 
and  also  a  connecting  line  from  Ireland  to 
France.  .  The  difficulty  writh  these  submarine 
cables  at  first  was  to  send  through  them  a  cur- 
rent of  sufficient  power  to  record  the  message. 
The  method  adopted  is  as  follows  :  Two  keys, 
which  when  depressed  transmit  respectively 
positive  and  negative  currents,  are  employed 
at  the  sending  station,  in  connection  with  the 
battery.  The  current  of  the  battery  does  not 
pass  directly  into  the  cable,  but  into  a  con- 
denser, which  passes  it  into  the  submarine 
line.  This  greatly  increases  the  force  of  the 
current  used,  and  serves  to  cut  off  interfering 
earth-currents.  The  receiving-instrument  first 
employed  was  a  reflecting  galvanometer. 
Upon  the  magnet  of  this  instrument  is  carried 
a  small  curved  mirror.  About  two  feet  in 
front  of  it  is  placed  a  lamp  behind  a  frame  in 


which  is  a  vertical  slit,  while  above  it  is  a 
screen.  The  light  from  this  lamp,  passing 
through  the  slit,  falls  on  the  surface  of  the 
mirror,  which  throws  it  back  upon  the  screen. 
The  flash  of  light,  moving  from  right  to  left 
with  the  motion  of  the  needle,  indicates  the 
message  sent.  This  method,  however,  has 
been  of  late  years  almost  entirely  superseded 
by  an  invention  called  the  syphon  galvanome- 
ter. In  this  the  movements  of  the  needle  are 
recorded  by  means  of  ink  spurted  from  a  fine 
glass  syphon-tube.  This  tube  is  attached  to  a 
coil  suspended  between  two  fixed  magnets, 
which  swing  to  right  or  left  as  the  pulsations 
of  the  needle  pass  through  it.  The  possibility 
of  laying  an  electric  cable  in  the  Atlantic  from 
Europe  was  suggested  by  Professor  Morse  as 
far  back  as  1843,  but  it  was  not  until  1854  that 
Mr.  Cyrus  W.  Field  discussed  the  means  of 
practically  realizing  the  idea,  and  it  is  to  his 
energy  that  the  successful  completion  of  this 
great  work  is  due. 

Aurora  Borealis. —  Since  the  discovery 
of  electricity,  and  especially  electro-magnetism, 
all  speculation  on  the  nature  of  the  aurora  has 
taken  in  that  force  as  a  principal  element,  and 
modern  experiments  have  been  especially 
turned  to  securing  proof  of  the  electric  nature 
of  the  auroral  display.  The  theory  advanced 
by  M.  De  La  Rive,  a  Genoese  scientist,  and 
which  is  generally  accepted,  is,  that  the  aurora 
is  caused  by  the  recomposition  of  the  positive 
and  negative  electricity,  always  to  be  found  in 
the  upper  and  lower  strata  of  air  respectively. 
Miniature  auroras  have  been  produced  by 
electricity  by  M.  De  La  Rive,  and  also  by  a  M. 
Lenstrom.  In  M.  Lenstrom's  experiments, 
which  were  made  in  Finland  in  1882,  the  peak 
of  a  mountain  was  surrounded  with  a  coil  of 
copper  wire,  pointed  at  intervals  with  tin  nibs. 
This  wire  was  charged  with  electricity,  and  a 
yellow  light  was  produced  on  the  tin  points,  in 
wrhich  the  spectroscope  analysis  revealed  the 
greenish  yellow  ray  that  characterizes  the  au- 
rora borealis.  The  aurora  was  supposed  to  be 
of  supernatural  origin  by  the  ancients. 

Armor. —  The  warlike  Europeans  at  first 
despised  any  other  defense  than  the  shield. 
Skins  and  padded  hides  were  first  used ;  and 
brass  and  iron  armor,  in  plates  or  scales,  fol- 
lowed. The  first  body  armor  of  the  Britons 
were  skins  of  wild  beasts,  exchanged,  after  the 
Roman  conquest,  for  the  well  tanned  leathern 
cuirass.  This  latter  continued  until  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  era.  Hengist  is  said  to  haATe  had  scale 
armor,  A.  D.  449.  The  heavy  cavalry  were 
covered  with  a  coat  of  mail,  1216.  Armor  be- 
came exceedingly  splendid  about  1350.  The 
armor  of  plate  commenced,  1407.  The  armor 
of  Henry  VII.  consisted  of  a  cuirass  of  steel, 


304 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about  1500. 
Armor  ceased  to  reach  below  the  knees  in  the 
time  of  Charles  I.,  1625. 

Artillery. —  The  first  piece  was  a  small 
one,  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a  German  cordel- 
ier, soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder  in 
1  330.  Artillery  was  used,  it  is  said,  by  the 
Moors  at  Algeciras  in  Spain,  in  the  siege  of 
1341  ;  it  was  used,  according  to  historians,  at 
the  battle  of  Cressy,  in  1340,  when  Edward  III. 
had  four  pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him 
the  battle.  Artillery  was  used  at  the  siege  of 
Calais,  1347.  The  Venetians  first  employed 
artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea,  1377. 
Cast  in  England,  together  with  mortars  for 
bombshells,  by  Flemish  artists  in  Sussex,  1543. 
Made  of  brass,  1035.  From  this  time  forward 
the  improvement  in  field  artillery  has  been 
rapid  and  important. 

Astronomy. —  The  earliest  accounts  we 
have  of  this  science  are  those  of  Babylon, 
about  2234  B.  C.  The  study  of  astronomy  was 
much  advanced  in  Chaldea  under  Nabonas- 
sur;  it  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about  1100 
B.  C.  ;  some  say  many  centuries  before.  Lu- 
nar eclipses  were  observed  at  Babylon  with  ex- 
ceeding accuracy,  720  B.  C.  Spherical  form 
of  the  earth,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar 
eclipses,  taught  by  Thales,  G40  B.  C.  Further 
discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught  the  doc- 
trine of  celestial  motions,  and  believed  in  the 
plurality  of  habitable  worlds,  500  B.  C.  Hip- 
parchus  began  his  observations  at  Rhodes,  167 

B.  C,  began  his  new  cycle  of  the  moon  in  143, 
and  made  great  advances  in  the  science,  140  B. 

C.  The  procession  of  the  equinoxes  confirmed, 
and  the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets  dis- 
covered, by  Ptolemy,  A.  D.  130.  After  the 
elapse  of  nearly  seven  centuries,  during  which 
time  astronomy  was  neglected,  it  was  resumed 
by  the  Arabs  about  800  ;  and  was  afterwards 
brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary 
and  Spain,  but  not  sooner  than  1201,  when 
they  also  introduced  geography.  True  laws 
of  the  planetary  motions  discovered  by  Kepler 
1619;  the  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made 
about  1631.  Newton '8  Principia  published 
and  the  system  as  now  taught  incontroverti- 
bly established,  A.  D.  1687  ;  Mecanique  Celeste, 
published  by  La  Place,  1796. 

Ax- Wedge. —  These  instruments,  with  the 
lever,  and  various  others  of  a  coarse  construc- 
tion and  still  in  common  use,  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Dsedalus,  an  artificer  of 
Athens,  to  whom  also  is  ascribed  the  invention 
of  masts  and  sails  for  ships,  1240  B.  C.  Many 
tools  are  represented  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. 

Beer,  Origin  of. —  The  Germans,  Gauls. 
and  Bretons  manufactured  beer  from  bailey 


and  wheat  as  far  back  as  there  are  any  written 
records  regarding  them.  Tacitus  tells  us  that 
beer  was  a  common  beverage  of  the  Germans 
when  he  wrote,  in  the  first  century.  We  learn 
from  Pliny  that  "  The  people  of  Spain,  in  par- 
ticular, brew  this  liquor  so  well  that  it  will 
keep  a  long  time."  He  describes  it  as  made 
from  corn  and  water.  The  earliest  of  Greek 
writers  speak  of  wine  made  from  barley,  ana 
of  the  art  of  making  it  as  derived  from  the 
Egyptians.  It  is  believed  that  Archilochus,  the 
Parian  poet,  who  lived  about  700  B.  C,  re- 
ferred to  beer  drinking  when  he  depicted  the 
follies  and  vicious  indulgences  of  his  time.  In 
the  ancient  writings  of  China  reference  is 
made  to  a  fermented  drink  called  "  sam-shoo, " 
made  from  rice.  When  it  was  first  invented 
is  unknown,  but  it  was  probably  long  before 
the  Christian  Era. 

Blood,  Circulation  of. —  The  true  the- 
ory regarding  the  circulation  of  blood  was 
discovered  by  the  celebrated  English  physiolo- 
gist, William  Harvey,  about  1616.  He  re- 
ceived his  diploma  as  Doctor  of  Medicine  from 
the  University  of  Padua  in  1602,  and  in  1615 
was  made  Lecturer  at  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians in  London,  an  appointment  which  he 
held  for  forty  years.  It  is  generally  supposed 
that  he  expounded  his  views  regarding  blood 
circulation  in  his  first  course  of  lectures.  He 
died  at  London  June  3,  1657. 

Bonnet. —  The  English  bonnet,  which  was 
superseded  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century  by  the  hat,  was  made  of  cloth,  silk,  or 
velvet,  less  or  more  ornamented,  according  to 
the  taste  or  means  of  the  wearer.  In  Scotland, 
however,  bonnets  were  universally  worn  for  a 
century  or  two  later,  and  they  still  are,  to  a 
certain  extent,  a  national  characteristic.  The 
bonnet  worn  by  the  Lowland  Scottish  peasan- 
try was  of  a  broad,  round,  and  flat  shape,  over- 
shadowing the  face  and  neck,  and  of  a  dark- 
blue  color,  excepting  a  red  tuft  like  a  cherry 
on  the  top.  It  was  made  of  thick  milled 
woolen,  and  with  reasonable  care  would  last  a 
man  his  whole  life.  From  having  been  worn, 
till  comparatively  late  times,  by  small  rural 
proprietors  —  such  as  owners  of  a  cottage  and 
an  acre  or  two  of  land  —  it  gave  to  these  local 
not  abilities  the  distinctive  appellation  of  Bonnet 
Lairds.  The  bonnets  worn  by  the  Highland- 
ers were  made  of  the  same  fabric,  but  rise  to  a 
point  in  front  and  are  without  any  rim.  From 
time  immemorial  these  various  kinds  of  Scots 
bonnets  have  been  manufactured  at  Stewarton, 
a  small  town  in  Ayrshire.  Formerly  the  Stew- 
arton bonnet  makers  formed  a  corporation, 
which,  like  other  old  guilds,  was  governed  by 
regulations  conceived  in  a  narrow  and  often 
amusingly  absurd  spirit ;   one   of  the  rules  of 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


305 


of  the  fraternity,  however,  can  be  spoken  of 
only  with  commendation,  for  it  enforced  a  cer- 
tain weight  of  material  in  each  bonnet,  as  well 
as  durability  in  the  color. 

Botanic  Gardens.— In  1309  A.  D.,  the 
first  approach  to  a  botanic  garden  was  made 
in  the  garden  of  Matthaeus  Salvaticus,  at  Sa- 
lerno, botanic  science,  however,  being  merely 
subservient  to  medicine  ;  and  it  was  not  until 
1533  that  the  first  true  botanic  garden  was 
formed.  This  was  made  for  Gaspar  de  Ga- 
brieli,  a  wealthy  Tuscan  noble  at  Padua,  and 
was  followed  by  similar  gardens  at  Pisa, 
Florence,  Bologna,  and  Rome,  the  first  public 
garden  being  that  at  Pisa.  In  1545  a  public 
garden  was  established  at  Padua  by  decree  of 
the  Republic  of  Venice.  In  1580  the  Elector  of 
Saxony  established  a  public  botanic  garden  at 
Leipzig,  which  w7as  soon  followed  by  others. 
There  was  no  botanic  garden  in  France  till 
Louis  XIII.  established  the  Jarrlin  des  Plantes 
at  Paris,  which  was  completed  in  1631.  The 
first  public  botanic  garden  was  established  in 
England  at  Oxford  by  the  Earl  of  Danby,  al- 
though numerous  private  gardens  had  existed 
in  England  for  the  greater  part  of  a  century. 
The  botanic  garden  at  Edinburgh,  the  first  in 
Scotland,  was  founded  about  1680.  The  bo- 
tanic garden  at  Kew  occupies  a  high  place 
among  British  national  institutions,  and  pos- 
sesses one  of  the  richest  collections  of  plants 
in  the  world.  The  gardens  connected  with 
the  imperial  palace  at  Schonbrunn,  in  Austria, 
and  that  of  Berlin,  are  the  greatest  in  Germany. 
The  Jan/in  de*  Plasties  in  Paris  undoubtedly 
may  be  regarded  as  holding  the  first  place  on 
the  continent  of  Europe,  both  with  reference 
to  the  strictly  scientific  study  of  botany  and  to 
the  care  bestowed  upon  the  introduction  and 
diffusion  of  useful  or  beautiful  plants  from  all 
parts  of  the  world.  In  the  United  States  the 
botanic  gardens  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
are  the  most  worthy  of  notice. 

Brain. —  The  latest  classification  of  races, 
according  to  Bastian  and  other  experts,  shows 
weight  of  brain,  in  ounces,  as  follows  :  Scotch, 
50.0  ;  Germans,  49.6  ;  English,  49.5  ;  French, 
47.9;  Zulus,  47.5;  Chinese,  47.2;  Pawnees, 
47.1;  Italians,  46.9;  Hindoo,  45.1;  Gypsy, 
44.8 ;  Bushmen,  44.6  ;  Esquimaux,  43.8. 
Compared  with  size  of  body,  the  brain  of  the 
Esquimau  is  as  heavy  as  the  Scotchman's. 

The  measurement  of  that  part  of  the  skull 
which  holds  the  brain  is  stated  in  cubic  inches 
thus:  Anglo-Saxon,  105;  German,  105;  Ne- 
gro, 96  ;  Ancient  Egyptian,  93  ;  Hottentot, 
58  ;  Australian  native,  58. 

In  all  races  the  male  brain  is  about  10  per 
cent,  heavier  than  the  female.  The  highest 
class  of  apes  has  only  16  oz.  of  brain. 


A  man's  brain,  it  is   estimated,  consists  of 
300,000,000  nerve  cells,  of  which   over  3,000 
are  disintegrated  and  destroyed  every  minute. 
Every  one,  therefore,  has  a  new  brain  once  in 
!  sixty  days.     But  excessive  labor,  or  the  lack  of 
!  sleep,  prevents   the  repair  of  the  tissues,  and 
i  the  brain  gradually  wastes  away.     Diversity  of 
I  occupation,  by  calling  upon  different  portions 
I  of  the  mind  or  body,  successively  affords,  in 
j  some  measure,  the  requisite   repose  to   each. 
I  But  in  this  age  of  overwork  there  is  no  safety 
except  in  that  perfect  rest  which  is  the  only 
'  natural  restorative  of  exhausted  power.     It  has 
I  been  noticed  by  observant  physicians  in  their 
j  European'   travels    that   the    German    people, 
\  who,  as  a  rule,  have  no  ambition  and  no  hope 
|  to  rise  above  their  inherited  station,  are  pecul- 
|  iarly  free  from  nervous  diseases  ;  but  in  Amer- 
ica,  where   the   struggle   for   advancement  is 
sharp  and  incessant,  and  there  is  nothing  that 
will  stop  an  American  but  death,  the  period  of 
life   is    usually  shortened  five,  ten,  or  twenty 
years  by  the  effects  of  nervous  exhaustion. 

After  the  age  of  50  the  brain  loses  an  ounce 
every  ten  years.  Cuvier's  weighed  65,  Byron's 
79,  and  Cromwell's  90  ounces,  but  the  last 
was  diseased.  Post-mortem  examinations  in 
France  give  an  average  of  55  to  60  ounces  for 
the  brains  of  the  w^orst  class  of  criminals. 

Beds. — -The  ancients  slept  on  skins.  Beds 
were  afterwards  of  loose  rushes,  heather,  or 
straw.  The  Romans  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  use  feathers.  An  air-cushion  is  said 
to  have  been  used  by  Heliogabalus,  218-222  ; 
air  beds  were  in  use  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
Feather  beds  were  used  in  England  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  The  bedsteads  of  the  Egyp- 
tians and  later  Greeks,  like  modern  couches,  be- 
came common  among  the  Roman  upper  classes. 
Bells  were  used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks, 
and  Romans.  The  responses  of  the  Dodonean 
oracle  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells.  The 
monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated  with 
pinnacles,  each  surmounted  by  bells.  Said 
to  have  been  introduced  by  Paulinus,  bishop 
of  Nole,  in  Campagna,  about  400 ;  and  first 
known  in  France  in  550.  The  army  of  Clo- 
thaire  II.,  king  of  France,  was  frightened  from 
the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing  of  the  bells  of 
St.  Stephen's  church. 

Hells  were   used   in    churches   by  order  of 
Pope  John  IX.,  about  900.   as  a  defense,  by 
ringing  them,  against  thunder  and  lightning. 
Bells  are  mvthicallv  said  to  have  been  cast  hv 
Turketul,  Abbot  of  England,  about  911.      Hi 
successor  improved  the  invention,  and  cans 
the  first  tunable  set  to  be  put  up  at  Crnv!:> 
Abbey*  960.     In  most  Catholic  states,  bells 
baptized   as  we  do  ships,  but  with  relig.^.. 
solemnity. 


306 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Billiards. — Invented  by  the  French,  by 
whom,  and  by  the  Germans,  Dutch,  and  Jtal- 
ians,  they  were  brought  into  general  vogue 
throughout  Europe.  The  French  ascribe  their 
invention  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an  artist,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  1571.  Slate 
billiard  tables  were  introduced  in  England  in 
1827. 

Boots,  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of 
the  Carians,  were  mentioned  by  Homer,  907 
B.  C,  and  frequently  by  the  Roman  historians. 
A  variety  of  forms  may  be  seen  in  Fairholt's 
"  Costume  in  England."  An  instrument  of 
torture  ' '  termed  the  boot ' '  was  used  in  Scot- 
land upon  the  Covenanters  about  1666. 

Botany.— Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder 
of  the  philosophy  of  botany.  The  Historia  Plan- 
tarum  of  Theophrastus  was  written  about  320 
B.  C.  Authors  on  botany  are  numerous  from 
the  earlier  ages  of  the  world  to  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  the  science  became 
better  understood.  The  study  was  advanced 
by  Fuchsius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Csesalpinus,  and 
others,  between  1535  and  1600.  The  system 
and  arrangement  of  Linnaeus,  the  first  bota- 
nist of  modern  times,  made  known  about  1750  ; 
Jussieu's  system,  in  1758.  At  the  time  of  the 
death  of  Linmeus,  A.  D.  1778,  the  species  of 
plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number 
to  11,800.  The  number  of  species" of  all  de- 
nominations now  recorded  cannot  fall  short  of 
100,000. 

Bottles  in  ancient  times  were  made  of 
leather.  The  art  of  making  glass  bottles  and 
drinking-glasses  was  known  to  the  Romans  at 
least  before  79  A.  D.  ;  for  these  articles  and 
other  vessels  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of 
Pompeii.  Bottles  were  made  in  England  about 
1558. 

Bread. —  Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of 
Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first  who 
taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  hus- 
bandry, and  the  method  of  making  bi-ead  from 
wheat,  and  wine  from  rice,  1998  B.  C.  Bak- 
ing of  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal 
ages;  it  became  a  profession  at  Rome,  170 
B.  C.  During  the  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry 
IV.,  owing  to  the  famine  which  then  raged, 
bread,  which  had  been  sold  whilst  any  re- 
mained for  a  crown  a  pound,  was  at  last  made 
from  the  bones  of  the  charnel-house  of  the 
Holy  Innocents,  A.  D.  1591.  In  the  time  of 
James  I.  the  usual  bread  of  the  poor  was  made 
of  barley ;  in  Iceland  codfish  beaten  to  powder 
is  made  into  bread  ;  potato  bread  is  used  in 
Ireland.  Bread  was  made  with  yeast  by  the- 
English  bakers  in  1634.  Tn  1856  and.1857, 
Dauglish  patented  a  mode  of  making  "  aerated 
bread  "  in  which  carbonic  acid  gas  is  com- 
bined with  water  and  mixed  with  ■  the  flour, 


and  which  is  said  to  possess  the  advantages  of 
cleanliness,  rapidity,  and  uniformity. 

Bricks  were  used  in  Babylon,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Rome  ;  in  England  by  the  Romans 
about  44.  Made  under  the  direction  of  Al- 
fred the  Great,  about  886.  The  size  regu- 
lated by  order  of  Charles  I.,  1625.  Brick  ma- 
chines were  invented  by  Messrs.  Cook  and  Cun- 
ningham in  1839  ;  by  Messrs.  Dixon  and  Cor- 
bett  in  1861. 

Butter. —  It  was  late  before  the  Greeks 
had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the  early 
Romans  it  was  used  as  a  medicine  only,  never 
as  food.  The  Christians  of  Egypt  burned  but- 
ter in  their  lamps  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third 
century.  In  Africa  vegetable  butter  is  made 
from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of 
richer  taste,  at  Kebba,  than  any  butter  made 
from  cow's  milk. 

Calico  Printing. —  The  art  of  calico 
printing  was  introduced  into  Europe  about  the 
seventeenth  century,  although  it  is  believed  to 
have  been  known  in  India  and  Egypt  as  earl} 
as  the  first  or  second  centuries.  In  this  early 
period  the  printing  was  done  by  means  of 
blocks  on  which  the  designs  to  be  transferred 
to  the  cloth  had  been  engraved  in  relief.  These 
were  dipped  into  dye-stuff,  and  then  pressed 
upon  the  material  by  hand.  Later,  presses  foi 
this  block-printing  were  invented,  and  the  use 
of  several  was  introduced  so  engraved  as  to  fill 
up  each  other's  vacancies,  and  thus  several 
•colors  were  put  into  the  pattern.  About  1770 
copper-plate  printing  was  invented  in  England. 
By  this  method  the  design  was  cut  into  plates, 
the  color  filled  into  the  sunken  parts  of  the  en- 
graving, and  the  cloths  were  printed  by  being 
pressed  upon  it.  This  invention  finally  led  to 
the  introduction  of  cylinder-printing,  the 
method  now  in  use.  The  cylinders  are  of  cop- 
per, and  the  design  is  engraved  upon  their 
surface.  A  separate  cylinder  is  required  for 
each  color  or  shade  of  color  to  be  used  in  print- 
ing the  cloth,  and  in  fine  and  intricate  designs 
as  many  as  twenty  cylinders  are  sometimes 
used.  These  are  set  in  a  strong  frame  against 
the  face  of  a  large  central  drum  made  of  iron 
and  covered  wi»h  woolen  cloth  in  several  folds, 
between  which  and  the  cylinders  the  calico  is 
printed  as  it  passes.  The  color  is  spread  upon 
the  cylinders,  as  they  revolve,  by  contact  with 
another  roller,  which  dips  into  a  trough  con- 
taining the  coloring-matter  properly  thickened. 
This  roller  is  made  of  an  absorbent,  elastic 
material,  similar  to  the  roller  used  in  inking 
a  printing  press.  Each  cylinder  thus  receives 
its  proper  color,  and  imparts  it,  in  revolving, 
to  the  calico  pressed  between  its  face  and  that 
of  the  fixed  drum.  A  sharp  blade  of  metal 
pressing  against  the  copper  cylinder  removes  all 


SCIENCE,   INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


307 


superfluous  color  from  its  surface,  so  that  only 
the  design  cut  in  the  metal  is  imprinted  in 
clear  outline  upon  the  cloth.  The  employ- 
ment of  a  number  of  rollers  to  make  one  design 
is  attended  with  much  difficulty,  as  in  passing 
under  them  the  cloth  is  in  much  danger  of 
being  displaced  and  the  regularity  of  the  print 
destroyed.  As  the  cloth  leaves  the  printing- 
machine  it  is  drawn  over  rollers  through  a 
hot-air  chamber,  by  which  it  is  thoroughly 
dried,  and  the  colors  become  fully  set. 

Candles. —  It  was  not  until  the  fourteenth 
century  that  candles  having  any  resemblance 
to  those  now  in  use  were  manufactured.  Pre- 
vious to  that  time  our  English  ancestors  soaked 
splints  of  wood  in  fat  or  oil  to  obtain  their 
light.  The  candles  used  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  were  rude  torches  made  by  dipping 
strips  of  papyrus  or  rushes  into  pitch  and  then 
coating  them  with  wax.  These  candles  were 
also  in  use  in  Europe  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  were  very  large  and  heavy.  A  dipped 
candle  made  from  tallow  was  introduced  in 
England  in  the  fourteenth  century,  and  wax- 
candles  were  also  made  at  the  same  time. 
These  latter  were  very  costly,  and  were  con- 
sidered great  luxuries.  In  1484  a  company 
for  the  manufacture  of  wax  candles  was  incor- 
porated in  London.  Mold  candles  are  said  to 
be  the  invention  of  the  SieurLeBrez,  of  Paris. 

Casting1  Plate-Glass. —  The  whole  oper- 
ation of  casting  a  plate  of  glass  occupies  but  a 
very  short  time.  The  casting-tables,  the  most 
important  pieces  of  apparatus  in  plate-glass 
works,  are  19  feet  long,  14  feet  wide,  and  7 
inches  thick.  Each  is  provided  with  an  iron 
roller  80  inches  in  diameter  and  15  feet  long. 
Strips  of  iron  on  each  side  of  the  table  afford 
a  bearing  for  the  rollers  and  determine  the 
thickness  of  the  plate  of  glass  to  be  cast.  The 
rough  plate  is  commonly  9-16ths  of  an  inch  in 
thickness.  After  polishing,  it  is  reduced  to 
6-lGths  or  7-16ths.  The  casting-tables  are 
mounted  on  wheels,  and  run  on  a  track  that 
reaches  every  furnace  and  annealing-oven  in 
the  building.  The  table  having  been  wheeled 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  melting-furnace,  the 
pot  of  molten  glass  is  lifted  by  means  of  a 
crane  and  its  contents  quickly  poured  on  the 
table.  The  heavy  iron  roller  is  then  passed 
from  end  to  end,  spreading  the  glass  into  a 
layer  of  uniform  thickness.  The  cold  metal 
of  the  table  cools  the  glass  rapidly.  As  soon 
as  possible  the  door  of  the  annealing-oven  is 
opened  and  the  plate  of  glass  introduced.  The 
floor  of  the  oven  is  on  the  same  level  as  the 
casting-table  so  the  transfer  can  be  conve- 
niently and  quickly  made.  When,  after  sev- 
eral days,  the  glass  is  taken  out  of  the  oven, 
its  surface  is  found  to  be  decidedly  rough  and 


uneven.  A  small  quantity  is  used  in  this  con- 
dition for  skylights  and  other  purposes  where 
strength  is  required  without  transparency.  It 
is  known  as  rough-plate.  The  greater  part  of 
the  glass,  however,  is  ground,  smoothed,  and 
polished  before  it  leaves  the  establishment. 
Few  industries  offer  such  fine  scenic  displays 
as  the  pouring  of  the  molten  glass. 

Celluloid  is  made  from  the  cellulose  con- 
tained in  cotton  cloth  or  raw  cotton.  The  cot- 
ton is  treated  to  a  weak  solution  of  nitric  acid. 
This  has  the  effect  of  making  a  pulp  of  cotton 
very  much  like  paper  pulp.  After  the  acid 
has  acted  the  pulp  is  treated  to  a  copious  water- 
bath  that  in  a  large  measure  washes  out  the 
acid.  Then  it  goes  through  a  partial  drying 
process,  and  a  large  quantity  of  camphor-gum 
is  mixed  with  it,  and  it  is  rolled  into  sheets 
ready  for  the  drying-room,  where  it  is  dried  on 
hot  cylinders,  the  same  as  paper  is  dried.  It 
can  be  softened  by  steam,  but  hardens  again 
when  it  is  dry.  Celluloid,  when  ready  for 
market,  burns  as  readily  as  ordinary  sealing- 
wax. 

Chess,  Origin  of. —  Although  the  origin 
of  chess  is  enshrouded  in  considerable  mystery, 
there  is  but  little  doubt  that  its  birthplace 
was  in  India,  and  that  it  is  an  offspring  of  a 
game  called  Chaturanga,  which  is  mentioned 
in  Oriental  literature  as  in  use  fully  2,000 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  From  India 
chess  spread  into  Persia,  and  thence  into  Ara- 
bia, and  ultimately  the  Arabs  took  it  to  Spain 
and  the  rest  of  Western  Europe.  The  game 
was  in  all  probability  invented  for  the  purpose 
of  illustrating  the  art  of  war.  The  Arab  legend 
upon  this  point  is  that  it  was  devised  for  the 
instruction  of  a  young  despot  by  his  father,  a 
learned  Brahman,  to  teach  him  that  a  king, 
notwithstanding  his  power,  was  dependent  for 
safety  upon  his  subjects.  The  Greek  histo- 
rians credit  the  invention  of  the  game  to  Pala- 
medes,  who,  they  claim,  devised  it  to  beguile 
the  tedium  of  the  siege  of  Troy  during  the 
Trojan  war. 

Common    Names    of    Chemical    Sub- 
stances. 

Aqua  Fortis, 

Aqua  Regia, 

Blue  Vitriol, 

Cream  of  Tartar, 

Calomel, 

Chalk, 

Salt  of  Tartar, 

Caustic  Potassa, 

Chloroform, 

Common  Salt, 

Copperas,  or  Green  Vitriol, 

Corrdsive  Sublimate, 

Diamond, 

Dry  Alum, 

Epsom  Salts, 
Ethiops  Mineral, 
Galena, 


Nitric  Acid. 
Nitro-Muriatic  Acid. 
Sulphate  of  Copper. 
Bitartrate  Potassium. 
Chloride  of  Mercury. 
Carbonate  Calcium. 
Carbonate  of  Potassium. 
Hydrate  Potassium. 
Chloride  of  Gormyle. 
Chloride  of  Sodium. 
Sulphate  of  Iron. 
Bi-Chloride  of  Mercury. 
Pure  Carbon. 
Sulphate    Aluminium  and 

Potassium. 
Sulphate  of  Magnesia. 
Black  Sulphide  of  Mercury. 
Sulphide  of  Lead. 


308 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Glauber's-Salt, 

Glucose, 

Iron  Pyrites, 

Jeweler's  Putty, 

King's  Yellow, 

Laughing  Gas, 

Lime, 

Lunar  Caustic, 

Muriate  of  Lime, 

Niter  or  Saltpeter, 

Oil  of  Vitriol, 

Potash, 

Realgar, 

Red  Lead, 

Rust  of  Iron, 

Sal-ammoniac, 

Slacked  Lime, 

Soda, 

Spirits  of  Hartshorn, 

Spirit  of  Salt, 

Stucco,  or  Plaster  of  Paris, 

Sugar  of  Lead, 

Verdigris, 

Vermfiion, 

Vinegar, 

Volatile  Alkali, 

Water, 

White  Precipitate, 

White  Vitriol, 


Sulphate  of  Sodium. 
Grape  Sugar. 
Bi-Sulphide  Iron. 
Oxide  of  Tin. 
Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 
Protoxide  of  Nitrogen. 
Oxide  of  Calcium. 
Nitrate  of  Silver. 
Chloride  of  Calcium. 
Nitrate  of  Potash. 
Sulphuric  Acid. 
Oxide  of  Potassium. 
Sulphide  of  Arsenic. 
Oxide  of  Lead. 
Oxide  of  Iron. 
Muriate  of  Ammonia. 
Hydrate  Calcium. 
Oxide  of  Sodium. 
Ammonia. 
Hydro-Chloric,  or  Muriatic 

Acid. 
Sulphate  of  Lime. 
Acetate  of  Lead. 
Basic  Acetate  of  Copper. 
Sulphide  of  Mercury. 
Acetic  Acid  (diluted). 
Ammonia. 
Oxide  of  Hydrogen. 
Ammoniated  Mercury. 
Sulphate  of  Zinc. 


Chemistry  was  introduced  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors  about  1150.  The  Egyptians  and 
Chinese  claim  an  earlier  acquaintance  with 
chemistry.  The  first  chemists  were  alchemists  ; 
but  chemistry  was  not  a  science  until  the  seven- 
teenth century,  during  which  it  was  promoted 
by  Bacon,  Hooke,  Mayow,  and  Boyle.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Dr» 
Stephen  Hales  laid  the  foundation  of  pneumatic 
chemistry,  and  his  contemporary,  Boerhaave, 
combined  the  study  of  chemistry  with  medicine. 
These  were  succeeded  by  Bergman,  Stahl, 
Black,  and  others.  In  1772,  Priestley  pub- 
lished his  researches  on  air,  having  discovered 
the  gases,  oxygen,  ammonia,  etc.,  and  thus 
commenced  a  new  chemical  era.  The  nine- 
teenth century  opened  with  the  brilliant  dis- 
coveries of  Davy,  Dalton,  Faraday,  Thompson, 
and  Silliman.  Organic  chemistry  has  been  very 
greatly  advanced  by  Berzelius,  Liebig,  Dumas, 
Laurent,  Hoffmann,  Cahours,  Frankland,  and 
others,  since  1830. 

Climate. —  Climate  is  the  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere in  regard  to  temperature,  winds, 
moisture,  and  salubrity. 

The  climate  of  a  place  as  regards  tempera- 
ture depends  upon  :  — 

Latitude. —  The  general  law  is  that  the 
amount  of  heat  is  greatest  at  the  equator,  and 
diminishes  toward  the  poles.  There  are  three 
reasons  for  this:  1.  The  sun's  rays  fall  per- 
pendicularly upon  the  earth  at  the  equator, 
and  more  and  more  obliquely  as  we  go  toward 
the  poles.  2.  The  area  covered  by  a  given 
amount  of  heating  power  from  the  sun  is 
smaller  at  the  equator.  3.  Where  the  sun's 
rays  tall  perpendicularly  they  pass  through  a 
less  amount  of  atmosphere,  and  the  absorption 
of  heat  is  less. 


Altitude —  The  decrease  in  temperature  is 
about  8  deg.  F.  for  every  1,000  feet  of  eleva- 
tion. As  the  air  receives  most  of  its  heat  by 
radiation  and  reflection  from  the  earth,  and  as 
the  higher  we  go  the  less  dense  the  air,  the  less 
heat  is  absorbed  either  from  the  earth  or  from 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Prevailing  Winds. —  Winds  blowing  from  the 
tropical  regions  carry  the  heat  with  them.  and. 
conversely,  winds  from  the  polar  regions  lower 
the  temperature.  Whichever  wind  prevails 
throughout  the  year  in  a  given  place  will  con- 
sequently modify  the  temperature  of  that  place. 

Length  of  ])<i)/. —  During  the  day  the  earth 
receives  from  the  sun  more  heat  than  it  radiates 
into  space  ;  while  during  the  night  it  radiates 
more  than  it  receives.  Hence  a  succession  of 
long  days  and  short  nights  results  in  an  accu- 
mulation of  heat,  raising  the  average  temper- 
ature and  producing  summer  ;  while  long 
nights  and  short  days  result  in  a  temperature 
below  the  average,  producing  winter.  The 
heating  power  of  the  sun  is  greater  in  summer, 
because  at  that  season  it  is  shining  more  di- 
rectly upon  that  part  of  the  earth,  and  con- 
versely in  winter.  In  the  tropical  regions  the 
inequality  of  day  and  night  is  very  little,  but 
increases  toward  the  poles.  The  temperature 
in  the  tropics  is  therefore  more  uniform.  The 
length  of  day  makes  up  for  the  lessened  inten- 
sity of  the  sun's  rays;  hence  a  place  in  high 
latitude  may  have  at  times  higher  tempera- 
ture than  a  place  within  the  tropics. 

Ocean  Currents. —  The  warm  waters  of  the 
tropical  regions  being  brought  toward  the 
polar  regions  bring  the  heat  with  them,  radia- 
ting it  into  space,  and  it  is  absorbed  by  the 
atmosphere. 

Mountain  Ranges. —  A  mountain  range  will 
make  a  country  near  it  warmer  or  colder,  ac- 
cording as  it  shields  it  from  a  cold  or  warm 
wind. 

The  Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. —  Land 
heats  or  cools  rapidly,  absorbing  or  emitting 
but  little  heat.  Water  heats  or  cools  slowly, 
absorbing  or  emitting  large  quantities  of  heat. 
Hence  the  land  is  subject  to  great  and  sudden 
changes  of  temperature  ;  tin-  water  to  small  and 
gradual  changes.  Places  situated  near  the  sea 
have,  therefore,  a  more  equable  climate. 

<'h<irn<-trr  of  Soil. —  Dry,  sandy  soil  heats 
and  cools  more  rapidly  than  wet  and  marshy 
lands  ;  hence  the  latter  will  have  a  more  uni- 
form temperature. 

Sli,/,!'  of  Land.  —  Land  which  slopes  so  that 
the  sun's  rays  will  strike  it  nearer  vertically 
will  receive  more  heat.  The  south  side  of  a 
hill  is  warmer  in  winter  than  the  north  side. 

In  regard  to  winds  the  climate  of  a  place 
depends  upon :  — 


SCIENCE,   INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


309 


T< mpercture. —  As  winds  are  but  masses  of 
air  set  in  motion  by  the  unequal  heating,  the 
winds  of  any  given  place  depend  primarily 
upon  the  temperature,  though  not  necessarily 
upon  the  temperature  of  that  place.  As  the 
air  is  heated  in  the  tropical  parts  of  the  earth 
by  the  sun,  it  rises,  and  colder  air  flows  in 
from  the  polar  regions  to  take  its  place  ;  hence 
the  primary  currents,  which  are  modified  in 
various  ways  by  other  causes. 

Rotation  of  the  Earth. — The  winds  are  turned 
out  of  their  course  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  ocean  currents. 

Land  and  Water. —  The  land  becomes  warmer 
during  the  day  than  the  sea,  and,  the  air  rising, 
a  cooler  air  flows  in  from  tli3  sea.  At  night 
the  land  parts  with  its  heat  more  rapidly  than 
the  water  and  becomes  cooler  ;  then  the  wind 
sets  the  other  way.  Hence  we  have  the  land 
and  sea  breezes. 

Elevation  of  the  Land. —  Mountains,  as  has 
already  been  stated,  shelter  places  from  winds. 
Some  of  the  great  plains  are  subject  to  almost 
constant  winds. 

In  regard  to  moisture,  the  climate  of  a  place 
depends  upon :  — 

l'r<  railin rf  Wind. —  If  a  wind  blows  from 
large  bodies  of  water  in  a  warm  region  it  will 
be  laden  with  moisture  which  will  be  likely 
to  be  precipitated  on  reaching  a  colder  country. 

Mountains. —  The  contact  of  a  moisture- 
laden  w "ind  with  the  cold  sides  of  mountains 
will  cause  a  precipitation  of  its  moisture,  and 
the  regions  beyond  the  mountains  will  not 
receive  it. 

Forests,  by  shading  the  earth,  keep  its  surface 
cool,  and  this  tends  to  condense  the  moisture. 

Cultivation  of  the  Soil,  causing  it  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  and  by  capil- 
lary attraction  in  dry  weather  bring  up  mois- 
ture from  below  to  the  surface. 

Temperature. —  Increased  heat  causes  greater 
evaporation,  and  hence  more  moisture  in  the 
atmosphere.  More  rain  falls  within  the  tropics 
than  in  the  temperate  or  polar  regions. 

Land  and  Water. — -More  rain  falls  on  the 
coasts  of  a  country  than  in  the  interior,  be- 
cause the  winds  are  more  moist.  More  rain 
falls  in  the  northern  hemisphere  than  in  the 
southern,  because  there  is  a  greater  diversity  of 
land  and  water,  the  evaporation  coming  mainly 
from  the  ocean,  and  the  condensation  from  the 
diversified  land  surface. 

Isothermal  linen  are  lines  connecting  places 
that  have  the  same  mean  temperature. 

There  is  a  line  or  limit  of  elevation,  above 
which  the  surface  is  covered  with  perpetual 
snow;    this  is  called  the  snow-line. 

Coaches. —  Covered  carriages  appear  to 
have  been  used  by  the  old  Romans.     In  the 


year  1588,  Duke  Julius  of  Brunswick  published 
an  act  against  riding  in  coaches.  Philip  II. 
of  Pomerania-Stettin  published  a  similar  doc- 
ument in  1608.  Coaches  appear  to  have  been 
used  in  France  very  early.  An  ordinance  of 
Philip  the  Fair,  issued  in  1294,  for  suppressing 
luxury,  forbids  citizens'  wives  to  ride  in 
coaches.  Coaches  were  first  used  in  England 
iu  1565,  the  first  being  that  made  for  the  Earl 
of  Rutland.  In  1601  an  act  was  passed  to 
prevent  men  riding  iu  coaches,  on  the  score 
of  its  effeminacy.  Coaches  began  to  be  com- 
mon in  1605,  and  were  petitioned  against  by 
the  saddlers  and  other.  Hackney  coaches  in- 
troduced in  1634.  In  1661,  a  stage  coach 
was  two  days  going  from  London  to  Oxford, 
and  the  "flying  coach  "  was  thirteen  hours, 
even  in  summer  weather,  when  the  roads  were 
at  their  best. 

Coffins. —  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in 
coffins  of  the  cedar  tree,  owing  to  its  aromatic 
and  incorruptible  qualities.  Coffins  of  marble 
and  stone  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alex- 
ander is  said  to  have  been  buried  in  one  of 
gold ;  and  glass  coffins  have  been  found  in 
England.  The  earliest  record  of  wooden 
coffins  among  the  English  speaking  people  is 
that  of  the  burial  of  King  Arthur  in  an  entire 
trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  A.  D.  542.  The 
patent  coffins  were  invented  in  1796. 

Coin. —  Silver  was  first  coined  by  Phidon, 
King  of  Argos,  869  B.  C.  In  Rome,  silver 
money  was  first  coined  269  B.  C.  Gold  and 
silver  coins  first  used  in  the  East.  Coin  first 
used  in  Britain  25  B.  C,  and  in  Scotland  not 
until  248  years  later.  In  1101,  round  coins 
were  first  used  in  England.  Silver  halfpence 
and  farthings  were  coined  in  the  reign  of  John, 
and  pence  were  the  largest  current  coins.  Gold 
was  first  coined  in  England  in  1087  ;  in  Bohe- 
mia, in  1301.  In  1531,  groats  and  half-groats 
were  the  largest  silver  coin  in  England.  Gold 
was  first  coined  in  Venice  in  1316.  Shillings 
were  first  coined  in  England  in  1068.  Crowns 
and  half-crowns  were  first  coined  in  1551. 
Henry  III.  introduced  copper  money  iuto 
France  in  1580.  Copper  money  introduced 
into  England  by  dames  I.  in  1620.  The  proc- 
ess of  milling  coin  introduced  in  1662.  The 
mint  of  the  United  States  of  America  was  es- 
tablished in  1793. 

Comets. —  It  has  been  lately  suggested 
that  there  is  a  great  degree  of  affinity  between 
comets  and  meteors  —  in  fact,  that  a  comet  is 
merely  an  aggregation  of  meteors.  Comets 
have  been  supposed  to  be  bodies  of  burning 
gas.  Their  mass  is  very  great,  and  their  bril- 
liant tails  are  many  millions  of  miles  in 
extent.  In  their  orbits,  they  differ  greatly 
from  the  planets.     While  the  latter  are  direct 


310 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


in  their  wanderings,  comets  are  most  irregular 
and  eccentric.  When  first  seen,  the  comet 
resembles  a  faint  spot  of  light  upon  the  back- 
ground of  the  sky.  As  it  comes  nearer,  the 
brightness  increases  and  the  tail  begins  to  show. 

The  term  comet  signifies  a  hairy  body.  A 
comet  consists  usually  of  three  parts  :  the  nu- 
cleus, a  bright  point  in  the  center  of  the  head  ; 
the  coma  (hair),  the  cloud-like  mass  surround- 
ing the  nucleus;  and  the  tail,  aluminous  train 
extending  generally  in  a  direction  from  the  sun. 

It  is  not  understood  whether  comets  shine  by 
their  own  or  by  reflected  light.  If  their  nuclei 
consist  of  white-hot  matter,  a  passage  through 
such  a  furnace  would  be  anything  but  desirable. 

The  discovery  of  the  elliptical  orbit  of  comets 
is  due  to  Halley.  He  discovered  a  comet  in 
1682  which  he  demonstrated  to  be  a  return  of 
the  comet  described  by  Kepler  in  1607  ;  that 
it  had  appeared  in  1531,  and  that  it  was  the 
comet  that  had  appeared  still  earlier  by  the 
same  period  of  seventy-five  years,  in  1457,  and 
that  had  caused  such  consternation  among  the 
Christians,  who  regarded  it  as  a  sign, — Con- 
stantinople having  just  fallen  and  all  Europe 
being  threatened  by  the  Turks.  Halley  also 
predicted  the  return  of  the  comet  in  1757.  It 
reached  its  perihelion  in  1759.  Its  last  appear- 
ance was  in  1835.    It  will  be  looked  for  in  1911. 

Encke's,  Biela's,  and  the  comets  of  1843 
and  1858  are  comparatively  recent.  Others 
came  in  1861,  1874,  1S83.  In  1881,  two  com- 
ets appeared.  Some  comets  of  antiquity  were 
very  remarkable,  and  are  reputed  to  have 
equaled  the  sun  in  magnitude.  One  tail  is 
usually  supposed  to  be  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  a  comet,  but  in  1774  one  appeared  with  six 
tails,  arranged  something  like  a  fan.  Some- 
times the  tail  is  separated  from  the  head. 
Some  comets  appear  at  regular  intervals,  and 
their  approach  can  be  determined  with  accuracy. 
Of  course  we  only  see  those  which  are  attracted 
by  the  sun,  or  those  which  revolve  in  the  solar 
system.  There  must  be  thousands  of  other 
comets  which  we  never  see  at  all. 

Compass,  The.  —  The  directive  power  of 
the  magnet  seems  to  have  been  unknown  in 
Europe  until  late  in  the  twelfth  century.  It 
appears,  however,  on  very  good  authority,  that 
it  was  known  in  China  and  throughout  the 
east  generally  at  a  very  remote  date.  The 
Chinese  annals  assign  its  discovery  to  the  year 
2634  B.  C,  when,  they  say,  an  instrument  for 
indicating  the  south  was  construe  ted  by  the  Em- 
peror Hon-ang-ti.  At  first,  they  would  appear 
to  have  used  it  exclusively  for  guidance  in 
traveling  by  land.  The  earliest  date  at  which 
we  hear  of  their  using  it  at  sea  is  somewhere 
about  A.  D.  300.  According  to  one  account, 
a  knowledge  of  the  compass  was  brought  to 


Europe  by  Marco  Polo  on  his  return  from 
Cathay.  It  was  long  contended  that  the  com- 
pass as  a  nautical  instrument  was  first  invented 
by  Flavio  Gioja,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  about  the 
year  1362,  and  that  the  section  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Maples  where  he  was  born  has  a  compass  for 
its  arms.  For  this  there  is  no  authority  what- 
ever, as  the  compass  was  well  known  as  a  nau- 
tical instrument  before  his  time.  The  phe- 
nomena of  the  magnetic  needle  which  perplex 
scientists  most  are  that  in  every  place  it  is  sub- 
ject to  variations.  By  observation  at  Paris  it 
was  found  that  in  1681  the  needle  varied  2 
degrees  30  minutes  to  the  west;  in  1865,  18 
degrees  44  minutes  to  the  west.  At  London, 
between  1580  and  1692,  the  needle  varied  from 
10  degrees  15  minutes  east  to  0  degrees  west. 
In  Dakota  the  average  variation  is  12  degrees 
30  minutes  east,  in  Minnesota  11  degrees  east, 
while  in  Montana  it  is  20  degrees  east.  In  a 
work  on  Government  Surveys  it  is  stated  that 
"the  needle  does  not  point  due  north  except 
in  a  few  localities,  and  at  no  place  does  it  con- 
tinue to  point  with  a  given  angular  distance 
from  the  north  for  any  stated  length  of  time. 
It  changes  secularly,  annually,  diurnally  and 
hourly,  and  is,  further,  subject  to  fluctuations 
reducible  to  no  method  of  tabulation. "  In  the 
vicinity  of  iron  or  magnetic  sands,  the  needle 
is  deflected  toward  the  material  attracting  it. 

Compressed-Air  Engines. —  The  ar- 
rangements of  atmospheric  engines  is  largely 
identical  with  that  of  non-condensing  steam- 
engines,  and  they  are  used  very  generally  both 
in  the  United  States  and  Europe  in  the  con- 
struction of  tunnels,  their  great  advantage  be- 
ing that  in  place  of  escaping  heat  and  steam, 
which  would  seriously  vitiate  the  close  air  in 
the  shaft,  the  working  of  the  engine  gives  out 
pure  cold  air,  serving  also  the  purpose  of  ven- 
tilation. An  engine  worked  by  compressed 
air,  however,  can  never  be  a  prime  motor  in 
itself,  since  the  air  which  propels  it  must  be 
compressed  by  another  power  —  either  steam, 
electricity,  falling  water,  or  animal  force. 
There  are  several  ways  of  applying  this  com- 
pressed air.  One  is  to  fill  with  it  a  large, 
strong  cylinder  or  reservoir,  and  use  it  to  work 
a  piston  in  the  same  way  that  steam  is  used. 
Another  is  to  conduct  the  air  from  the  prime 
motor  in  tubes  to  several  smaller  engines.  In 
the  construction  of  the  Mont  Cenis  Tunnel  the 
hydraulic  power  of  a  cataract  near  the  entrance 
of  a  tunnel  was  used  as  a  prime  motor  to  com- 
press air  in  reservoirs,  whence  it  was  con- 
ducted by  flexible  tubes  to  work  the  rock-bor- 
ing machines.  When  this  boring  is  done  by 
percussion  of  steel  drills,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  moves  a  piston  connected  with  them. 
When  the  boring  is  performed  by  rotation,  as 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


311 


is  the  case  with  the  diamond  drill,  the  atmos- 
pheric engine  is  either  a  rotary  or  reciprocat- 
ing one.  Compressed  air  is  also  used  with 
steam  as  a  motor.  Air  when  compressed 
greatly  becomes  very  hot,  and  if  it  is  then 
forced  through  hot  water  it  becomes  saturated 
with  steam,  and  this  steam  and  air  are  found 
to  have  enormous  expansive  power.  This 
motive-power  has  been  very  successfully  ap- 
plied to  the  propulsion  of  street  cars.  In  the 
working  of  electric-light  machinery  compressed 
air  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Copernican  System,  The,  is  that  which 
represents  the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  center  of 
the  universe,  and  the  earth  and  planets  to 
move  round  it  as  a  center.  It  got  its  name 
from  Copernicus,  who  (although  some  vague 
general  notion  of  the  system  seems  to  be  due 
to  Pythagoras)  first  distinctly  drew  the  atten- 
tion of  philosophers  to  it,  and  devoted  his  life 
to  its  demonstration.  For  the  rest,  the  glory 
of  developing  on  the  lines  he  broadly  laid 
down,  belongs  to  Kepler,  Galileo,  and  others, 
and  to  Newton,  who  finally  marked  out  the 
form  of^modern  theoretical  astronomy.  Many 
who  reverence  the  name  of  Copernicus  in  con- 
nection with  this  system,  would  be  surprised 
to  find,  on  perusing  his  work,  how  much  of 
error,  unsound  reasoning,  and  happy  conjec- 
ture combined  to  secure  for  him  in  all  time 
the  association  of  the  system  with  his  name ; 
yet,  with  all  its  faults,  that  work  marks  one 
of  the  greatest  steps  ever  taken  in  science. 

Corsets. — An  article  of  dress  somewhat  re- 
sembling the  corsets  now  worn  by  women  was 
used  in  Germany  and  France  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  it  found  its  way  into 
England  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  contained  rods  and  plates  of  whale- 
bone and  steel,  and  was  designed,  we  are  told, 
to  conceal  the  defects  and  exaggerate  the  beau- 
ties of  the  figure.  This  stiff  arrangement  was 
discarded  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution 
owing  to  the  Greek  costume  having  been 
brought  into  vogue,  and  its  place  was  taken  by 
a  smoothly  fitting  under  waist. 

Cotton,  a  vegetable  wool,  is  the  product  of 
a  shrub  indigenous  to  the  tropical  regions  of 
India  and  America.  Indian  cotton  cloth  is 
mentioned  by  Herodotus,  was  known  in  Arabia 
in  the  time  of  Mahomet  627,  and  was  brought 
into  Europe  by  his  followers.  It  does  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  in  use  among  the  Chinese 
till  the  thirteenth  century  ;  to  them  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  cotton  fabric  termed  nankeen. 
Cotton  was  the  material  of  the  principal 
articles  of  clothing  among  the  American  In- 
dians, when  visited  by  Columbus.  It  was 
grown  and  manufactured  in  Spain  in  the  tenth 
century ;  and  in  the  fourteenth  century  was  in- 


troduced into  Italy.  Indian  muslins,  chintzes, 
and  cottons  were  so  largely  imported  into 
England  in  the  seventeenth  century,  that  an 
act  of  parliament  followed  prohibiting  their 
introduction.  Cotton  became  the  staple  com- 
modity of  England  in  the  present  century. 
First  cotton  factory  in  America  established  at 
East  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  1787.  First  power 
looms  in  the  United  States,  1813.  The  method 
of  spinning  cotton  was  formerly  by  hand ; 
but  about  1767  Mr.  Hargraves,  of  Lancashire 
invented  the  spinning  jenny  with  eight  spin- 
dles ;  he  also  erected  the  first  carding  machine 
with  cylinders.  Sir  Richard  Arkwright  ob- 
tained a  patent  for  a  new  invention  of  ma- 
chinery in  1769  ;  and  another  patent  for  an 
engine  in  1775.  Crompton  invented  the  mule, 
a  further  and  wonderful  improvement  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  in  1779,  and  various 
other  improvements  have  been  since  made. 
In  1793,  Eli  Whitney,  an  American,  invented 
the  cotton  gin,  a  machine  by  which  cotton 
wool  is  separated  from  the  pod  and  cleaned 
with  great  ease  and  expedition. 

Cremation. —  The   reduction   of  the  hu- 

.man  body  to  ashes  by  fire  was  a  very  early  and 
widespread  usage  of  antiquity.  The  early  Ar- 
yans, as  opposed  to  the  non-  Aryan  aborigines 
of  India,  Greeks,  Romans,  Sclavs,  Celts,  and 
Germans,  burned  their  dead  ;  therefore  crema- 
tion may  be  regarded  as  the  universal  custom 
of  the  Indo-European  races.     The   graves   of 

I  North  Europe  throughout  the  ' '  bronze  age  ' ' 
contain  only  jars  of  ashes.     The  advocates  of 

J  disposing  of  the  dead  by  cremation  are  at  the 
present  time  numerous,  their  principal  argu- 

j  ments  in  favor  of  it  being  of  a  sanitary  nature. 
According  to  the  method  which  is  most  fa- 
vored by  modern  cremationists,  the  body  is 
placed  in  an  oblong  brick  or  iron-cased  cham- 
ber, underneath  which  is  a  furnace.  The  air 
of  the  chamber  is  raised  to  a  very  high  tem- 
perature before  the  body  is  put  in,  and  a  stream 
of  heated  hydro-carbon  from  a  gasometer  is 
then  admitted,  which  on  contact  with  in- 
tensely-heated air  within  immediately  bursts 
into  flame.  The  chamber  is,  of  course,  so 
constructed  as  neither  to  admit  draughts  of  air 
from  without  nor  to  permit  the  escape  of  gas 
from  within.  The  noxious  gases  which  aie 
evolved  in  the  beginning  of  the  combustion 
process  are  passed  through  a  flue  into  a  second 
furnace,  where  they  are  entirely  consumed. 
By  this  process  a  body  weighing  141  pounds 
can  be  reduced  in  about  fifty  minutes  to  not 
more  than  four  pounds  of  lime-dust.  In  the 
cremation  of  each  body  about  200  pounds  of 
fuel  is  used. 

Crockery. —  The    materials  used   in   the 
manufacture  of  crockery  are  kaolin,  pipe-clay, 


312 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


quartz  or  flint,  and  feldspar  —  the  kaolin  and 
quartz  to  give  hardness,  and  the  pipe-clay  and 
feldspar  to  yield  a  flux  sufficient  to  bind  the 
masses  firmly  together.  The  materials  are 
ground  into  a  fine  powder  and  then  mixed  with 
water  in  a  machine  called  a  "  blunger,"  which 
is  a  box  containing  paddles  worked  very 
rapidly.  When  the  matter  has  been  thoroughly 
mixed  it  is  drawn  off  and  forced  by  a  hydraulic 
pomp  through  a  series  of  sieves  and  then 
worked  up  in  what  is  called  a  pug-mill,  after 
which  it  is  cut  by  a  fine  wire  into  rectangular 
blocks.  These  blocks  are  then  molded  into 
the  shape  of  the  article  desired,  some  by  the 
use  of  a  lathe,  and  some  by  simply  shaping 
them  with  the  hands.  The  pieces  are  thus 
partially  dried,  turned  on  a  lathe  with  a  sharp 
tool  to  give  them  a  uniform  surface,  dried 
slowly  in  a  drying  room,  then  baked  in  an  oven. 
In  baking  the  ware  is  kept  at  a  white  heat  for 
thirty-six  hours.  The  pieces  are  then  glazed 
by  being  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  ground  feld- 
spar, ground  flint,  sal  soda,  plastic  clay,  and 
boracic  acid,  the  whole  pulverized  and  mixed 
with  a  small  proportion  of  white  lead  and  a 
little  cobalt  blue.  This  glaze  is  mixed  with 
water,  the  articles  are  dipped  in  it  one  by  one, 
receiving  a  deposit  like  a  thin  paste  on  the 
surface,  which,  when  placed  in  the  oven  again, 
fuses  and  flows  over  it,  making  a  coating  of 
glassy  smoothness.  Fine,  white  china  or 
porcelain  is  of  course  made  of  finer  material 
than  crockery,  but  the  process  of  manufacture 
is  similar. 

Cryolite  is  a  snow-white  mineral,  partially 
transparent,  of  a  vitreous  luster  and  of  brittle 
texture.  It  is  so  named  from  its  fusibility  in 
the  flame  of  a  candle.  It  is  a  compound  of 
sodium,  fluorine,  and  aluminum,  and  is  used 
for  the  preparation  of  the  metal  aluminum. 
It  occurs  in  veins  in  gneiss  with  pyrites  and 
galena,  and  has  been  found  in  western  Green- 
land and  at  Miyask  in  the  Ural  Mountains. 
It  is  extensively  employed  in  the  United  States 
in  the  manufacture  of  white  porcelain  glass, 
and  also  in  the  preparation  of  caustic  soda. 

Daguerreotype. —  The  name  given  to  a 
process  invented  by  M.  Daguerre  of  Paris  in 
1839,  by  which  perfect  facsimiles  of  objects 
are  transferred  upon  thin  copper  plates,  plated 
with  silver.  The  images  are  produced  by  the 
action  of  light  upon  the  iodine  through  the 
focus  of  the  camera  obscura.  An  apparatus 
somewhat  kindred  in  design  was  in  contem- 
plation about  the  same  time  by  M.  Niepce, 
and  about  five  years  previously  by  Henry  Fox 
Talbot  of  London  ;  the  original  idea,  however, 
is  traceable  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  Roger 
Bacon.  So  important  a  discovery  in  the  fine 
arts  was   the    daguerreotype    deemed   by   the 


French  government,  that  it  awarded  to  its  in- 
ventor a  life  pension  of  0,000  francs. 

Damascus  Steel. —  The  skill  of  the  Dam- 
ascenes in  the  manufacture  of  steel  became 
famous  in  Europe  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades, 
but  the  secrets  of  their  process  have  never  been 
revealed.  A  Russian  mining  engineer,  Gen- 
eral Anosoff,  by  analysis  and  examination, 
however,  succeeded  in  making  steel  that  could 
scarcely  be  distinguished  from  it  in  appear- 
ance. The  essential  point  of  his  process  was 
melting  the  iron  in  crucibles  with  graphite  and 
a  small  quantity  of  dolomite  ;  but  the  details 
of  working  these  materials  with  success  were 
of  course  known  only  by  himself,  and  the 
quality  of  the  steel  produced  by  the  works 
since  his  death  has  very  much  deteriorated. 
An  imitation  of  Damascus  steel  is  also  made  in 
America  and  is  often  known  by  that  name, 
though  its  proper  appellation  is  damask  steel, 
so  called  from  the  peculiar  damask  figures  on 
its  surface. 

Damask  Linens  and  Silks. — They 
were  first  manufactured  at  Damascus,  and 
hence  the  name ;  have  been  imitated  by  the 
Dutch  and  Flemish.  The  manufacture  was 
introduced  into  England  by  artisans  who  fled 
from  the  persecutions  of  Alva,  1571-3. 

Day  and  Jfigfht. — The  earth  has  two  con- 
stant motions  :  (1 )  its  daily  motion,  or  rotation 
on  its  axis  (its  shorter  diameter),  from  west  to 
east ;  (2)  its  yearly  motion,  or  movement  in  a 
nearly  circular  path  (called  its  orbit)  around 
the  sun.  The  length  of  time  the  earth  is  turn- 
ing on  its  axis  is  called  a  day.  Every  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  being  successively  carried 
into  light  and  shade,  the  daily  rotation  causes 
the  phenomena  of  day  and  night.  The  length 
of  time  the  earth  is  in  passing  around  the  sun 
is  called  a  year.  It  turns  on  its  own  axis  in 
the  same  time  about  365^  times,  hence  there 
are  36o^  days  in  a  year.  As  the  earth  revolves 
from  Avest  to  east,  the  sun  will  appear  to 
travel  from  east  to  west.  At  the  equator  the 
days  and  nights  are  always  twelve  hours  long  ; 
the  farther  a  point  lies  from  the  equator,  the 
longer  are  its  longest  day  and  its  longest  night. 
At  the  poles  the  year  is  made  up  of  but  one 
day  and  one  night,  each  lasting  six  months. 
All  places  in  about  66^  degrees  of  latitude, 
north  or  south,  have  one  day  in  the  year 
twenty-four  hours  long,  and  one  night  of  an 
equal  length. 

Dew. —  For  any  assigned  temperature  of 
the  atmosphere  there  is  a  certain  quantity  of 
aqueous  vapor  which  it  is  capable  of  holding 
in  suspension  at  a  given  pressure.  Conversely, 
for  any  assigned  quantity  of  aqueous  vapor 
held  in  suspension  in  the  atmosphere  there  is 
a  minimum  temperature  at  which  it  can  re- 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


313 


main  so  suspended.  This  minimum  tempera- 
ture is  called  the  dew  point.  During  the  day- 
time, especially  if  there  has  been  sunshine,  a 
good  deal  of  aqueous  vapor  is  taken  into  sus- 
pension in  the  atmosphere.  If  the  tempera- 
ture in  the  evening  now  falls  below  the  dew 
point,  which  after  a  hot  and  calm  day  gener- 
ally takes  place  about  sunset,  the  vapor  which 
can  be  no  longer  held  in  suspension  is  de- 
posited on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  sometimes 
to  be  seen  visibly  falling  in  a  fine  mist.  An- 
other form  of  the  phenomenon  of  dew  is  as 
follows :  The  surface  of  the  earth,  and  all 
things  on  it,  and  especially  the  smooth  sur- 
faces of  vegetable  productions,  are  constantly 
parting  with  their  heat  by  radiation.  If  the 
sky  is  covered  with  clouds,  the  radiation  sent 
back  from  the  clouds  nearly  supplies  an  equiv- 
alent for  the  heat  thus  parted  with  ;  but  if  the 
sky  be  clear,  no  equivalent  is  supplied,  and 
the  surface  of  the  earth  and  things  growing  on 
it  become  colder  than  the  atmosphere.  If  the 
night  also  be  calm,  the  small  portion  of  air 
contiguous  to  any  of  the  surfaces  will  become 
cooled  below  the  dew  point,  aud  its  moisture 
deposited  on  the  surface  in  the  form  of  dew. 
If  the  chilled  temperature  be  below  32  degrees 
Fahrenheit,  the  dew  becomes  frozen,  and  is 
called  hoar-frost.  The  above  two  phenomena, 
though  both  expressed  in  our  language  by  the 
word  "dew"  —  which  perhaps  helps  to  lead 
to  a  confusion  of  ideas  on  the  subject  —  are 
not  necessarily  expressed  by  the  same  word. 
For  instance,  in  French,  the  first  phenomenon 
—  the  falling  evening  dew  —  is  expressed  by 
the  word  serein:  while  the  latter  —  the  dew 
seen  in  the  morning  gathered  in  drops  on  the 
leaves  of  plants  or  other  cool  surfaces  —  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  word  rosde.  Similar  to  rose'e  is 
the  moisture  which  condenses  on  the  outside 
surface  of  pitchers  or  glasses  of  ice-water. 
The  air  in  immediate  contact  is  cooled  below 
the  dew  point  and  deposits  the  suspended 
moisture. 

Dictionary. —  A  standard  dictionary  of 
the  Chinese  language,  containing  about  40,- 
000  characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphics,  or 
rude  representations  somewhat  like  our  signs 
of  the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she. 
who  lived  about  1100  B.  C.  Cyclopedias  were 
compiled  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  cen- 
turies. The  first  dictionary  of  celebrity,  per- 
haps the  first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini,  a  Ve- 
netian friar  ;  it  is  in  Latin  ;  he  wrote  another 
in  eight  languages,  about  A.  I).  1500.  Cham- 
bers's  Cyclopedia,  the  first  dictionary  of  the 
circle  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  was  published  in 
1 728.  The  English  dictionary  by  Samuel  John- 
son appeared  in  1755.  Noah  Webster's  great 
American  dictionary  of  the  English  language 


in  two  volumes  was  published  at  New  Haven 
in  1828.  Worcester's  dictionary  appeared  in 
1860.  Harper's  Latin  Dictionary  (founded 
upon  Andrews's  translation  of  Freund's  Latin- 
German  lexicon),  adopted  as  the  standard 
authority  in  English  and  American  universi- 
ties, was  published  in  1879. 

Discovery  of  Gold  in  California. — 
On  January  19,  1848,  John  W.  Marshall 
was  building  a  mill  for  himself  and  Sutter  on 
the  south  fork  of  the  American  River,  fifty- 
four  miles  east  of  Sutter's  Fort.  ,  This  mill,  it 
was  expected,  would  supply  the  ranches  and 
settlements  with  pine  lumber.  On  this  par- 
ticular morning  Marshall  picked  up  from  the 
bed-rock  of  the  race  of  the  mill  a  small  piece 
of  yellow  metal  which  weighed  about  seven- 
teen grains.  It  was  malleable,  heavier  than 
silver,  and  in  all  respects  resembled  gold. 
Marshall  showed  the  piece  in  the  afternoon  to 
those  who  were  working  at  the  mill.  The  re- 
sult of  the  discussion  which  ensued  was  the 
rejection  of  the  gold  theory.  Marshall,  how- 
ever, was  not  satisfied,  and  afterward  tested  it 
with  nitric  acid,  and  found  it  was  actually 
gold.  He  discovered  pieces  like  it  in  all  the 
surrounding  gulches  wherever  he  dug  for  it. 
The  news  of  the  discovery  soon  spread,  and 
in  April  reports  of  the  find  were  published. 

Diving:  Bells. — The  principle  of  the  div- 
ing bell  is  extremely  simple,  and  can  be  seen 
by  pressing  any  hollow  vessel  mouth  down- 
ward into  water.  Although  some  species  of 
diving  bell  was  probably  used  in  the  time  of 
Aristotle  —  for  it  is  recorded  that  divers  took 
with  them  a  vessel  which  enabled  them  to  re- 
main under  water — and  in  mediaeval  times,  it 
was  not  until  about  1715  that  any  practical 
method  of  supplying  the  bell  with  air  while 
under  water  was  discovered.  About  that  j'ear 
this  want  was  met  by  a  Doctor  Halley.  He 
used  two  water-tight  barrels,  each  supplied 
with  a  hose,  also  attached  to  the  diving  bell, 
and  these,  attached  to  heavy  weights,  were 
dropped  on  each  side  of  the  bell,  and  the 
diver  could,  therefore,  remain  under  water  as 
long  as  the  air  supplied  by  the  barrels  was  fit 
to  breathe.  The  diver's  cap,  which  was  made 
of  metal  and  fitted  with  a  tube  for  conveying 
air  to  it  from  the  bell,  so  that  the  wearer 
could  leave  the  bell  and  walk  around  the  bot- 
tom of  the  sea,  was  soon  after  devised  by  the 
same  inventor.  In  1779,  the  air  pump,  which 
forced  down  air  from  above,  was  applied  to 
diving  bells  by  an  engineer  named  Smeaton. 
The  most  practical  bell  in  use  at  present  is  a 
sort  of  submarine  boat,  called  the  Nautilus, 
with  double  sides,  between  which  water  is 
forced  to  cause  the  boat  to  descend  and  air  to 
cause  it  to  rise. 


314 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Dyeing  is  attributed  to  the  Tyrians,  about 
1500  B.  C.  The  English  are  said  to  have 
sent  fine  goods  to  be  dyed  in  Holland  till  the 
art  was  brought  to  them,  probably  in  1608. 
A  statute  against  abuses  in  dyeing  passed  in 
1783.  The  art  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
chemical  research.  Among  the  most  promi- 
nent names  connected  with  the  art  of  dyeing 
is  that  of  Dr.  Stenhouse,  who  in  1848  invented 
a  number  of  beautiful  dyes, —  mauve,  magenta, 
red,  green,  black. 

Dynamite. —  As  generally  manufactured, 
dynamite  consists  of  infusorial  earth,  porce- 
lain earth,  coal-dust,  siliceous  ashes  or  the 
like,  saturated  with  about  three  times  its 
weight  of  nitro-glycerine,  a"  compound  which 
is  produced  by  the  action  of  a  mixture  of 
strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  on  glycerine 
at  low  temperatures,  though  the  proportions 
vary  with  different  makers.  According  to  its 
elements,  it  is  to  the  eye  a  grayish-brown, 
reddish,  or  blackish  powder,  damp  and  greasy 
to  the  touch,  and  without  smell.  Its  explo- 
sive power  is  about  eight  times  greater  than 
that  of  gunpowder.  The  manufacture  of  dyna- 
mite is  attended  with  great  danger,  owing  to 
the  proneness  of  nitro-glycerine  to  explosion 
even  at  the  slightest  shock.  The  explosive 
force  of  the  latter  substance,  which  has  the 
appearance  of  common  oil,  is  about  ten  times 
greater  than  that  of  gunpowder. 

Dynamite  Gun. —  The  nitro-gelatine  or 
dynamite  gun,  known  as  the  "  Zalinski  gun," 
was  the  invention  of  Lieutenant  Zalinski  and 
Captain  Bartlett  of  the  United  States  army. 
It  is  a  long  tube  made  of  wrought  iron,  lined 
with  seamless  brass  tubing  one  eighth  of  an 
inch  thick.  The  projectile  used  is  shaped  like 
a  huge  rocket,  five  or  six  feet  in  length.  The 
stick  of  the  rocket  has  a  wooden  or  metal  base 
large  enough  to  fill  the  bore  of  the  gun,  and 
against  this  base  the  pressure  of  the  air  (the 
propelling  force  being  compressed  air)  —  1,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch  —  is  exerted.  The 
head  of  the  rocket  contains  from  fifty  to  sixty 
pounds  —  or  more  —  of  nitro-gelatine,  a  new 
explosive  made  of  nitro-glycerine  and  gun- 
cotton.  The  projectile,  being  shot  from  the 
gun,  is  exploded,  after  reaching  its  mark,  by 
electricity.  A  small  battery  is  fixed  in  the 
head  of  each  shot,  and  the  discharge  is  effected 
by  concussion  if  the  shot  strikes,  or  by  action 
of  water  on  a  sensitized  surface  if  the  shot 
lights  in  the  sea.  It  is  thought  that  a  sub- 
marine explosion  within  100  feet  of  a  ship  will 
be  disastrous  in  eight  cases  out  of  ten.  The 
gun  is  from  40  to  75  feet  in  length,  and  of  cal- 
iber from  6  to  10  inches.  The  mechanical  ar- 
rangement for  compressing  the  air  in  the  gun 
and  discharging  the  piece  is  said  to  be  taken 


from  an  invention  of  B.  T.  Babbitt,  patented 
in  1878. 

Earth's  Surface,  The.— The  earth's 
surface  covers  an  area  of  about  197,000,000 
square  miles,  of  which  only  about  one  fourth 
is  land. 

Lou-lands  are  tracts,  either  level  or  diversified 
by  hill  and  vale,  not  elevated  more  than  1,000 
feet  above  sea-level.  Deserts  are  extensive 
tracts  destitute  of  water,  and,  consequently,  of 
vegetation  and  animal  life. 

Silvas  are  forest  plains.  Plains  that  produce 
grass,  but  not  trees,  are  known  in  North  Amer- 
ica as  prairies ;  in  South  America  as  llanos  and 
pampas  ;  in  Asia  and  Southeastern  Europe  as 
steppes. 

The  desert  of  Sahara,  as  far  as  known,  con- 
sists partly  of  table  lands  and  partly  of  low 
plains.  It  is  interspersed  with  oases,  or  fertile 
spots,  which  are  generally  lower  than  the  sur- 
rounding country ;  some  of  these  are  of  con- 
siderable extent  and  well  populated. 

A  mountain  is  an  elevation  of  land  exceed- 
ing 2,000  feet  in  height.  A  hill  is  less  than 
2,000  feet  in  height. 

A  mountain  chain  is  a  long,  elevated  ridge, 
or  several  mountains  extending  in  a  line. 

Mountains  are  of  great  use  to  man.  They 
attract  the  clouds,  condense  their  moisture, 
and  store  up  in  reservoirs  the  water  received 
from  them,  sending  it  forth  again  in  streams, 
from  thousands  of  springs,  to  fertilize  the  soil. 
They  increase  the  surface  of  the  earth,  giving 
variety  to  its  vegetable  productions.  They 
protect  the  adjacent  countries  from  cold  and 
piercing  winds,  and  thus  exert  a  favorable  in- 
fluence on  their  climate. 

An  avalanche  is  a  large  mass  of  snow,  ice, 
and  earth,  sliding  or  rolling  down  a  mountain. 
A  water  shed  is  the  mountain  chain  or  ridge 
of  land  which  separates  one  basin  from 
another,  and  from  which  the  rivers  flow. 

A  mountain  pass  is  an  elevated  road  crossing 
a  mountain  chain  through  a  natural  opening 
or  depression. 

Glaciers  are  immense  masses  of  ice  formed 
by  the  accumulated  snows  upon  the  mountain 
tops.  They  fill  in  vast  valleys,  and  have  an 
onward  motion  throughout  like  a  liquid  or 
semi-liquid  body.  Their  course  down  the 
slopes  is  very  slow,  but,  like  rivers,  they  flow 
faster  in  the  middle  than  at  the  bottom  and 
sides.  The  lower  extremities  are  constantly 
melting,  forming  torrents  and  mountain 
streams,  while  the  upper  parts  are  fed  by  the 
snows.  Rocks  of  immense  size  are  torn  off 
and  carried  down  by  glaciers.  They  occur  in 
the  greatest  numbers  in  the  Alps.  When  a 
glacier  reaches  the  ocean  large  fragments  are 
broken  off  and  float  away  as  iceberys. 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


315 


Earthquakes. —  The  phenomena  con- 
nected with  earthquakes  liave  been  variously 
described.  Many  writers  refer  to  appearances 
in  the  heavens,  or  changes  in  the  atmosphere, 
which  to  them  seem  to  have  some  connection 
with  the  catastrophes  they  narrate.  They  tell 
of  irregularities  in  the  seasons  preceding  or 
following  the  shock;  of  sudden  gusts  of  wind, 
interrupted  by  sudden  calms  ;  of  violent  rains 
at  unusual  seasons  or  in  countries  where  such 
phenomena  are  almost  unknown  ;  of  a  redden- 
ing of  the  sun's  disk  ;  of  a  haziness  in  the 
air,  often  continued  for  months  ;  and  similar 
phenomena.  But  these  are  so  irregular  in  their 
appearance,  and  have  been  so  seldom  observed 
associated  with  more  than  a  single  earthquake, 
that  in  the  absence  of  any  decided  reason  to 
the  contrary  there  seems  good  ground  for  be- 
lieving they  have  no  real  connection  with  the 
earthquake.  The  general  opinion  of  investi- 
gators is  that  these  agitations  proceed  from 
within  outward,  and  are  not  of  atmospheric  or 
other  external  origin.  True,  Professor  Alexis 
Perry,  of  Dijon,  France,  thought  he  discovered 
relations  between  the  ages  of  the  moon  and 
these  occurrences  which  seemed  to  sustain  the 
theory  of  Zantedeschi  that  the  liquid  nucleus 
of  the  earth  responds  to  the  moon's  attraction 
in  tides,  somewhat  as  the  coast  does  ;  but  the 
theory  that  the  earth  has  a  liquid  nucleus  cov- 
ered with  only  a  thin,  solid  crust  is  losing  ad- 
herents continually.  All  theorists  are  agreed, 
as  to  the  connection  between  volcanoes  and 
earthquakes,  that  they  are  produced  by  the 
same  subterraneous  agency.  Mr.  Mallet,  in 
an  elaborate  report  on  the  subject  presented  to 
the  British  Association,  proposed  an  ingenious 
theory.  He  assumes  that  volcanoes  and  the 
centers  of  earthquake  disturbances  are  near  the 
sea  or  other  large  supplies  of  water ;  and  he 
says  that  wrhen  an  eruption  of  igneous  matter 
takes  place  beneath  the  sea-bottom  the  first 
action  must  be  to  open  up  large  fissures  in  its 
rocky  material,  or  to  lift  and  remove  its  inco- 
herent portions,  such  as  sand,  mud,  gravel, 
etc.  The  water,  on  meeting  the  heated  sur- 
face, assumes  the  spheroidal  state.  While  in 
this  condition  the  intestine  motion  may  be 
great,  but  little  steam  is  generated;  but  no 
sooner  have  the  surfaces  cooled  than  the  water 
comes  into  close  contact  with  them,  and  a  vast 
volume  of  steam  is  evolved  explosively  and 
blown  off  into  the  deep  and  cold  water  of  the 
sea,  where  it  is  condensed,  and  thus  a  blow7 
of  the  most  tremendous  sort  is  given  at  the 
volcanic  focus,  and,  being  transferred  out- 
wardly in  all  directions,  is  transmitted  as  the 
earthquake  shock.  "Whatever  their  origin, 
whether  of  one  cause  or  various  causes,  the 
prevailing  opinion  still  is  that  the  vibrations  of 


every  earthquake  can  be  traced  to  a  focus 
within  the  earth,  and  that  this  lies  directly  be- 
neath the  point  of  greatest  disturbance  ou  the 
earth's  surface.  There  are  creditable  records 
of  between  6,000  and  7,000  earthquakes,  be- 
tween 1606  B.  C.  and  A.  D.  1842.  In  the 
great  Lisbon  earthquake  no  less  than  60,000 
perished,  while  in  that  of  Calabria,  in  the  end 
of  the  last  century,  40,000  were  destroyed.  It 
is  estimated  that  at  least  13,000,000  of  the 
human  race  have  perished  in  this  way. 

Electric  Light,  The,  was  first  invented 
by  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century,  who  produced  the  arc  light  with 
a  battery  of  2,000  cells.  It  was  not  in  prac- 
tical use,  "however,  until  1844,  when  improve- 
ments in  its  manner  of  construction  were 
made  by  a  Frenchman  named  Foucault,  and 
it  was  used  to  illuminate  the  Place  de  la  Con- 
cord, in  Paris.  In  1855,  Jules  Duboscq's 
electric  lamp  —  thus  far  the  most  perfect  of 
the  kind  —  was  shown  at  the  Paris  Exposi- 
tion ;  but,  though  improvements  were  made 
in  the  invention  during  the  twenty  years  fol- 
lowing, little  was  accomplished  toward  practi- 
cal electric  lighting  until  the  invention  of 
Jablochkoif's  candle.  Paul  Jablochkoff  was 
a  Russian,  who  resigned  his  position  under 
the  government  in  1875  to  devote  his  time 
wholly  to  scientific  study.  It  was  his  inten- 
tion to  visit  the  Centennial  Exposition  in  Amer- 
ica, but  he  was  induced  to  remain  in  Paris, 
where,  in  1876,  he  produced  the  electric  can- 
dle, whose  discovery  made  a  great  sensation. 
The  light  given  by  this  candle  was  soft 
and  steady,  and  a  gi-eat  many  of  them  speedily 
came  into  use  in  Europe.  In  the  last  fifteen 
years  great  progress  has  been  made,  and  there 
are  now  many  different  styles  and  forms,  but 
in  their  essential  features  they  nearly  all  come 
under  two  general  classes  —  the  arc  light  and 
the  incandescent  light.  The  arc  light  is,  in 
principle,  the  same  as  that  invented  by  Davy, 
the  improvements  consisting  in  different  de- 
vices for  regulating  and  maintaining  at  a 
constant  distance  the  tips,  and  in  different 
preparations  for  the  substance  of  these  tips, 
which  are  generally  of  carbon.  The  light  is 
produced  as  follows  :  Two  tips  connected  with 
the  opposite  poles  of  a  strong  battery  are 
brought  near  to  each  other.  The  electricity, 
overcoming  the  resistance  of  the  air,  jumps 
from  one  tip  to  the  other,  and  in  so  doing  gen- 
erates such  an  intense  heat  that  the  particles 
on  the  end  of  the  one  tip  are  volatilized  and 
carried  to  the  other  in  a  condition  of  white  heat, 
forming  an  arc  of  light  of  intense  brilliancy. 
Thus  one  tip  is  slowly  consumed  and  the  other 
somewhat  increased,  and  hence  the  necessity 
of  regulators  for  the  tips,  whence  these  lights 


316 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


are  sometimes  called  regulated  lamps.  The 
Brush  patent  is  the  arc  light  best  known  and 
most  used  in  America.  In  lights  of  the  incan- 
descent cla'ss  a  lighter  current  is  used,  and  the 
luminous  substance  is  not  consumed,  being 
inclosed  in  a  sealed  glass  bulb  from  which  the 
air  has  been  exhausted.  It  consists  of  a  loop 
of  a  thin  fiber  of  some  infusible  substance  (car- 
bon has  been  found  the  best),  inclosed  in  a 
vacuum,  as  just  stated.  The  ends  of  this  fiber 
are  carried  through  the  neck  of  the  bulb  and 
connected  with  the  opposite  poles  of  the  bat- 
tery ;  then  the  current,  in  passing  through 
such  a  small  conductor,  has  to  overcome  a  high 
resistance,  and  in  so  doing  generates  a  heat 
sufficient  to  maintain  the  entire  loop  at  a  steady 
temperature  of  white  heat.  The  principal 
forms  of  the  incandescent  light  are  those  of 
Edison,  Swan,  Maxim,  and  Siemens.  It  is 
perhaps  worthy  of  note  that  the  great  impetus 
given  to  electric  lighting  by  the  work  of  Thomas 
Edison  has  been  not  so  much  in  improving  the 
lamp  as  in  cheapening  the  process  of  generat- 
ing the  electricity  and  inventing  a  ready  mode 
of  dividing  the  light.  Hitherto  the  two  prin- 
cipal barriers  in  the  way  of  applying  the  electric 
light  to  public  use  had  been  the  expense  at- 
tendant upon  the  production  of  the  electric 
force  and  the  difficulty  of  using  it  simulta- 
neously at  a  large  number  of  illuminating 
points. 

Electricity As  far  back  as  321  B.  C, 

the  ancient  philosopher  Theophrastus  men- 
tions, the  power  of  amber  to  attract  straws  and 
dry  leaves.  Pliny,  in  70  A.  D.,  writes  con- 
cerning the  same  phenomenon,  and  it  is  from 
the  Greek  name  of  "  amber,"  pronounced 
"electron,"  that  we  call  this  phenomenon 
"electricity."  Dr.  Gilbert,  of  Colchester, 
may  be  considered  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  electricity,  for  it  was  he  that  carefully  re- 
peated the  observations  of  the  ancients,  and 
experimented  in  various  ways  and  published 
these  experiments  in  a  book  during  the  period 
between  1540  and  1 603.  Sir  William  Watson 
(1715  to  1807)  distinctly  announced  the  theory 
of  positive  and  negative  electricity,  which  was 
afterwards  elaborated  by  Dr.  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin. Dr.  Franklin  also  established  the  fact 
that  the  lightning  was  an  electrical  spark, 
similar  to  that  made  by  an  electric  machine  or 
Leyden  jar.  In  1790,  Galvani  discovered  that 
the  contact  of  metals  produced  muscular  con- 
traction in  the  legsof  adead  frog,  andin  1800, 
Volta  discovered  the  art  of  generating  elec- 
tricity by  contact  of  metals  with  damp  cloths. 
From  these  we  obtained  the  galvanic  battery 
and  the  voltaic  pile. 

Tt  remained  with  Prof.  II.  C.  Oersted,  of 
Copenhagen,  however,  to   bring   forward  the 


most  important  fact.  viz.  :  the  magnetic  action 
of  the  electrical  current.  This  was  in  1820. 
As  soon  as  the  discovery  reached  France,  the 
eminent  French  philosopher  Ampere  set  to 
work  to  develop  the  important  consequences  it 
involved.  Faraday  in  1820,  discovered  electric- 
magnetic  rotation.  From  this  time  up,  exper- 
imentists  and  theorists  were  busy  searching 
for  ways  and  means  by  which  the  electrical 
energy  could  be  utilized  as  a  mechanical  power, 
and  to-day  the  galvanic  battery  and  electric 
dynamo  are  rapidly  ousting  steam,  and  in  a 
thousand  ways  doing  its  work  with  less  noise, 
expense,  and  better  results. 

As  to  the  question  of  the  real  nature  of 
electricity,  recent  experiments  and  further 
knowledge  of  its  properties  rather  open  fresh 
avenues  to  new  hypotheses  than  point  to  the 
truth  of  any  one  special  theory.  Some  iden- 
tify electricity  with  energy,  some  with  matter, 
and  some  with  the  subtle  all-pervading 
"ether."  At  all  events  it  has  been  computed 
that  in  every  single  cubic  foot  of  ether  there 
are  locked  up  10,000  foot-tons  of  energy  !  The 
latest  researches  give  well-founded  hopes  that 
this  inconceivably  vast  storehouse  of  power 
will  one  day  be  accessible  to  man.  And  here- 
in lies  the  splendid  possibility  of  a  new  and 
mighty  successor  to  the  decreasing  energy  of 
our  coal-fields,  with  the  speedy  extinction  of 
which  alarmists  threaten  us.  By  creating  in 
a  room  a  powerful  electrostatic  field  alternat- 
ing very  rapidly,  Professor  Nicola  Tesla 
brought  it  to  such  a  state  that  illuminating 
appliances  could  be  placed  anywhere,  and  kept 
lighted  without  being  electrically  connected 
with  anything  !  He  suspended  two  sheets  of 
metal,  each  connected  with  a  terminal  of  the 
electric  coil,  between  which  an  exhausted  tube, 
carried  anywhither,  remained  always  lumi- 
nous. A  true  flame  can  now  therefore  be  pro- 
duced without  chemical  aid —  a  flame  yielding 
light  and  heat  without  the  consumption  of  ma- 
terial or  any  chemical  process !  Further, 
these  and  similar  experiments  on  electric  radia- 
tion, which  now  advances  so  brilliantly  to  the 
forefront,  by  Tesla  and  Crookes,  etc.,  point  to 
the  bewildering  possibility  of  telegraphy  with- 
out wires,  without  cables,  without  posts. 
There  is  considerable  evidence  to  show  that, 
could  the  electric  ether-waves  be  obtained  suffi- 
ciently short,  the  rays  would  fall  within  the 
limits  of  visibility,  and  thus  place  the  final 
crown  of  proof  on  the  magnificent  experiments 
of  Hertz  and  others,  who  would  make  light  an 
electric  phenomenon. 

As  regards  the  effect  on  the  human  body  of 
alternating  currents  of  very  high  frequency 
(which  at  best  have  a  very  doubtful  reputa- 
tion) it  has  been  found  that,  as  the  rapidity  of 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


317 


the  alternation  increases,  they  become,  not 
more  but  less  dangerous.  In  fact,  Tatuni  has 
shown  that  their  fatal  effects  are  nearly  in- 
versely proportionate  to  their  frequency.  Thus, 
with  currents  alternating  about  5,000  per  sec- 
ond, the  current  needed  to  become  fatal  is 
about  ten  times  greater  than  at  the  ordinary 
low  frequency  of  about  120  per  second.  With 
still  higher  frequencies  used  by  Tesla  (up  to 
20,000  per  second)  the  currents  are  incompar- 
ably less  dangerous  than  at  low  frequencies ; 
but  still  altogether  harmless. 

Electricity,  Storage  of. —  The  storage 
of  electricity  is  the  conversion  of  electricity 
into  chemical  energy  under  such  circumstances 
that  it  may  be  readily  converted  back  into 
electricity.  The  secondary  batteries,  which 
are  used  for  storing  purposes,  are  termed  "  ac- 
cumulators." The  first  battery  of  this  kind 
was  made  by  Hitter  about  1840,  and  it  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  disks  of  a  single  metal,  al- 
ternated with  cloth  or  card  moistened  in  a 
liquid  by  which  the  metal  would  not  be  af- 
fected chemically.  In  1859  Mr.  Gaston  Plante 
made  a  secondary  battery,  for  which  he  used 
plates  of  lead  instead  of  plates  of  platinum. 
Passing  a  current  through  these,  lead  oxide 
was  deposited,  and  after  the  charging-current 
was  removed  the  lead .  and  lead-oxide  were 
found  to  yield  a  very  slight  current.  To  in- 
crease this,  Plante  devised  the  plan  of  first 
charging  the  plates,  then  discharging,  then 
charging  again  with  the  battery-current  re- 
versed, and  so  on,  until,  by  repeated  oxida- 
tions and  subsequent  reductions  of  the  oxidized 
material,  very  porous  plates  were  made.  These, 
by  their  porosity,  exposed  a  large  surface  to 
the  oxidizing  action  of  the  current,  so  that  a 
small  porous  plate  took  up  as  much  electricity 
as  one  of  large  superficial  area.  Plante  found 
that  by  connecting  a  number  of  cells  together, 
and,  after  charging  them,  arranging  them  in 
series — :  that  is,  the  positive  plate  of  one  con- 
necting with  the  negative  plate  of  another,  and 
so  on  —  he  could  store  for  use  quite  powerful 
currents  of  electricity.  In  1S80  another  elec- 
trician, M.  Camille  Faure,  devised  the  plan  of 
coating  Plante's  lead-plates  with  red-lead,  and 
then  incasing  them  in  flannel.  The  advan- 
tage of  the  red-lead  is  that  it  is  very  quickly 
made  porous,  and  therefore  the  process  of  re- 
peated charging  of  the  plates,  known  as  the 
•' forming  "  process,  was  reduced  from  weeks 
to  days,  and  even  to  hours.  This  discovery, 
by  reducing  the  time  and  expense  of  making 
the  secondary  battery,  gave  it  a  commercial 
value  that  it  never  had  before,  and  it  was 
hailed  as  a  great  advantage.  Since  that  time 
a  number  of  patents  have  been  obtained  for 
storage-batteries,  and  they  now  exist  in  differ- 


I  ent  forms,  but  generally  modeled  on  the  in- 
ventions of  Plante  and  Faure.  The  efforts  of 
inventors  have  been  mainly  directed  toward 
reducing  the  weight  of  the  cells  and  to  devis- 
ing new  ways  of  holding  red-lead  on  the  plates. 
This  last-named  substance,  becoming  porous, 
drops  off  readily,  and  for  this  reason  the  in- 
casements  of  flannel,  etc.,  were  first  devised. 
|  In  some  of  the  storage-batteries  a  plate  or 
frame  of  cast  lead  is  used,  with  receptacles, 
cells,  etc.,  which  are  filled  with  the  red-lead. 

Electroplating.  —  The  first  to  gild  the 
baser  metals  by  means  of  the  galvanic  current 
was  Brugnatelli,  in  1803  ;  but  the  first  to  make 
the  process  a  success  was  the  chemist  De  la 
Rive,  and  it  has  since  been  greatly  improved 
by  later  inventions.  The  process  depends  upon 
the  peculiar  power  which  the  electric  current 
|  possesses  of  separating  certain  compound  bodies 
;  into  their  constituent  parts.  For  instance,  if 
;  a  current  from  a  galvanic  battery  is  passed  by 
,  means  of  platinum  electrodes  through  water  to 
j  which  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added,  this 
|  chemical  separation,  which  is  called  electrolysis, 
j  will  take  place,  the  water  being  resolved  into 
|  its  constituent  gases,  oxygen  and  hydrogen. 
Now,  if  some  sulphate  of  copper  be  thrown 
into  the  liquid,  electrolysis  will  still  go  on, 
with  a  double  result :  the  water  will  be  sepa- 
rated into  its  elements,  and  the  hydrogen,  by 
its  stronger  affinity,  will  form  a  new  compound 
with  the  sulphur  in  the  sulphate,  setting  the 
copper  free  ;  and  the  liberated  copper,  being 
electro-positive  in  character,  will  be  deposited 
on  the  platinum  electrode,  which  is  negative. 
On  this  general  principle  the  process  of  electro- 
plating or  electrotyping  depends,  and  its  art 
consists  in  applying  the  metals  thus  released 
from  their  solutions  to  artistic  and  useful  pur- 
poses. To  carry  on  electroplating  on  a  large 
scale  oblong  vats  are  used,  which  hold  200 
gallons  of  solution.  Silver  plates  connected 
with  a  powerful  galvanic  battery  are  placed  at 
intervals  in  the  vats ;  they  form  the  positive 
electrodes  and  correspond  in  extent  of  surface 
with  the  articles  to  be  coated,  and  face  them 
on  both  sides.  These  articles  act  as  the  nega- 
tive electrodes,  and  are  suspended  by  copper 
wire  from  brass  rods  laid  lengthwise  over  the 
vats  and  connected  with  the  battery.  The 
articles  are  prepared  for  plating  by  being  first 
boiled  in  a  solution  of  po;ash  to  free  them 
from  all  grease  ;  they  are  then  quickly  dipped 
in  red  nitrous-acid  to  remove  any  oxide  that 
may  have  formed  on  the  surface,  and  after  this 
are  well  washed  in  water  to  remove  every  trace 
of  the  acid  ;  they  are.  then  dipped  into  a  solu- 
tion of  mercury  and  then  washed  in  water 
again.  The  effect  of  this  latter  operation  is 
to  make  the  film  of  silver  adhere  more  readily. 


M8 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  articles  are  then  weighed  and  suspended 
in  the  solution,  and  are  left  there  until  a  suf- 
ficient amount  of  silver  has  been  deposited 
upon  thern.  This  amount  is  tested  by  weight. 
If  the  additional  weight  is  not  gained  within 
the  expected  time  the  article  is  put  in  the  solu- 
tion again.  When  finally  taken  out,  the  arti- 
cles are  rubbed  with  brushes  of  fine  wire  and 
cleaned  with  fine  sand  ;  they  are  then  polished 
on  revolving  brushes  with  rotten-stone,  then 
with  chamois-leather  and  rouge.  The  process 
of  electro-gilding  is  essentially  the  same,  with 
the  exception  that  gold  is  substituted  for 
silver. 

Embalming. —  The  ancient  Egyptians  be- 
lieved that  their  souls,  after  many  thousand 
years,  would  come  to  re-inhabit  their  bodies,  in 
case  these  latter  were  preserved  entire.  Hence 
arose  their  practice  of  embalming  the  dead. 
The  Egyptian  manner  of  preserving  the  dead 
has  been  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  modern 
times.  They  render  the  body  not  only  incor- 
ruptible, but  it  retains  its  full  proportion  of 
size,  symmetry  of  feature,  and  personal  like- 
ness. They  called  the  embalmed  bodies  mum- 
mies, some  of  which,  buried  3,000  years  ago, 
are  perfect  to  this  day.  The  art  of  such  em- 
balming is  now  lost.  When  Nicodemus  came 
with  Joseph  of  Arimathea  to  pay  the  last 
duties  to  our  Saviour  after  his  crucifixion,  he 
brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes  to  em- 
balm his  body.  Carbolic  acid  was  successfully 
employed  by  Professor  Seely  in  America,  in 
1868.  The  modern  method  of  embalming 
generally  consists  of  an  injection  of  camphor- 
ated spirits  of  wine  into  the  arteries  and  veins, 
though  many  other  chemical  substances  are 
successfully  used. 

Embroidery. — Its  invention  is  generally 
ascribed  to  the  Phrygians ;  but  the  Sidonians 
excelled  in  it,  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Homer 
and  other  ancient  authors,  in  the  year  1491 
B.  C.  The  latter  were  particularly  skilled  in 
decorative  species  of  needlework.  The  first 
embroidery  machine  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  John  Duncas,  of  Glasgow,  in  1804. 
Heilman's  embroidery  machine  was  patented 
by  Kochlin.  An  ancient  existing  specimen  of 
beautiful  embroidery  is  the  Bayeux  tapestry, 
worked  by  Matilda,  the  queen  of  William  the 
First  of  England.  It  is  nineteen  inches  wide, 
214  feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  compart- 
ments showing  the  events  from  the  visit  of 
Harold  to  the  Norman  court  to  his  death  at 
Hastings.  It  was  reproduced  by  autotype 
process,  with  notes,  in  1875. 

Emery  is  found,  upon  analysis,  to  be  com- 
posed of  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  and  silica, 
with  a  little  lime.  It  is  a  dull,  opaque  sub- 
stance, sometimes  of  a  grayish  black,  some- 


times of  a  bluish  color,  and  it  is  prepared  for 
use  by  crushing  the  lumps  in  a  stamp  mill, 
and  then  passing  the  powder  through  sieves  of 
different  degrees  of  fineness.  For  the  most 
delicate  uses  of  opticians  the  powder  is  graded 
by  the  process  known  to  chemists  as  elutria- 
tion.  Emery  was  for  a  long  time  brought 
from  the  island  of  Naxos  in  the  Grecian  Arch- 
ipelago. The  Greek  government  granted  a 
monopoly  of  its  trade  to  an  English  merchant. 
In  1847,  Dr.  J.  Lawrence  Smith,  an  American 
explorer  in  the  employ  of  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment, found  deposits  of  the  mineral  at  various 
points  in  Asia  Minor,  and  the  monopoly  was 
destroyed  and  the  price  lowered.  Deposits  of 
emery  have  since  been  found  in  Bohemia,  in 
the  Ural  Mountains,  in  Australia,  and  in  North 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Montana.  The  supply 
from  these  deposits  is  too  small,  however,  to 
compete  with  that  which  is  brought  from 
Turkey  and  Naxos.  | 

Engraving. —  The  engraving  of  gems  is  a 
branch  of  art  of  the  highest  antiquity.  The 
earliest  writers  make  mention  of  engraved  seals 
and  seal  rings,  and  there  still  exist  many  an- 
tique engravings  equal  to  later  productions  of 
similar  artists.  Engraving  from  plates  and 
wood  is  chiefly  of  modern  invention,  having 
its  origin  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  to  an 
art  by  Boudier  of  Paris,  1799.  The  art  of 
engraving,  especially  in  photographic  processes, 
has  made  great  progress  in  the  United  States 
during  the  past  quarter  century.  Prints  from 
engraved  copper  plates  made  their  appearance 
about  1450,  and  were  first  produced  in  Ger- 
many. Masso  is  considered  to  have  been  the 
first  Italian  engraver,  about  1440.  Etchings 
on  copper  by  means  of  aqua  fortis  is  reputed 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Francis  Mazzuoli, 
about  1532.  Etching  was  later  practiced  by 
Albert  Durer,  and  most  especially  by  Rem- 
brandt. Its  revival  began  about  1860.  Mezzo- 
tints are  said  to  have  been  discovered  by  Col- 
onel Von  Siegen,  who  engraved  the  portrait  of 
Princess  Amelia  of  Hesse  in  mezzotint,  in 
1643  ;  it  was  improved  by  Prince  Rupert  in 
1648;  and  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  about 
1662.  The  mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel, 
which  after  it  has  been  hardened  will  multiply 
copper  plates  and  fine  impressions,  indefinitely, 
was  introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Per- 
kins &  Heath  of  Philadelphia,  in  1819. 

Entomology,  the  science  of  insects,  is 
based  upon  the  arrangements  of  Linnaeus,  A. 
I).  1739.  The  Entomological  Society  of  Lon- 
don was  instituted  in  1833.  A  national  ento- 
mological exhibition  at  the  Westminster  aqua- 
rium was  opened  March,  1878.  Numerous 
chairs  of  entomology  have  been  established  in 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


319 


colleges  and  universities  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe  within  a  recent  period. 

Etching",  Art  of. —  About  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century  Tomaso  Finiguerra,  a 
Florentine,  introduced  the  art  of  etching.  In 
Germany,  Italy,  and  France  its  value  met  with 
prompt  recognition,  but  it  was  not  carried 
to  a  state  of  perfection  till  later  times.  It  was 
at  first  regarded  as  an  industrial  art,  but  it 
soon  grew  to  have  a  higher  value,  reproducing 
in  graceful  freedom  and  precision  of  touch  the 
very  feeling  of  the  artist.  The  first  step  in 
etching  is  to  cover  the  plate  with  a  composi- 
tion of  wax,  asphaltum,  gum-mastic,  resin, 
etc.,  dissolved  by  heat.  An  outline  of  the 
design,  made  on  paper  in  pencil  or  red  chalk, 
is  then  "transferred"  to  the  surface  of  this 
composition  by  being  passed  through  a  press. 
The  subject  is  then  drawn  on  the  ground  with 
the  etching  point,  which  cuts  through  it  and 
exposes  the  copper.  Etching-points  or  nee- 
dles resemble  large  sewing  needles  shortened 
and  fixed  into  handles  four  or  five  inches  long. 
Some  are  made  oval,  to  produce  broader  lines. 
A  rim  of  wax  being  put  around  the  plate,  acid 
is  poured  on,  and  corrodes  the  copper  not  pro- 
tected by  the  ground.  If  the  acid  is  found  not 
to  have  acted  sufficiently,  it  may  be  applied 
again  to  the  whole  design,  or  only  to  portions 
of  it,  by  stopping  up  with  a  mixture  of  lamp- 
black and  Venice  turpentine,  applied  with  a 
camel's-hair  pencil,  what  has  been  sufficiently 
bitten-in.  When  a  series  of  parallel  lines  are 
wanted,  as  in  backgrounds,  etc.,  an  ingenious 
machine  called  a  ruler  is  employed,  the  accu- 
racy of  whose  operation  is  exceedingly  perfect. 
This  is  made  to  act  on  the  etching-ground  by 
a  point  or  diamond  connected  with  the  appa- 
ratus, and  the  tracings  are  bit  in  with  a(/un 
forli*  in  the  ordinary  wTay.  The  art  of  etching 
was  popularized  by  Sandro  Botticelli,  who  em- 
bellished an  edition  of  "  Dante  "  with  etching 
illustrations  about  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  great- German  etchers  of  that  time 
were  Shoengauer,  Bechellin,and  Wohlgemuth, 
and  the  Italian  representatives  were  Bacio 
Baldini,  Pollajuoli,  and  Montegna.  In  the 
succeeding  century  Goltzius  and  others  repro- 
duced the  works  of  the  old  masters,  through 
etching,  with  wonderful  mobility.  Toward  the 
'latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  art 
was  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  by 
Le  Bas  and  by  the  Spanish  school.  Then,  for 
a  time,  the  art  declined,  its  place  being  taken 
by  steel  engraving,  which  in  turn  gave  way  to 
the  chromo,  and  that  to  the  lithograph.  The 
revival  of  the  art  in  England  is  largely  due  to 
Philip  Gilbert  Hamerton.  At  that  time  Sey- 
mour Haden  was  the  leading  etcher  in  Eng-  i 
land,  as  was  Count  de  Gravesande  in  France. 


"Whistler,  the  eccentric  American,  is  now  one 
of  the  leading  lights  in  the  art  in  England, 
and  Hamilton  Hamilton  is  probably  the  most 
popular  etcher  in  America.  Among  the  great- 
est of  modern  etchers  are  Salonne,  Couteau, 
Waltner,  Rajon,  De  Baines,  and  Koepping. 

Ether  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists. 
Nitric  ether  was  first  discovered  by  Kunkel,  in 
1681  ;  and  muriatic  ether,  from  the  chloride 
of  tin,  by  Courtanvaux  in  1759.  Acetic  ether 
was  discovered  by  Count  Lauraguais,  same 
year ;  and  hydriodic  ether  was  first  prepared 
by  Gay-Lussac.  The  phosphoric  was  obtained 
by  M.  Boullay.  Ether  is  said  to  have  been 
first  applied  to  the  purpose  of  causing  insensi- 
bility to  pain  by  Dr.  Horace  Wells  of  Connec- 
ticut, in  1846.  The  discovery  that  by  inhaling 
ether  the  patient  is  rendered  unconscious  of 
pain,  is  due  to  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson,  of 
Boston  ;  but  to  Dr.  Morton  of  the  same  place, 
probably  belongs  the  credit  of  first  demonstrat- 
ing, by  actual  experiment,  the  use  of  ether  in 
dentistry  and  surgery.  The  practice  was 
first  copied  in  Europe  by  Dr.  Robertson, 
of  Edinburgh,  and  Dr.  Booth,  of  London,  in 
1816. 

Ethnology  is  the  science  which  treats  of 
the  division  of  man  into  races,  with  their  ori- 
gin, relations,  and  characteristics.  Natural- 
ists divide  mankind,  according  to  certain 
physical  characteristics,  in  f,o  varieties,  or  races. 
Authorities  differ  greatly  in  this  classification. 
Cuvier  made  three  races;  Pritchard,  seven; 
Agassiz,  eight,  and  Pickering,  eleven ;  but 
the  classification  most  commonly  accepted  is 
that  into  five  races,  as  made  by  Blumenbach, 
as  follows  :  The  Caucasian,  European,  or  white 
race;  the  Mongolian,  Asiatic,  or  yellow  race; 
the  Ethiopian,  African,  or  black  race ;  the 
American  Indian,  or  red  race  ;  the  Malay,  or 
brown  race.  The  first  three  are  much  more 
clearly  marked,  and  are  considered  by  Guyot 
as  primary  races ;  the  others,  being  modifica- 
tions of  these  three,  he  designates  as  secondary 
races.  Because  of  the  blending  of  types,  it  is 
difficult  to  make  a  classification,  hence  the  dif- 
ference among  authorities.  The  points  on 
which  the  classification  is  based  are  mainly  the 
size  and  proportions  of  the  body,  the  shape  of 
head  and  the  features,  the  hair  and  beard,  and 
the  color  of  the  skin. 

The  Caucausian  race  is  characterized  by 
tall  stature,  oval  head  and  face,  high  forehead, 
regular  features,  abundance  and  softness  of 
hair  and  beard,  and  usually  fair  skin,  but  in 
some  it  is  tawny  or  swarthy,  as  in  the  Hindoos, 
Arabs,  and  others.  This  race  stands  at  the 
head  in  intelligence  and  civilization.  It  is'rep- 
resented  by  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Europe 
and  their  descendants  in  America,  and  by  the 


320 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


inhabitants  of  India,  Arabia,  and  of  Western 
Asia  and  Northern  Africa. 

The  Germanic  nations  are  descendants  of 
the  numerous  tribes  of  the  ancient  German 
stock  that  destroyed  the  Roman  empire  and 
erected  different  states  upon  its  ruins. 

The  Romanic  nations  occupy  Southern  Eu- 
rope, and  are  so  called  because  their  languages 
are  mostly  derived  from  the  Latin  spoken  by 
the  ancient  Romans.  They  are  mixed  nations, 
descended  partly  from  the  ancient  Pelasgians 
and- partly  from  other  branches  of  Aryan  stock. 

The  Italians  derive  their  origin  from  the 
Romans,  German  Longobards,  and  Normans, 
with  a  slight  intermixture  of  the  Arabic  stock. 

The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  have  sprung 
from  a  mixture  of  Celts,  Romans,  Germans, 
and  Arabs. 

The  Mongolian  race  are  distinguished  by 
short  stature,  round  head,  wide  face,  high 
cheek  bones,  obliquely  set  eyes,  coarse,  straight 
hair,  scarcely  any  beard,  and  yellowish  color 
of  the  skin.  They  are  distributed  over  the 
whole  of  Eastern  Asia,  except  in  India,  and 
include  the  Esquimaux  of  the  northern  part  of 
North  America. 

The  Ethiopian  race  are  characterized  by 
medium  stature,  generally  ungainly  form,  low 
and  retreating  forehead,  head  full  back  of  the 
ears,  flat,  broad  nose,  projecting  jaws,  thick 
lips,  short,  curly  hair,  and  skin  generally  black 
or  dark.  They  occupy  all  of  Africa,  except 
the  northern  part,  and  many  of  their  descend- 
ants are  found  in  America. 

The  American  race  resemble  the  Mongolian , 
but  the  head  is  not  so  round,  the  face  less 
wide  and  flat,  the  eyes  horizontal,  the  hair 
black  and  straight,  and  beard  scanty,  and  the 
skin  a  reddish  or  copper  color.  They  occupy 
North  and  South  America,  except  on  the 
Arctic  shores. 

The  Malay  race  resemble  also- the  Mongolian, 
but  have  thicker  lips,  horizontal  eyes,  hairless 
straight,  generally  full  beards,  and  color  usu- 
ally brown.  They  occupy  the  Malay  peninsula 
and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans. 

Evolution  Theory,  The. — Ancient  writ- 
ers occasionally  seemed  to  have  a  glimmering 
knowledge  of  the  fact  of  progress  in  nature,  but 
as  a  theory"  evolution  "  belongs  to  the  enlight- 
enment of  the  nineteenth  century.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  seventeenth  century  Leibnitz 
expressed  the  opinion  that  the  earth  was  once  in 
a  fluid  condition,  and  about  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  Kant  definitely  propounded 
the  nebular  hypothesis,  which  was  enlarged  as 
a  theory  by  the  Herschels.  About  1750  the 
transmutation  of  species  among  animals  was 
suggested  by  Buff  on,  and   other  writers  fol- 


lowed out  the  idea.  The  eccentric  Lord  Mon- 
boddo  was  the  first  to  suggest  the  possible 
descent  of  man  from  the  ape,  about  1774. 
The  evolution  theory  declares  the  universe  as 
it  now  exists  to  be  the  result  of  a  long  series 
of  changes,  which  were  so  far  related  to  each 
other  as  to  form  a  series  of  growths  analogous 
to  the  evolving  parts  of  a  growing  organism. 
Herbert  Spencer  defines  evolution  as  a  progress 
from  the  homogeneous  to  the  heterogeneous ; 
from  general  to  special ;  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex  elements  of  life  ;  and  it  is  believed 
that  this  process  can  be  traced  in  the  formation 
of  worlds  in  space,  in  the  multiplication  of 
types  and  species  among  animals  and  plants, 
in  the  origin  and  changes  of  language  and 
literature  and  the  arts,  and  also  in  all  the 
changes  of  human  institutions  and  society. 
Asserting  the  general  fact  of  progress  in  na- 
ture, the  evolution  theory  shows  that  the 
method  of  this  progress  has  been  (1)  by  the 
multiplications  of  organs  and  functions  ;  (2) 
according  to  a  definite  unity  of  plan,  although 
with  (3)  the  intervention  of  transitional  forms, 
and  (4)  with  modifications  dependent  upon 
surrounding  conditions.  The  two  great  apos- 
tles of  the  evolution  theory  were  Charles  Darwin 
and  Herbert  Spencer.  The' latter  began  his 
first  great  work,  the  "  First  Principles  of  Phi- 
losophy, ' '  showing  the  application  of  evolution 
in  the  facts  of  life,  in  1852.  In  1859  appeared 
Darwin's  "  Origin  of  Species."  The  hypothe- 
sis of  the  latter  was  that  different  species 
originated  in  spontaneous  variation,  and  the 
survival  of  the  fittest  through  natural  selection 
and  the  struggle  for  existence.  This  theory 
was  further  elaborated  and  applied  by  Spencer, 
Darwin,  Huxley,  and  other  writers  in  Europe 
I  and  America ;  and  though,,  to-day,  by  no 
means  all  the  ideas  upheld  by  these  early  ad- 
vocates of  the  theory  are  still  accepted,  still 
evolution  as  a  principle  is  now  acknowledged 
by  nearly  all  scientists.  It  is  taken  to  be  an 
established  fact  in  nature — a  valid  induction 
from, man's  knowledge  of  natural  order. 

Facts  as  to  Sound. —  In  air,  sound  trav- 
els from  1,130  to  1,140  feet  per  second.  In 
water,  it  passes  at  the  rate  of  4,700  feet  per 
second.  A  bell  sounded  under  water  may  be 
heard  under  water  at  1,200  feet  distance. 
Sounds  are  distinct  at  twice  the  distance  on 
water  that  they  are  on  land.  On  Table  Moun- 
tain, a  mile  above  Cape  Town,  every  noise  in 
it,  and  even  words,  may  be  heard  distinctly. 
Dr.  Jamieson  says  that  in  calm  weather  lie 
heard  every  word  of  a  sermon  at  the  distance 
of  two  miles.  Tlie  sound  of  a  tuning  fork  may 
be  distinctly  heard  at  a  distance  of  200  yards, 
by  connecting  the  stem  by  pack  threads  with 
the  ear. 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY 


321 


Fire  is  said  to  have  been  first  produced  by 
striking  Mints  together.  The  poets  supposed 
that  fir-'  was  stolen  from  heaven  by  Prome- 
theus. Ileraclitus,  about596  B.  C,  maintained 
that  1  lie  world  was  created  from  fire,  and 
deemed  it  to  be  an  omnipotent  God  ;  he  taught 
this  theory  about  506  R.  C.  Zoroaster,  king 
of  Bactria,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the 
Magi,  or  worshipers  of  fire,  still  numerous  in 
the  countries  of  the  East,  2115  B.  C.  Tn  the 
Scriptures,  God  is  said  often  to  have  appeared 
in  fire,  or  was  encompassed  by  it, —  as  in  the 
burning  bush  at  Mt.  Horeb.  The  wrath  of 
God  is  described  as  a  consuming  fire,  and  the 
angels,  as  his  ministers,  are  compared  to  it. 

Fire  Engines,  to  force  water,  existed  in 
very  ancient  times.  The  first  of  the  kind  now 
Jh  use,  but  of  a  vastly  inferior  character,  was 
invented  by  two  Dutchmen,  each  named  Jan 
Van  der  Heide,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1518.  '  In 
1657,  an  improved  engine  was  introduced  at 
Nuremberg  by  John  Hantsch.  Fire  engines 
were  first  known  at  Paris  in  1699.  The  first 
volunteer  fire  conipany  in  America  was  the 
Union  of  Philadelphia,  about  1736. 

Freezing,  Fusing,  and  Boiling  Points. 


StTBST  UH  i:-. 

Reaumur 

Centi- 
grade. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Fkef.zikg  — 

Bromine  freezes  at 

"    Olive 

— 16J 

: 

12 
—31.5 

-1 

200 
248.8 
8T4.« 
961 
92 
1230 

46 
31 
&16.8 

159 

72 

1452 

n 

173 
328 

63 

50 

28 

11 
140 
252 
888 

- 

—20° 
10 
10 
15 

—39.4 

0 

264 

315 

1093 

1200 

OS 

1538 

325 

58 

41 

1021 

198 

90 

1856 

90 

230 

410 

n 

53 
35 
14 
175 
315 
350 
100 

—4- 
50 
50 

"    Rose 

60 
—39 

Water 

Franco— 

Bismuth  metal  fusesat 

Cadmium 

Copper 

Gold 

Iron 

32 

507 

592 
2000 
2200 

239 
2800 

617 

136 

111 

Silver 

1870 

389 

194 

Steel 

3300 

Tin 

194 
MB 

Zinc 

770 

Boit.ini;  — 

173 
145 

Ether  

95 

57 

347 

Olive  oil 

600 

(62 

Water 

212 

First  Railroads. —  The  first  railroad  ever 
built  for  general  traffic  was  the  Stockton  and 
Darlington  in  England,  which  was  thirty-five 
miles  long,  constructed  in  1825  by  Edward 
Pease  and  George  Stephenson.  In  the  same 
year  a  railroad  was  projected  in  America  by 
Gridley  Bryant,  but  it  was  not  constructed  until 


the  following  year,  when  Bryant  secured  the 
assistance  of  Col.  T.  H.  Perkins  in  the  enter- 
prise. This  road  was  four  miles  long,  and  was 
used  for  carrying  granite  from  the  quarries  in 
Quincy,  Mass..  to  the  site  of  the  Bunker  Hill 
Monument.  In  1827  the  Mauch  Chunk  Rail- 
way, a  coal  road,  thirteen  miles  long,  was 
built,  and  February  27  of  the  same  year  the 
Maryland  Legislature  granted  a  charter  to  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  road.  The  first  locomo- 
tive! which 'proved  of  practical  value  was  in- 
vented by  George  Stephenson,  the  celebrated 
English  engineer,  and  was  used  on  the  Stock- 
ton and  Darlington  Railway.  In  1829  a  rail- 
way line  was  built  between  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  of  which  Stephenson  was  the 
principal  engineer,  and  for  this  road  he  con- 
structed the  engine  known  as  the  Rocket,  which 
accomplished  the  till  then  undreamed-of  speed 
of  thirty-five  miles  an  hour.  The  first  loco- 
motive built  in  America  was  used  on  the  Balti- 
more and  Ohio  Railroad. 

Flies  Walking  on  the  Ceiling. —  For 
a  long  time  it  was  supposed  that  the  ability  of 
the  fly  to  walk  on  the  ceiling  was  owing  to 
each  of  his  feet  being  a  miniature  air-pump. 
This,  however,  was  proved  to  be  fallacious, 
and  then  a  theory  was  propounded  that  it  was 
by  means  of  a  viscous  substance  exuded  from 
the  hairs  on  its  feet.  Some  eight  years  or 
so  ago  this  theory  was  thoroughly  investigated 
by  Dr.  Rombouts,  who  demonstrated  that  it 
was  only  partly  sound  ;  for,  though  the  hairs 
with  which  the  foot-cushion  is  covered  do  cer- 
tainly exude  an  oily  liquid,  the  liquid  is  not 
sticky,  and  does  not  harden  when  dry.  Dr. 
Rombouts  proved  by  his  experiments  that  the 
true  theory  of  the  walking  of  flies  on  smooth 
substances  is  that  they  hang  on  by  the  help  of 
capillary  adhesion  —  the  molecular  attraction 
between  solid  and  liquid  bodies.  By  a  series 
of  nice  calculations,  such  as  weighing  hairs 
and  measuring  their  diameters,  and  sticking 
the  cut  end  of  hair  in  oil  or  water  to  make  it 
adhere  when  touched  to  glass,  this  scientist 
proved  that  capillary  attraction  would  uphold 
a  fly  were  it  four  ninths  as  heavy  again  as  it  is 
at  present.  It  is  true  that  the  foot-hairs  are 
very  minute,  but  as  each  fly  is  said  to  be  fur- 
nished with  10,000  to  12,000  of  these,  we  need 
not  be  surprised  at  whattheycan  do.  Reason- 
ing from  this  theory,  we  would  conclude  that 
flies  find  it  difficult  to  mount  a  glass  slightly 
dampened,  because  of  the  repulsion  between 
the  watery  surface  and  the  oily  liquid  exuding 
from  the  feet ;  and  they  are  likewise  impeded 
by  a  slight  coating  of  dust,  because  the  in- 
terspaces between  the  hairs  are  filled  with  dust, 
and  observation  seems  to  show  this  to  be  the 
case.     "When  we  see  a  fly  making  his  toilet,  he 


322 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


is  not,  as  we  might  suppose,  cleaning  his  body, 
but  his  feet,  so  that  they  may  the  more  readily 
adhere. 

Forks  were  in  use  in  Europe  in  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries,  though  this 
is  disputed  as  being  too  early.  In  Moryson's 
"  itinerary  "  it  is  said  that  at  Venice  each  per- 
son was  served  (besides  his  knife  and  spoon) 
with  a  fork  to  hold  the  meat  while  he  cuts  it, 
for  there  they  deem  it  ill  manners  that  one 
should  touch  it  with  his  hand.  Thomas  Cory- 
ate,  an  Englishman,  describes  with  much 
solemnity,  the  manner  of  using  forks  in  Italy, 
and  adds,  "  I  myself  have  thought  it  good  to 
imitate  the  Italian  fashion  since  I  came  home 
to  England,"  1608.  Two  pronged  forks  were 
made  at  Sheffield  soon  after.  Three  pronged 
forks  are  more  recent.  Silver  forks,  previously 
only  used  by  the  highest  classes,  came  into 
general  use  in  England  about  1S14. 

Galvanized  Iron  is  merely  ordinary  iron 
which  has  been  dipped  in  molten  zinc  and  re- 
tains a  surface  coating  of  the  zinc  when  re- 
moved. It  has  come  to  be  of  great  importance 
and  usefulness,  as  by  this  simple  process  any 
article  may  be  made  to  combine  the  strength 
and  cheapness  of  iron,  and  yet  be  entirely  free 
from  rust,  as  the  zinc  is  unaffected  by  air  or 
water,  oxidizing  only  at  a  high  temperature. 

Gasoline  is  simply  air  which  has  been 
impregnated  with  very  volatile  hydro-carbons. 
Previous  to  1836  it  was  made  by  passing  air 
over  benzol  made  from  coal  tar,  but  between 
that  year  and  1858  numerous  machines  were 
patented  for  its  manufacture.  The  cost  of 
benzol  was  at  first  a  great  obstacle  in  the 
manufacture  of  gasoline,  but  the  discovery  of 
petroleum  rendered  it  possible  to  make  air  gas 
at  twenty-five  cents  per  gallon,  the  former 
price,  when  benzol  was  used,  having  been 
$1.50.  The  machines  used  for  making  this 
gas  include  a  ' '  generator, ' '  a  large  vessel  more 
or  less  complicated  in  construction,  in  which  a 
quantity  of  liquid  petroleum  or  naphtha  is  ex- 
posed in  shallow  trays  for  evaporation.  A 
current  of  air  is  introduced,  which  mingles 
with  the  distilled  vapor  and  forms  air  gas. 
This  is  a  dangerous  substance,  as  it  bursts  into 
flame  with  a  sharp  explosion  upon  contact 
with  fire.  If  the  generator,  however,  is  placed 
at  some  distance  from  the  point  where  the  gas- 
oline is  to  be  used,  conveying  it  thither  in  air- 
tight pipes,  the  danger  is  removed.  Gasoline 
is  extensively  used  for  the  lighting  of  hotels, 
factories,  and  private  residences  in  small 
towns  or  rural  districts. 

Geography. —  The  first  correct  record  we 
have  of  geographical  knowledge  is  from 
Homer.  He  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles 
as  representing  the  earth  surrounded  by  the 


sea,  and  also  the  countries  of  Greece,  islands 
of  the  archipelago,  and  the  site  of  Troy.  The 
priests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphos  was  the  center  of  the  world.  Anaxi- 
mander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geo- 
graphical maps,  about  568  B.  C.  Hipparchus 
attempted  to  reduce  geography  to  a  mathe- 
matical basis,  about  135  B.  C.  Strabo,  the 
Greek  geographer,  lived  71-14  B.  C.  Ptolemy 
flourished  about  139  A.  D.  The  science  was 
brought  to  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary 
and  Spain  about  1240.  Maps  and  charts  were 
introduced  into  England  by  Bartholomew  Co- 
lumbus to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respect- 
ing a  western  continent,  1489.  Geography  i.s 
now  divided  into  mathematical,  physical,  and 
political,  and  its  study  has  been  greatly  pro- 
moted during  the  present  century  by  expedi- 
tions at  the  expense  of  various  govern ments 
and  societies.  There  are  in  the  world  about 
sixty-five  geographical  societies. 

Geologic  Ages,  The.  —  There  are  seven 
great  geologic  ages,  or  divisions  of  time, 
known  as  the  Azoic,  the  Silurian,  the  Devo- 
nian, the  Carboniferous,  the  Reptilian,  the 
Mammalian,  and  the  Age  of  Man.  Our 
knowledge  of  the  plants  and  animals  of  the 
ages  preceding  the  creation  of  man  is  derived 
from  their  remains  dug  out  of  the  earth,  and 
called  fossils. 

The  Azoic  Age  is  the  era,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, when  there  was  no  life,  either  vegeta- 
ble or  animal,  on  the  globe.  The  crystalline 
minerals  and  all  the  igneous  rocks  date  back  to 
this  age,  and  hence  they  are  destitute  of  fossils. 

During  the  Silurian  Age,  the  second  in 
antiquity,  there  was  no  terrestrial  life  ;  but 
mollusks  —  animals  with  soft,  fleshy  bodies, 
without  any  internal  skeleton,  like  the  oyster 
and  the  snail  —  abounded  in  the  waters.  The 
oldest  sandstone  and  limestone  belong  to  this 
period.     Its  plant  fossils  are  sea  weeds. 

The  Devonian  Age  was  the  age  of  fishes, 
remarkable  for  their  thick,  bony  scales.  The 
sea  also  teemed  with  shells,  corals,  and  sea 
weed  ;  while  the  land,  though  yet  limited  in 
extent,  began  to  be  covered  with  vegetation. 
Insects,  the  earliest  of  terrestrial  animals, 
now  first  appeared. 

The  Carboniferous  Age,  or  age  of  coal,  is 
fourth.  From  colossal  tree  ferns,  leaves,  and 
branches,  deposited  in  successive  centuries, 
were  formed,  by  gradual  decomposition  under 
water,  those  vast  coal  beds  on  which  the  in- 
dustrial pursuits  of  the  present  day  so  largely 
depend.  The  animals  of  this  age  consisted 
mainly  of  insects  of  various  kinds  ;  and  in- 
ferior tribes  of  reptiles. 

The  Reptilian  Age  was  marked  by  the  great 
number,  variety,  and  size  of  its  reptiles,   the 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


323 


appearance  and  habits  of  which  are  known 
from  the  remains,  found  buried  in  the  rocks 
of  this  period.  The  rocks  of  this  age  are  the 
freestones,  extensively  used  for  building,  sand- 
stone formations,  intersected  with  ridges  of 
trap  of  igneous  origin,  limestone  and  gypsum, 
laminated  and  plastic  clays,  and  chalk  beds, 
containing  layers  of  flint. 

The  Mammalian  Age  was  the  sixth.  The 
reptiles  now  dwindled  in  size  and  diminished 
in  number,  being  succeeded  by  quadrupeds, 
some  of  which  were  much  larger  than  any 
modern  species.  The  deinotherium,  masto- 
don, megatherium  and  fossil  elephant  were 
among  the  gigantic  animals  of  this  era,  while 
the  plants  resembled  those  of  the  present  time, 
palms,  oaks,  maples,  magnolias,  etc.,  being 
found  in  the  forests. 

The  Age  of  Man  is  the  last  of  the  seven 
geologic  ages.  The  huge  monsters  that  gave 
the  preceding  period  its  peculiar  character  be- 
came extinct,  and  were  replaced  by  smaller 
animals  —  those  we  see  around.  Man  was 
created,  and  invested  with  dominion  over  the 
earth.  This  is  the  "era  of  the  finished 
world  —  the  era,  also,  of  man's  progress  and 
preparation  for  another  and  a  higher  life." 

Geometry. —  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the 
Egyptians ;  the  annual  inundations  of  the 
Nile  having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away 
the  landmarks,  and  the  boundaries  of  farms. 
Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece,  about 
600  B.  C.  The  doctrine  of  curves  originally 
attracted  the  attention  of  geometricians  from 
the  conic  sections,  which  were  introduced  by 
Plato  about  390  B.  C.  Euclid's  elements 
were  compiled  about  280  B.  C.  Geometry 
was  taught  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Books  on  the  subject  of  geometry  and  astron- 
omy were  destroyed  in  England  in  1552,  being 
regarded  as  infected  with  magic.  The  science 
was  greatly  improved  and  augmented  by  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  and  LaPlace. 

Geysers  are  intermittent,  spouting,  hot 
springs,  and  have  a  temperature  at  the  boil- 
ing point.  They  are  found  in  Iceland,  New 
Zealand,  and  in  the  "  National  Park  "  at  the 
head  waters  of  the  Yellowstone  River  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  most  celebrated  is  the  Great  Geyser  of 
Iceland.  It  consists  of  an  immense  well,  or 
funnel,  10  feet  wide  at  its  mouth,  and  about 
70  feet  deep,  surmounted  at  the  surface  with 
a  basin  65  feet  in  diameter  and  7  feet  deep, 
formed  by  the  deposit  of  mineral  matter  from 
the  water.  At  intervals  it  sends  up  a  column 
of  water  and  steam  to  the  height  of  100  feet. 
More  remarkable  even  than  the  geysers  of  Ice- 
land are  some  that  are  found  in  the  "  National 
Park."      One,  the   Giantess,  throws  water  to 


the  height  of  200  feet.  Grasshoppers  and 
other  insects,  and  pieces  of  wood  which  fall 
into  the  waters,  soon  become  incrusted  with 
quartz,  which  is  held  in  solution  by  the  water, 
thus  permanently  petrifying  them. 

Glacial  Period  is  a  term  used  in  geology 
to  designate  the  period  when  the  greater  part 
of  the  northern  hemisphere  was  enveloped  in 
one  great  ice-sheet.  This  period  belongs  to 
the  post-tertiary  or  later  formations,  in  the 
geological  succession,  and  is  important  in  its 
relations  to  the  general  question  of  the  earth's 
history,  and  especially  to  the  appearance  of 
man  upon  the  earth.  Geologists  are  generally 
agreed  that  long  before  the  advent  of  man, 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere  were  elevated 
several  thousand  feet  higher  than  they  are  at 
present,  causing  the  cold  of  the  Arctic  zone  to 
extend  far  southward  into  present  temperate 
regions,  and  that  a  vast  glacier  rising  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hudson  Bay  covered  the  American 
continent  north  of  the  fortieth  parallel.  The 
loose  soil  which  covers  so  large  a  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  northern  continent  to  a  depth 
varying  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet,  over 
which  lie  the  vegetable  deposits  of  later  ages, 
is  considered  by  geologists  the  effects  of  gla- 
ciers that  in  the  quaternary  or  latest  geological 
age  slowly  moved  southward  across  the  coun- 
try. Upon  examination  it  is  found  that  the 
erratic  bowlders  scattered  over  the  western 
prairies  and  other  northern  regions  are  unlike 
the  native  rocks  of  the  same  regions,  being 
entirely  foreign  to  the  localities  where  they 
now  appear.  Sometimes  the  nativity  of  the 
rock  is  traced  hundreds  of  miles  north  of  where 
it  now  rests,  showing  that  some  powerful 
agency  has  carried  it  southward.  Again,  if 
the  native  rock  be  uncovered  and  closely  ex- 
amined, it  will  be  observed  to  be  polished  and 
grooved  with  parallel  marks,  running  north 
and  south,  as  if  chiseled  out  by  some  coarse 
and  heavy  instrument.  These  marks  are 
attributed  to  sharp,  hard  rocks  projecting 
through  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  glaciers. 
That  glaciers  do  produce  such  markings  is 
proved  by  examination  of  the  rocks  which 
the  moving  ice-fields  of  Switzerland  and  other 
glacial  regions  have  worn  and  are  marking 
to-day ;  also,  the  general  appearance  of  the 
loose,  unstratified,  heterogeneous  deposit  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  moraines  that  the  modern 
glaciers  leave  as  they  slowly  melt  away.  In  New 
York  and  other  Eastern  states,  the  rocks  are 
scratched  from  a  northwesterly  direction,  in 
Ohio  from  a  northerly  direction,  showing  in 
each  state  the  direction  of  the  origin  of  the 
glacier.  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  major  por- 
tion of  England,  were  enveloped  in  this  great 
ice-sheet,  and  Scandinavia  was  invested  with 


321 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


a  sheet  of  ice  which  filled  up  the  Baltic  and 
extended  into  Northern  Germany.  The  Gla- 
cial Period,  or  Ice  Age,  as  it  is  also  called,  is 
estimated  to  have  begun  upward  of  200,000 
years  ago,  and  lasted  for  160,000  years. 

Glass. —  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have 
been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass  by 
Hermes.  Pliny  says  the  discovery  of  glass 
took  place  in  Syria.  Glass  houses  were  erected 
in  Tyre,  where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture 
for  many  ages.  This  article  is  mentioned 
among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Tiberius ; 
and  it  is  known  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii, 
that  windows  were  formed  of  glass  before  A. 
D.  79.  Italy  had  the  first  glass  windows,  next 
France,  whence  they  came  to  England.  Used 
for  windows  in  private  houses  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.  of  England,  1177,  but  imported. 
The  manufacture  was  established  in  England 
at  Crutched-Friars  in  1557.  It  was  improved, 
1635,  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in 
the  reign  of  William  the  Third.  Plate  glass 
for  coach  windows,  mirrors,  etc.,  was  made  at 
Lambeth  by  Venetian  artists,  1673.  The  man- 
ufacture was  improved  by  the  French,  who 
made  very  large  plates  ;  and  further  improve- 
ments have  been  made  in  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land, and  the  United  States. 

Glass,  Discovery  of. —  There  is  com- 
paratively little  known  in  regard  to  the  inven- 
tion of  glass.  Some  of  the  oldest  specimens 
are  Egyptian,  and  are  traced  to  about  1500 
years  before  Christ  (by  some,  2300  B.  C). 
Transparent  glass  is  believed  to  have  been  first 
used  about  750  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  credit  of  the  invention  was  given  to  the 
Phoenicians  by  the  ancient  writers.  The  story 
of  the  Phoenician  merchants  who  rested  their 
cooking-pots  on  blocks  of  natron  (subcarbonate 
of  soda) ,  and  found  glass  produced  by  the  union , 
under  heat,  of  the  alkali  and  the  sand  on  the 
shore,  is  a  familiar  one.  The  world  no  doubt 
owes  the  art  of  glass-making  to  the  Egyptians. 
It  was  introduced  into  Rome  in  the  time  of 
Cicero,  and  among  the  Romans  attained  a 
high  degree  of  perfection.  Some  of  the  most 
beautiful  specimens  of  glass  ever  manufactured 
were  made  in  Rome  before  the  Christian  era  ; 
as,  for  instance,  the  exquisite  Portland  vase  in 
the  British  Museum.  During  the  mid- 
dle ages  the  Venetians  were  the  most  famous 
makers  of  fine  glassware,  and  after  them 
the  Bohemians.  Though  the  art  of  making 
glass  and  blowing  it  into  all  kinds  of  shapes 
was  known  so  early,  this  material  does  not  seen 
to  have  been  used  for  windows  until  about  A.D. 
300. 

Glucose,  termed  also  grape  sugar,  starch 
sugar,  and  diabetic  sugar,  is  a  natural  organic 
compound,    consisting   of    carbon,    hydrogen, 


and  oxygen.  It  is  found  to  some  extent  in  the 
animal  kingdom  and  very  largely  in  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  being  a  constituent  of  the 
juice  of  almost  all  sweet  fruits  and  vegetables. 
The  name  "diabetic  "  is  due  to  its  large  occur- 
rence in  the  urinary  secretion  and  other  fluids 
of  the  body  in  the  disease  called  diabetes.  It 
is  manufactured  in  large  cpiantities  from  starch 
and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  beer  and  a 
coarse  kind  of  alcohol.  It  is  in  taste  much 
the  same  as  ordinary  sugar,  but  less  sweet.  It 
has  a  peculiar  effect  upon  a  ray  of  polarized 
light,  passing  through  it;  and  there  are  two 
varieties  comprising  fruit  sugar,  one  of  which 
turns  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  right, 
and  is  called  dextro-glucose,  and  the  other 
turning  the  plane  of  polarization  to  the  left, 
and  called  la?vo-glucose,  or  dextrose  and  laevu- 
lose  respectively. 

Grain. —  The  origin  of  its  cultivation  is 
attributed  to  Ceres,  who,  having  taught  the  art 
to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2109 
B.  C.  Corn,  or  grain,  provided  a  common 
article  of  food  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
world.  The  first  importation  of  corn  into 
England  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  was 
in  1347,  though  it  was  introduced  into  Britain 
in  the  sixth  century. 

Graphite. —  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  graphein,  to  write.  It  is  also  com- 
monly but  incorrectly  called  black  lead  and 
plumbago.  It  contains  no  lead,  but  is  an 
allotropic  form  of  carbon,  and  therefore  iden- 
tical in  composition  with  charcoal  and  dia- 
monds. Tt  occurs  as  a  mineral,  both  massive 
and  disseminated  through  the  rock,  generally 
in  granite,  gneiss,  mica  schist,  and  crystal- 
lized limestone.  It  is  also  a  product  in  the 
destructive  distillation  of  coal,  and  can  be  arti- 
ficially obtained  by  other  methods  in  the 
laboratory.  It  is  lighter  than  water,  and  this 
property  is  made  use  of  in  separating  it  from 
the  rock  in  which  it  is  found.  The  ore  is  pul- 
verized and  then  thrown  into  large,  shallow 
tanks;  the  particles  of  rock  sink,  while  the 
particles  of  graphite  float  and  are  taken  from 
the  surface  free  from  the  rock,  and  are  formed 
into  solid  blocks  by  great  pressure.  The  mine 
at  Bunowdale,  in  Cumberland,  England,  has 
been  known  since  the  time  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  probably  furnished  the  first  lead  pencils 
ever  made,  but  became  exhausted  many  years 
ago.  Large  deposits  of  graphite  have  been 
found  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Siberia,  and 
in  Germany,  France,  Austria,  and  in  several 
portions  of  the  United  States.  Its  most  im- 
portant use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  lead 
pencils.  But,  as  it  is  infusible  and  a  good 
conductor  of  electricity,  it  has  found  other 
important  applications,    as   for   crucibles   and 


SCIENCE,    INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


325 


the  linings  of  small  furnaces,  and  in  the 
process  of  electrotyping.  It  is  unctuous  to 
the  touch  and  has  a  high  metallic  luster,  and 
is  used  also  in  polishing  and  Lubricating  com- 
pounds, hut  for  this  latter  purpose  has  been 
found  too  hard  to  he  satisfactory. 

Granhophoiie. —  This  instrument  is,  in 
its  essential  features,  identical  with  Edison's 
phonograph.  [See  Phonograph. ]  The  grapho- 
phone  now  in  experimental  use  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  Sumner  Tainter,  aided  by  Professor 
Bell.  In  a  correct  nomenclature  the  phono- 
graph would  represent  a  machine  for  making  a 
record  of  speech,  the  record  made  would  be 
termed  a  phonogram,  and  the  graphophone 
would  be  a  machine  for  reproducing  speech  from 
the  phonogram.  The  words  are  all  derived  from 
the  same  two  Greek  roots, which  mean  «'  write  " 
and  " speak." 

Gravitation,  as  a  supposed  innate  power, 
was  noticed  by  the  Greeks,  and  also  by  Sen- 
eca, who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the 
waters,  about  38  A.  D.  Kepler  investigated 
the  subject  about  1615  ;  and  Hooke  devised  a 
system  of  gravitation  about  1674.  The  prin- 
ciples of  gravity  were  demonstrated  by  Galileo, 
at  Florence,  about  1633  ;  but  the  great  law 
on  this  subject,  laid  down  by  Newton  in  his 
Principia,  in  1687,  is  said  to  have  been  proved 
by  him,  in  1670.  His  attention  was  directed 
to  the  subject  by  the  fall  of  an  apple  from  a 
tree,  in  1666.  In  1867,  M.  Chasles laid  before 
the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  some  letters  al- 
leged to  have  been  written  by  Newton  to  Pas- 
cal and  others  tending  to  show  that  to  Pascal 
was  due  the  theory  of  gravitation.  The  au- 
thenticity of  these  letters  was  denied  and  their 
forgery  afterward  shown. 

Guillotine,  the  instrument  of  decapitation 
was  introduced  during  the  French  Revolution 
by  the  Convention,  and  named  after  its  sup-  | 
posed  inventor,    Joseph    Ignace    Guillotin,    a 
physician,  who,  however,  was  only  the  person  ; 
who  first  proposed  its  adoption.     It  was  erected  \ 
and  first  employed  to  execute  a  highwayman 
on  the  Place  de  Greve,  Paris,  25th  April,  1792. 
It  is  composed  of  two  upright  posts,  grooved  on 
the  inside,  and  connected  at  the  top  by  a  cross- 
beam.     In  these  grooves  a  sharp  iron  blade, 
having  its  edge  cut  obliquely,  descends  by  its  [ 
own  weight  on  the  neck  of  the  victim,  who  is 
bound  to  a  board  laid  below. 

Gun-Barrels*  —  The  finest  musket-bar- 
rels are  made  of  iron  which  contains  a  portion 
of  steel,  or  undergoes  some  steeling  process. 
Laminated,  twisted,  or  Damascus  steel  is  nsed 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  best  ban-els.  Scraps 
of  saws,  steel  pens,  files,  springs,  and  steel 
tools  are  collected  from  various  workshops,  for 
the   material    of  laminated  steel.     These  are  | 


cut  in  small  and  nearly  equal  pieces,  cleansed 
and  polished  by  revolving  in  a  cylinder,  fused 
into  a   semi-fluid  state,   and  gathered  into  a 
"  bloom  "  or  mass.     This  bloom  is  forged  with 
a  three-ton  hammer,  and  hardened  and  solidi- 
fied with  a  tilt-hammer.     It  is  then  rolled  into 
rods,  each   rod   is  cut   into  pieces   six  inches 
long,  and  these   pieces   are  welded  together. 
The  rolling,  cutting,  and  welding  process  is 
then  repeated  several  times,  and  thus  finally 
the  metal  is  brought  into  a  very  hard,  tough, 
fibrous,  and  uniform  state.     Twisted  steel  for 
barrels  is  made  by  taking  thin  plates  of  iron 
and  steel,  laying  them  alternately  one  on  an- 
other  in    a   pile,    welding  them  by  heat  and 
hammering,  and  twisting  them  by  very  power- 
ful mechanical  agency  until  there  are  twelve  or 
fourteen  complete   turns    to    an    inch.       The 
length  becomes  reduced  one  half  and  the  thick- 
ness doubled  by  this  twisting.     Barrels  made 
of  Damascus  steel  are  manufactured  of  steel 
which  has  undergone  a  still  further  series  of 
welding  and  twisting  operations.     Some  bar- 
rels are  made  of  a  mixture  of  old  files  with  old 
horseshoe  nails  ;  these  are  called  stub  Damas- 
cus barrels.     The  files  are  heated,  cooled  in 
water,  broken  with  hammers,  and  pounded  in 
a  mortar  into  small  fragments.     Three  parts  of 
these  fragments  are  mixed  with  five  of  stub 
and  the  mixture  is  fused,   forged,   rolled,  and 
twisted.     An  inferior  kind  of  Damascus  twist 
is   made   by  interlaying  scraps  of  sheet  iron 
with  charcoal  and  producing  an  appearance  of 
twist,  but  without  the  proper  qualities.     Infe- 
rior kinds  of  barrel-iron  are  known  as  "three- 
penny-skelp "   and   "twopenny  skelp "  ;    but 
the  worst  of  all  is   "  sham-dam  skelp."     The 
finest  barrels   are    all  twisted  in  form.     The 
skelps,  or  lengths  of  prepared  steel,  are  twisted 
into  a  close  spiral  a  few  inches  long  ;    several 
of  these  spirals  are  welded  end  to  end,  and  the 
fissures  are  closed  up  by  heating  and  hammer- 
ing.    The  rough  barrel,  with  a  core  or  man- 
drel temporarily  thrust  in  it,  is  placed  in  a 
groove  and  hammered  cold  until  the  metal  be- 
comes very  dense,   close,   strong,  and  elastic. 
The  interior  is  then  bored  truly  cylindrical  by 
a  nicely  adjusted  rotating  cutting  tool.     If,  on 
close  inspection,  the   interior  is  found  to  be 
straight    and    regular,    the    exterior  is    then 
ground  on  a  rapidly  revolving  stone  and  finally 
turned  in  a  lathe.     The  skelps  for  the  com- 
moner barrels  are  heated,  laid  in  a  semi-cylin- 
drical groove,  hammered  until  they  assume  the 
form  of  that  groove,  placed  two  and  two  to- 
gether, and  heated  and  hammered  until  one  bar- 
rel is  made  from  two  halves.  These  are  browned 
externally  with  some  kind  of  chemical  stain. 
The  finest  barrels  are  rubbed  externally  with 
fine  files  and  polished  with  steel  burnishers. 


32  6 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Gunpowder,  Discovery  of. —  It  is  gen- 
erally conceded  that  gunpowder  was  used  by 
the  Chinese  as  an  explosive  in  prehistoric  times. 
When  they  first  discovered  or  applied  its  power 
as  a  propellent  is  less  easily  determined.  There 
is  an  account  of  a  bamboo  tube  being  used, 
from  which  the  "  impetuous  dart  "  was  hurled 
a  distance  of  100  feet ;  this  was  at  a  very  early 
period,  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  precisely  when. 
It  is  alleged,  however,  that  in  the  century  be- 
fore the  Christian  era  a  cannon  was  employed 
bearing  the  inscription,  "I  hurl  death  to  the 
traitor  and  extermination  to  the  rebel."  It 
has  also  been  asserted  that  India  has  equal 
claims  with  China  to  the  first  acquaintance 
with  gunpowder.  The  ancient  Sanskrit  writ- 
ings appear  to  point  very  plainly  to  the  opera- 
tion of  some  primitive  sort  of  cannon,  when,  in 
recording  the  wars  of  the  Egyptian  Hercules 
in  India,  it  is  stated  that  the  sages  remained 
unconcerned  spectators  of  the  attack  on  their 
stronghold  till  an  assault  was  attempted,  when 
they  repulsed  it  with  whirlwinds  and  thunders, 
hurling  destruction  on  the  invaders ;  and  a 
Greek  historian  of  Alexander's  campaign  testi- 
fied that  the  Hindoos  had  the  means  of  dis- 
charging flames  and  missiles  on  their  enemies 
from  a  distance.  According  to  Meyer,  the 
preparation  of  gunpowder  was  described  by 
Julius  Africanus,  A.  D.  215.  In  1073  King 
Solomon  of  Hungary  bombarded  Belgrade 
with  cannon,  and  in  1085  the  ships  of  Tunis, 
in  the  naval  battle  near  Toledo,  were  said  to 
shoot  "  fiery  thunder."  All  of  which  would 
go  to  prove  that  the  custom  of  ascribing  the 
discovery  of  gunpowder  to  Bertholdus 
Schwartz  in  1330,  or  even  to  Roger  Bacon  in 
1267,  is  open  to  considerable  objection,  al- 
though these  men  probably  introduced  it  in 
European  warfare. 

Gutta-Percha. —  The  name  "gutta-per- 
cha" is  Malayan,  gutta  signifying  the  concrete 
juice  of  a  plant,  and  percha  the  name  of  the 
particular  tree  from  which  it  is  obtained.  It 
is  the  dried  milky  juice  of  the  tree  which  is 
found  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  and  the 
Malayan  Archipelago.  Its  use  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Europeans  about  1843.  It  is  im- 
ported in  blocks  and  lumps  of  five  to  ten 
pounds  weight  in  various  forms,  chiefly  like 
large  cakes,  or  rounded  into  gourd-like  lumps. 
It  has  a  cork-like  appearance  when  cut,  and  a 
peculiar  cheese-like  odor.  Before  it  can  be 
used  it  has  to  undergo  some  preparation .  This 
consists  in  slicing  the  lumps  into  thin  shav- 
ings, which  are  placed  in  a  d<  riling  or  tearing 
machine  revolving  in  a  trough  of  hot  water. 
This  reduces  the  shavings  to  exceedingly  small 
pieces,  which,  by  the  agitation  of  the  tearing 
teeth,  are  washed  free  from  many  impurities, 


especially  fragments  of  the  bark  of  the  tree, 
which,  if  not  separated,  would  interfere  with 
the  compactness  of  its  texture.  The  small 
fragments,  when  sufficiently  cleansed,  are 
kneaded  into  masses,  which  are  rolled  several 
times  between  heated  cylinders,  which  press 
out  any  air  or  water  and  render  the  mass 
uniform  in  texture.  It  is  then  rolled  between 
heated  steel  rollers  into  sheets  of  various 
thicknesses  for  use,  or  is  formed  into  rods, 
pipes  for  water  or  speaking  tubes,  and  an  end- 
less number  of  other  articles.  The  great  value 
of  gutta-percha  arises  from  the  ease  with  which 
it  can  be  worked,  and  its  being  so  complete  a 
non-conductor  of  electricity.  It  softens  in 
warm  water,  and  can  be  molded  into  any  form 
in  that  state,  as,  when  soft,  it  is  not  sticky, 
and  turns  well  out  of  molds. 

Hats  and  Caps. —  A  covering  for  the 
head  was  early  adopted  by  the  inhabitants  of 
northern  climes,  and  Avas  usually  a  hood  made 
of  fur ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  Phrygians 
had  conquered  Asia  Minor  that  the  people  of 
warmer  latitudes  wore  any  head-covering.  The 
Phrygians  were  the  first  to  adopt  the  fashion, 
and  they  did  it  in  order  to  distinguish  them- 
selves from  the  conquered  race  with  whom  they 
lived.  Their  head-dress  was  a  small,  close- 
fitting  cap,  which  was  also  soon  adopted  by 
the  Roman  free  citizens.  In  1101  a  Swiss 
manufacturer  of  Paris  invented  the  first  hat. 

Hearse. —  The  word  "hearse,"  or  herse, 
is  of  French  origin,  and  means  a  harrow  or 
frame  for  setting  candles  in,  and  was  originally 
applied  to  a  bar  or  framework  with  upright 
spikes  for  the  reception  of  candles  ;  and  it  was 
used  at  the  ceremonies  of  the  Church  and  at 
funeral  services.  In  the  fifteenth  and  six- 
teenth centuries  hearses  of  great  splendor  came 
into  use,  and  were  erected  in  the  churches  over 
the  bodies  of  distinguished  personages.  The 
framework  was  of  iron  or  brass,  sometimes  of 
beautiful  workmanship,  square,  octagonal,  etc., 
in  plan,  with  pillars  at  the  angles,  and  arched 
framework  above  forming  a  canopy.  The 
whole  was  hung  over  with  rich  cloths  and  em- 
broidery, and  lighted  up  with  hundreds  of  wax 
candles  and  decorated  with  wax  images.  From 
this  the  transition  to  the  modern  hearse  can 
easily  be  traced.  In  Roman  Catholic  churches 
of  the  present  day  the  hearse  still  exists  as  a 
triangle  with  spikes  on  which  candles  are 
placed. 

Heliography. —  The  idea  of  first  convey- 
ing signals  by  means  of  mirrors,  which  is  the 
meaning  of  heliography,  is  said  to  have  been 
employed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  333  B.  C. 
The  heliostat,  an  instrument  invented  by  a  Hol- 
lander early  in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  the 
heliograph,  invented  bv  Mr.  Mance  in  1875, 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


327 


have  both  been  used  by  the  British  army  in  their 
Eastern  campaigns.  The  instruments  differ 
somewhat  in  construction,  but  the  result  arrived 
at  is  the  same  in  both.  Signals  are  produced  by 
causing  a  reflected  ray  of  the  sun  to  appear 
and  disappear  alternately  at  a  distant  point, 
the  intervals  of  appearance  and  obscuration 
being  carried  in  length  so  as  to  produce  the 
combination  of  long  and  short  signals,  known 
as  the  Morse  alphabet.  The  reflecting  body  is 
a  glass  mirror  which  varies  in  size  according 
to  the  distance  to  which  it  is  desired  to  signal. 
A  five  inch  mirror  has  given,  when  atmos- 
pheric conditions  were  favorable,  distinct  sig- 
nals at  a  distance  of  sixty  miles.  The  helio- 
graph has  also  been  found  of  great  service  in 
defining  distant  points  for  large  surveys,  and 
was  used  for  verifying  the  arc  of  the  meridian 
by  the  astronomers  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Horse  Power  of  Steam  Engines. — 
The  unit  of  nominal  power  for  steam  engines, 
or  the  usual  estimate  of  dynamical  effect  per 
minute  of  a  horse,  called  by  engineers  a  "  horse 
power,"  is  thirty-three  thousand  pounds  at  a 
velocity  of  one  foot  per  minute,  or,  the  effect 
of  a  load  of  two  hundred  pounds  raised  by  a 
horse  for  eight  hours  a  day,  at  the  rate  of  tv*o 
and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  or  150  pounds  at 
the  rate  of  220  feet  per  minute. 

Rule — Multiply  the  area  of  the  piston  in 
square  inches  by  the  average  force  of  the 
steam  in  pounds  and  by  the  velocity  of  the  pis- 
ton in  feet  per  minute  ;  divide  the  product  by 
thirty-three  thousand,  and  seven  tenths  of  the 
quotient  equals  the  effective  power. 

Human  Family,  The —  The  three  pri- 
mary divisions  of  man,  as  indicated  by  Latham, 
are  the  Indo-European,  the  Mongolian,  and 
the  African. 

I.  The  Indo-European  or  Caucasic 
race  originally  extended  from  India  across 
Europe,  and,  increasing  ever  in  civilization  and 
intellectual  power  from  age  to  age,  has  become 
the  dominant  one  in  the  world,  extending  its 
influence  to  every  part  of  the  earth,  supplanting 
many  inferior  races,'  and  repeopling  wide 
areas,  as  in  America  and  Australia. 

The  Caucasic  race  comprises  two  principal 
branches  —  the  Aryan  and  the  Semitic.  A 
third  branch,  according  to  M.  de  Quatrefages, 
includes  the  Caucasians  proper,  Euscarians 
(Basques),  and  others. 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  belong  to 
the  Aryan  Family  ;  they  are  arranged  in  the 
following  groups  :  — 

1.  The  Keltic,  in  the  N.  W.,  comprising 
the  Welsh,  Gaels,  Erse,  Manx,  and  Armor- 
icans. 

2.  The  Italic,  chiefly  in  the  S.  W.  and  S., 
comprising  the    Italian    and   other    Romance 


nations  —  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Rou- 
manesch,  and  Roumanians. 

3.  The  Thraco-Hellenic,  in  the  S.  E., 
Greeks,  and  Albanians. 

4.  The  Teutonic,  in  the  N.  N.  W.  and 
center,  comprising  the  Germans,  Scandina 
vians,  Danes,  Icelanders,  Dutch,  Flemings, 
English. 

5.  The  Lithuanian,  S.  E.  of  the  Baltic. 

6.  The  Slavonic,  in  the  E.,  comprising  the 
Russians,  Poles,  Tsekhs,  Serbs,  Croats,  Bul- 
garians, etc. 

The  Indo-European  or  Caucasic  race  in  Asia 
comprises  the  Hindoos,  Baluchis,  Afghans,  Ir- 
anians (Persia),  Galchas  (Zarafshan),  and  the 
Semitic  tribes  of  Armenia,  Syria,  Arabia,  etc. 

II.  The  Mongolian  is  divisible  into  three 
branches,  according  to  geographical  position, 
which  again  form  numerous  smaller   families. 

1 .  The  Asiatic,  comprising  the  Mongolians 
of  the  Chinese  Empire,  India,  and.Indo-China ; 
the  Kalmucks,  adjoining  the  Turks,  who  ex- 
tend from  Southern  Europe  far  into  Central 
Asia ;  the  Magyars  of  Hungary ;  the  Yakuts 
and  Samoeids  (or  Samoyedes)  of  Siberia  ;  with 
the  Lapps,  Finns,  and  various  tribes  of  East 
Europe. 

2.  The  Oceanic  Mongolians  are  composed 
of  two  classes.  1.  The  black-skinned  found 
in  New  Guinea,  Australia,  Tasmania,  and  the 
islands  between  New  Zealand,  and  New  Cale- 
donia. II.  The  yellow,  olive,  or  brown  race, 
occupying  New  Zealand,  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
Sumatra,  Borneo,  Java,  Moluccas,  Philippines, 
Madagascar,  etc. 

3.  The  American  Mongolians  comprise  a 
large  number  of  tribes,  the  chief  of  which  in 
North  America  are  —  the  Athabaskans,  Algon- 
kins,  Sioux,  Paducas,  and  Mexicans.  In  South 
America,  the  Quichuas,  Chilians,  and  Pata- 
gonians  extend  along  the  west  coast.  The 
Caribs,  Maypures,  Brazilians,  Moxos,  and 
Chiquitos  occupy  the  north,  east,  and  center 
of  the  continent.  The  Eskimos  form  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  Asiatic  and  American 
branches  of  this  family. 

III.  The  African,  forming  the  third  great 
division  of  the  human  race,  is  exhibited  in  its 
purest  form  by  the  natives  of  Western  Africa. 
The  Negroes  occupy  the  whole  central  portion 
of  the  country  from  Cape  Verde  on  the  west 
to  Khartoom  on  the  east,  and  south  to  the 
Congo.  South  of  the  Negroes  are  the  Bantus 
(including  the  Kafirs),  inhabiting  the  greater 
part  of  Africa  between  the  4th  parallel  of  N. 
lat.  and  the  Cape.  In  the  S.  W.  are  the  Hot- 
tentots. Certain  dwarfish  tribes  are  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  continent,  as  the  Bush- 
men of  the  Kalahari  Desert,  the  Obongo  of 
Ouowe  basin  and  others.     The  Fulas  and  Nu- 


«28 


THE    CENTURY    BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


baa  occupy  parts  of  the  Soudan  ;  the  former, 
in  the  N.  W.,  extend  from  the  Senegal  and 
Niger  towards  Lake  Tchad ;  the  latter  are 
found  in  Nubia,  Kordofan,  Darfur,  etc.  The 
G alias,  Copts,  Somali,  of  the  Sahara,  Egypt, 
and  East  Africa ;  the  Abyssinians ;  and  the 
Berbers,  Kabyles,  Tuareks  and  other  tribes  of 
North  Africa,  belong  to  the  Hamitic  race, 
which  is  closely  allied  to  the  Semitic  race. 
The  latter  is  represented  by  the  Arabs  of  the 
N.  coast,  and  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula,  and 
by  the  Tigres  and  other  tribes  of  Abyssinia. 

Hypnotism  is  a  method  for  the  alleged 
cure  of  disease,  by  the  concentrated  action  of 
the  mind  upon  the  body  while  in  a  state  of 
trance,  induced  by  causing  the  patient  to  fix 
his  eyes  and  concentrate  his  mind  upon  a  disc 
of  bright  metal  held  at  a  distance  of  about 
twelve  inches  above  the  level  of  the  eyes. 
The  first  effort  to  investigate  hypnotism  in  a 
scientific  manner  was  made  by  James  Braid, 
of  Manchester  (18-16),  from  which  circum- 
stance hypnotism  is  sometimes  called  Braidism. 
The  power  to  hypnotize  is  possessed  only  by  per- 
sons of  peculiar  mental  organization.  While 
in  the  hypnotized  condition,  which  renders 
them  insensible  to  pain,  patients  may  be  op- 
erated upon  for  surgical  or  medical  purposes, 
the  patient  being  entirely  subject  to  the  will  of 
the  hypnotizer.  Hypnotism  can,  however,  only 
be  considered  as  of  quasi  medical  utility, 
though  investigation  is  being  made  with  the 
view  to  placing  it  on  a  sound  scientific  basis. 

Igneous  Rocks  are  those  which  have 
been  produced  from  materials  fused  by  heat. 
They  differ  from  the  sedimentary  rocks  in 
their  origin,  structure,  and  position.  They 
invariably  come  from  below  upward,  breaking 
through  the  older  rocks,  and  are  generally 
ejected  in  a  melted  state  from  volcanic  vents, 
or  from  fissures  opened  to  some  seat  of  fires 
within  or  below  the  earth's  crust.  The  mate- 
rials of  sedimentary  strata  are  fragments  of 
pre-existing  rocks  worn  by  the  action  of  water 
either  into  a  fine  mud  or  into  rounded  particles 
of  greater  or  Jess  size  ;  whereas  igneous  rocks 
exhibit  either  a  vitreous  structure,  as  when 
they  have  been  quickly  cooled,  or  a  granular 
structure  composed  of  more  or  less  minute 
crystals,  according  to  the  rate  of  cooling,  or  a 
vesicular  structure  when  they  have  been  ex- 
panded by  the  contained  gases,  or  by  being 
brought  into  contact  with  water.  In  position, 
also,  they  may  be  distinguished  from  the  sedi- 
mentary rocks,  very  seldom  occurring  regularly 
stratified  with  parallel  upper  and  under  sur- 
faces, but  generally  local,  thinning  out  into 
wedge-shaped  beds,  or  having  that  irregular 
stratification  which  may  be  seen  in  modern 
lava.     They  are  also  found  as  upright  walls 


and  columns,  of  which  the  famous  Giant's 
Causeway  and  Fingal's  Cave  are  notable  ex- 
amples. Igneous  rocks  when  filling  a  narrow 
fissure  in  an  older  stratum,  and  also  when 
speading  beyond  the  fissui'e  and  forming  an 
extensive  superstratum,  are  called  a  dike.  The 
rocks  above  mentioned  are  dikes,  as  are  also 
the  Palisades  on  the  Hudson,  Salisbury  Crags 
near  Edinburgh,  many  rocks  around  Lake  Su- 
perior, over  the  western  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  numerous  other  localities. 
The  outflow  in  some  cases  has  been  very  large, 
the  lava  floods  of  Oregon,  Nevada,  and  north- 
ern California  being  estimated  to  comprise  a 
total  area  of  not  less  than  200,000  square 
miles,  with  a  maximum  thickness  of  3,500 
feet,  the  average  being  probably  2,000  feet. 
The  most  common  rocks  of  dikes  are  dolerite 
(often  called  trap)  and  peridotite  ;  both  some- 
times called  basalt  when  not  granular  in  text- 
ure. 

Ignis-Fatuus. —  A  number  of  theories 
have  been  advanced  in  explanation  of  the  lu- 
minous appearance  which  is  frequently  seen  in 
marshy  places,  church  yards,  and  stagnant 
pools,  and  which  is  known  as  ignis-fatuus. 
Of  these  it  is  only  necessary  to  mention  two. 
The  first  is  that  the  ignis-fatuus  is  due  to  phos- 
phureted  hydrogen  gas,  which  possesses  the 
power  of  spontaneous  ignition  on  coming  in 
contact  with  dry  atmospheric  air  ;  the  gas 
would  be  generated  by  the  decomposition  of 
animal  matter  present  in  a  marshy  soil.  The 
motion  of  the  ignis-fatuus  (it  floats  in  the  air  at 
about  two  feet  from  the  ground,  is  sometimes 
fixed,  and  sometimes  travels  with  great  rapid- 
ity) is  accounted  for  by  the  flame  being  com- 
municated along  the  line  of  a  stream  of  gas. 
The  second  is  that  it  is  due  to  the  combustion  of 
light  carbureted  hydrogen  gas  arising  from  the 
decomposition  of  vegetable  matter  ;  but,  though 
this  supposition  satisfactorily  accounts  for 
many  appearances  connected  with  the  ignis- 
fatuus,  the  gas  itself  is  not  spontaneously  com- 
bustible, and  an  additional  supposition  re- 
quires to  be  made  to  account  for  its  ignition. 
The  ignis-fatuus  generally  appears  a  little  af- 
ter sunset  as  a  pale,  bluish-colored  flame,  vary- 
ing in  size  and  shape;  sometimes  it  shines 
steadily  till  morning,  at  other  times  disappears 
and  reappears  within  about  half-hourly  inter- 
vals. In  general  it  recedes  on  being  ap- 
proached, and  vice  versa,  though  several  suc- 
cessful attempts  have  been  made  to  light  a 
piece  of  paper  by  it.  Tn  former  times,  under 
the  names  of  W'ill-o'-ihe-  Wisp,  Jaek-o' -Lantern, 
SpunJde,  etc.,  it  was  an  object  of  superstition 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  districts  where  it 
appears,  and  was  believed  to  be  due  to  the 
agency  of  evil  spirits  attempting   to  lure  the 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


329 


traveler  to  his  destruction;  and  unfortunately 
there  are  many  instances  on  record  of  travelers 
mistaking  the  ignis-fatuus  for  a  lamp,  and 
being  thus  decoyed  into  marshy  places,  where 
they  perished.  The  ignis-fatuus  is  not  a  com- 
mon phenomenon,  but  it  is  not  unfrequently 
seen  in  the  north  of  Germany,  the  swampy 
and  moorland  districts  in  the  south  and  north- 
west of  England,  and  in  the  lowlands  of  Scot- 
land. 

Important  Origins.  —  Air  Balloons,  in- 
vented by  Gusmac,  a  Jesuit,  in  1729.  Revived 
in  France  by  M.  Montgolfier,  in  1783. 

Air  Guns,  invented  by  Guhr,  of  Nuremberg, 
in  1656. 

Arquebus,  introduced  about  1520,  and  re- 
mained in  use  until  after  1567,  when  the 
matchlock  supplanted  it.  In  1630  the  flint 
lock  was  invented,  and  the  musket  was  intro- 
duced. 

Banking. — The  first  bank  in  Europe  was  the 
Bank  of  Venice,  1171.  The  Bank  of  England 
was  established  in  1694,  the  Bank  of  North 
America,  1781. 

Barometers,  invented  in  1626  ;  wheel  barom- 
eters in  1668,  phosphoric  in  1675,  pendent  in 
1695,  and  marine  in  1700. 

Battering  Ram,  invented  441  B.  C. 

Bayonets,  invented  at  Bayonne,  in  1670. 
First  used  in  England  in  1693.  At  first  these 
had  wooden  handles  fitting  into  the  guns,  but 
in  1699  the  socket  bayonet  was  introduced. 

Bellows. — Strabo  informs  us  that  the  inven- 
tion of  bellows  is  due  to  the  Scythian  philoso- 
pher, Anacharsis,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Solon. 

Bombs,  invented  at  Venlo,  in  1588,  and  used 
first  in  the  service  of  France,  in  1634. 

Bridges.  The  first  bridge  of  stone  in  Eng- 
land was  that  built  at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  in 
1087. 

Bullets  of  stone  used  in  1514.  Iron  bullets 
first  mentioned  in  1550. 

Camera  Obscura,  invented  by  Baptista  Porta, 
in  1515. 

Chain  Shot,  invented  by  DeWitt,  Dutch  Ad- 
miral, in  1666. 

Chimneys,  first  introduced  in  England,  in 
1200,  but  at  first  only  in  the  kitchen  or  large 
hall. 

China,  made  at  Dresden,  in  Saxony,  in 
1706  ;  at  Chelsea  (England)  in  1752  ;*  by  Mr. 
Wedgwood  in  1762. 

Chronograph,  A,  is  an  instrument  noting  time 
within  the  fraction  of  a  second.  By  the  elec- 
trical chronograph  used  by  astronomers,  the 
transit  of  a  star  can  be  recorded  to  within  one 
hundredth  of  a  second. 

Chronometer,  The,  is  an  instrument  for 
measuring  time,  now  generally  applied  only  to 


those  watches  specially  made  for  determining 
longitude  at  sea.  A  chronometer  which  gained 
a  prize  of  #100,000,  offered  by  the  British 
Board  of  Longitude  for  a  timepiece  to  ascertain 
longitude  within  thirty  miles,  was  made  in 
1761,  by  John  Harrison  of  Foulby,  near 
Pontefract. 

Clepsydra,  The,  is  an  instrument  to  measure 
time  by  the  trickling  or  escape  of  water.  In 
Babylonia,  India,  and  Egypt,  the  clepsydra 
was  used  from  before  the  dawn  of  historv, 
especially  in  astronomical  observations. 

Clocks  are  of  ancient  date,  one  having  been 
made  by  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Verona,  in 
the  ninth  century.  Clocks  with  wheels  were 
used  in  monasteries  about  the  twelfth  century, 
and  were  made  to  strike  the  hour.  Pendulum 
said  to  have  been  first  applied  by  Harris, 
1641;  dead-beat  pendulum  invented  1700, 
and  the  compensating  pendulum,  1715. 

Coal  Mines,  discovered  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Newcastle  about  1234.  Coals  were  first 
used  in  London  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I., 
when  the  smoke  was  supposed  to  corrupt  the 
air  to  such  an  extent  that  he  forbade  the  use 
of  them  by  a  proclamation,  1273  ;  first  brought 
from  Newcastle  to  London,  1381. 

Coffee  introduced  into  Arabia  Felix,  1454  ; 
became  known  at  Constantinople  and  coffee 
houses  opened,  1554  ;  brought  to  Marseilles, 
1644  ;  the  art  of  roasting  and  making  it  intro- 
duced at  London  by  a  Greek  servant,  and  house 
opened  in  Georgeyard,  Lombard  street,  1652. 

Cosmos  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the  order 
and  harmony  of  the  universe.  Originally  used 
by  Homer  to  denote  "  order,"  it  was  applied 
by  Heraclitus  and  Anaxagoras  to  the  divine 
order  and  arrangement  of  nature  ;  by  Plato  to 
celestial  and  terrestrial  order.  It  was  further 
applied  to  the  habitable  world  and  the  world 
generally  as  an  orderly  system. 

Del/  (or  Delft)  earthenware  invented  at 
Firenze  in  1450. 

Envelopes  for  letters  are  mentioned  by  Swift, 
1726.  Stamped  adhesive  envelopes  came  into 
general  use  shortly  after  the  establishment  of 
the  penny  postal  system  in  1840.  Machinery 
for  their  manufacture  was  patented  in  1844  ; 
many  improvements  have  since  been  made. 

Express. —  The  first  American  express  was 
opened  between  New  Tork  and  Boston,  in  1821, 
by  W.  F.  Harnden. 

Figures,  in  arithmetic,  introduced  into  Eu- 
rope by  the  Saracens  from  Arabia,  991  ;  till 
then,  letters  were  used. 

Flag. — -The  American  flag  was  first  used  by 
Washington  at  Cambridge,  January  1,  1776. 

Guns,  invented  by  Swartz,  a  German,  about 
1378  ;  brought  into  use  by  the  Venetians,  1382  ; 
great  ones  first  used  at  the  battle  of  Crecy, 


330 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


1346  ;  first  used  in  England  at  the  Siege  of 
Berwick,  1405  ;  first  cast  in  England,  1554. 

Handkerchiefs  were  first  manufactured  at 
Paisley,  in  Scotland,  in  1743. 

Homwopathy  was  introduced  into  the  United 
States  in  1825. 

Horseshoes. —  Although  the  ancients  pro- 
tected the  hoofs  of  their  horses  with  some  cov- 
ering, horseshoes,  of  the  kind  now  known, 
were  not  in  general  use  until  the  ninth  cen- 

.  tua7- 

Hydrometer. —  The    oldest   mention   of   this 

instrument  belongs  to  the  fifth  century,  but  its 

invention  has  been  attributed  to  Archimedes. 

Lace. —  The  knitting  of  lace  is  a  German 
invention,  first  known  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century. 

Life-Boats,  invented  by  Greathead,  who  re- 
ceived a  premium  from  Parliament  in  May, 
1802. 

Lightning-Rod*  were  first  used  by  Benjamin 
Franklin  about  1752. 

Linen,  first  made  in  England  by  Flemish 
weavers,  1253  ;  staining  of  linen  first  known 
in  England,  1579  ;  linen  trade  in  Ireland,  be- 
gan by  Lord  Wentworth,  1634  ;  British  Linen 
Company  erected,  1746. 

Lithography,  discovered,  1808  ;  introduced 
into  England,  1817  ;  into  the  United  States, 
1828. 

Magnify  ing-Glasses , first  made  in  England  by 
Roger  Bacon,  1260. 

Marble  Paper. — A  German  invention  belong- 
ing to  the  seventeenth  century. 

Microscopes,  first  used  in  Germany  in  1621. 
Improved  by  Torricelli  in  1624. 

Organs,  first  introduced  into  churches  by 
Pope  Vitalian  I.,  683 ;  into  the  western 
churches,  826. 

Parchment,  invented  by  King  Attalus,  of 
Pergamus,  887  B.  C. 

Paring  with  Stones,  first  introduced  at  Paris 
in  1186. 

Post  Office,  first  established  between  Vienna 
and  Brussels  in  1516.  Posts  established  regu- 
larly between  London  and  all  the  principal 
towns  throughout  England  in  1635.  Postage 
stamps  were  introduced  in  England  in  1840  ; 
in  the  United  States  in  1847. 

Ribbon  Looms —  It  has  been  asserted  that 
these  looms  were  first  known  to  the  Swiss,  but 
others  claim  their  invention  for  a  German  in 
the  town  of  Dantzic  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Ruling  Machines,  invented  by  a  Dutchman  in 
London  in  1792. 

Sewing  Machine,  first  patented  in  England, 
in  1755.  The  first  complete  machine  was  con- 
structed by  an  American,  Elias  Howe,  in  1846. 

Sextant,  invented  by  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augs- 
burg, in  1550. 


Silk,  Roto,  first  made  by  people  of  China, 
called  Sers,  B.  C.  150;  first  introduced  from 
India,  374  ;  a  pound  at  this  time  was  worth  a 
pound  of  gold;  manufacture  of,  introduced 
into  Europe  from  India  by  some  monks,  551  ; 
first  worn  in  dress,  1455;  first  silk  manufac- 
tured in  France,  1521. 

Sleeping  Curs  were  first  used  in  1858.  Pull- 
man's patent  dates  from  1864. 

Speaking  Trumpets,  invented  by  Kircher,  a 
Jesuit,  in  1652. 

Stirrups,  according  to  a  statement  made  by 
the  Emperor  Mauritius,  were  first  used  in  the 
sixth  century.  Hippocrates  and  Galen  speak 
of  a  disease  which,  in  their  time,  was  occa- 
sioned by  long  and  frequent  riding,  because 
the  legs  hung  down  without  any  support. 

Sun-dials,  invented  558  B.  C.  The  first  in 
Rome,  308  B.  C,  was  that  erected  by  Papirius 
Cursor,  when  time  was  divided  into  hours. 

Tunning  Leather,  a  new  and  more  expe- 
ditious method  than  that  previously  in  use  was 
invented  in  1795. 

Tapestry,  invented  by  Sir  Francis  Train, 
1255  ;  the  first  manufactured  in  England,  1620. 

Tin  Mines,  first  discovered  in  Germany, 
1240;  till  then  those  in  England  were  the 
only  ones  in  Europe. 

Ventilators,  first  introduced  by  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Hales  in  1740. 

Violins  of  the  modern  kind  invented  about 
1477.  Introduced  into  England  by  Charles  II. 

Wall  Papers,  first  used  in  Spain  and  Holland 
in  1555.  Flock  or  velvet  wall  papers  were 
first  used  in  1620. 

Watches,  supposed  to  have  been  invented  by 
Peter  Hale  at  Nuremberg,  1490  ;  though  Rob- 
ert, king  of  Scotland,  had  one  about  1310  ;  first 
used  in  the  astronomical  observations  by  Pur- 
bach, 1500  ;  spring  watches  invented  by  Hooke, 
1658.     Repeaters  invented,  1676. 

Water  Mills  for  grinding  corn  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Belisarius  when  Rome 
was  besieged  by  the  Goths  in  555.  Pliny, 
however,  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

Weathercocks. — The  earliest  mention  of  a 
weathercock  is  that  made  by  Vitruvius, concern- 
ing that  on  the  tower  built  at  Athens  by  An- 
dronicus  Cyrrhestes. 

Weights  ana  Measures,  invented  by  Phidon, 
Tyrant  qi  Argos,  B.  C.  864  ;  fixed  in  England, 
A.  D.  1257;  equalized,  1825;  weights  origi- 
nally taken  from  grain  of  wheat,  the  lowest  of 
which  is  called  a  grain. 

Windows  of  some  kind  were  glazed  as  early 
as  the  third  century ;  the  fashion  was  intro- 
duced into  England  about  680,  but  did  not 
become  general  until  1180. 

Wine,  the  art  of  making,  brought  from 
India  by  Bacchus  ;  none  produced  in  France  in 


SCIENCE,   INVENTION,   DISCOVER!". 


33a 


the  time  of  the  Romans  ;  sold  by  apothecaries 
as  a  cordial,  1300  ;  licenses  for  vending  it, 
established  1601. 

Woolen  Cloth. —  Although  the  making  of 
woolen  cloth  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  of  arts, 
its  manufacture  was  not  known  in  France 
until  1G46,  when  it  was  made  at  Sedan.  It 
was  first  made  in  England  in  1331,  but  was 
not  dyed  or  dressed  until  16G7. 

Indian  Summer. —  Scientists  differ  re- 
garding the  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  which 
is  peculiar  to  North  America  and  certain  parts 
of  Central  Europe.  A  change  in  the  condition 
of  the  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  confin- 
ing the  radiating  heat-rays  in  the  lower  strata, 
is  generally  held  to  be  the  true  explanation. 
A  theory  to  account  for  the  smoky  appearance, 
which  appears  plausible,  is  that  it  is  due  to 
the  decay  or  slow  chemical  combustion  of 
leaves,  grass,  and  other  vegetable  matter  under 
the  action  of  frost  and  sun.  It  was  to  forest 
and  prairie  fires  kindled  by  the  Indians  that 
the  early  settlers  attributed  the  smoky  appear- 
ance of  the  season.  Hence  the  name  "  Indian 
Summer." 

Infusoria  are  minute  animalcules,  some 
large  enough  to  be  barely  visible  to  the  naked 
eye  (1-100  inch),  but  most  of  them  altogether 
microscopic  and  almost  exceeding  the  power 
of  the  glass  to  detect.  They  belong  to  the 
lowest  order  of  animal  life,  have  neither  ves- 
sels nor  nerves,  and  are  made  up  of  a  uniform 
tissue  called  by  Huxley  protoplasm.  The  body 
has  some  well-defined  form,  of  which  the  varie- 
ties are  very  great  in  different  species.  Many 
in  the  higher  orders  are  furnished  with  hairs, 
the  motion  of  which  carries  them  with  great 
rapidity  through  the  fluid  in  which  they  live, 
and  by  means  of  which,  also,  currents  are 
created  in  the  fluid  to  bring  food  to  the  mouth. 
Some  infusoria  have  a  few  slender  filaments 
instead  of  hairs,  which  they  agitate  with  an 
undulatory  movement.  Others  move  by  con- 
tractions and  extensions  of  their  bodies.  Some 
have  stiff,  bristle-like  organs,  which  they  use 
as  feet  for  crawling  on  the  surfaces  of  other 
bodies,  and  some  have  hooks,  by  which  they 
attach  themselves  to  foreign  bodies.  The  food 
of  the  infusoria  consists  of  organic  particles 
of  various  kinds,  and  the  different  species  have 
been  remarked  to  show  a  preference,  like  those 
of  higher  animals,  for  particular  kinds  of  food. 
The  numbers  of  the  infusoria  are  prodigious. 
They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  both 
in  fresh  and  salt  water,  and  in  stagnant  pools  : 
but  they  are  most  usually  developed  in  infusions 
of  decayed  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 

Iron,  Discovery  of. — The  actual  discov- 
ery of  iron  was  probably  made  so  early  in  the 
history  of  the  human  race  that  it  cannot  now  | 


be  accurately  placed.  The  Bible  ascribes  the 
discovery  of  working  iron  to  Tubal-Cain.  The 
Egyptians  ascribe  it  to  one  of  their  early 
mythological  kings,  Hephaestus,  who  has  been 
identified  by  students  with  the  Hephaestus  of 
Greek  and  the  Vulcan  of  Roman  mythology. 
The  Egyptians  and  the  Assyrians  made  iron  at 
a  very  early  period  of  their  history.  In  ancient 
tombs  and  ruins  but  recently  unearthed,  many 
implements  of  iron  are  found,  cooking  utensils, 
and  weapons  of  various  kinds.  The  Chalybes, 
a  Scythian  tribe  living  south  and  east  of  the 
Black  Sea,  who  attained  great  skill  in  iron 
working,  are  accredited  by  ancient  writers 
with  being  the  first  to  use  coal  in  their  fur- 
naces, the  inventors  of  steel  or  hardened  iron, 
and  the  discoverers  of  magnetic  iron.  The 
books  of  Moses  mention  the  use  of  iron  some 
eleven  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  and 
the  Arundelian  marbles  fix  a  date  for  it  before 
1370  B.  C. 

Jacquard  Loom. —  The  Jacquard  appa- 
ratus, for  the  purpose  of  pattern  weaving,  was 
invented  by  M.  Joseph  Marie  Jacquard,  a 
native  of  Lyons,  France,  in  1801.  Being 
necessitated  to  carry  on  the  weaving  business 
of  his  father,  for  which  he  had  a  distaste,  he 
endeavored  to  improve  the  existing  machinery, 
and  the  Jacquard  loom  was  the  result.  He 
enabled,  by  his  invention,  an  ordinary  work- 
man to  produce,  with  comparative  ease,  the 
most  beautiful  patterns  in  a  style  which  had 
only  previously  been  accomplished  by  skilled 
labor.  The  reception  of  his  great  invention 
by  the  public,  however,  was  most  discouraging, 
for  although  rewarded  with  a  small  pension 
by  Napoleon,  the  silk  weavers  offered  such 
violent  opposition  to  its  introduction  that  on 
one  occasion  he  narrowly  escaped  with  his 
life.  The  machine  was  destroyed  by  the  weav- 
ers on  the  public  square  of  Lyons.  The  merit 
of  the  invention,  however,  was  too  great  to 
admit  of  its  being  long  suppressed,  and  when 
its  value  was  once  fairly  recognized  it  effected 
a  complete  revolution  in  the  art  of  weaving, 
especially  in  the  finer  kinds  of  figured  silk 
fabrics.  ' 

Jelly  Fishes  consist  of  a  jelly-like  mass, 
containing  a  cavity  which  generally  has  a 
mouth  from  which  extend  tentacles,  varying 
in  length  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  feet. 
From  the  center,  tubes  pass  to  connect  with 
other  tubes  around  the  circumference.  Their 
food  is  smaller  marine  animals,  which  they 
catch  with  thread-like  lassos  attached  to  their 
tentacles.  Agassiz  divided  jelly  fishes,  or 
in'  (fusre,  into  three  orders :  Beroid  medusce, 
medusa  proper,  and  hydroidce.  Of  the  beroids 
the  most  curious  are  the  pleurobrachia, found  off 
the  northeast  coast  of  America.     The  medusas 


332 


THE   CENTURY  ROOK  OF  FACTS. 


proper,  known  as  the  "  sun  fisn,  when  large  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  jelly  fishes.  The 
Gulf  of  Mexico  furnishes  the  finest  hydroids. 

Lace-Making. —  The  application  of  ma- 
chinery to  lace  making  has  cheapened  lace  that 
would  otherwise  always  have  remained  ex- 
pensive, and  has  consequently  deprived  a  large 
number  of  the  inhabitants  of  towns  in  France 
and  elsewhere  of  a  lucrative  source  of  income. 
The  great  centers  of  the  manufacture  of  real 
lace,  as  hand-made  lace  is  called  to  distinguish 
it  from  machine-made  or  imitation  lace,  are 
Belgium,  France,  and  England.  In  the  for- 
mer country  there  are  at  least  900  lace  schools, 
and  over  150,000  women  find  employment  in 
this  trade.  Brussels  lace,  which  is  of  very 
fine  thread  and  intricate  design,  has  a  world- 
wide reputation.  Mechlin  lace,  a  fine  and 
transparent  web,  is  made  at  Mechlin,  Ant- 
werp, Lierre,  and  Turnbrout.  Valenciennes  is 
largely  made  in  Flanders,  but  is  extinct  in  its 
native  city,  from  which  it  derived  its  name. 
The  towns  of  Ypres,  Bruges,  Courtrai,  Menin, 
Ghent,  and  Alost  produced  this  lace  in  large 
quantities  and  fine  quality.  Before  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  the  number  of  lace- 
makers  in  France  was  estimated  to  be  at  least 
250,000,  but  this  number  has  been  greatly  re- 
duced within  the  last  few  years.  The  cele- 
brated Point  d'Alencon  lace,  which  is  made  en- 
tirely by  hand  with  a  small  needle,  in  small 
pieces,  which  are  afterward  united  by  invisible 
seams,  is  made  chiefly  at  Bayeux.  Another 
favorite  lace,  the  Chantilly,  which  was  for- 
merly made  almost  altogether  at  Chantilly,  is 
now  made  at  Bayeux  and  Caen.  Lille  lace, 
which  though  simple  in  design  is  fine  and  beau- 
tiful, is  the  production  of  the  town  of  Lille. 
The  lace  of  Bailleul  is  strong  and  cheap,  and 
extensively  used  for  trimming.  In  the  dis- 
trict of  Auvergne,  of  which  the  town  of  Le 
Puy  is  the  center,  over  100,000  women  are  em- 
ployed in  lace-making,  and  nearly  every  kind 
of  lace  is  made.  The  industry  is  considered 
more  extensive  and  more  ancient  in  this  dis- 
trict than  in  any  other  portion  of  France.  In 
England  the  counties  of  Buckingham,  Devon, 
and  Bedford  are  the  centers  of  lace-making. 
The  most  widely  known  of  the  English  lace  is 
Honiton,  so  called  from  the  town  of  this  name 
in  Devonshire  The  manufacture  of  hand- 
made laces  was  an  important  industry  in  Not- 
tingham some  years  ago,  but  it  has  been  al- 
most entirely  destroyed  by  the  introduction  of 
machinery.  Lace  is  made  to  a  limited  extent 
in  Limerick,  Ireland  ;  also  in  Scotland,  and  in 
fact  in  nearly  every  country  in  Europe.  The 
imitation  or  machine-made  lace  is  manufac- 
tured in  Caen,  France  ;  in  Nottingham,  Eng- 
Jand ;  and  also  in  the  United  States. 


Lamps  are  mentioned  in  all  the  early  ages  ; 
they  were  in  use  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome. 
The  earthen  lamp  which  Epictetus,  the  philos- 
opher, had  in  his  study,  sold,  after  his  death, 
for  3,000  drachmas.  Lamps  with  horn  sides 
are  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Alfred.  Lon- 
don streets  were  first  lighted  with  oil  lamps  in 
1681,  and  with  gas  lamps  in  1814.  A  lamp 
constructed  to  produce  neither  smoke  nor 
smell  was  patented,  in  1784,  by  a  Frenchman, 
and  was  brought  into  general  use  in  England 
early  in  the  present  century.  On  the  principle 
of  Argand  are  founded  the  lamps  invented  by 
Carcel,  about  1803,  and  since  1825  the  mod- 
erator lamps  of  Levavasseur,  Hadrot,  and 
Neuburger.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of 
elegant  manufacture  and  many  artistic  designs. 

Latitude.  —  First  determined  by  Ilip- 
parchus,  of  Nice,  about  170  B.  C.  It  is  the 
extent  of  the  earth,  or  of  the  heavens,  reck- 
oned from  the  equator  to  either  pole.  Mau- 
pertuis,  in  1737,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude, 
and  made  it  69.493  ;  Svvanberg,  in  1803,  made 
it  69.292.  At  the  equator,  in  1744,  four 
astronomers  made  it  68.732  ;  and  Lambton 
made  it  68.743  ;  Mudge,  in  England,  made  it 
69.148;  Cassini,  in  France,  made  it  69.12, 
and  Biot,  68.769  ;  while  a  recent  measure,  in 
Spain,  makes  it  68.63 — less  than  at  the 
equator,  and  contradicts  all  others,  proving 
the  earth  to  be  a  prolate  spheroid,  which  was 
the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernouilli,  Euler,  and 
others,  while  it  has  more  generally  been  TV 
garded  as  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Life  Insurance,  Origin  of. —  The  rise 
of  life  insurance  may  be  traced  to  several 
sources.  The  doctrine  of  probabilities  devel- 
oped by  Pascal  and  Iluyghens  as  to  games  of 
chance  was  applied  to  life  contingencies  by  the 
great  Dutch  statesman  Jan  De  Witt  in  1671, 
but  it  was  not  till  some  time  after  that  it  was 
applied  to  life  insurance.  In  1696  there  was 
a  hint  at  modern  life  insurance  in  a  London 
organization,  and  this  was  followed  by  another 
association  two  years  after.  The  operators  of 
these  two  seem  to  have  passed  away  without 
giving  to  their  successors  any  clear  account  of 
their  plan  of  operations.  In  1706  the  Amica- 
ble Society  for  a  Perpetual  Assurance  Office 
was  founded  in  London,  and  this  is  considered 
the  first  actual  life  insurance  company  estab- 
lished. Its  plan  was  mutual — that  is,  each 
member,  without  reference  to  age,  paid  a  fixed 
admission  fee  and  a  fixed  annual  payment  per 
share  on  from  one  to  three  shares  ;  at  the  end 
of  the  year  a  portion  of  the  fund  was  divided 
among  the  heirs  of  deceased  members  in  pro- 
portion to  the  shares  held  by  each.  In  after 
years  the  limitations  as  to  age,  occupation, 
and  health  were  added. 


SCIENCE,   INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


333 


Liquid  Air. —  Popular  attention  has  been 
attracted  to  this  subject  recently  in  America  by 
the  experiments  of  Mr.  Charles  E.  Tripler, 
although  the  liquefaction  of  gases  is  by  no 
means  new.  It  was  first  accomplished  by 
Northmore  in  1806,  who  succeeded  in  obtaining 
liquid  chlorine  by  pressure.  Faraday  followed. 
Two  factors  are  necessary  to  liquefy  a  gas, 
pressure  and  cold.  Every  gas,  so  far  as  now 
known,  will  liquefy  under  a  given  pressure, 
provided  it  is  cooled  to  a  certain  temperature 
known  as  its  "  critical  temperature."  In  1877 
two  French  experimenters,  Pictet,  Cailletet, 
working  separately,  and  along  different  lines, 
succeeded  in  liquefying  oxygen.  This  was  fol- 
lowed in  1883  by  successful  experiments  by  two 
Russian  physicists,  Wrobleski  and  Olszewski. 
Among  other  surprising  results  they  succeeded 
in  freezing  alcohol.  It  was  not  until  1890 
that  liquid  air  and  oxygen  were  produced  in 
any  quantity.  This  was  first  done  by  Prof. 
Dewar,  of  the  Royal  Institution,  London. 
About  this  time  Mr.  Tripler,  of  New  York, 
developed  a  form  of  apparatus  which  may  be 
said  to  be  a  practical  machine.  The  capacity 
of  his  plant  is  about  40  gallons  per  day.  The 
process  claimed  by  this  physicist  is  also  claimed 
by  Mr.  Thompson  in  England,  and  Dr.  Carl 
Linde  of  Munich,  Germany. 

The  effects  of  the  intense  cold  which  can  be 
produced  by  evaporating  liquid  air,  oxygen,  or 
hydrogen  are  almost  beyond  comprehension  ; 
practically  all  plastic  or  soft  materials  when 
immersed  in  it  become  hard  and  brittle,  leather 
being  an  exception ;  some  metals  become  brittle, 
and  can  be  broken  or  crumbled  ;  alcohol  may  be 
frozen,  and  air  and  oxygen  themselves  solidify 
if  placed  in  liquid  hydrogen.  The  possibili- 
ties of  liquid  air  are  many.  It  can  be  used 
for  refrigeration  ;  motor  vehicles  and  launches 
can  be  operated  by  it ;  surgeons  can  use  it  in 
operations,  and  for  ventilating  and  cooling 
rooms  it  is  invaluable. 

Magnet.  —  The  iron  ore  which  possesses 
the  property  of  attraction  was  given  the  name 
of  magnet  by  the  Greeks,  because  it  was  first 
found  in  Magnesia  in  Asia  Minor,  or  accord- 
ing to  another  account  because  it  was  first  dis- 
covered by  a  shepherd  named  Magnes,  who 
had  iron  tips  on  his  shoes,  and  while  walking 
over  some  rocks  found  that  his  feet  stuck  to 
them  in  a  mysterious  way.  The  ore  is  now 
called  magnetite,  and  is  an  oxide  of  iron  con- 
taining about  seventy-three  per  cent,  of  iron 
when  pure.  It  is  a  very  valuable  ore,  and 
supplies  a  large  amount  of  the  finest  iron  and 
steel  of  commerce.  Large  deposits  occur  in 
Norway  and  Sweden,  Finland  and  the  Ural; 
in  the  Adirondack  region  in  northern  New 
York ;    in   northern    New  Jersey;    in  eastern 


Pennsylvania,  the  most  noted  locality  being 
Cornwall,  Lebanon  County,  where  the  mines 
have  been  worked  for  over  a  hundred  years  ; 
in  North  Carolina,  California,  and  Oregon, 
and  several  places  in  Canada.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  form  of  sand  in  some  places  in  North 
America,  India,  and  New  Zealand.  One  of  the 
largest  occurrences  of  magnetic  sand  is  on  the 
south  shore  of  Long  Island,  near  Quogue, 
where  a  furnace  was  built  and  an  attempt  made 
to  work  it ;  but  the  enterprise  proved  unsuccess- 
ful and  was  abandoned. 

Mariner's  Compass. —  The  Chinese  as- 
cribed the  invention  of  the  compass  to  their 
Emperor  Hong-Ti,  who  they  say  was  a  grand- 
son of  Noah ;  some  of  their  historians  refer 
the  invention  of  it  to  a  later  date,  1115  B.  C. 
The  honor  of  its  discovery,  however,  though 
much  disputed,  is  generally  given  to  Flavio 
Gioja,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  an  ancient  com- 
mercial city  of  Naples,  A.  D.  1302.  The  com- 
pass is  also  said  to  have  been  known  to  the 
Swedes  in  the  time  of  King  Jarl  Birger,  1250. 
The  variation  of  the  needle  was  first  discov- 
ered by  Columbus  in  his  voyage  of  discovery, 
1492.  The  compass  box  and  hanging  compass, 
used  by  navigators,  were  invented  by  William 
Barlowe,  an  English  divine  and  natural  philos- 
opher, in  1608.  The  measuring  compass  was 
invented  by  Jost  Bing,  of  Hesse,  in  1602. 
The  dipping  needle  was  invented  by  Robert 
Norman,  a  compass  maker  of  Ratcliffe,  Eng- 
land, in  1580. 

Matches,  Invention  of. —  Previous  to 
1829  the  matches  in  use  consisted  of  a  slender 
stick  with  a  pointed  end,  which  had  been 
dipped  in  sulphur  ;  and  they  were  lighted  by 
touching  them  to  a  spark  struck  into  tinder  by 
flint  and  steel.  In  that  year,  however,  what 
was  known  as  the  "  Instantaneous  Light-Box" 
was  invented.  It  consisted  of  a  small  tin  box 
containing  a  bottle,  in  which  was  placed  some 
sulphuric  acid,  with  sufficient  fibrous  asbestos 
to  soak  it  up  and  prevent  its  spilling  out  of  the 
bottle,  and  a  supply  of  properly  prepared 
matches.  These  consisted  of  small  splints  of 
wood  about  two  inches  long,  one  end  of 
which  was  coated  with  a  chemical  mixture 
prepared  by  mixing  chlorate  of  potash,  pow- 
dered loaf-sugar  and  powdered  gum  arabic, 
the  whole  colored  with  a  little  vermilion,  and 
made  into  a  thin  paste  with  water.  The  splints 
were  readily  inflamed  by  dipping  the  prepared 
ends  into  the  sulphuric  acid.  These  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  lucifer,  or  loco-foco  match, 
which  was  ignited  by  friction ;  and  that,  in 
turn  by  the  Congreve,  which  was  similar  to 
the  sulphur  matches  now  in  use ;  and  this, 
shortly  afterward,  by  the  present  parlor  match. 

Maxim  Self-Acting  Gun  was  invented 


334 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


by  Hiram  S.  Maxim  of  England.  The  peculiar 
features  of  this  gun  are  :  Every  round  after 
the  first  is  fired  by  the  recoil  of  the  previous 
explosion  ;  the  cartridges  are  picked  out  of  the 
cartridge  belt,  one  end  of  which  is  placed  in 
the  gun  mechanism  on  one  side  by  the  auto- 
matic action  of  the  gun,  and  the  belt  and 
cartridge  shells  are  ejected  after  firing;  every 
recoil  of  the  gun  brings  the  next  cartridge  into 
position,  forces  it  into  the  barrel,  cocks  the 
hammer,  pulls  the  trigger,  extracts  the  empty 
shell,  and  ejects  it  from  the  gun  —  all  these 
processes  going  on  with  such  marvelous  rapid- 
ity that  six  hundred  rounds  are  fired  in  a 
minute.  The  gun  can  be  turned  in  any  direc- 
tion by  means  of  a  crank,  and  the  rate  of  dis- 
charge is  regulated  by  a  controlling  chamber, 
ingeniously  contrived  so  that  the  gun  may  be 
fired  rapidly  or  slowly,  as  desired.  At  the 
moment  of  firing,  the  recoil  drives  the  barrel 
back  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch,  and  it  is 
this  recoil  which  directs  the  mechanism  of  the 
gun  and  makes  its  discharges  continuous. 

Medicine  appears  to  have  been  first  prac- 
ticed by  the  Egyptian  priests.  Pythagoras 
endeavored  to  explain  the  philosophy  of  disease 
and  the  action  of  medicine  about  529  B.  C. 
Hippocrates,  the  Father  of  Medicine,  flour- 
ished about  422  B.  C,  and  Galen,  born  A.  D. 
131,  was  the  oracle  of  medical  science.  About 
980,  Avicenna,  an  Arab,  wrote  a  system  of 
medicine.  The  art  was  brought  into  Europe 
from  the  East,  about  A.  D.  1150.  In  the 
early  stages  of  the  practice,  the  preparation  of 
simples  was  principally  confined  to  ecclesiastics 
in  Europe  generally,  until  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  The  dogmatic  age  of  medi- 
cine lasted  until  the  Reformation,  when  it  was 
attacked  by  Paracelsus  (1493-1541)  and  Vasa- 
lius  (1514-64).  Since  1800  medical  practice 
has  been  completely  transformed  by  physio- 
logical and  chemical  research.  The  practice 
of  medicine  is  now  one  of  the  highest  sciences, 
and  in  most  countries  is  in  the  hands  of  learned 
and  distinguished  men  ;  various  statutes  have 
been  enacted  to  discourage  pretenders  to  the 
healing  art. 

Meerschaum  is  a  mineral  existing  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  In  Europe,  it  is 
found  chiefly  at  Hrubschitz  in  Moravia,  and  at 
Sebastopol  and  Kaffa  in  the  Crimea;  and  in 
Asia  it  js  found  abundantly  just  below  the  soil 
in  the  alluvial  beds  at  Kittisch  and  Bursa  in 
Natolia;  and  in  the  rocks  of  Eske-Hissar,  in 
the  same  district,  it  is  mined  so  extensively  as 
to  give  employment  to  nearly  a  thousand  men. 
Meerschaum,  from  its  having  been  found  on 
the  seashore  in  some  places,  in  peculiarly 
rounded  snow  white  lumps,  was  ignorantly 
imagined   to   be   petrified   froth    of    the  sea, 


which  is  the  meaning  of  its  German  name.  It 
is  composed  of  silica,  magnesia,  and  water. 
When  first  dug  from  the  earth  it  is  quite  soft 
and  soap-like  to  the  touch,  and  as  it  lathers 
with  water  and  removes  grease,  it  is  employed 
by  the  Turks  as  a  substitute  for  soap  in  wash- 
ing. After  being  molded  into  pipes,  these  are 
boiled  in  oil  or  wax  and  baked  until  hard. 

Mesmerism  was  first  brought  into  notice 
by  Frederick  Anton  Mesmer,  a  German  physi- 
cian, in  17G0,  when  he  published  a  thesis  on 
"  The  Influence  of  the  Planets  on  the  Human 
Body,"  claiming  that  the  heavenly  bodies 
diffused  through  the  universe  a  subtle  fluid 
which  acts  on  the  nervous  system  of  animated 
beings  ;  and  he  further  stated  that  he  regarded 
the  new  force,  which,  he  said,  could  be  exerted 
by  one  living  organism  upon  another,  as  a 
means  of  alleviating  or  curing  disease.  In 
1778  he  left  Vienna  for  Paris,  where  he  gained 
numerous  proselytes  and  much  money.  His 
discovery  was  fostered  by  Dr.  D'Elson,  physi- 
cian to  the  king's  brother,  and  in  1784  the 
French  government  ordered  the  medical  fac- 
ility of  Paris  to  investigate  Mesmer's  theory. 
A  committee  was  appointed,  who  subsequently 
reported  that  "  The  violent  effects  which  are 
observed  in  the  public  practice  of  magnetism 
are  due  to  the  manipulations,  to  the  excite- 
ment of  the  imagination  which  leads  us  to 
repeat  anything  which  produces  an  impression 
upon  the  senses."  One  year  later,  1785, 
Mesmer's  popularity  had  so  far  declined  that 
he  left  Paris  and  retired  to  Switzerland,  where 
he  spent  the  balance  of  his  life.  Mesmer- 
ism excited  some  attention  again  in  1848, 
when  Miss  Harriet  Martineau  and  others  an- 
nounced their  belief  in  it. 

Meteors. —  Meteors  are  small,  erratic 
bodies  rushing  through  the  planetary  system, 
and,  getting  hot  in  the  process,  appear  in  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  our  earth  as  "  shoots 
ing  stars. "  Some  of  these  falling  bodies  have 
reached  the  earth,  and  such  are  called  "  aero- 
lites "  or  "  meteorites."  Numbers,  of  course, 
are  burned  up  before  they  reach  us.  and  who 
can  tell  what  destruction  such  a  catastrophe 
may  represent,  or  whether  it  be  or  be  not  an 
inhabited  world  which  has  thus  been  plunged 
to  destruction  by  fire  ?  They  are  of  a  metallic 
or  stony  nature.  On  certain  nights  in  August 
and  November  it  has  been  calculated  that 
these  meteors  will  appear.  They  fall  from 
certain  constellations,  after  which  they  are 
named  ;  as  Leonides,  from  Leo,  in  the  Novem- 
ber displays. 

The  star  showers  sometimes  present  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  beautiful  display  of  rockets. 
Millions  of  them  rush  round  the  sun,  and 
when,     as    occasionally    happens,    our    earth 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


335 


comes  near  them,  we  have  a  grand  display  of 
celestial  fireworks. 

It  is  estimated  tliat  the  average  number  of 
meteors  that  traverse  the  atmosphere  daily, 
and  which  are  large  enough  to  be  visible  to 
the  eye  on  a  dark,  clear  night,  is  7,500,000  ; 
and  if  to  these  the  telescopic  meteors  be  added, 
the  number  will  be  increased  to  400,000,000. 
In  the  space  traversed  by  the  earth  there  are, 
on  the  average,  in  each  volume  the  size  of  our 
globe  (including  its  atmosphere),  as  many  as 
13,003  small  bodies,  each  one  capable  of  fur- 
nishing a  shooting  star  visible  under  favorable 
circumstances  to  the  naked  eye. 

Metric  System,  The,  originated  in  France 
about  1790.  In  1799,  on  the  invitation  of 
the  Government,  an  international  convention, 
at  which  were  present  representatives  from 
France,  Holland,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Switzer- 
land, Spain,  Savoy,  and  the  Roman  Republics, 


assembled  at  Paris  to  settle,  from  the  results 
of  the  great  Meridian  Survey,  the  exact  length 
of  the  "  definitive  meter."  As  a  result  of  the 
investigations  of  this  learned  body,  the  Metric 
System  was  based  upon  the  length  of  the  fourth 
part  of  a  terrestrial  meridian.  The  ten-mil- 
lionth part  of  this  arc  was  chosen  as  the  unit 
of  measures  of  length,  and  called  Meter.  The 
cube  of  the  tenth  part  of  the  meter  was  adopted 
as  the  unit  of  capacity,  and  denominated  Liter. 
The  weight  of  a  liter  of  distilled  water  at  its 
greatest  density  was  called  Kilogramme,  of 
which  the  thousandth  part,  or  Gramme,  was 
adopted  as  the  unit  of  weight.  The  multiples 
of  these,  proceeding  in  decimal  progression,  are 
distinguished  by  the  employment  of  the  pre- 
fixes deca,  hecto,  kilo,  and  myria  (ten,  hundred, 
thousand,  ten  thousand)  from  the  Greek,  and 
the  subdivisions  hydeci,  centi,  and  milli  (tenth, 
hundredth,  thousandth)  from  the  Latin. 


Measures  of  Length  (Unit,  Meter). 


equal  to  Inches. 

0.03937 

0.39371 

3.93708 

39.37079 

393.70790 

• 3,937.07900 

39,370.79000 

Myriauieter 394,707.90000 


Millimeter. . 
Centimeter. 
Decimeter.. 

Meter 

Decameter.. 
Hectometer. 
Kilometer  . . 


Feet. 

0.003281 

0.032809 

0.328098 

3.280988 

32.809892 

328.089917 

3,280.899167 


Yards. 
0.0010936 
0.0109363 
0.1093033 
1.0936331 
10.9363306 
109  3633056 
l,093.63305.r:6 


Fathoms. 
0.0005468 
0.0054682 
0.0546816 
0.5468165 
5.4681653 
54.6816528 

546.8165278 


32,808.991667     ..   10,930.3o<>5;"56     ..  5,468.1652778 


Cubic  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Capacity  (Unit,  Liter). 


EQUAL  TO 

Milliliter,  or  cubic  centimeter 

Centiliter,  10  cubic  centimeters 

Deciliter,  100  cubic  centimeters 

Liter,  or  cubic  Decimeter, 

Decaliter,  or  Centistere 

Hectoliter,  or  Decistere 

Kiloliter,  or  Stere,  or  cubic  meter, 
Myrialiter,  or  Decastere 


CulAc  Inches. 

0.06103 

0.61027 

6.10271 

61 .02705 

610.27052 

6,102.70515 

61,027.05152 

610,270.51519 


Cubic  Feet. 
0.000035 
0.000353 
0.003532 
0.035317 
0.353166 
3.531058 
35.316581 
353.165807 


Pints. 

0.00176 

0.01761 

0.17608 

1.7(077 

17.60773 

176.07734 

1,760.77341 

17,607.73414 


Measures  of  "Weight  (Unit,  Gramme). 


equal  to  Grains.  Troy  Oz.  Avoirdupois  Lbs. 

0.01543  ..  0.000032  ..  0.0000022  . 

0.15432  . .  0.000322  . .  0.0000220  . 

1.54323  ..  0.003215  ..  0.0002205  . 

15  43235  ..  0.032151  ..  0.0022046  . 

154.32349  . .  0.321507  . .  0.0220462  . 

1,543.23488  . .  3.215073  . .  0.2204621  . 

15,432.348^  ..  32.150727  ..  2.2046213  . 

Myrfegramme 154,323.48800  ..  321.507267  ..  220402129 

Square  Measures,  or  Measures  of  Surface  (Unit,  Are\ 

EQUAL  TO  Sq.  Feet.  Sq.  Yards.  Sq.  Perches.           Sq.  Poods. 

Centare,  or  square  meter 10  794299  ..  1.196033  ..  0.0395383  ..         0.0009885 

Abe,  or  100  square  meters 1,076.429934  ..  119.603326  ..  3.95c8290  ..         0.0988457 

Hectare,  or  10,000  square  meters...  107,042.993419  ..  11.9C0.332602  ..  395.3828959  ..         9.8846724 


Milligramme . . 
Centigramme.. 
Decigramme. . . 

Gramme 

Decagramme . . 
Hectogramme 
Kilogramme  . 


Gallons. 

0.0002201 

0.0022010 

0.0220017 

0.2200967 

2.2009668 

22.0096677 

220.0966767 

2,200.9667675 


Cut.  of  112  Lbs. 

0.0000000  .  . 

0.0000002  . . 

0.0000020  . . 

0  0000197  . . 

0.0001968  . . 

0.0019684  .. 

0.0196841  . . 

0.1968412  . . 


Mil  ex. 

0.0000006 

0.0000062 

0.0000621 

0.0006214 

0.0062138 

0.0621381 

0.6213824 

6.2138242 


Pvshels. 
0.0000275 
0.0002751 
0.0027512 
0.0275121 
0.2751208 
2.751201-5 
27.5120846 
275.1208409 


Tons. 
0.0000000 
0.0000000 
0.0000001 
0.0000010 
0.0000098 
0.0000984 
0.0009842 
0.0098421 


Sq.  Acres. 
0.0(102471 
0.0247111 
2.4711434 


Microphone,  The,  is  the  black  carbon  I 
button  used  in  telephones,  and  is  an  instru- 
ment for  magnifying  sound.  The  most  sensi- 
tive substance,  so  far  as  yet  discovered,  to  have 
the  peculiar  power,  when  placed  in  the  electric 
current,  of  magnifying  sound,  is  willow  char- 
coal plunged,  when  at  white  heat,  into  mercury. 
A  piece  of  such  charcoal  an  inch  long,  placed 
vertically  between  two  blocks  of  carbon,  hol- 
lowed to  receive  its  ends,  wires  connecting  the 
blocks  with  an  electric  battery,  and  the  ordi- 
nary receiving  instrument  of  a  telephone,  con- 


stitute one  of  the  simplest  forms  of  a  micro- 
phone. The  invention  of  the  microphone  is 
claimed  by  Professor  Hughes  of  England,  and 
Thomas  Edison,  the  American  inventor. 

Microscope,  Invention  of  the. —  It  is 
generally  believed  that  the  first  compound  mi- 
croscope was  made  in  1590  by  a  Hollander 
named  Zacharias  Jansen.  Pocket  microscopes 
were  first  made  in  London  in  1740  by  Ben- 
jamin Martin.  The  discovery  of  the  magnify- 
ing power  of  the  simple  lens  was  undoubtedly 
made  long  before  the  Christian  era,  as  it  is 


336 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


known  that  the  Greeks  used  magnifiers  of  glass 
which  they  called  "  reading-glasses,"  and  rude 
lenses  of  crystal  have  been  found  in  Egyptian 
ruins. 

Mirage. —  Mirage  (sometimes  called  Fata 
Morgana)  is  the  appearance  in  the  air  of  the 
image  of  some  distant  object,  seen  either  in 
connection  with  the  object  itself,  above  or  be- 
low the  latter,  or  suspended  in  the  air,  the  ob- 
ject being  invisible.  It  is  a  very  curious  but 
sufficiently  common  phenomena,  and  in  the 
Asiatic  and  African  plains  it  is  frequently 
observed.  When  the  weather  is  calm  and  the 
ground  hot,  the  Egyptian  landscape  appears 
like  a  lake,  and  the  houses  look  like  islands  in 
the  midst  of  a  widely-spreading  expanse  of 
water.  This  causes  the  mirage,  which  is  the 
result  of  evaporation,  while  the  different  tem- 
peratures of  the  air  strata  cause  an  unequal  re- 
flection and  refraction  of  light,  which  give 
rise  to  the  mirage.  Travelers  are  frequently 
deceived,  but  the  camels  will  not  quicken  their 
usual  pace  until  they  scent  water. 

The  Fata  Morgana  and  the  inverted  images 
of  ships  seen  at  sea  are  not  uncommon  on  Eu- 
ropean coasts.  Between  Sicily  and  Italy  this 
phenomenon  is  seen  in  the  Sea  of  Reggio  with 
fine  effect.  Palaces,  towers,  fertile  plains,  with 
cattle  grazing  on  them,  are  seen,  with  many 
other  terrestial  objects,  upon  the  sea — -the 
palaces  of  the  Fairy  Morgana.  The  inverted 
images  of  ships  are  frequently  perceived,  and 
many  most  extraordinary  but  perfectly  authen- 
tic tales  have  been  related  concerning  the  re- 
flection and  refraction  of  persons  and  objects 
in  the  sky  and  on  land,  when  no  human  beings 
nor  any  of  the  actual  objects  were  within  the 
range  of  vision. 

Mirrors.—  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were 
made  of  metal ;  those  of  the  Jewish  women  of 
brass ;  mirrors  of  silver  were  introduced  by 
Praxiteles,  328  B.  C.  Mirrors  or  looking- 
glasses  were  made  at  Venice,  A.  D.  1300;  and 
in  England,  at  Lambeth,  near  London,  in 
1673.  The  French  excelled  in  their  manu- 
facture of  them  in  the  last  century.  Various 
methods  of  coating  glass  by  a  solution  of  silver, 
thus  avoiding  the  use  of  mercury,  so  injurious 
to  the  health  of  the  workman,  have  been  made 
known,  by  M.  Petitjean,  in  1851  ;  by  M.  Cimeg, 
in  1861,  and  by  Liebig  and  others. 

Mother-of -Pearl. — The  shells  of  many 
molluscous  animals  display  a  brilliant  pearly 
and  iridescent  luster,  resulting  from  the  peculiar 
manner  in  which  the  layers  of  calcareous 
matter  of  which  they  are  composed  have  been 
successively  formed.  Such  shells,  even  when 
small  in  size,  form  bright  and,  especially  to 
the  untutored  eye,  attractive  ornaments,  and 
as   such   are   used   for   necklaces  and  similar 


purposes.  When  the  shells  are  of  sufficient 
size  to  cut  and  shape  for  purposes  of  utility, 
they  become  articles  of  some  commercial 
importance  under  the  name  of  Mother-of- 
Pearl.  This  term,  though  applicable  to  all 
pearly  shells,  is  in  commerce  principally 
applied  to  the  shells  of  the  bi- valve  pearl 
mussel,  which  is  the  principal  source  of  the 
commercial  product. 

The  largest  and  steadiest  consumption  of 
mother-of-pearl  is  in  the  button  trade,  and 
much  is  also  consumed  by  cutlers  for  handles 
of  fruit  and  dessert  knives  and  forks,  pocket- 
knives,  and  other  forms  of  cutlery.  It  is  also 
used  in  the  inlaying  of  Japanese  and  Chinese 
lacquers,  European  lacquered  papier-mache' 
work,  trays,  toys,  and  as  an  ornamental  inlay 
generally.  In  an  innumerable  variety  of 
small  and  fancy  articles,  mother-of-pearl  is 
also  employed,  its  use  being  limited  only  by 
the  moderate  dimensions  and  thickness  of 
material  obtained,  and  its  rather  brittle 
nature. 

The  carving  of  pilgrim  shells,  and  the 
elaboration  of  crucifixes  and  ornamental  work 
in  mothei--of-pearl  is  a  distinctive  industry  of 
the  monks  and  other  inhabitants  of  Bethlehem. 
Among  the  South  Sea  Islands  the  shell  is 
largely  fashioned  into  fishing  hooks,  a  purpose 
for  which  its  brilliant,  conspicuous  appearance 
seems  to  render  it  suitable  without  the  addi- 
tion of  any  bait  or  other  lure. 

Music.  —  Lucretius  ascribes  its  invention 
to  the  whistling  of  the  winds  in  hollow  reeds. 
Franckinus,  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by 
the  hammers  of  Tubal-Cain  ;  Politique  and 
others  to  the  singing  of  birds  ;  and  Zarlino  to 
the  sound  of  water.  It  is  however  agreed  that 
music  was  first  reduced  to  rules  by  .Tubal,  1800 
B.  C.  The  flute  and  harmony  or  concord  in 
music  was  invented  by  Ilyagnis,  1506.  ATocal 
choruses  of  men  are  first  mentioned  56  B.  C. 
The  first  six  musical  notes  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Guy  Aretino,  a  Benedictine 
monk  of  Arezzo,  about  1025.  The  notes  of 
present  use  were  perfected  in  1338.  Musical 
pitch  was  settled  in  France  in  1859.  Pythago- 
ras maintained  that  the  motion  of  the  twelve 
spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds  inau- 
dible to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  the  music 
of  the  spheres.  Saint  Cecilia,  a  Roman  lady, 
is  said  to  have  excelled  so  eminently  in  music, 
that  an  angel  was  enticed  from  the  celestial  re- 
gions by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her  melody  ; 
this  hyperbolical  tradition  has  been  deemed 
sufficient  authority  to  make  her  the  patroness 
of  music.     She  died  in  the  third  century. 

Nails. — It  is  only  since  1810  that  machin- 
ery has  been  employed  to  any  extent  in  the 
manufacture  of  nails.     Previous  to  that  date, 


SCIENCE,   INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


337 


they  were  made  by  hand  by  forging  on  an 
anvil,  and  great  numbers  of  men  were  em- 
ployed in  the  industry,  there  having  been  as 
many  as  GO, 000  nailers  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Birmingham  alone.  It  appears  that  as 
early  as  100(5  a  patent  was  obtained  for  cutting 
nail  rods  by  water  power,  by  Sir  Davis  Bul- 
mer.  An  improvement  on  this  was  patented 
in  1018,  and  a  new  invention  in  1790,  which 
last  was  the  first  nail  machine  in  actual  use  ; 
it  was  patented  by  Thomas  Clifford,  and  used 
in  French's  factory  at  Wimburn,  Staff  ordshh-e, 
in  17!)2.  Toward  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 
tury many  patents  were  obtained  in  the  United 
States  for  new  machines  and  improvements  on 
old  ones.  Many  of  the  first  inventors  spent 
large  sums  of  money  on  their  machines,  and  it 
has  been  estimated  that  it  cost  fully  $1,000, 000 
to  bring  them  to  the  perfection  attained  in 
1810,  when  a  machine  made  100  nails  a  min- 
ute. The  machine  invented  by  Jesse  Reed  of 
Massachusetts,  about  1800,  is  the  one  which 
first  came  into  general  use,  and  this,  with 
some  improvements,  is  the  one  most  largely 
used  to-day.  In  1810,  Joseph  C.  Dyer  of 
Boston,  then  a  merchant  in  London,  took  out 
patents  in  England  for  the  nail  machinery  in- 
vented in  Massachusetts.  It  was  at  once 
widely  introduced,  and  large  manufacturing 
establishments  were  soon  founded.  Some 
factories  at  Birmingham  are  now  capable  of 
making  over  40,000,000  nails  a  week.  The  term 
penny,  used  to  indicate  the  size  of  nails,  is 
supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  pound  ;  thus  a 
fourpenny  nail  was  one  such  that  1,000  of 
them  weighed  four  pounds  ;  a  tenpenny,  such 
that  1,000  weighed  ten  pounds.  Originally, 
the  "  hundred,'*  when  applied  to  nails,  meant 
sixscore,  or  120;  consequently  the  thousand 
was  1,200.  In  France,  the  greater  part  of  the  J 
nails  used  in  carpentry-work  are  made  of  soft 
iron  wire,  pointed  with  the  hammer,  and  the 
head  is  formed  by  pinching  them  in  a  toothed 
vise. 

Nebular  Hypothesis. — The  Nebular  Hy- 
pothesis   assumes   that   the   solar  system  was 
once  an  enormous  mass  of  gaseous  substance.  ! 
Rapid  rotation  arising  in  this  gaseous  mass,  it 
took  the  form  of  a  disc,    and  at  last  inertia 
(popularly  but  erroneously  called  centrifugal ; 
force),  overcoming  cohesion,  whole  rings  and 
fragments  flew  off  from  this  disc,  and  by  grav-  ' 
itation  contracted  into  spheroid  masses.     As, 
in  the  original  mass,  the  velocity  of  the  outer 
circle  of  each  body  thrown  off  is  greater  than 
the  inner  circle,  this  causes  each  spheroid  to 
revolve  on  its  own  axis.     This  process  goes  on, 
and   the  central   mass   continues  to   cool  and  J 
shrink  until  we  have  at   last  a  central   body 
with  a  number  of  smaller  spheroidal  bodies  re- 


volving around  it  in  orbits ;  the  smaller,  the 
nearer  they  are  to  the  central  orb.  Certain 
points  are  assumed  in  this  hypothesis  to  ex- 
plain the  distribution  of  matter  in  our  solar 
system.  It  is  assumed  that  in  throwing  off 
great  masses  from  the  central  disc,  immense 
quantities  of  minute  particles  were  also 
thrown,  which  continue  to  revolve,  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  large  mass  around  the  central 
body.  By  slow  degrees  these  minute  atoms, 
by  the  law  of  gravitation,  were  aggregated 
into  the  mass  nearest  to  them.  These  subor- 
dinate aggregations  would  form  with  most  dif- 
ficulty nearest  the  large  central  mass,  because 
of  the  superior  attractive  force  of  the  latter, 
wherefore  the  interior  planets  —  Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  and  Mars  —  are  smaller 
than  the  two  great  orbs  in  the  zone  beyond 
them.  These  two  enormous  planets,  Jupiter 
and  Saturn,  occupy  the  space  where  conditions 
are  most  favorable  to  subordinate  aggregations  ; 
but  beyond  them  the  gravity  of  aggregating 
material  becomes  reduced,  and  so  the  planets 
found  in  the  outer  zone,  Uranus  and  Neptune, 
are  smaller  than  the  planets  of  the  middle 
zone.  This  hypothesis  was  first  suggested  by 
Sir  William  Herschel,  and  was  adopted  and 
developed  by  Laplace. 

Needles. —  The  making  of  Spanish  needles 
was  first  taught  in  England  by  Elias  Crowse,  a 
German,  about  the  eighth  year  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  in  Queen  Mary's  time  there  was  a 
negro  who  made  fine  Spanish  needles  in  Cheap- 
side,  London.  At  his  death  the  secret  of  fab- 
rication was  lost,  and  not  recovered  again  till 
1560.  The  family  of  Greenings,  ancestors  of 
Lord  Dorchester,  established  a  needle  factory 
in  Bucks  a  little  later.  German  and  Hunga- 
rian steel  is  of  best  repute  for  needles.  The 
manufacture  was  greatly  improved  at  White 
Chapel,  London  ;  Redditch,  in  Gloucestershire; 
and  Hathersage,  in  Derbyshire.  An  exhibi- 
tion of  ancient  needles  and  needlework  was 
formed  at  South  Kensington  museum  in  1873. 
Nickel  was  first  obtained  as  a  metal  in 
Germany  about  1751  ;  but  the  ore  had  been 
previously  known  to  miners,  who  called  it 
kupfernickel,  or  Old  Nick's  copper,  for  the 
reason  that,  though  it  looked  like  copper  ore, 
no  copper  could  be  obtained  from  it.  Nickel, 
when  pure,  is  silvery  white,  and  does  not 
oxidize  or  tarnish  in  the  air.  It  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  but  the  principal 
mines  are  in  Russia,  Sweden,  Germany,  Aus- 
tria, England,  and  Scotland,  and  in  the  states 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Connecticut  in  America. 
Its  chief  use  is  for  plating  other  metals,  but  it 
is  also  used  in  alloys. 

Oceans,  Depths  of. —  The  average  depth 
of    all    the    oceans   is    from    2,000    to    3,000 


338 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


fathoms.  Soundings  have  been  made  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  ninety  miles  off  the  island  of 
St.  Thomas,  in  the  West  Indies,  which  showed 
a  depth  of  23,250  feet,  or  about  four  and  one- 
half  miles.  In  1872-74,  the  ship  Challenger 
made  a  voyage  around  the  world  for  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  deep-sea  soundings,  and  the 
result  showed  that  the  greatest  depth  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean  was  between  four  and  one-half 
and  five  miles,  while  that  of  the  Atlantic  was 
probably  as  given  above. 

Ocean  Steam  Navigation. — The  first 
ocean  steam  navigation  in  the  world  was  by 
the  steamboat  Phoenix,  built  by  Colonel  John 
Stevens,  and  navigated  from  Hoboken,  N.  J., 
to  Philadelphia  in  1808  by  Robert  L.  Stevens. 
In  1819,  the  Savannah,  an  American  vessel  of 
380  tons  burden,  built  at  Corlear's  Hook, 
N.  Y.,  made  the  first  steam  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic.  The  steamer  went  from  New  York 
to  Savannah,  Ga.,  and  thence  to  England. 
From  England  she  proceeded  to  St.  Petersburg, 
Russia,  where  an  effort  was  made  to  dispose  of 
her  to  the  czar.  The  sale  not  being  consum- 
mated, she  returned  to  New  York,  and  was 
afterwards  converted  into  a  sailing  vessel. 

Ohm's  Law  is  so  named  from  its  discov- 
erer, Georg  Simon  Ohm,  a  German  physicist, 
born  1787,  died  1854.  He  devoted  himself 
particularly  to  the  investigation  of  the  laws 
governing  galvanic  currents,  and  by  a  combina- 
tion of  mathematical  and  experimental  inves- 
tigation ,  carried  on  for  many  years,  he  at  length 
discovered  and  established  the  law  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  mathematical  theory  of  elec- 
tricity. His  discoveries  were  first  announced 
in  scientific  journals  in  1825-'26.  This  funda- 
mental theorem,  known  as  Ohm's  Law,  may 
be  briefly  stated  as  follows :  The  strength  of 
a  galvanic  current  is  equal  to  the  electro-motive 
force  divided  by  the  resistance.  The  term  ohm 
is  now  used  to  designate  the  standard  measure 
or  unit  of  galvanic  resistance,  and  is  equal  to 
the  resistance  of  a  cylindrical  wire  of  pure 
copper  one  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter 
and  250  feet  long. 

Oleomargarine. —  The  belief  which  is 
prevalent  among  the  masses  that  the  ingredients 
which  constitute  oleomargarine  are  unclean  is 
fallacious,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following 
description  :  Clean  beef  fat  and  a  proportion- 
ate quantity  of  salt  are  by  process  of  machin- 
ery and  heat  transformed  into  what  is  called 
white  stearine  and  butter  oil,  otherwise  the  oil 
which  has  been  pressed  from  the  fat.  This 
oil  is  then  churned  in  the  proportion  of  about 
442  pounds  of  butter  oil,  120  pounds  of  milk, 
37£  pounds  of  cream-made  butter,  and  1| 
ounces  of  bicarbonate  of  soda.  To  this  some 
coloring   matter   is    added,  and   the    mixture 


churned  for  some  fifty  minutes,  giving  as  a 
result  a  smooth  mass  resembling  an  emulsion 
of  cream.  This  is  put  into  ice-cream  freezers 
and  kept  constantly  agitated  until  it  solidifies. 
It  is  then  worked  over  with  revolving  butter- 
workers  to  get  the  necessary  amount  of  salt 
well  into  it,  and  is  then  packed  in  firkins  or 
made  into  molds.  Science  shows  that  chem- 
ically, pure  oleomargarine  butter  differs  but 
slightly  from  pure  cream  butter.  By  analysis 
the  constituents  of  cream  butter  are :  Water 
11.968,  butter  solids  88.032.  Those  of  oleo- 
margarine ai'e :  Water  11.203,  butter  solids 
88.797.  The  process  of  making  oleomarga- 
rine was  invented  by  M.  Hippolyte  Niege,  a 
French  chemist,  about  1872  ;  but  later  exper- 
iments, made  by  Doctor  Mott  of  New  Yrork, 
added  to  the  commercial  value  of  the  original 
process.  The  name  is  derived  from  two  words 
—  oleine  and  margai'ine.  Oleine  is  the  thin, 
oily  part  of  fats,  and  margarine  is  a  peculiar, 
pearl-like  substance,  extracted  from  some  veg- 
etable oils,  and  also  from  some  animal  fats, 
the  name  being  of  Latin  origin,  from  mar- 
garita,  a  pearl. 

Painting. —  An  art,  according  to  Plato,  of 
the  highest  antiquity  in  Egypt.  Osymandyas 
caused  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  paint- 
ing, 2100  B.  C.  Pausias,  of  Sicyon,  was  the  in- 
ventor of  the  encaustic,  a  method  of  burning 
the  colors  into  woo'd  or  ivory,  335  B.  C.  The 
ancients  considered  Sicyon  the  nursery  of 
painters.  Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said  to 
have  been  the  inventor  of  the  grotesque,  332 
B.  C.  The  art  was  introduced  at  Rome  from 
Etruria,  by  Quintus  Fabius,  who  on  that  ac- 
count was  styled  Pictor.  The  first  excellent 
pictures  were  brought  from  Corinth  by  Mum- 
mius,14G  B.  C.  After  the  death  of  Augustus 
not  a  single  painter  of  eminence  appeared  for 
several  ages ;  Ludius,  who  was  very  cele- 
brated, is  supposed  to  have  been  the  last,  about 
A.  D.  14.  Painting  on  canvas  seems  to  have 
been  known  at  Rome  in  A.  I).  06.  Bede,  the 
Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735,  knew  some- 
thing of  the  art.  It  revived  about  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  and  to  Giovanni  Cima- 
bue  of  Florence  is  awarded  the  honor  of  its 
restoration.  It  was  at  once  encouraged  and 
generously  patronized  in  Italy.  John  Van- 
Eyck,  of  Bruges,  and  his  brother  Hubert,  are 
regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Flemish  school 
of  painting  in  oil,  1415.  Paulo  Uccello  was 
the  first  to  study  perspective.  The  earliest 
mention  of  the  art  in  England  is  A.I).  1523, 
about  which  time  Henry  the  Ejghth  patronized 
Hulbein,  and  invited  Titian  to  his  court.  Wil- 
kins  invented  a  process  of  using  oil  with  min- 
eral colors  for  frescoes  in  1853.  The  first 
practicing   ^rtist   of   celebrity   in  the    United 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


330 


States  Avas  John  Watson,  who  commenced 
painting  portraits  in  New  Jersey,  1715.  Ben- 
jamin West  was  the  first  native  American 
artist ;  born  in  Chester  Count}',  Pennsylvania, 
1708.  John  Singleton  Copley,  born  in  Boston, 
1738,  began  his  first  important  work  in  1760. 
Other  noted  American  painters,  belonging  to 
the  early  period,  were  Charles  W.  Peale,  Gil- 
bert Charles  Stuart,  John  Trumbull,  William 
Dunlap,  and  E.  G.  Malbone.  Latterly  Amer- 
ican artists  have  been  greatly  influenced  by 
the  French  schools. 

Paper  Hangings. —  The  invention  of 
hangings  of  paper  to  take  the  place  of  other 
more  costly  hangings,  has  been  attributed  to  a 
manufacturer  of  paper  hangings  named  Breit- 
kopf,  of  Leipsic.  That  kind  known  as  velvet 
paper  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Jerome 
Lanyer,  an  Englishman,  who  received  a  patent 
for  it  in  1034,  although  the  invention  has  also 
been  claimed  for  Francois,  a  Frenchman,  who 
is  asserted  to  have  introduced  it  at  Rouen,  in 
1620. 

Paper,  History  of. — It  is  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  manu- 
factures of  paper,  which  they  made  from  papy- 
rus, a  species  of  reed.  In  former  times  this 
plant  grew  in  abundance  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  but  it  is  now  said  to  have  disappeared 
from  Egypt.  It  was  called  by  the  Egyptians 
"papu";  by  the  Greeks  "papyrus";  our 
word  paper  is  a  later  derivative.  Herodotus 
named  it  "  byblus,"  whence  came  the  Greek 
"biblion  "  (book)  and  our  word  Bible.  The 
ancient  Mexicans  used  a  kind  of  paper  pre- 
pared from  the  maguey  plant  that  grows  on 
tablelands  and  closely  resembles  the  Eg\Tp- 
tian  papyrus.  This  paper  took  ink  and  color 
well,  as  is  attested  by  specimens  which  have 
been  preserved.  The  credit  of  being  first  to 
form  from  fiber  the  web  which  constitutes 
modern  paper  belongs  to  the  Chinese,  and  the 
art  was  known  to  them  as  early  as  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  In  the  sev- 
enth century  the  Arabians  learned  the  art  of 
making  it  from  cotton  from  the  Chinese,  and 
the  first  manufactory  was  established  at  Sa- 
marcand,  about  A.  I).  706.  From  thence  it 
was  taken  into  Spain,  where  under  the  Moors 
paper  was  made,  it  is  thought,  of  hemp  and 
flax  as  well  as  cotton.  Just  when  linen  rags 
were  first  used  in  the  composition  of  paper  is 
uncertain  ;  but  the  best  evidence  is  offered  by 
the  Arabian  physician  Abdollatiph,  who  writes. 
in  an  account  of  his  visit  to  Egypt  in  the  year 
1200,  "  that  the  cloth  found  in  the  catacombs 
and  used  to  envelop  mummies  was  made  into 
garments  or  sold  to  the  scribes  to  make  paper 
for  shopkeepers  ";  and  as  there  is  no  doubt 
that  these  mummy  cloths  were  linen,  it  proves 


the  use  of  this  material  to  be  of  considerable 
antiquity.  Of  the  use  of  linen  rags  in  Europe, 
the  earliest  proof  is  the  celebra'ed  document 
found  by  Ichwandner  in  the  monastery  of  Goss, 
iu  Upper  Styria,  which  purports  to  be  a  man- 
date of  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of  the  Romans, 
and  is  dated  1242.  It  is  written  on  paper 
which  has  been  proved  to  have  been  made  of 
linen.  The  practice  of  making  a  distinctive 
watermark  on  paper  was  also  of  very  early 
'  date,  as  manuscripts  as  old  as  the  thirteenth 
I  century  bear  it.  There  is,  however,  no  really 
satisfactory  information  respecting  the  exact 
time  or  place  of  the  introduction  of  paper 
making  into  Europe.  By  some  it  is  supposed 
that  Spaiu  was  the  first  to  receive  the  art,  and 
that  thence  it  spread  to  France  and  Holland, 
and  subsequently  to  England  ;  but  it  is  quite 
certain  that  England  was  a  long  time  behind 
the  other  countries.  As  proof  of  this  we  find 
that  the  first  patent  for  paper  making  was  taken 
out  in  1665,  by  one  Charles  Hildeyerd,  but  it 
was  for  "the  way  and  art  of  making  blew 
paper  used  by  sugar-bakers  and  others."  Ten 
years  later,  1675,  a  patent  was  taken  out  by 
Eustace  Barneby  for  "the  art  and  skill  of 
making  all  sorts  of  white  paper  for  the  use  of 
writing  and  printing,  being  a  new  manufacture, 
and  never  practiced  in  any  way  in  any  of  our 
kingdome  or  dominions."  Paper  is  now  made 
out  of  cotton  and  linen  rags,  waste  paper,  straw, 
esparto  grass,  wood,  cane,  jute,  and  manilla. 

Papier-Mache  has  been  in  use  for  more 
than  a  century  in  Europe,  and  it  is  thought 
probable  that  it  was  first  suggested  by  some  of 
the  beautiful  productions  of  Sinde  and  other 
parts  of  India,  where  it  is  employed  in  making 
boxes,  trays,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  China.  Its 
first  application,  as  far  as  is  known,  was  to  the 
manufacture  of  snuff  boxes  by  a  German 
named  Martin  iu  1740,  who  learned  it  of  a 
Frenchman  named  Lefevre.  The  cheaper  arti- 
cles of  papier-mache'  are  made  of  paper  reduced 
to  a  pulp  with  water  and  glue,  and  pressed  in 
oiled  molds.  Better  articles  are  produced  by 
pasting  together  sheets  of  paper,  and  when  a 
proper  degree  of  thickness  is  attained  it  is 
pressed  into  the  shape  desired.  When  moist, 
this  substance  may  be  made  to  take  any  form, 
and  when  dry  may  be  planed  into  any  shape. 
A  brilliant  surface  can  be  had  by  polishing 
with  rotten  stone  and  oil.  Papier-mach6  is 
much  used  to  make  architectural  ornaments, 
both  for  exterior  and  interior  decorations. 
The  sheets  of  paper,  placed  in  layers  with  glue, 
are  pressed  into  metal  molds  for  some  hours ; 
then  they  are  removed,  and  a  composition  of 
paper  pulp,  mixed  quite  thin  with  resin  and 
glue,  is  poured  in,  and  the  paper  impressions 
are  again  put   in  and  subjected   to  powerful 


340 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


pressure.  This  causes  the  composition  to 
adhere  to  the  molded  articles,  and  gives  them 
the  rough  surface  that  is  desired.  Papier- 
mache'  can  be  made  waterproof  by  adding  to 
the  pulp  sulphate  of  iron  or  some  of  the  sili- 
cates, and  fireproof  by  mixing  with  clay  and 
borax,  phosphate  of  soda,  or  any  alkali. 

Parchment.  —  The  ordinary  writing- 
parchment  is  made  from  the  skins  of  the  sheep 
and  she-goat ;  the  finer  kind,  known  as  vellum, 
is  made  from  those  of  very  young  calves,  kids, 
and  lambs.  The  thick,  common  kinds  of 
parchment,  which  are  used  for  drums,  tam- 
bourines, battledoors,  etc.,  are  made  from  the 
skins  of  old  he-goats  and  she-goats  and  in  north- 
ern Europe  from  wolves  ;  and  a  peculiar  kind 
which  is  used  for  tablets,  is  made  from  asses' 
skins.  Parchment,  as  a  writing  material,  was 
known  at  least  as  early  as  500  B.  C.  Herodotus 
speaks  of  books  written  upon  skins  in  his  time. 
Pliny,  without  good  grounds,  places  the  inven- 
tion aslateasl96  B.C.,  statingthatit  was  made 
at  Pergamos  (hence  the  name  Pergamena,  cor- 
rupted into  English  parchment).  Possibly  the 
Pergamian  invention  was  an  improvement  in 
the  preparation  of  skins,  which  had  certainly 
been  used  centuries  before.  The  manufacture 
rose  to  great  importance  in  Rome  about  a  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  and  soon  became  the  chief 
writing  material ;  and  its  use  spread  all  over 
Europe,  and  retained  its  pre-eminence  until 
the  invention  of  paper  from  rags. 

Pearl  Fisheries. —  The  cause  of  the  pearl 
is  the  introduction  of  a  grain  of  sand  or  other 
foreign  substance  into  the  shell  of  the  pearl 
oyster.  This  causes  an  irritation  of  the  deli- 
cate tissues  of  the  oyster,  which  immediately 
deposits  the  pearly  matter  around  it  for  pro- 
tection. Advantage  of  this  fact  has  been  taken 
to  put  substances  within  the  shells  of  young 
oysters  to  induce  the  formation  of  pearls,  and 
the  Chinese  by  this  method  force  a  species  of 
fresh-water  mussels  to  produce  the  jewel.  The 
most  important  pearl  fisheries  of  the  world  are 
those  of  Ceylon  and  Coromandel,  in  the  Indian 
Sea,  whence  pearls  have  been  obtained  since 
the  earliest  times  of  history.  The  divers  are 
natives,  trained  to  the  pursuit,  who  are  accus- 
tomed to  descend  to  the  depth  of  six  or  eight 
fathoms  some  forty  times  a  day,  and  remain 
under  water  from  a  minute  to  a  minute  and  a 
half.  The  fishing  season  begins  in  March  or 
April  and  lasts  but  one  month.  A  single  shell 
may  contain  from  eight  to  twenty  pearls,  vary- 
ing in  size  from  that  of  a  small  pea  to  about 
three  times  that  size.  The  coasts  of  Java, 
Sumatra,  Japan,  and  also  Colombia  and  other 
points  on  the  shores  of  .South  America  have 
yielded  large  quantities  of  pearls  ;  but  they  are 
usually  smaller  than  the  Oriental  pearls. 


Percussion  Caps,  Composition  of. — 

The  explosive  which  is  used  in  the  making  of 
percussion  caps  is  a  fulminate  of  mercury, 
made  by  first  dissolving  100  parts  mercury  in 
1,000  parts  of  nitric  acid  —  or  740  parts  by 
measure.  When  the  solution  is  heated  to  130 
degrees  Fahrenheit  it  should  be  slowly  poured 
through  a  glass  funnel  tube  into  830  parts 
alcohol,  sp.  gr.  .830  —  or  1,000  parts  by 
measure.  After  effervescence,  filtering,  wash- 
ing, and  drying,  the  explosive  is  dropped  into 
the  copper  cap. 

Perfumery. —  Directions  are  given  for 
making  the  holy  incense  in  Exodus,  chapter  30, 
1490  B.  C.  The  Scriptures  abound  with  in- 
stances rof  the  use  of  incense  and  perfumes. 
Philip  Augustus  of  France  granted  a  charter 
to  the  master  perfumers  in  1190.  Perfumes 
became  fashionable  in  England  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  No  such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was 
known  in  Scotland  in  1763.  A  stamp  tax  was 
laid  on  various  articles  of  perfumery  in  Eng- 
land, and  the  vender  was  obliged  to  take  out  a 
license,  in  1786.  In  1860  there  were  about 
forty  manufacturing  perfumers  in  London  ;  in 
Paris  about  eighty. 

Petrified  Bodies. —  Petrifaction  is  sim- 
ply the  substitution  of  the  organic  substance 
by  the  inorganic,  atom  by  atom.  As  a  mole- 
cule of  wood  or  bone  decays,  a  molecule  of 
stone  takes  its  place.  This  can  only  occur 
when  the  air,  or  earth,  or  water  surrounding 
the  organic  substance  holds  in  solution  some 
readily  precipitated  mineral.  In  the  case  of  a 
woody  substance,  or  of  bone,  while  decomjwsi- 
tion  goes  on  there  yet  remains  a  framework 
whose  interstices  are  gradually  filled  by  the 
mineral  substance  ;  but  in  the  case  of  flesh  no 
such  framework  exists.  The  very  rapid  de- 
cay of  flesh  also  makes  it  impossible  for  the 
very  slow  process  of  petrifaction  to  have  any 
effect  upon  it.  The  stories  of  petrified  bodies 
found  in  graveyards,  that  float  periodically 
through  the  press,  are  usually  made  up  of 
"whole  cloth,"  as  the  saying  is,  though  it  is 
true  that  bodies  of  both  men  and  animals  have 
been  found  incrusted  with  silicious  substance 
so  as  to  resemble  petrifactions.  These,  how- 
ever, when  veritable  finds,  are  fleshless  skele- 
tons, the  soft  parts  of  the  body  having  decayed 
while  the  slow  process  of  incrustation  was  go- 
ing on.  It  maybe  noted  here  that  but  one 
true  human  bone  petrifaction  has  ever  been 
found,  and  that  is  the  "  Fossil  Man  of  Men- 
tone,"  discovered  in  1873-74.  The  majority 
of  fossils,  be  it  remembered,  are  of  great  age, 
antedating  the  existence  of  man  on  the  earth. 
In  places  where  the  silicious  deposits  have 
been  rapid,  as  in  limestone  caverns,  human 
bones,  fossilized,  have  been  discovered.     Two 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


341 


human  skeletons  were  found  in  an  apparent 
state  of  complete  petrifaction  on  the  Island  of 
(iuadaloupe  early  in  the  present  century.  One 
of  these  was  placed  in  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  other  in  the  museum  at  Paris.  But 
examination  showed  that  in  these  the  bony 
structure  still  remained,  though  it  was  com- 
pletely incased  in  the  calcareous  deposits.  In 
excavating  in  the  cavern  of  Mentone,  in 
France,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
some  fifteen  years  ago,  M.  Riviere,  a  noted 
French  scientist,  found  a  number  of  human 
bones  and  a  complete  skeleton  in  a  true  fossil 
condition,  which  were  complete  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  men  upon  the  earth  at  a  period 
of  very  great  antiquity. 

Phonograph. —  The  phonograph  is  a 
machine  for  recording  and  then  transmitting 
sounds,  speech,  music,  etc.  It  is  the  invention 
of  Thomas  A.  Edison,  the  most  noted  electri- 
cian of  this  age.  The  phonograph  was  acci- 
dentally discovered.  Mr.  Edison  was  at  work 
on  an  apparatus  for  recording  a  telegraphic 
message,  by  having  an  armature  (with  a  needle 
fastened  in  one  end)  of  the  sounder  make  in- 
dentations on  a  piece  of  tin  foil  wrapped 
around  a  cylinder.  The  message  would  thus 
be  punctured  or  indented  on  this  tin  foil,  then, 
by  substituting  another  needle  —  blunt  —  for 
the  sharp  one  and  turning  the  cylinder,  the 
armature  would  be  vibrated  as  the  needle  en- 
tered into  and  passed  out  of  the  indentations. 
"While  experimenting,  he  turned  the  cylinder 
very  rapidly,  and  instead  of  a  succession  of 
"  clicks,"  a  musical  sound  was  produced.  He 
seized  the  idea,  and  the  Edison  phonograph  is 
the  result. 

The  perfected  phonograph  of  to-day  consists 
of  a  cylinder  of  wax,  or  other  plastic  material, 
which  is  revolved  either  by  hand,  foot  power, 
or  an  electric  motor.  This  cylinder,  called  the 
phonogram,  is  used  for  recording  the  sound. 
This  is  done  by  a  diaphragm  —  such  as  is  used 
in  a  telephone  —  into  the  center  of  which  is 
fastened  a  sharp  needle,  which  rests  upon  and 
just  touches  the  phonogram.  "When  the  words 
are  spoken  the  diaphragm  vibrates,  moving 
this  needle  up  and  down,  and  a  series  of  in- 
dentations are  made  in  a  spiral  line  on  the 
phonogram,  which  is  turning  around  about 
eighty-five  times  a  minute.  To  make  the 
phonograph  speak,  or  repeat  the  words,  an- 
other diaphragm,  similar  to  the  first  or  re- 
corder, but  having  a  blunt  instead  of  a  sharp 
needle,  is  placed  at  the  starting  point  and  the 
phonogram  made  to  revolve  ;  of  course,  as  the 
needle  passes  over  the  indentations  it  vibrates 
the  diaphragm  and  the  words  are  reproduced, 
as  in  a  telephone. 

The  phonograph  faithfully  reproduces  mu- 


sic, whistling,  singing,  speech,  or  any  sounds, 
and  the  phonograms  can  be  packed  into  a 
mailing  tube  and  sent  all  over  the  world  to  be 
used  as  often  as  desired. 

Phosphorescence  is  the  property  which 
some  bodies  possess  of  being  luminous  in  the 
dark  without  the  emission  of  sensible  heat. 
There  are  five  kinds  distinguished  by  physicists, 
and  designated  as  follows  :  Spontaneous  phos- 
phorescence ;  phosphorescence  from  the  effects 
of  heat ;  from  mechanical  action  ;  from  the 
action  of  electricity  ;  by  insolation  or  exposure 
to  the  light  of  the  sun.  The  first  is  by  far 
the  most  common  and  familiar  phenomenon, 
being  exhibited  by  certain  living  organisms 
both  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 
There  are  flowers  of  a  bright  red  or  yellow- 
color  which  have  been  observed  to  emit  light 
flashes  in  the  dark,  and  other  plants  which 
give  out  a  faint,  continuous  light,  caused  prob- 
ably by  the  oxidation  of  some  hydro-carbon 
which  they  secrete.  The  best  known  exam- 
ples, however,  are  those  seen  in  animals,  as 
the  glow-worm  or  firefly,  and  the  myriads  of 
minute  animalcula  which  cause  the  magnifi- 
cent displays  of  phosphorescence  that  are  often 
seen  at  sea  by  night,  especially  in  the  tropics, 
and  in  temperate  zones  during  the  summer. 
Various  causes  have  been  assigned  for  this  ani- 
mal phosphorescence,  and  they  doubtless  vary 
with  different  animals.  In  the  glow-worm  and 
firefly  it  is  thought  to  be  produced  by  an  act  of 
the  will.  M.  Jousset  discovered  the  liquid 
which  exudes  from  the  crushed  eggs  of  the 
glow-worm  to  be  phosphorescent,  and  to  re- 
main so  until  dried  up.  In  the  marine  ani- 
malcula, it  is  believed  that  a  subtle  luminous 
matter  is  thrown  off  as  a  secretion  supplied  by 
glands  having  this  special  function  ;  and  some 
naturalists  assert  that  it  contains  epithelial 
cells  in  a  state  of  fatty  degeneration,  the  de- 
composing fat  being  the  cause  of  the  phosphor- 
escence. That  phosphorescence  seen  in  de- 
caying fish  and  other  animal  matter,  and  in 
wood  (called  "fox-fire"),  is  due  to  a  species 
of  slow  combustion  by  which  vibrations  are 
excited  capable  of  emitting  luminous  rays.  The 
other  kinds  of  phosphorescence  are,  for  the 
most  part,  seen  only  in  scientific  experiments, 
except  the  last,  which  is  now  receiving  some 
application  in  articles  of  everyday  use,  as 
match  boxes,  clock-faces,  etc.  ;  they  are  covered 
with  a  preparation  possessing  this  property, 
and  remain  luminous,  and  therefore  easily  vis- 
ible in  the  dark.  Certain  compounds  have 
been  discovered  which  exhibit  the  property  in 
a  high  degree,  as  Canton's  phosphorus,  Bo- 
lognese  phosphorus,  etc.  It  is  probably  due 
to  the  absorption  of  the  energy  of  the  vibra- 
tions falling  upon    them,  which   is  afterward 


342 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


radiated  from  them  again .  It  is  probable  that 
all  bodies  possess  the  quality  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree ;  but  with  the  great  majority  the 
duration  of  the  phenomenon  is  very  short  — 
rarely  more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a  second. 
The  phenomenon  has  no  connection  with  or- 
dinary phosphorus,  but  the  name  is  thence 
derived  from  the  similar  light  emitted  by  phos- 
phorus in  the  dark,  which  is  due  to  the  slow 
combustion  of  this  element,  which  oxidizes  at 
a  very  low  temperature. 

Photography. —  The  action  of  light  on 
chloride  of  silver  was  known  as  early  as  the 
sixteenth  century.  The  phenomenon  was 
studied  by  Scheele  (1777),  Senebier  (1790),  Hit- 
ter and  Wollaston  (1801).  From  the  results 
of  these  investigations,  experiments  were 
made  by  Thomas  Wedgwood  and  Humphry 
Davy,  which  were  published,  1802.  Wedg- 
wood may  be  regarded  as  the  first  photog- 
rapher. His  paper  was  entitled  "  An  Account 
of  a  method  of  copying  paintings  upon  glass, 
and  of  making  profiles  by  the  agency  of  light 
upon  nitrate  of  silver."  Further  discoveries 
were  made  by  Niepce  in  1814,  and  by  Sir  J. 
Ilerschel  in  1819.  Daquewe  commenced  his 
experiments  in  1824 ;  and  in  1826  joined 
Niepce,  and  worked  with  him  till  the  death  of 
the  latter  in  1833.  In  1839,  Henry  Fox  Tal- 
bot first  published  his  mode  of  multiplying 
photographic  impressions,  by  producing  a  nega- 
tive photograph  (».  e.,  with  the  lights  and 
shades  reversed),  from  which  any  number  of 
positive  copies  may  be  obtained.  His  patent 
is  dated  February,  1S41.  From  this  time  im- 
provements have  been  made  with  great  rapid- 
dity. 

Celestial  photography  began  with  Professor 
Bond,  the  astronomer,  of  Cambridge,  Mass., 
in  1851.  It  was  greatly  improved  by  Dr. 
Draper  in  1859  to  1881,  and  by  others  more 
recently. 

Photogravure. —  The  earliest  attempt  at 
photographic  engraving  dates  back  to  1827, 
which  was  six  years  previous  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  daguerreotype  process,  and  was  the 
invention  of  M.  Nicephore  Niepce  of  Paris, 
who  first  discovered  that  thin  plates  of  bitu- 
men were  curiously  affected  by  light.  He 
therefore  coated  metal  plates  with  a  thin  layer 
of  bitumen  of  the  kind  called  Jew's  pitch, 
and  placed  them  in  a  camera  obscura,  so 
arranged  that  he  could  insure  their  exposure  to 
the  same  image  for  several  hours.  The  plate 
was  then  submitted  to  the  action  of  oil  of  spike, 
which  readily  dissolved  those  portions  not  acted 
upon  by  the  light,  but  exerted  little  action 
upon  the  remainder.  The  metal  exposed  by 
the  solution  of  the  bitumen  was  then  acted 
upon    by   acid,    which    produced    a   complete 


etching  plate,  the  picture  part  being  protected 
by  its  bituminous  varnish  from  the  action  of 
the  acid.  The  art,  which  can  now  be  per- 
formed by  several  different  methods,  is  also 
known  by  the  names  of  photo-zincography  and 
process-engraving.  In  ordinary  zincography 
the  picture  is  laid,  by  the  help  of  transfer 
paper,  on  a  zinc  plate ;  the  parts  to  be  pro- 
tected are  then  covered  with  a  varnish  that 
will  resist  acid,  and  the  whole  is  then  dipped 
in  a  bath  of  dilute  nitrous  acid.  This  is  re- 
peated until  the  biting-in  is  sufficient,  when  the 
plate  is  dried  and  the  ink  taken  off  with  ben- 
zine. In  another  process  brass  plates  are 
used,  which  are  covered  with  white  wax,  the 
design  being  drawn  with  an  etching  point 
upon  the  wax.  The  plate  is  then  submitted  to 
a  powerful  acid,  which  acts  upon  the  parts  of 
the  metal  exposed  by  the  lines,  but  does  not 
affect  the  wax.  In  photo-zincography  the 
drawing  is  photographed  to  the  right  size,  and 
an  ordinary  negative  on  glass  is  taken.  This 
is  then  laid  on  a  sensitized  zinc  plate,  on 
which  the  picture  is  printed  by  the  action  of 
light.  The  zinc  is  coated  with  bitumen,  and 
after  the  picture  is  printed,  so  much  of  the 
bitumen  as  has  not  become  insoluble  by  the 
action  of  light  is  removed  by  a  wash  of  tur- 
pentine. In  another  process  —  the  photo- 
graphic etching  process  —  the  negative  is 
printed  on  a  sensitized  carbon  paper,  which  is 
then  laid  on  a  polished  zinc  plate,  and,  being 
wet,  all  the  carbon  paper  that  does  not  hold 
the  lines  of  the  drawing  is  readily  removed. 
The  plate  is  then  bitten-in  in  an  acid  bath.  In 
what  is  called  the  Ives  process  a  negative  is 
applied  to  a  gelatine  plate,  sensitized  with 
bichromate  of  potash.  This  plate  is  then  put 
into  water,  and  all  the  parts  not  touched  by 
the  negative  will  swell.  A  cast  is  then  taken 
of  this  in  plaster  of  paris,  which  serves  to  form 
a  base  for  electrotypes.  The  lines  of  engrav- 
ing can  also  be  reproduced  by  photography, 
and  a  late  process  produces  successfully  intaglio 
plates.  Photo-engraving  has  enormously  cheap- 
ened the  reproduction  of  pictures,  but  it  does 
not  give  plates  that  print  with  the  clearness 
and  distinctness  of  those  taken  from  wood 
engravings. 

Physics  has  been  described  as  a  science  of 
unbounded  extent,  and  as  reaching  from  an 
atom  to  God  himself.  It  is  made  to  embrace 
the  entire  doctrine  of  the  bodies  and  existences 
of  the  Universe  :  their  phenomena,  causes,  and 
effects.  Lock  wood  would  include  God,  angels, 
and  spirits  under  this  term.  The  origin  of  phys- 
ics is  referred  to  the  Brahmans,  magi,  and 
Hebrew  and  Egyptian  priests.  From  these  it 
was  passed  to  the  Greek  sages,  particularly 
Thales,  who  first  professed  the  study  of  nature 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


343 


in  Greece,  about  595  B.  C.  Pythagoras  en- 
deavored to  explain  the  philosophy  of  disease 
and  the  action  of  medicine,  about  529  B.  C. 
From  him,  together  with  Plato  and  the  Peri- 
patetic Schools,  it  descended  into  Italy  and 
the  rest  of  Europe. 

Pianoforte.  —  Invented  by  Schroter  of 
Dresden,  in  1717  ;  he  presented  a  model  of 
his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony.  Some 
time  after,  Silberman,  a  musical-instrument 
maker;  began  to  manufacture  pianofortes  with 
considerable  success.  The  invention  has  also 
been  ascribed  to  Cristofalli,  an  Italian  instru- 
ment maker  of  Florence,  and  Marius,  a 
Frenchman,  early  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  square  pianoforte  was  first  made  by  Fried- 
erici,  an  organ  builder  of  Saxony,  about  1759. 
Pianofortes  were  made  in  London  by  M. 
Zumpie,  a  German,  17G6,  and  have  been  since 
greatly  improved  by  Clementi,  Broadwood, 
Collard,  Kirkman,  Erard,  Pleyel,  Chickering, 
Steinway,  and  others.  Upright  pianos,  first 
made  in  the  United  States,  were  suggested  by 
Isaac  Hawkins,  in  1800,  and  Thomas  Loud, 
in  1802. 

Pins  are  first  mentioned  in  the  statutes  of 
England,  A.  D.  1483.  Brass  pins  were 
brought  from  France  in  1540,  and  were  first 
used  in  England  it  is  said  by  Catherine  How- 
ard, queen  of  Henry  VIII.  Before  the  in- 
vention of  pins  both  sexes  used  ribbons,  loop 
holes,  laces  with  points  and  tags,  clasps,  hooks 
and  eyes,  and  skewers  of  brass,  silver,  and  gold. 
Pins  wei'e  made  in  England  in  1543.  They 
were  first  manufactured  by  machinery  in  1824, 
under  a  patent  of  Lemuel  Wellman  Wright  of 
the  United  States. 

P  laying-Cards. —  The  invention  of  play- 
ing-cards has  been  variously  attributed  to  In- 
dia, China,  Arabia,  and  Egypt,  There  seems 
to  be  but  little  doubt  that  they  originated  in 
Asia,  and  were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Saracens  about  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. There  is  historical  mention  of  the  game 
of  cards  in  Germauy  in  1275,  in  Italy  in  1299, 
but  not  in  France  until  1393.  An  active  trade 
in  cards  sprung  up  in  Germany  as  early  as  the 
fifteenth  century,  where  they  wTere  manufac- 
tured for  other  portions  of  Europe.  One  hun- 
dred years  later  we  find  the  manufacture  of 
cards  a  flourishing  business  in  England,  and 
under  Edward  IV.  their  importation  was  for- 
bidden, thus  protecting  the  home  industry. 
Owing  to  their  supposed  immoral  influences 
they  were  at  times  prohibited  by  various  Eu- 
ropean governments.  The  marks  upon  the 
suits  of  cards  are  believed  to  have  been  chosen 
to  represent  symbolically  the  different  classes 
of  society.  Thus,  the  hearts  stood  for  the 
clergy,  clubs  for  the  soldiery,  spades  for  the 


serfs,  and  diamonds  for  the  merchants.  In 
the  early  French  cards  the  kings  were  pictures 
of  David,  Alexander,  Caesar,  and  Charlemagne, 
representing  the  monarchies  of  the  Jews, 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  French  ;  the  queens  were 
Argine,  Esther,  Judith,  and  Pallas.  The  num- 
ber of  the  cards,  the  ace,  and  the  knave,  were 
probably  based  on  similar  ideas.  The  suits 
of  the  earliest  German  cards  were  designated 
by  hearts,  bells,  leaves,  and  acorns.  Italian 
cards  had  swords,  batons,  cups,  and  money. 
The  court  cards  at  first  were  the  king,  cheva- 
lier, and  knave.  The  queen  was  first  substi- 
tuted for  the  chevalier  by  the  Italians.  The 
English  cards  in  the  seventeenth  century  were 
embellished  with  heraldic  designs,  the  king  of 
clubs  bearing  the  coat-of-arms  of  the  Pope  of 
Rome,  and  those  of  hearts,  diamonds,  and 
spades  being  adorned  respectively  with  the  ar- 
morial device  of  the  kings  of  England,  Spain, 
and  France.  The  club  of  modern  cards  de- 
rived its  form  from  the  trefoil,  a  French 
design.  A  pack  of  Hindustani  cards  in  the 
possession  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  of 
England  is  supposed  to  be  fully  1,000  years 
old.  It  consists  of  eight  suits  of  divers  colors. 
The  kings  are  mounted  on  elephants ;  the 
viziers,  or  second  honors,  upon  horses,  tigers, 
and  bulls  ;  and  some  of  the  common  cards  have 
such  curious  marks  as  a  pineapple  in  a  shallow 
cup,  and  a  something  like  a  parasol  without  a 
handle,  and  with  two  broken  ribs  sticking 
through  the  top. 

Post  Offices,  Origin  of. —  The  name 
post  office  originated  in  the  posts  placed  at  in- 
tervals along  the  roads  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
where  carriers  were  kept  in  readiness  to  bear 
dispatches  and  intelligence  ;  but  the  posts  of 
ancient  times  were  never  used  for  the  convey- 
ance of  private  correspondence.  The  first 
letter  post  seems  to  have  been  established  in 
the  Hanse  towns  in  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  A  line  of  letter  posts 
followed,  connecting  Austria  with  Lombardy, 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
which  are  said  to  have  been  organized  by  the 
princes  of  Thurn  and  Taxis ;  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  same  house  established  another 
line  of  posts  from  Vienna  to  Brussels,  con- 
necting the  most  distant  parts  of  the  domin- 
ions of  Charles  V.  In  England,  in  early  times, 
both  public  and  private  letters  were  sent  by 
messengers,  who,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
wore  the  royal  livery.  They  had  to  supply 
themselves  with  horses  until  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.,  when  posts  were  established  where 
horses  were  to  be  had  for  hire.  Camden  men- 
tions the  office  of  "  Master  of  the  Postes  "  as  ex- 
isting in  1581,  but  the  duties  of  that  officer 
were  probably  connected  exclusively  with  the 


344 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


supply  of  post  horses.  A  foreign  post  for 
the  conveyance  of  letters  between  London  and 
the  Continent  seems  to  have  been  established 
by  foreign  merchants  in  the  fifteenth  century  ; 
and  certain  disputes  which  arose  between  the 
Flemings  and  Italians  regarding  the  right  of 
appointing  a  postmaster,  which  were  referred 
to  the  privy  council,  led  to  the  institution  of  a 
"Chief  Postmaster  of  England, "who  should 
have  charge  both  of  the  English  and  the  foreign 
posts.  Thomas  Randolph  was  the  first  Chief 
Postmaster  of  England,  appointed  in  1581. 
In  1635  a  mail  was  established  to  run  weekly 
between  London  and  Edinburgh,  and  soon 
eight  other  lines  were  instituted.  Far  back  in 
the  twelfth  century  the  University  of  Paris, 
whose  students  gathered  from  all  the  civilized 
nations,  employed  foot  runners  to  carry  letters 
for  its  members  to  all  parts  of  Europe.  But 
not  until  1524  was  permission  granted  to  the 
Royal  French  posts  to  carry  other  letters  than 
those  for  the  Government  and  the  nobility. 
In  the  United  States,  Massachusetts  was  the 
first  colony  to  provide  by  legislation  for  a 
postal  system.  This  was  done  in  1639,  and 
Virginia  followed  in  1657.  In  1762  a  monthly 
post  was  instituted  between  Boston  and  New 
York.  In  the  beginning,  letters  arriving  in 
this  country  from  beyond  the  seas  were  de- 
livered on  board  the  ship.  Letters  not  called 
for  were  left  by  the  captain  at  a  coffee  house 
near  the  wharf,  where  they  were  spread  on  a 
table  or  shelf,  awaiting  call.  These  coffee 
houses  gradually  grew  into  common  use  for 
letters  between  cities  and  the  interior,  until  reg- 
ular posts  were  instituted.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  general  post  office  department  was 
one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  Continental  Con- 
gress, and  Benjamin  Franklin  was  appointed 
as  the  first  Portmaster-General. 

Postage  Stamps,  First.— Postage 
stamps,  in  the  form  of  stamped  envelopes, 
were  first  used  by  M.  de  Velayer,  who  owned 
a  privatepost  in  the  city  of  Paris  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  Over  a  century  later,  in  1758, 
M.  de  Chamouset,  also  the  proprietor  of  a  post, 
issued  printed  postage  slips  to  be  attached  to 
letters.  In  Spain,  in  1716,  and  in  Italy  also, 
stamped  covers  for  mail  matter  were  tried ; 
but  it  was  not  until  1840  that  stamps,  as  we 
know  them  now,  were  put  in  use.  This  was 
in  England,  the  Government  adopting  the  sys- 
tem devised  by  Rowland  Hill.  Brazil  was  the 
first  country  to  take  up  the  new  invention. 
Russia  adopted  the  postage  stamp  next,  in 
1845  ;  then  Switzerland,  in  1846  ;  and  March 
3,  1847,  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
authorized  the  issue  of  postage  stamps.  These 
were  at  first  a  five-cent  stamp  and  a  ten-cent 
stamp.     The  reduction  of  rates  in  1851  gave  a 


new  set  of  stamps,  valued  at  one,  three,  and 
twelve  cents  respectively.  Other  stamps  of 
different  values  were  added  from  time  to  time 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  postal  arrangements, 
reduction  of  postage  to  foreign  countries,  etc. 
Before  1845,  the  postal  rate  on  letters  in  the 
United  States  varied  from  six  cents  for  carry- 
ing a  distance  of  thirty  miles  to  twenty-five 
cents  for  over  four  hundred  miles.  By  the 
reduction  of  that  year  the  postage  was  made 
five  cents  for  three  hundred  miles  or  less,  and 
ten  cents  for  any  distance  above  that.  In  1851 
the  rate  was  fixed  at  three  cents  for  every  half 
ounce  for  three  thousand  miles,  and  six  cents 
for  any  greater  distance  within  the  United 
States.  In  1883  the  postage  was  reduced  to 
two  cents  for  half  an  ounce  for  letters  sent  less 
than  three  thousand  miles,  and  in  1885  to  two 
cents  an  ounce. 

Potatoes. —  The  potato  was  used  as  a  food 
in  America  long  before  the  advent  of  Europe- 
ans, and  was  probably  indigenous  from  Chili 
to  Mexico.  It  was  taken  from  Peru  to  Spain, 
and  thence  into  the  Netherlands,  Burgundy, 
and  other  parts  of  Europe  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  1563  or  1565  it  was  car- 
ried from  Virginia  to  Ireland  by  Sir  John 
Hawkins,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake  introduced  it 
into  England  in  1585.  Its  importance  as  a 
vegetable  was  not  recognized,  however,  until 
i  the  time  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who  cultivated 
it  on  a  considerable  scale  on  his  estates  in  the 
'<  County  of  Cork,  Ireland.  Through  the  exer- 
tions of  Raleigh  it  was  developed  in  quality 
and  popularized  as  food  to  such  an  extent  in 
Ireland  that  its  cultivation  spread  into  Eng- 
land, where  it  became  known  as  the  "Irish 
i  potato. "  The  potato  mentioned  by  early  Eng- 
lish writers  before  the  seventeenth  century  was 
the  same  as  the  Spanish  batatas,  or  sweet 
potato. 

Printing  Crockery. — Common  crockery, 
when  it  is  in  the  state  called  biscuit  ware  — 
that  is,  when  it  has  been  whitened  by  baking 
but  has  not  been  glazed  —  is  figured  upon  or 
decorated  by  applying  to  its  surface  a  design 
freshly  printed  upon  paper.  The  ware  absorbs 
the  enamel  ink,  and  the  paper  is  removed  by 
water.  It  is  then  fired  in  seggars,  or  a  muffle, 
to  fix  the  color,  dipped  in  glaze,  and  then 
again  fired,  which  converts  the  glaze  into  a 
perfectly  transparent  glassy  covering  all  over 
the  surface  of  the  pottery.  Porcelain  decora- 
tion has  long  held  a  righ  rank  as  a  fine  art ; 
and  the  exquisite  skill  shown  in  some  of  the 
finest  works  of  the  continental  manufacturers, 
and  also  in  those  of  Great  Britain,  has  fairly 
entitled  it  to  that  rank.  The  colors  employed 
are  all  colored  glasses  ground  to  impalpable 
powder,  and  mixed  with  borax,  or  some  other 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


315 


fluxing  material ;  for  use  they  are  generally 
made  liquid  with  oil  of  spike,  and  they  are 
laid  on  with  hair  pencils  in  the  same  way  as 
oil  colors.  The  whole  process  is  exactly  the 
same  as  in  painting  or  staining  glass,  the  glaze 
on  the  biscuit  porcelain  being  true  glfss,  and 
the  enamel  colors  being  exactly  the  same  as 
those  used  by  the  glass  decorator.  Peculiar 
and  beautiful  metallic  lusters  are  produced 
upon  pottery  by  precipitated  platinum  and 
other  metals.  The  manufacture  of  pottery  is 
carried  on  with  great  activity  at  Trenton, 
X.  .1..  Philadelphia,  Liverpool  vl~  Ohio),  and 
other  places  in  the  United  States. 

Printing1  in  America. — Printing  was 
introduced  into  America  at  Mexico  by  the 
Viceroy  Mendoza  in  1536.  The  first  book 
printed  was  the  Escala  espiritual  de  San  Juan 
Climaco,  of  which  no  copy  is  known  to  exist ; 
but  the  oldest  American  book  now  extant  is 
the  Manual  de  Adulfos,  dated  1510,  of  which 
only  the  last  four  leaves  are  to  be  found  in  the 
library  of  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo.  The  name 
of  the  earliest  printer  is  a  matter  of  question. 

Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  is  entitled  to  the 
distinction  of  having  the  first  printing  press  in 
North  America,  which  was  under  the  charge 
of  Stephen  Daye.  For  this  press  the  colony 
was  mainly  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Jesse  Glover, 
a  nonconformist  minister  possessed  of  a  con- 
siderable estate,  who  had  left  England  to  set- 
tle among  his  friends  in  Massachusetts.  Some 
gentlemen  of  Amsterdam  also  • '  gave  towards 
furnishing  of  a  printing  press  with  letters, 
forty-nine  pounds  and  something  more. "  This 
was  about  1638.  The  first  book  issued  was  the 
Bay  Psalm  Book,  in  1610. 

The  first  book  issued  in  the  Middle  Colonies 
was  an  almanac,  printed  by  William  Brad- 
ford in  1685,  near  Philadelphia.  Bradford 
was  brought  out  from  England  in  1681  by 
William  Penn.  As  the  government  of  Penn- 
sylvania became  very  restrictive  in  regard  to 
the  press,  Bradford  in  1693  removed  to  New 
York,  and  was  appointed  printer  to  that  colony, 
where  he  established,  in  1725,  the  New  York 
Gazette,  the  first  newspaper  published  there. 
He  died  May  23,  1752,  after  an  active  and 
useful  life  of  eighty-nine  years. 

The  first  newspaper  in  America  was  the 
Boston  News  Letter,  which  was  first  issued  by 
John  Campbell  on  Monday.  April  21,  1701 ; 
it  was  regularly  published  for  nearly  seventy- 
two  years.  The  second  was  the  Boston  Gazette, 
begun  December  21,  1719.  The  third  was  the 
America),  Weekly  Mercury,  issued  in  Philadel- 
phia, by  Andrew  Bradford,  on  December  22. 
1719.  James  Franklin,  an  elder  brother  of 
Benjamin,  established  the  New  England  Con- 
rant,  August  17,  1721. 


The  oldest  living  paper  of  the  United  States 
is  the  New  Hampshire  Gazette,  published  at 
Portsmouth,  now  (Oct.  7,  1899)  one  hundred 
and  forty-three  years  old. 

The  North  American  and  United  States  Ga- 
zette leads  the  existing  daily  press  of  this  coun- 
try in  point  of  antiquity.  It  is  the  successor 
of  the  Pennsylvania  Packet  (begun  in  1771  and 
becoming  a  daily  paper  in  1781),  and  is  still 
the  chief  commercial  journal  of  Philadelphia. 

The  first  paper  mill  in  America  was  estab- 
lished near  Germantown,  Pa.,  in  1690,  by 
William  Rittenhouse. 

Ptolemaic  System,  The — Ptolemy  of 
Alexandria  (A.  D.  130-150)  was  the  founder 
of  a  theory  called  the  Ptolemaic  system,  based 
largely  upon  the  materials  gathered  by  previ- 
ous astronomers,  such  as  Hipparchus,  already 
mentioned,  and  Eratosthenes,  who  computed 
the  size  of  the  earth  by  means  even  uow  con- 
sidered the  best  —  the  measurement  of  an  arc 
of  the  meridian.  The  advocates  of  the  Ptole- 
maic theory  assumed  that  every  planet  revolves 
in  a  circle,  and  that  the  earth  is  the  fixed  cen- 
ter around  which  the  sun  and  the  heavenly 
bodies  _move.  They  conceived  that  a  bar,  or 
something  equivalent,  is  connected  at  one  end 
with  the  earth  ;  that  at  some  part  of  this  bar 
the  sun  is  attached ;  while  between  that  and 
the  earth,  Venus  is  fastened,  not  to  the  bar  di- 
rectly, but  to  a  sort  of  crank  ;  and  farther  on, 
Mercury  is  hitched  on  in  the  same  way.  They 
did  not  fully  understand  the  nature  of  these 
bars  —  whether  they  were  real  or  only  imag- 
inary—  but  they  did  comprehend  their  action, 
as  they  thought ;  and  so  they  supposed  the  bar 
revolved,  carrying  the  sun  and  planets  along  in 
a  large  circle  about  the  earth  ;  while  all  the 
short  cranks  kept  flying  around,  thus  sweep- 
ing each  planet  through  a  smaller  circle. 

The  movements  of  the  planets  were  to  the 
ancients  extremely  complex.  Venus,  for  in- 
stance, was  sometimes  seen  as  "  evening  star  " 
in  the  west;  and  then  again  as  "morning 
star  "  in  the  east.  Sometimes  she  seemed  to 
be  moving  in  the  same  direction  as  the  sun, 
then,  going  apparently  behind  the  sun,  she 
appeared  to  pass  on  again  in  a  course  directly 
opposite.  At  one  time  she  would  recede  from 
the  sun  more  and  more  slowly  and  coyly,  un- 
til she  would  appear  to  be  entirely  stationary; 
then  she  would  retrace  her  steps,  and  seem  to 
meet  the  sun.  All  these  facts  were  attempted 
to  be  accounted  for  by  an  incongruous  system 
of  "cycles  and  epicycles." 

The  system  of  Ptolemy  passed  current  for 
1100  years,  and  during  this  time  astrology  was 
ranked  as  one  of  the  most  important  branches 
of  knowledge.  Star  diviuers  were  held  in  the 
greatest  estimation,  and  the  issue  of  any  im- 


346 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


portant  undertaking,  or  the  fortune  of  an 
individual,  was  foretold  by  means  of  horo- 
scopes representing  the  position  of  the  stars 
and  planets.  The  system  of  the  astrologers 
was  very  complicated,  and  contained  regular 
rules  to  guide  the  interpretation,  so  intricate 
that  years  of  study  were  required  for  their 
mastery.  Venus  foretold  love ;  Mars,  war ; 
the  Pleiades,  storms  at  sea.  Not  only  the 
ignorant  were  the  dupes  of  this  system,  Lord 
Bacon  believing  in  it  most  firmly. 

Pulley. —  The  pulley,  together  with  the 
vise,  and  other  mechanical  instruments,  is 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of 
Tarentum,  a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  about  516 
B.  C.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  architect  and 
mechanic,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  pump, 
with  other  hydraulic  instruments,  about  224 
B.  C,  although  the  invention  was  ascribed  to 
Danaus,  1485  B.  C.  They  were  in  general 
use  in  England,  A.  D.  1425.  The  air  pump 
was  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  in  1654.  and 
was  improved  by  Boyle  in  1657. 

Rainbow. —  A  rainbow  can  only  be  seen 
when  the  spectator  stands  between  it  and  the 
sun  ;  its  center  must  always  be  directly  oppo- 
site the  sun,  moving  with  the  sun's  motion, 
falling  if  the  sun  is  rising,  and  rising  if  the 
sun  is  declining.  A  rainbow  occurs  when  the 
sun  or  moon,  not  too  far  above  the  horizon, 
throws  its  beams  upon  a  sheet  of  falling  rain- 
drops on  the  opposite  side  of  the  heavens. 
Thus,  a  ray  of  light  from  the  sun  strikes  a 
rain-drop  obliquely  ;  part  of  it  is  reflected  at  the 
surface  of  the  drop ;  the  rest,  passing  into 
the  drop,  is  refracted ;  on  the  other  side  of 
the  drop  part  of  the  ray  passes  through,  and  the 
rest  is  again  reflected ;  on  passing  from  the 
drop  :>n  the  same  side  that  it  entered,  a  second 
refraction  occurs.  These  successive  reflections 
and  refractions  separate  the  ray  of  white  light 
into  its  component  colored  rays,  and  as  the 
angles  of  incidence  and  emergence  vary  for 
each  color,  the  eye  of  a  spectator  perceives 
them  as  distinct  bands.  Now,  every  drop  in 
the  sheet  of  falling  water  which  has  equal 
obliquity  to  the  spectator's  eye  will  send  to  it 
rays  of  the  same  color.  But  the  only  drops 
which  can  fulfill  these  conditions  of  like  obliq- 
uity of  reflected  rays  are  those  which  define  the 
base  of  a  cone  whose  apex  is  the  eye,  and  the 
center  of  whose  base  is  in  a  right  line  passing 
through  the  sun  and  the  eye  of  the  spectator. 
At  or  near  sunset,  when  the  sun  and  the 
observer  are  in  the  same  horizontal  plane,  the 
bow  will  be  seen  to  form  a  complete  semicircle  ; 
when  the  sun  is  higher  in  the  sky,  a  smaller 
arch  is  seen  ;  the  entire  circle  could  only  be 
visible  to  a  spectator  on  the  top  of  a  very  high 
and  narrow  mountain  peak,  which  would  ele- 


vate his  plane  much  above  that  of  the  sun's 
raws  without  cutting  off  their  light.  A  com- 
plete circle  may  also  be  sometimes  seen  in  the 
rainbow  formed  by  the  sunlight  on  the  spray 
arising  from  cataracts.  The  lunar  rainbow, 
which  1^a  comparatively  rare  but  very  beauti- 
ful phenomenon,  differs  from  the  solar  simply 
in  the  source  and  intensity  of  the  light  by 
which  it  is  produced  ;  and,  as  in  all  cases  of 
feeble  light,  the  distinction  of  the  colors  is 
very  difficult.  In  fact,  except  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  the  lunar  rainbows 
rarely  show  colors  at  all,  giving  a  pale,  ghostly 
gleam  of  apparently  white  or  yellow  light. 

Reaper,  First  in  the  United  States. 
—  In  1803  a  reaping  machine  was  patented  by 
Richard  French  and  John  J.  Hawkins,  but  it 
did  not  prove  successful.  Prior  to  1832  there 
were  granted  eight  patents  for  machines  for 
cutting  grain.  No  inventor,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  machines  that  possessed 
sufficient  practical  merit  to  be  used  otherwise 
than  experimentally  until  we  come  to  Bell, 
Hussey,  and  McCormick,  whose  machines  have 
since  become  so  well  known .  At  the  meeting  of 
the  British  Association  at  Dundee,  September, 
1867,  the  Reverend  Patrick  Bell  stated  that  he 
invented  his  reaping  machine  in  1826.  Mc- 
Cormick's  American  machine  was  patented  in 
1834,  and,  with  improvements  added  in  1845 
and  1847,  received  a  medal  at  the  World's 
Fair  in  London,  1851.  In  1833,  Obed  Hussey, 
then  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  patented  a  machine 
to  which  he  applied  saw-toothed  cutters  and 
guards.  This  machine  was  at  once  put  into 
practical  operation,  and  gave  general  satisfac- 
tion. Hussey,  in  1847,  patented  the  open- 
topped  slotted  finger.  The  practical  use  of 
self-rakers,  in  this  country,  dates  from  the  in- 
vention of  W.  II.  Seymour  of  New  York,  in 
1851.  He  arranged  a  quadrant-shaped  plat- 
form directly  behind  the  cutters,  a  reel  to 
gather  the  grain,  and  a  rake  moving  over  the 
platform  in  the  arc  of  a  circle  depositing  the 
sheaves  on  the  ground.  In  1856,  Owen  Horsey 
lit'  .Maryland  combined  the  reel  and  rake,  and 
his  improvement  has  been  extensively  used 
here  and  abroad,  with  some  modifications,  one 
of  which  was  by  Johnston  in  1865,  who  ar- 
ranged it  so  that  the  size  of  the  sheaves,  or 
gavels,  as  they  are  called,  could  be  regulated 
at  the  will  of  the  driver.  The  names  of 
Haines,  Ketchuin,  Manny,  and  Wood  are  prom- 
inent among  inventors  of  improvements  in 
mowers  and  harvesters. 

Saddles. —  Pliny  informs  us  that  one  Pele- 
thronus  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  piece  of 
leather  fastened  to.  the  back  of  a  horse  for  the 
accommodation  of  its  rider.  For  a  long  time 
these  cloths  and  pieces  of  leather  were  regarded 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,   DISCOVERY. 


347 


as  unmanly,  and  were  consequently  treated  by 
soldiers  with  great  scorn.  The  old  German 
races  despised  the  Roman  cavalry  for  riding 
on  such  effeminate  contrivances.  Saddles  of 
the  kind  now  used  appear  to  have  been  in  use 
in  385.  Side-saddles  were  first  used  in  1380. 
Previous  to  their  introduction  women  always 
rode  astride. 

Salt,  Sources  of. —  At  one  time  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  salt  used  as  food  and  for  in- 
dustrial purposes  was  obtained  from  sea-water, 
and  in  many  countries  where  the  climate  is 
dry  and  warm  and  there  is  a  convenient  sea- 
board, large  quantities  are  still  so  obtained. 
In  Portugal  more  than  250,000  tons  are  an- 
nually produced,  and  about  the  same  quan- 
tity is  obtained  on  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean coasts  of  France.  Spain  has  salt-works 
in  the  Balearic  Islands,  the  Bay  of  Cadiz,  and 
elsewhere,  which  turn  out  annually  300,000 
tons ;  and  even  the  small  Adriatic  seaboard 
of  Austria  produces  every  year  from  70,000  to 
100,000  tons.  The  peninsula  and  islands  of 
Italy  yield  about  165,000  tons,  and  there  are 
still  a  few  establishments  in  England  and  Scot- 
land ;  but  in  these  latter  countries  the  indus- 
try has  been  almost  entirely  driven  out  by  the 
rock-salt  works.  The  salt  obtained  from  this 
source  is  called  "  sea  "  or  "  bay  "  salt.  The 
works  are  generally  called  salt  gardens  —  salina 
(Spanish)  —  salz  garten,  in  Austria.  They 
consist  of  a  series  of  large,  shallow  evaporat- 
ing reservoirs.  The  sea  water  is  admitted,  and 
flows  slowly  from  one  to  another,  all  the  while 
evaporating  under  the  heat  of  the  sun,  until 
finally  the  dry  salt  remains  in  crystalline  crusts 
on  the  salting-tables  in  the  final  basins.  These 
reservoirs  vary  from  ten  to  sixteen  inches  in 
depth,  the  sediment  and  many  of  the  impuri- 
ties being  deposited  in  the  earlier  and  deeper 
basins  in  the  first  stages  of  evaporation.  Be- 
tween the  temperatures  of  25  and  26  degrees 
(Baume)  pure  salt  is  deposited,  equal  to  about 
twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  This  is 
kept  pure  by  conducting  the  brine  to  separate 
salting-tables  at  this  temperature,  and,  after  it 
reaches  26  degrees,  carrying  it  on  to  other 
basins,  where  a  second  quality,  equal  to  about 
sixty  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  is  formed.  After  : 
the  brine  reaches  2S.5  degrees  it  is  led  into 
still  other  basins,  where  the  remainder  of  the 
salt  is  deposited.  The  salt  is  raked  up  and  i 
sold  just  as  it  is  formed,  with  the  slight  puri- 
fication resulting  from  a  few  months'  exposure 
to  the  weather,  which  is  customary.  The 
evaporating  surface  of  these  shallow  basins 
covers,  in  many  establishments,  hundreds  of  [ 
acres.  Those  at  Berre,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
have  an  area  of  815  acres.  Sea-salt  has  been 
obtained  in  this  way  in  many  of  the  seaboard 


States  of  the  United  States,  but  not  to  any  ex- 
tent. The  other  great  source  of  common  salt 
1  is  the  vast  mineral  deposits.  Salt  also  occurs 
;  as  a  mineral  in  an  almost  pure  state,  and  asso- 
ciated with  the  rocks  of  almost  every  geologic 
period.  Many  of  the  deposits  are  of  vast  ex- 
tent, and  are  another  great  commercial  source 
of  this  substance.  This  mineral  deposit  is 
called  rock-salt,  and  is  evidently  the  insult  of 
the  evaporation  of  great  shallow  bodies  of  salt- 
water in  remote  ages,  as  is  proved  by  its  gen- 
erally stratified  nature,  with  beds  of  clay  in- 
tervening, and  the  occurrence  of  marine  shells 
and  fossils  in  the  surrounding  rock  formation. 
Large  mines  are  worked  in  England  and  all 
the  European  countries,  and  in  many  places 
throughout  the  world.  The  most  famous  of 
all  is  the  mine  at  Williczka,  nine  miles  from 
Cracow,  in  Galicia,  which  has  been  worked 
continuously  for  upward  of  six  hundred  years. 
It  is  stopped-out  in  longitudinal  and  trans- 
verse galleries,  with  frequent  large  vaulted 
chambers  supported  by  massive  pillars.  These 
extend  on  four  different  levels,  and  have  a  to- 
tal length  of  30  miles,  the  mine  being  1  mile 
1,279  yards  long  by  830  yards  wide  and  284 
yards  deep.  The  lower  levels  contain  streets 
and  houses,  constituting  a  complete  village ; 
and  many  of  the  miners,  of  whom  there  are 
800  to  1,000,  rarely  come  above  ground.  The 
salt  is  sold  just  as  it  is  dug  out  of  the  mine, 
and  55,067  tons  are  annually  extracted.  The 
total  extent  of  this  deposit  is  500  by  200  miles, 
with  an  average  depth  of  1,200  feet.  Salt  is 
also  obtained  in  many  localities  from  mineral 
deposits  by  means  of  salt-wells.  In  some  cases 
the  water  occurs  naturally  in  the  salt  strata, 
and  the  saturated  brine  is  reached  by  deep 
borings  (sometimes  1.500  feet)  ;  in  other  cases 
water  is  introduced  into  the  borings  and  then 
pumped  out  again,  two  concentric  tubes  being 
employed.  After  the  brine  is  secured  it  is 
evaporated  by  artificial  heat  in  large  iron  vats. 
The  salt- wells  in  Onondaga  County,  New  York, 
near  Syracuse  and  Salina,  are  a  large  and  im- 
portant industry.  Michigan  has  the  largest 
output  next  to  New  York,  and  many  other 
States  produce  it  to  some  extent ;  but  the 
home  supply  is  not  equal  to  the  demand,  and 
there  is  a  large  annual  importation  into  the 
United  States. 

Saw. —  Invented  by  Daedalus.  Talus,  it  is 
said,  having  found  the  jaw  bone  of  a  snake, 
employed  it  to  cut  through  a  piece  of  wood, 
and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron  like  it. 
Sawmills  were  erected  in  Madeira  in  1420  ; 
at  Breslau  in  1427.  Norway  had  the  first 
sawmill  in  1530.  The  attempts  to  introduce 
sawmills  in  England  were  violently  opposed, 
and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman  in  1663  was 


348 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


forced  to  be  abandoned.  Sawmills  were  erected 
near  London  about  1770,  and  thenceforward 
became  general. 

Screw  Propeller,  The.— In  1802  Dr. 
Shorter,  an  English  mechanician,  produced 
motion  by  the  agency  of  a  screw  ;  but  his  dis- 
covery was  of  no  value  at  the  time,  as  the 
steam  engine  had  not  then  been  applied  to 
navigation.  In  1832,  Mr.  B.  Woodcroft  pat- 
ented a  screw  propeller  with  an  increasing 
pitch  ;  and  four  years  later  Mr.  F.  P.  Smith 
patented  a  screw  'making  two  whole  turns, 
which  he  reduced  in  1839  to  one  whole  turn. 
In  1837  he  and  Captain  Ericsson  brought  the 
matter  practically  forward  on  the  Thames, 
where  a  small  screw  steamer,  forty-five  feet 
long,  eight  feet  broad,  and  of  twenty-seven 
inches  draught,  towed  a  vessel  of  six  hundred 
and  thirty  tons  against  the  tide  at  four  and 
one  half  knots  an  hour.  This  experiment  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  others,  some  un- 
dertaken under  the  direction  of  the  British 
Admiralty,  which  clearly  established  the 
practicability  of  the  screw,  and  its  advantages 
for  ships  of  war  became  incontestable.  From 
the  entire  submergence  of  the  propeller,  and 
the  consequent  lowness  of  its  engines  in  the 
ship,  the  chances  of  injury  from  an  enemy's 
shot  were  reduced  almost  to  nothing.  The 
screw  propeller  is  of  the  same  construction  as 
the  common  screw,  but  with  the  narrow  thread 
exaggerated  into  a  broad,  thin  plate,  and  the 
cylinder  diminished  to  a  mere  spindle.  If  a 
screw  of  this  form  were  turned  round  in  an 
unyielding  substance,  as  wood,  it  would  for 
each  turn  advance  as  much  as  the  center  of 
the  blade  (or  thread)  had  moved  along  the 
spindle  in  forming  the  screw,  ?'.  e.,  the  dis- 
tance. If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  screw  itself 
were  prevented  from  moving  longitudinally, 
and  the  piece  of  wood  not  fixed,  the  latter 
would  be  compelled  to  advance  along  the 
screw  the  same  distance.  When  the  screw  is 
fixed  beneath  a  ship  and  made  to  v  revolve  in 
the  water,  the  case  lies  between  the  two  just 
supposed  —  the  screw  moves  forward,  and  with 
it  the  ship,  and  the  water  in  which  it  has  been 
working  moves  backward.  The  backward 
motion  should  only  be  small  proportionately, 
and  the  ratio  between  it  and  the  sum  of  the 
backward  motion  of  the  water  and  the  forward 
motion  of  the  ship  is  called  the  slip.  Screws 
have  been  formed  with  two,  three,  four,  and 
six  blades,  or  arms ;  but  the  form  most  com- 
monly used  is  two  blades  for  ships  of  war,  and 
three  or  four  blades  in  the  merchant  service. 

Ship  Building. —  This  art  is  attributed 
to  the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inventors ;  the 
first  ship  (probably  galley)  being  brought  from 
Egypt  to  Greece  by  Danaus,   in  1485  B.  C. 


The  first  double-decked  ship  was  built  by  the 
Tyrians,  786  B.  C.  The  first  double-decked 
one  built  in  England  was  by  order  of  Henry 
VII.,  1509.  It  was  called  the  Great  Harry 
and  cost  14,000  pounds.  Portholes  and  other 
improvements  were-jfivented  by  Descharges,  a 
French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reign  of  Louis 
XII.,  about  1500.  Ship  building  was  first 
treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste,  1696.  Iron  is 
now  greatly  used  in  ship  building.  For  beau- 
tiful models  and  fast  sailing,  the  shipping  of 
the  United  States  (especially  the  packet  ships 
and  steamers  sailing  from  New  York)  is  not 
surpassed,  and  probably  not  equaled,  by  that 
of  any  other  nation  in  the  world. 

Signals,  Wind  and  Weather. —  A  red 
flag  with  a  black  center  indicates  that  a  storm 
of  marked  violence  is  expected.  A  yellow  flag 
with  a  white  center  indicates  that  the  winds 
expected  will  not  be  of  extreme  severity.  A 
red  pennant  indicates  easterly  winds  —  that  is, 
from  northeast  to  south,  inclusive,  and  that, 
generally,  the  storm  center  is  approaching.  If 
shown  above  the  red  flag,  winds  from  the 
northeast  are  more  probable  ;  if  below,  winds 
from  the  southeast  may  be  expected.  A  white 
pennant  indicates  westerly  winds  —  that  is, 
from  north  to  southwest,  inclusive,  and  that, 
generally,  the  storm  center  has  passed.  If 
shown  above  the  red  flag,  winds  from  north- 
west will  probably  prevail ;  if  below,  winds 
from  southwest.  A  white  flag  indicates  fair 
weather.  A  blue  flag  indicates  rain  or  snow. 
A  black  triangular  flag  refers  to  temperature  ; 
when  placed  above  the  white  or  blue  flag  it 
indicates  warmer  weather ;  and  when  placed 
below  them,  colder  wreather.  A  white  flag 
with  black  square  in  center  indicates  the  ap- 
proach of  a  sudden  and  decided  fall  in  tempera- 
ture, and  is  usually  ordered  at  least  twenty-four 
hours  in  advance  of  a  cold  wave.  When  dis- 
played on  poles,  the  signals  are  arranged  to 
read  downward  ;  when  displayed  from  horizon- 
tal supports,  a  small  streamer  is  attached  to 
indicate  the  point  from  which  the  signals  are 
to  be  read. 

Silkworm. —  It  is  the  general  belief  that 
the  great  importance  of  the  silkworm  was  first 
discovered  by  Se-ling,  the  wife  of  the  Chinese 
Emperior  Hoangti,  who  reigned  about  2637 
B.  C.,  and  that  she  also  invented  and  taught 
the  art  of  silk-spinning  and  weaving.  The 
worms  are  exceedingly  tender,  and  liable  to 
perish  from  the  slightest  changes  of  tempera- 
ture and  dampness.  They  feed  upon  the  leaves 
of  various  trees  and  bushes,  but  experiments 
go  to  show  that  the  best  silk  is  produced  when 
the  worm  is  fed  upon  mulberry  leaves.  The 
great  centers  of  this  industry  are  China,  Japan, 
India,  and  Southern    Europe,   and  they  have 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


349 


been  successfully  raised  in  California,  Ohio, 
Kansas,  East  Tennessee,  Northern  Georgia, 
Kentucky,  and  in  some  parts  of  New  Jersey. 

Soap  is  a  salt,  a  compound  of  fatty  acid 
with  an  alkali,  soda,  or  potash.  The  Hebrew 
borith,  translated  soap,  is  merely  a  general 
term  for  cleaning  substances.  Pliny  declares 
soap  to  be  an  invention  of  the  Gauls,  though 
he  preferred  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap. 
In  remote  periods  clothes  were  cleansed  by 
being  rubbed  or  stamped  upon  in  water. 
Homer  tells  us  that  Nausicaa  and  her  attend- 
ants washed  clothes  by  treading  upon  them  with 
their  feet  in  pits  of  water.  The  Roman's  used 
fuller's  earth.  Savon,  the  French  word  for 
soap,  is  ascribed  to  its  having  been  manufac- 
tured at  Savona,  near  Genoa.  The  manufac- 
ture of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before 
which  time  it  was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one 
penny  per  pound. 

Soaps,  Natural. — ■  From  time  immemo- 
rial the  Egyptian  soaproot  and  the  Spanish 
soaproot  have  been  employed  for  washing  in 
Southern  Europe  and  Egypt,  and  are,  to  some 
extent,  exported  for  use  in  cleansing  fine  arti- 
cles. In  the  West  Indies  and  South  America, 
a  pulpy  fruit,  which  grows  on  a  tree  known  as 
the  soap-tree,  is  said  to  have  such  cleansing 
properties  that  it  will  clean  as  much  linen  as 
sixty  times  its  weight  of  manufactured  soap. 
There  is  also  a  tree  in  Peru,  Quillaja  Saponaria, 
whose  bark,  in  infusion,  yields  a  soapy  liquid 
much  valued  for  washing  woolens,  and  is 
largely  imported  to  England  and  other  coun- 
tries for  this  purpose.  The  juice  of  the  soap- 
wort,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  the  "  Bounc- 
ing Bet,"  strongly  possesses  the  saponaceous 
qualities.  In  California  the  roots  of  the  Phel- 
angium  Pomaridianum,  which  grows  there  abun- 
dantly, are  much  used  for  washing.  This 
plant  has  a  strong  odor  of  brown  soap  in  its 
leaves  and  stems,  as  well  as  the  roots.  The 
South  Sea  Islands  and  the  islands  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  also  produce  plants  which  are  used  as 
soap  substitutes. 

Solar  System,  The. —  So  named  from  sol 
(Latin),  the  sun,  consists  of  the  sun  in  the 
center,  numerous  planets,  and  an  unknown 
number  of  bodies  named  comets.  The  word 
planet  is  from  the  Greek  planao,  to  wander, 
because  the  few  such  bodies  known  to  the 
ancients  were  chiefly  remarkable  in  their  eyes 
on  account  of  their  constantly  shifting  their 
places  with  reference  to  the  other  luminaries 
of  the  sky.  Comets  are  so  named  from  coma 
(Latin),  a  head  of  hair,  because  they  seem  to 
consist  of  a  bright  spot,  with  a  long  brush 
streaming  behind. 

Some  of  the  planets  have  other  planets  mov- 


ing round  them  as  centers — the  moon,  for  in- 
stance, round  the  earth.  These  are  called 
secondary  planets,  moons,  or  satellites ;  while 
those  that  move  round  the  sun  are  called  pri- 
mary planets.  The  primary  planets  consist  — 
1st,  of  eight  larger  planets,  including  the 
Earth  ;  their  names,  in  the  order  of  their  near- 
ness to  the  sun,  are  —  Mercury,  Venus,  the 
Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Herschel  or 
Uranus,  and  Neptune.  2d.  A  group  of  small 
planets  or  planetoids,  called  also  asteroids,  con- 
siderable in  number.  The  discovery  of  a  new 
asteroid  by  Professor  Borelli,  places  the  entire 
number  of  planets  in  the  solar  system  at  one 
hundred  and  eighteen,  against  six  known  in 

I  1781,  when    Sir  W.  Herschel  discovered  Ura- 

j  nus. 

The  planets  move  round  the  sun  on  nearly 

I  one  level  or  plane,  corresponding  with  the 
center  of  his  body,  and  in  one  direction,  from 
west  to  east.  The  secondary  planets,  in  like 
manner,  move    in  planes  round  the  centers  of 

,  their   primaries,  and   in   the   same  direction, 

;  from  west  to  east.  These  are  denominated 
revolutionary  motions ;  and  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served that  they  are  double  in  the  case  of  the 

|  satellites,   which   have   at   once   a  revolution 

I  round  the  primary,  and  a  revolution,  in  com- 
pany with  the  primary,  round  the  sun.  The 
path  described  by  a  planet  in  its  revolution  ia 
called  its  orbit. 

Each  planet,  secondary  as  well  as  primary, 
and  the  sun  also,  has  a  motion  in  its  own  body, 
like  that  of  a  bobbin  upon  a  spindle.  Au 
imaginary  line,  forming,  as  it  were,  the  spindle 
of  the  sun  or  planet,  is  denominated  the  axis, 
and  the  two  extremities  of  the  axis  are  called 
the  poles.  The  axes  of  the  sun  and  planets 
are  all  nearly  at  a  right  angle  with  the  plane 
of  the  revolutionary  movements.  The  motion 
on  the  axis  is  called  the  rotary  motion,  from 
rota,  the  Latin  for  a  wheel.  The  sun,  the  pri- 
mary planets,  and  the  satellites,  with  the 
doubtful  exception  of  two  attending  on  Uranus, 
move  on  their  axes  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
revolutionary  movements,  from  west  to  east. 


=  --•£- 

~  -  —  —  — 

Pes'? 

fe- 


ces 
::  =  ;« 
5  S""  o  • 

-  z  -  ~~ 

-  CS 
-■--. 


f-   0 


Sun i  92.9 

Mercury !  56.9 

Venus. . .  25.7 

Earth 

Mars....  48.6 

Jupiter .  3:)0.4 

Saturn..  .  193.2 

Uranus..  1.689.0 

Neptune  2.698.8 


36.0 

67.2 

92.9 

141.5 

483.3 

886.0 

1,781.9 

2,791.6 


87.969    23  to  35 


224.701 
365.256 
686.950 
4.332.58 
10,759.22 
30,686.82 
60,181.11 


21.9 
18.5 
15.0 
8.1 
6.0 
4.2 
3.4 


866,400 

-3,030 

7.700 

7,918 

4.230 

86.500 

71,000 

31.900 

31,800 


The  number  of  asteroids  discovered 
present  dates  is  330.     A  number  of  these 


up  to 
small 


350 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


planets  have  not  been  observed  since  their  dis- 
covery, and  are  practically  lost.  Consequently 
it  is  now  sometimes  a  matter  of  doubt,  until 
the  elements  have  been  computed,  if  the  .sup- 
posed new  planet  is  really  new,  or  only  an  old 
one  rediscovered. 

It  is  supposed  that  a  Centauri,  one  of  the 
brightest  stars  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  is 
the  nearest  of  the  fixed  stars  to  the  earth. 
The  researches  on  its  parallax  by  Henderson 
and  Maclear  gave  it  for  its  distance  from  the 
earth,  in  round  numbers,  20,000,000,000,000 
of  miles.  At  the  inconceivably  rapid  rate  at 
which  light  is  propagated  through  space,  it 
would  require  three  years  and  three  months  to 
reach  the  earth  from  this  star. 

Some  Interesting  Dates. —  Fruits, 
Flowers,    Etc. —  The   cherry  dates  back  to 

A.  D.  100  ;  the  lily,  800  ;  jasmine,  1500  ;  mul- 
berry, 1520 ;  mignonette,  1528 ;  the  plum, 
1530;  geranium,  1534;  gooseberry,  1540; 
melons,  1540 ;  hyssop,  1548 ;  pomegranate, 
1548;  lemon,  1554;  peach,  1562;  carnation, 
1567 ;  pink,  1567  ;  lavender,  1568  ;  pineap- 
ple, 1568  ;  quince,  1573  ;  tulip,  1578  ;  oleander, 
1600;  Virginia  creeper,  1629;  black  walnut, 
1629  ;  hickory  nut,  1640  ;  nectarine,  1652  ; 
honeysuckle,  1656  ;  sassafras,  1663  ;  hawthorn, 
1683  ;  passion  flower,  1692  ;  raspberry,  1696  ; 
foxglove,  1696  ;  currant,  1705 ;  snowdrop, 
1756  ;  chrysanthemum,  1790  ;  dahlia,  1803  ; 
camellia,  1811 ;  petunia,  1823  ;  verbena,  1827  ; 
fuchsia,  1835. 

Foods  and  Cookery. —  Forks  first  used, 
1220 ;  sugar  in  Europe,  1250 ;  first  English 
cook  book,  1498;  cabbages,  1510;  turkeys, 
1523;  guinea  fowl,  1540;  potatoes,  1565; 
cauliflower,  1603  ;  tea,  1610  ;  cattle  imported 
to  America,  1611  ;  coffee,  1616  ;  bread  made 
with  yeast,  1634;  rice,  1690;  celery,  1704; 
ice  cream,  1760  ;  United  States  fish  culture, 
1804  ;  Liebig's  extract,  1847  ;  condensed  milk, 
1849 ;  food  adulteration  act,  1854 ;  aerated 
bread,  1856  ;  cooking  schools,.  1873. 

Fuel  and  Light. —  Wood  fuel,  prehistoric  ; 
charcoal,  B.  C.  1800;  oil  lamps,  B.  C.  1000; 
wax  candles,  B.  C.  200  ;  peat,  B.  C.  60 ;  rush 
lights,  A.  1).  1300;  coal  gas,  1739  ;  Davy's 
safety  lamp,  1802  ;  sperm  candles,  1811  ;  par- 
affine,  1825 ;  petroleum,  1859 ;  natural  gas, 
1870  ;  water  gas,  1873  ;  electric  heating,  1876  ; 
incandescent  electric  light,  1878. 

The  World's  Clothing. —  Spinning  and 
weaving  and  dyeing  are  prehistoric.  The 
peplon,  or  long  cloak,   was  worn  in   Greece, 

B.  C.  600 ;  Tyrian  purple  dye  used,  B.  C. 
600-300;  Roman  toga  worn,  B.  C.  250-A.  D. 
100;  breeches  worn  by  the  Scythians,  B.  C. 
550  ;  kilts  and  trews  worn  by  the  Celts,  B.  C. 
100;    figured  weaving  in  Italy,   A.   D.   100- 


1000  ;  Dutch  and  Flemish  weaving,  A.  D.  1100  ; 
silk  weaving  at  Palermo,  A.  D.  1146  ;  linen 
cloth  made  in  England,  1253  ;  English  wool 
trade  flourished  from  A.  D.  1337  ;  Brabant 
looms  brought  to  England,  1340;  linen  shirts 
in  common  use,  1560;  silkworms  brought  to 
France,  1600;  felt  in  common  use,  1610;  fly 
shuttles,  1738 ;  calico  printing,  1764 ;  spin- 
ning jenny,  1767 ;  carding  machine,  1770 ; 
mule,  1779  ;  power  loom,  1785  ;  cotton  gin, 
1791;  shoddy,  1813;  sewing  machine,  1841; 
silkworm  disease,  1854  ;  rubber  coats,  1875  ; 
electric  looms,  1889. 

Specific  Gravity  of  Substances. —  A 
gallon  of  water  or  wine  weighs  10  lbs.,  and 
this  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  following  ta- 
ble :— 


LIQUIDS.  TIMBKB. 

Water 100    Cork 

Sea  Water 103 

Dead  Sea 124 

Alcohol 84 

Olive  oil 92 

Turpentine 99 

Wine 100 

Urine 101 

Cider 102 

Beer 102 

Woman's  milk,  102 

Cow's  milk 103 

Goat's  milk....  104 

Porter 104 


24 

Poplar 38 

Fir 6B 

Cedar 61 

Pear 66 

Walnut 67 

Cherry 72 

Maple' 75 

Ash 84 

Apple 79 

Beech 85 

Mahoganv...  106 

Oak... 117 

Ebony 133 

PBECIOUS  STONES. 

Emerald 277.5  I  Diamond  . .  353.0 

Crystal 265.3  |  Topaz 401.1 

SUNDRIES. 

Peat 


METALS. 

Zinc 

Cast  iron.. 

Tin 

Bar  iron  . . . 

Steel 

Brass 

Copper 

Silver 

Lead 

Mercurv... 

Gold 

Platina..  . 


719 
721 

72:  • 

779 

783 

840 

895 

1,051 

1,135 

1,357 

1,926 

2,150 


Indigo 77 


Ice. 
Gunpowder . 

Butter 

Clay 

Coal 


82 
98 
M 
120 

iao 


Lbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

Cork 15 

Cedar 36 

Beech 51 

Butter 56 

Water 62 

Mahogany 66 

Ice 70 


133 

Opium 134 

Honey 145 

Ivorv 188 

Brick 200 

Sulphur 203 

SELECTED  WEHIHTS 

Lbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

Oak 70 

Clay 72 

Coal so 

Brick 120 

Stone 150 

Granite 166 

Glass 172 


Garnet 406.3 

Ruby 428.3 

Porcelain 226 

Stone 252 

Marble 270 

Granite 278 

Cbalk 279 

Glass 289 

Lbs.  per 
Cub.  Ft. 

Iron 470 

Copper 520 

Silver 630 

Lead 680 

Gold 1.155 


Spectacles  and  Reading  Glasses  were 
unknown  to  the  ancients.  They  are  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  invented  in  the  thir- 
teenth century  by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk 
of  Florence  in  Italy,  about  A.  D.  1285.  Ac- 
cording to  Dr.  Plott  they  were  invented  by  Roger 
Bacon,  about  1280.  Manni  attributes  them  to 
Salvino,  who  died  in  1317. 

Spinning'  Wheel. —  The  invention  of  the 
art  of  spinning  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients 
to  Minerva,  the  Goddess  of  Wisdom.  It  is 
said  that  Areas,  the  King  of  Arcadia,  taught 
his  subjects  the  art  about  1500  B.C.  The  use 
of  the  spindle  and  distaff,  however,  was  known 
in  Egypt  even  earlier  than  this,  as  is  shown  by 
pictures  upon  Egyptian  monuments.  The  dis- 
taff was  a  simple  stick,  around  which  the  fiber 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


351 


was  coiled,  and  was  held  in  the  left  hand.  The 
spindle  was  a  species  of  top,  which  was  set  in 
motion  by  a  twirl  of  the  hand  and  by  com- 
bining its  rotary  motion  with  a  gradual  move- 
ment away  from  the  spinner.  The  size  of  the 
fiber  was  equalized  by  passing  it  between  the 
finger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  until 
the  motion  of  the  spindle  was  exhausted,  when 
the  thread  was  wound  around  it,  and  the  process 
was  repeated.  The  improvement  upon  this 
method  by  placing  the  spindle  in  a  frame,  and 
making  it  revolve  by  mechanical  action  of  the 
hand  or  foot  in  connection  with  a  wheel  and 
treadle,  constituted  the  spinning  wheel,  which, 
though  probably  in  use  long  before,  cannot  be 
traced  farther  back  than  A.  D.  1530.  The 
spinning  jenny,  a  machine  of  eight  spindles, 
was  first  invented  in  1767,  and  subsequent  to 
that  time  many  improvements  in  spinning  by 
machinery  have  been  made. 

Sponges  and  Sponge  Fishing.  — 
Sponges  belong  to  the  very  lowest  order  of 
animal  life,  and  are  attached  like  plants  to 
rocks,  or  similar  substances.  Those  fit  for 
use  are  found  generally  in  the  seas  of  warm 
climates.  They  consist  of  a  framework, 
which  is  sometimes  of  an  elastic  fibrous  sub- 
stance, and  sometimes  is  made  up  of  an  aggre- 
gation of  hard,  siliceous  spicules.  A  sponge, 
when  fixed  to  a  rock,  increases  in  size  by  a 
regular  process  of  growth.  To  free  them 
from  the  jelly-like  animal  matter  which  they 
contain  when  first  brought,  they  are  buried  for 
some  days  in  the  sand,  and  are  then  soaked 
and  wyashed.  In  the  Turkish  sponge  fisheries 
the  sponge  is  obtained  by  diving,  and  the  diver 
guides  himself  beneath  the  water  with  a  stone, 
to  which  a  cord  from  the  boat  is  attached. 
The  best  sponges  are  obtained  from  eight  to 
ten  fathoms  below  the  surface  of  the  water. 
In  the  Greek  sponge  fisheries  of  the  Morea, 
and  on  the  Bahama  Islands,  a  pronged  fork  at 
the  end  of  a  long  pole  is  used  to  detach  the 
sponges  from  the  rocks  below.  Two  species 
are  found  in  the  Levant,  another  on  the  Ba- 
hamas, and  still  another  on  the  coasts  of  Flor- 
ida and  Mexico. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  may  be 
defined  as  the  ignition  of  inflammable  bodies 
without  the  application  of  flame,  or  without 
obvious  cause  of  increase  of  temperature,  and 
arises  from  the  well-understood  liability  of 
certain  bodies  to  undergo  chemical  changes 
which  develop  sufficient  heat  to  set  them  on  fire. 
Recently  expressed  fixed  oils  are  particularly 
disposed  to  oxidize  when  exposed  to  light  and 
air.  They  then  absorb  oxygen,  and  give  out 
carbonic  acid  and  hydrogen.  If  the  process 
goes  on  rapidly,  as  it  usually  does  when  the 
oil  is  diffused  through  light  inflammable  sub- 


I  stances,    as   cotton,    tow,    the   waste   used    in 
j  lubricating  machinery,  oatmeal,  etc.,  the  heat 
I  may  be   sufficient  to  set  them  on  fire.     Bitu- 
minous coal  lying  in  large  heaps  is  liable  to 
I  be  ignited  by  the  heat  evolved  in  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  sulphuret  of  iron  which  it  com- 
monly contains.     The  rapid  absorption  of  water 
by  quicklime  is  also  attended  with  development 
of  heat  sufficient  to  ignite  combustible  bodies 
in  contact  with  the  lime.     Strong  nitric  acid 
will  act  on  straw,  hay,  and  such  bodies,  so  as 
to  render  them  spontaneously  combustible. 

Stars,  The. —  The  idea  at  which  astron- 
omers have  arrived  respecting  the  stars,  is, 
that  they  are  all  of  them  suns,  resembling  our 
own,  but  diminished  to  the  appearance  of  mere 
specks  of  light  by  the  great  distance  at  which 
they  are  placed.  As  a  necessary  consequence 
to  this  supposition,  it  may  be  presumed  that 
they  are  centers  of  light  and  heat  to  systems 
of  revolving  planets,  each  of  which  may  be 
further  presumed  to  be  the  theater  of  forms 
of  beings  bearing  some  analogy  to  those  which 
exist  upon  earth. 

The  stars  seen  by  the  naked  eye  on  a  clear 
night  are  about  two  thousand  in  number. 
This,  allowing  a  like  number  for  the  half  of 
the  sky  not  seen,  gives  about  four  thousand, 
in  all,  of  visible  stars.  These  are  of  different 
degrees  of  brilliancy,  probably  in  the  main  in 
proportion  to  their  respective  distances  from, 
our  system,  but  also,  perhaps,  in  some  meas- 
ure in  proportion  to  their  respective  actual 
sizes.  Astronomers  class  the  stars  under  dif- 
ferent magnitudes,  not  with  regard  to  appar- 
ent size,  for  none  of  them  present  a  meas- 
urable disc,  but  with  a  regard  to  the  various 
quantities  of  light  flowing  round  them  ;  thus, 
there  are  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  the 
second  magnitude,  and  so  on.  Only  six  or 
seven  varieties  of  magnitude  are  within  our 
natural  vision ;  but  with  the  telescope  vast 
numbers  of  more  distant  stars  are  brought  into 
view ;  and  the  magnitudes  are  now  extended 
by  astronomers  to  at  least  sixteen. 

Steam  Engines.  —  The  application  of 
steam  as  a  moving  power  is  claimed  by  va- 
rious nations,  but  the  first  extensive  employ- 
ment of  it,  and  most  of  the  improvements 
made  upon  the  steam  engine,  the  world  indis- 
putably owes  to  the  English  and  the  Americans. 
It  would  appear  that  as  early  as  1543  a  Span- 
ish captain  named  Blasco  de  Garay  showed  in 
the  harbor  of  Barcelona  a  steamboat  of  hia 
own  invention.  It  is  most  likely  that  Blasco 'S 
engine  was  on  the  principle  of  the  iEolipile  of 
Hero,  invented  130  B.  C,  in  which  steam  pro- 
duces rotatory  motion  by  issuing  from  orifices, 
as  water  does  in  Barker's  mill.  The  preacher 
Mathesius,  in  his  sermon  to  miners  in  Nurem- 


352 


THE   CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


berg  in  1562,  prays  for  a  man  who  "  raises 
water  from  fire  and  air,"  showing  the  early 
application  of  steam  power  in  Germany.  An 
Italian  engineer,  G.  Branca,  invented  in  1629 
a  sort  of  steam  windmill,  the  steam  being  gen- 
erated in  a  boiler,  which  was  directed  by  a 
spout  against  the  flat  vanes  of  a  wheel,  which 
was  thus  set  in  motion.  In  England,  among 
the  first  notices  we  have  of  the  idea  of  employ- 
ing steam  as  a  propelling  force  is  one  contained 
in  a  small  volume,  published  in  1647,  entitled 
"  The  Art  of  Gunnery,"  by  Nat.  Nye,  math- 
ematician, in  which  he  purposes  to  "charge 
a  piece  of  ordnance  without  gunpowder  "  by 
putting  in  water  instead  of  powder,  ramming 
down  an  air-tight  plug  of  wood  and  then  the 
shot,  and  applying  a  fire  to  the  breech  <<  till  it 
burst  out  suddenly."  But  the  first  .successful 
effort  was  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester.  In 
his  "  Century  of  Inventions,"  the  manuscript 
of  which  dates  from  1655,  he  describes  a  steam 
apparatus  by  which  he  raised  a  column  of 
water  to  the  height  of  forty  feet.  This,  under 
the  name  of  "  Fire  Waterwork,"  appears 
actually  to  have  been  at  work  at  Vauxhall  in 
1656.  The  first  patent  for  the  application  of 
steam  power  to  various  kinds  of  machines  was 
taken  out  in  1698  by  Captain  Savery.  In  1699 
he  exhibited  before  the  Royal  Society  a  work- 
ing model  of  his  invention.  His  engines  were 
the  first  used  to  any  extent  in  industrial  opera- 
tions. In  all  the  attempts  at  pumping  engines 
hitherto  made,  including  Savery's,  the  steam 
acted  directly  upon  the  water  to  be  moved, 
without  any  intervening  part.  To  Dr.  Papin, 
a  celebrated  Frenchman,  is  due  the  idea  of  the 
piston.  It  was  first  used  by  him  in  a  model 
constructed  in  1690.  The  next  great  step  in  ad- 
vance was  made  in  1705,  in  the  "  atmospheric 
engine,"  conjointly  invented  by  Newcomen, 
Cawley,  and  Savery.  This  machine  held  its 
own  for  nearly  seventy  years,  and  was  very 
largely  applied  to  mines.  The  next  essential 
improvements  on  the  steam  engine  were  those 
of  Watt,  which  began  a  new  era  in  the  history 
of  steam-power.  His  first  and  most  important 
improvement  was  the  separate  condenser, 
patented  in  1769.  He  had  observed  that  the 
jet  of  cold  water  thrown  into  the  cylinder  to 
condense  the  steam  necessarily  reduced  the 
temperature  of  the  cylinder  so  much  that  a 
great  deal  of  the  steam  flowing  in  at  each  up- 
ward stroke  of  the  piston  was  condensed  before 
the  cylinder  got  back  the  heat  abstracted  from 
it  by  the  spurt  of  cold  water  used  for  condens- 
ing the  steam  in  the  cylinder.  The  loss  of 
steam  arising  from  this  was  so  great  that  only 
about  one  fourth  of  what  was  admitted  into 
the  cylinder  was  actually  available  as  motive 
power.     This  difficulty  was  overcome  by  Watt's 


invention.  The  principal  improvements  that 
have  been  made  since  Watt's  time  have  been 
either  in  matters  relating  to  the  boiler,  in 
details  of  construction  consequent  upon  our 
increased  facilities,  improved  machinery,  and 
greater  knowledge  of  the  strength  of  materials, 
in  the  enlarged  application  of  his  principle  of 
expansive  working,  or  in  the  application  of  the 
steam  engine  to  the  propulsion  of  carriages  and 
vessels. 

Steel,  Manufacture  of, —  Steel,  which 
is  a  compound  of  iron  and  carbon,  was  used 
by  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians,  and  Greeks.  The 
oldest  method  of  making  it  is  the  pot-steel 
process,  which  consists  at  first  in  melting 
wrought  iron  with  carbon  in  clay  crucibles, 
and  this  process  is  still  used  to  some  extent. 
The  direct  process  of  making  steel  by  immers- 
ing malleable  iron  in  a  bath  of  cast-iron  was 
first  invented  in  1722  by  Reaumur.  Improve- 
ments in  this  manufacture  were  made  in  the 
early  part  of  this  century  by  Mush  at  and  Lu- 
cas, and  the  eminent  metallurgist,  Heath,  first 
successfully  melted  the  ingredients  of  cast  steel 
on  the  open  hearth  of  the  reverberatory  furnace 
about  1889.  He  patented  his  process  in  1845, 
but  it  was  not  regarded  as  successful  until 
practical  conditions  were  furnished  for  it  by 
the  invention  of  the  Siemens  regenerative  gas- 
furnace  in  1862.  By  the  Bessemer  process, 
which  was  first  patented  in  1855,  and  which 
is  now  the  most  generally  used,  twenty  tons  of 
crude  iron  have  been  converted  into  cast  steel 
in  twenty-three  minutes.  Sir  Henry  Bessemer 
has  received  in  royalty  on  this  process  some 
$10,000,000.  The  manufacture  of  steel  has 
been  carried  to  the  highest  perfection  in  the 
United  States,  and  the  output  of  American 
steel  works  is  about  600,000  tons  yearly. 

Steel  Pens,  Invention  of. —  During  the 
last  century  many  efforts  were  made  to  im- 
prove the  quill  pen,  the  great  defect  of  which 
was  its  speedy  injury  from  use,  and  the  conse- 
quent trouble  of  frequent  mending.  These 
efforts  were  chiefly  directed  to  fitting  small 
metal,  or  even  ruby,  points  to  the  nib  of  the 
quill  pen  ;  but  the  delicacy  of  fitting  was  so 
great  that  but  very  little  success  attended  the 
experiments.  At  the  beginning  of  this  cen- 
tury pens  began  to  be  made  wholly  of  metal. 
They  consisted  of  a  barrel  of  very  thin  steel, 
and  were  cut  and  slit  so  as  to  resemble  the 
quill  pen  as  closely  as  possible.  They  were, 
however,  very  indifferent,  and,  being  dear,  they 
made  but  little  way.  Their  chief  fault  was 
hardness,  which  produced  a  disagreeable 
scratching  on  the  paper.  In  1820  Joseph  Gil- 
lott  perfected  the  present  form  of  steel  pens 
and  began  their  manufacture  at  Birmingham, 
England.     The  first  gross  of  steel  pens  ever 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,    DISCOVERY. 


353 


sold  at  wholesale  were  sold  for  $36,  iu  1820,  at 
Birmingham.  In  1830  the  price  was  $2  ;  in 
1832,  $1.50;  in  1860,  12  cents;  while  an  ar- 
ticle as  good  as  those  manufactured  in  1820 
was  sold  at  4  cents.  The  annual  production 
of  steel  pens  in  Birmingham  alone  ranges  from 
8,000,000  to  15,000,000  gross. 

Stenography. —  The  art  of  writing  in 
shorthand  is  said  to  have  been  practiced  by  the 
ancients.  It  is  said  to  have  followed  from  the 
hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  also  at- 
tributed to  the  poet  Ennius,  to  Tyro,  and  still 
more  to  Seneca.  The  Ars  Scribendi  Charac- 
teris,  written  about  1412,  is  the  oldest  system 
extant.  Dr.  Timothy  Bright's  "  Characterie, 
or  the  art  of  short,  swift,  and  secret  writing," 
published  in  1588,  is  the  first  English  work  on 
shorthand.  Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman, 
wrote  on  stenography  in  1590.  There  are 
now  numerous  systems  of  it,  many  of  them  of 
easy  acquirement  and  great  simplicity.  By- 
rom's  system  was  inveuted,  1767  ;  Guerney's, 
1710;  Mason's,  1750;  Taylor's,  1786;  Ma- 
yor's, 1789;  Pitman's  (phonographic),  1837. 

Stereotyping:. —  The  papier-mache  process, 
which  is  the  most  general,  was  first  used  in 
France  in  1848.  It  is  extremely  simple.  The 
types  being  set,  corrected,  made  into  pages, 
and  fixed  in  a  frame,  are  laid  upon  the  stone 
or  table  used,  face  upward,  and  a  little  fine  oil 
is  brushed  over  them  to  prevent  the  papier- 
mache  from  adhering  to  the  face  of  the  types. 
This  papier-mache,  which  is  used  for  making 
the  matrix  or  mold,  is  formed  by  pasting  upon 
a  sheet  of  tough  brown  paper,  several  sheets 
of  tissue  paper,  and  a  sheet  of  soft,  absorbent 
white  paper.  It  is  made  in  sheets,  and  usu- 
ally, to  make  a  matrix  of  the  desired  thick- 
ness, several  sheets  are  used.  It  is  kept  moist 
for  use,  and  is  lightly  covered  with  pulverized 
French  chalk  when  laid  upon  the  face  of  the 
types.  Then  it  is  beaten  with  a  stiff  brush  to 
force  the  soft  paper  into  all  the  interstices  of 
the  types.  Other  sheets  of  prepared  paper  are 
added  to  secure  the  desired  thickness,  and  the 
whole  is  then  covered  with  a  woolen  blanket 
and  put  into  a  press,  the  bed  of  which  is  mod- 
erately heated,  and  the  press  is  screwed  down. 
The  heat  soon  dries  the  matrix,  which,  when 
taken  out  of  the  press,  is  a  stiff  card,  showing 
a  perfect  reversed  impression  of  the  types.  A 
mold  of  metal  is  then  taken  from  the  matrix, 
in  which  the  exact  face  of  the  types  are  repro- 
duced for  printing.  When  the  plate  is  to  be 
run  on  a  rotary  press,  it  is  cast  in  a  box  which 
is  curved  inside,  so  that  the  form  of  the  plate 
will  fit  the  cylinder  of  the  press.  By  this 
method  an  entire  large  plate  can  be  made  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour,  or  even  less  time.  For 
fine  book  work  the  matrices  are  made  of  plaster 


of  paris,  which  is  a  much  slower  and  more 
costly  way,  but  produces  a  finer  and  cleaner 
plate  when  finished.  This  process  was  in- 
vented about  1731. 

Suez  Canal,  The,  is  the  most  important 
shipping  enterprise  known  to  history.  It  en- 
ables two  ships  to  do  the  work  of  three  in 
trading  between  Europe  and  the  East.  From 
London  to  Bombay,  by  way  of  the  Cape,  is 
10,595  miles ;  by  the  canal,  6,330.  It  cost 
£17,000,000,  was  begun  in  1856,  and  finished 
in  1869.  Its  length  is  ninety-two  miles, 
depth,  twenty-six  feet  ;  the  tolls  average  £800 
per  vessel,  or  eight  shillings  per  ton  of  net 
tonnage.  The  estimated  saving  to  commerce 
is  £5,000,000  a  year.  In  1889,  3,425  vessels 
went  through,  the  mean  time  of  passing  being 
twenty-seven  hours.  Electric  lights  are  now 
used  to  enable  ships  to  pass  at  night  as  readily 
as  in  the  daytime. 

Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to 
the  ancient  Jews.  Found  in  the  East  Indies 
by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
325  B.  C.  An  oriental  nation  in  alliance 
with  Pompey  used  the  juice  of  the  cane  as  a 
common  beverage.  It  was  prescribed  as  a 
medicine  by  Galen,  second  century.  Brought 
into  Europe  from  Asia,  A.  D.  625  ;  in  large 
quantities,  1150.  Its  cultivation  was  attempted 
in  Italy,  but  not  succeeding  the  Portuguese 
and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about 
1510.  Sugar  cane  first  grown  in  the  territory 
now  constituting  the  United  States,  1751. 
First  American  sugar  mill  built  near  New 
Orleans,  1758.  Sugar  refining  was  made 
known  to  Europeans  by  a  Venetian,  1503  ;  and 
was  first  practiced  in  England  in  1659.  The 
invaluable  vacuum  pan  was  invented  by  How- 
ard, 1812,  and  Dr.  Scoffern's  processes  were 
patented  in  1848-50. 

Technical  Terms  in  Printing. —  Al- 
ley.    The  space  between  two  stands. 

Ascending  letters.  Letters  that  ascend  into 
the  upper  shoulder;  as,  b,  d,  1,  etc.,  and  all 
the  capitals. 

Author's  proof.  The  clean  proof  sent  to  an 
author  after  the  compositors'  errors  have  been 
corrected. 

Bank.  A  table  about  four  feet  high,  to  lay 
sheets  on  at  press. 

Bastard  title.  A  short  title  preceding  the 
general  title  of  a  work. 

Bastard  type.  Type  with  a  face  larger  or 
smaller  than  its  regular  body  :  as  Nonpareil  on 
Minion  body,  or  Minion  on  Nonpareil  body. 

Batter.    Types  accidentally  injured  in  a  form. 

Beard  of  a  letter.  The  outer  angles  support- 
ing the  face  of  a  type  and  extending  to  the 
shoulder. 

Bearer.     A  strip  of  reglet  to  bear  off  the  im- 


354 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


pression  from  a  blank  page.  A  long  piece  of 
furniture,  type-high,  used  in  working  jobs.  A 
solid-faced  type  interspersed  among  the  blank 
parts  of  a  page  composed  for  stereotyping,  to 
resist  the  pressure  of  the  knife  when  the  plate 
is  shaved. 

Bearer-lines.  The  top  line  and  bottom  line 
in  a  page  prepared  for  stereotyping. 

Bed.  The  flat  part  of  the  press  on  which 
the  form  is  laid. 

Bevels.  Slugs  cast  nearly  type-high,  with  a 
beveled  edge,  used  by  stereotypers  to  form  the 
flange  on  the  side  of  the  plates. 

■  Bite.  An  irregular  white  spot  on  the  edge 
or  corner  of  a  printed  page,  caused  by  the  fris- 
ket  not  being  sufficiently  cut  out. 

Blanket.  A  woolen  cloth  used  in  the  tym- 
pan. 

Blank-line.     A  line  of  quadrates. 

Blocks.  The  mahogany  forms  on  which 
stereotype  plates  are  placed  for  printing. 

Blocked  up.  When  the  font  of  type  is  all 
set,  and  none  is  available  for  present  use. 

Bodkin.  A  delicate  awl-like  tool  used  for 
correcting  errors  in  type. 

Body.     The  shank  of  the  letter. 

Botch.     A  bungling,  incompetent  workman. 

Bottled.  Type  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at 
the  top. 

Boxes.  The  compartments  of  a  case  in 
which  the  types  are  placed. 

Brayer.  A  wooden  or  glass  rubber,  flat  at 
the  bottom,  used  to  bray  or  spread  out  ink  on 
the  ink-block. 

Break-line.     A  short  line. 

Broad-side.  A  form  of  one  page,  printed  on 
one  side  of  a  whole  sheet  of  paper. 

Broken  matter.  Pages  of  type  disrupted  and 
somewhat  intermingled. 

Bundle.     Two  reams  of  paper. 

Bur.  Rough  edge  of  a  type  which  the 
founder  neglected  to  take  off  in  dressing. 

Cabinet.  A  receptacle  for  cases,  chases, 
leads,  etc. 

Canceled  figures.  Figures  cast  with  lines 
across  the  face. 

Caret.  A  character  [a]  used  in  proof  read- 
ing to  denote  the  place  where  omitted  words 
or  letters  should  be  inserted. 

Case.  The  receptacle  for  type,  divided  into 
numerous  compartments. 

Cassie  paper.  Formerly,  the  two  outside 
quires  of  aream,  consisting  of  defective  sheets. 

Casting  off.  Estimating  how  many  pages  a 
certain  quantity  of  copy  will  make  in  type. 

Cattie.  Imperfect  or  smutty  look  of  a 
printed  sheet  caused  by  an  oily  or  unclean 
roller. 

Ceriplis.  The  lines  or  cross-strokes  at  the 
ends  of  the  stem  of  a  letter. 


Chapel.     A  printing  office. 

Chapel  laws.     Rules  of  a  printing  office. 

Chase.  A  rectangular  iron  frame  in  which 
pages  of  type  are  imposed. 

Circular  quadrates.  Blank  types  curved  on 
one  side. 

Clean  proof.      A  proof  containing  few  faults. 

Clearing  away.  Properly  disposing  of  ma- 
terials after  a  work  has  been  completed. 

Clicker.     The  chief  of  a  companionship. 

Close  matter.  Solid  matter  with  few  break 
lines. 

Companionship.  All  the  hands  employed  on 
a  work. 

Composing.     Setting  type. 

Composing  rule.  A  steel  or  brass  rule,  with 
a  beak  at  one  end,  used  in  type  setting. 

Composing  stick.  An  instrument  in  which 
types  are  arranged  in  words  and  lines. 

Corner  quadrates.  A  quarter  section  of  a 
hollow  square  or  rectangle. 

Correct.  A  compositor  is  said  to  correct 
when  he  amends  the  faults  marked  in  a  proof. 

Corrections.  The  alterations  or  errors  marked 
in  a  proof. 

Cut-in  letter.  A  type  of  large  size  adjusted 
at  the  beginning  of  the  first  paragraph  of  a 
chapter. 

Cut-in  note.  A  note  justified  into  the  side 
of  a  page. 

Dead  horse.  Matter  charged  and  paid  for 
before  it  is  set. 

Dele,  8  •  A  proof  reader's  mark,  signifying 
to  take  out. 

Descending  letters.  Letters  that  go  down 
into  the  lower  shoulder  of  the  body  ;    as,  g,  j, 

p»  q,  y- 

Devil.     The  errand  boy  of  a  printing  office. 

Dished.  A  defect  in  electrotype  plates,  the 
center  of  a  letter  being  lower  than  its  edges. 

Distributing.  Returning  types  to  their  vari- 
ous boxes  after  having  been  printed  from. 
Spreading  ink  evenly  over  the  surface  of  a 
roller. 

Double.  Among  compositors,  repetition  of 
words  ;  among  pressmen,  a  sheet  that  is  twice 
pulled  and  mackled. 

Dressing  a  chase  or  form.  Fitting  the  pages 
and  chase  with  furniture  and  quoins. 

Drive  out.     To  space  widely. 

Duck's-bill.  A  tongue  cut  in  a  piece  of 
stout  paper  and  pasted  on  the  tvmpan  at  the 
bottom  of  the  tynipan-sheet,  to  support  the 
paper  when  laid  on  the  tympan. 

duodecimo  or  12mo.  Twelve  pages  to  a 
form . 

Em.     The  square  of  the  body  of  a  type. 

En.     Half  the  dimensions  of  t lie  preceding. 

Even  page.  The  2d,  4th,  6th,  or  any  even- 
numbered  page  of  a  book. 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,   DISCOVERY. 


355 


Fat.     Poetry  and  leaded  matter. 

Fat  face,  or  fat  letter.  Broad  stemmed 
letter. 

Father  of  the  chapel.  President  or  chair- 
man of  a  composing  room  or  press  room,  chosen 
by  the  hands. 

Feed  guide.  An  implement  attached  to  a 
press  to  aid  in  correct  feeding. 

Feeding.     Supplying  the  press  with  sheets. 

First  form.  The  form  first  printed,  which 
generally  contains  the  first  page  of  a  sheet. 

Fly.  The  person  or  apparatus  that  takes 
off  the  sheets  from  the  press. 

Folio.     Two  pages  to  a  form. 

Font.  A  complete  assortment  of  type,  of 
the  same  nick,  body,  and  face,  put  up  by  type 
founders  in  accordance  with  an  ascertained 
ratio. 

Foot  sticks.  Sloping  pieces  of  furniture 
placed  at  the  bottom  of  pages,  between  which 
and  the  chase  the  quoins  are  driven  to  fasten 
the  pages. 

Form.     The  pages  when  imposed  in  a  chase. 

Foul  proof.  A  proof  with  many  faults 
marked  in  it. 

Fountain.  Reservoir  for  ink,  attached  to 
printing  presses. 

Friar.  A  light  patch  in  a  printed  sheet, 
caused  by  defective  rolling. 

Frisket.  An  iron  frame  fastened  by  a  hinge 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  tympan,  to  hold  the 
sheet  of  paper  fast  as  it  goes  in  and  comes 
from  the  press. 

Fudge.  To  contrive  without  proper  materials. 

Full  press.  When  two  men  work  at  the 
press  with  hand  rollers. 

Furniture  Strips  of  wood  or  metal  placed 
around  and  between  pages  to  make  the  proper 
margin. 

Galley.  A  wooden  or  brass  flat  oblong  tray, 
with  side  and  head  ledges,  for  holding  type 
when  composed. 

Galleg  slaves.  An  ancient  term  of  derision 
applied  by  pressmen  to  compositors. 

Gauge.  A  strip  of  reglet  with  a  notch  in  it, 
passed  with  the  make-up,  to  denote  the  length 
of  the  pages. 

Gauge-pin.  An  instrument  to  aid  in  feed- 
ing job  presses  correctly. 

Get  in.     To  set  close. 

Good  color.  Sheets  printed  neither  too  black 
nor  too  light. 

Guide.  A  strip  of  metal  frequently  used  to 
denote  the  last  line  of  copy  set. 

Gutter-sticks.  Furniture  used  in  imposition 
to  separate  the  pages. 

Half  press.  When  but  one  person  works  at 
the  press. 

Half  title.  The  title  of  a  book  inserted  in 
the  upper  portion  of  the  first  page  of  matter. 


Hanging  indention.  Where  successive  lines 
are  set-in  an  em  or  more  beyond  the  first  line. 

Head  sticks.  Furniture  put  at  the  head  of 
pages  in  imposition,  to  make  margin. 

Hell.  The  receptacle  for  broken  or  battered 
letters ;    the  old  metal  box  ;    the  shoe. 

High-line.  Term  applied  to  a  type  that 
ranges  above  the  rest  in  a  line. 

High  (or  loic)  to  paper.  Applied  to  a  type 
cast  higher  or  lower  than  the  rest  of  the  font. 

Hollow  quadrates.  Metal  quadrates  mortised 
for  the  insertion  of  types,  etc. 

Horse.  The  stage  on  the  bank  on  which 
pressmen  set  the  heap  of  paper. 

Horsing.  Charging  for  work  before  it  is  ex- 
ecuted. 

Imposing.  Arranging  and  locking  up  a  form 
of  type  in  a  chase. 

Imposing  stone.  The  stone  on  which  com- 
positors impose  and  correct  forms. 

Imprint.  The  name  of  the  printer  or  of  the 
publisher  appended  to  jobs  or  title  pages. 

Inferior  letters.  Small  letters  cast  near  the 
bottom  of  the  line. 

Inset.     Same  as  offcut. 

Jeff.  To  throw  for  the  first  choice  with  em 
quadrates  instead  of  dice. 

Justifying.     Spacing  out  lines  accurately. 

Keep  in.     To  crowd  in  by  thin  spacing. 

Keep  out.  To  drive  out  or  expand  matter 
by  wide  spacing. 

Kerned  letter.  Type  of  which  a  part  of  the 
face  hangs  over  the  body. 

Laying  cases.  Filling  cases  with  a  font  of 
new  type. 

Laying  pages.  Placing  pages  of  type  on  the 
stone  in  a  proper  order  for  imposition. 

Leaders.  Dots  or  hyphens  placed  at  inter- 
vals of  one  or  more  ems  in  length,  to  guide  the 
eye  across  the  line  to  the  folio  in  tables  of  con- 
tents, etc. 

Leads.  Thin  strips  of  metal  cast  of  various 
thicknesses,  quadrate-high,  to  separate  lines  of 
type. 

Lean.     Close  and  solid  matter. 

Lean  face.     Light,  thin  type. 

Letter  hangs.  When  the  page  is  out  of 
square. 

Letter-press  printing.      Printing   from   types. 

Ligatures.  Two  or  more  letters  cast  on  the 
same  shank,  as  ff,  fi,  fl,  ffi,  ffl,  se,  ce. 

Line  formers.  Brass  rule  bent  in  various 
shapes  to  aid  in  making  curved  lines  of  type. 

Locking  up.  Tightening  up  a  form  by 
means  of  quoins. 

Logotypes.     The  same  as  ligatures. 

Long  cross.  The  bar  that  divides  a  chase 
the  longest  way. 

Long  pull.  When  the  bar  is  brought  close 
to  the  cheek  of  a  press. 


356 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Low  case.  When  the  compositor  has  set 
almost  all  the  letters  out  of  his  case. 

Lower  case.  The  case  containing  the  small 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  figures,  points,  etc. 

Low  line.  Applied  to  a  type  that  ranges 
lower  than  the  rest  in  a  line. 

Mackle.  When  part  of  the  impression  ap- 
pears double. 

Make-up.  To  arrange  the  lines  of  matter 
into  pages. 

Make-up  rule.  A  steel  rule  with  a  projec- 
tion on  the  top,  for  making  up  matter. 

Making  margin.  In  imposition,  arranging 
the  space  between  the  pages  of  a  form  so  that 
the  margin  will  be  properly  proportioned. 

Making  ready.  Preparing  a  form  on  the 
press  for  printing. 

Mallet.     A  wooden  hammer. 

Matter.     Composed  type. 

Measure.     The  width  of  a  page. 

Monk.  A  black  spot  in  a  printed  sheet, 
owing  to  the  ink  not  being  properly  distrib- 
uted. 

Naked  form.     A  form  without  furniture. 

Nicks.  Hollows  cast  in  front  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  shank  of  a  type,  to  show  the  com- 
positor how  to  place  it  in  his  stick. 

Octavo  or  8vo.     Plight  pages  to  a  form. 

Octodecimo  or  18mo.  Eighteen  pages  to  a 
form. 

Odd  page  or  folio.  The  first,  third,  and  all 
uneven  numbered  pages. 

Off.  Signifies  that  the  pressman  has 
worked  off  the  form. 

Off  cut.  A  portion  of  a  sheet  that  is  cut  off 
before  folding. 

Off  its  feet.  When  matter  does  not  stand 
upright. 

Open  matter.  Matter  widely  leaded  or  con- 
taining numerous  break  lines. 

Out.  An  omission  marked  in  a  proof  by  the 
reader. 

Out  of  register.  When  the  pages  do  not 
back  each  other. 

Overlay.  A  scrap  of  paper  pasted  on  the 
tympan -sheet  to  bring  up  the  impression. 

Overrunning.  Carrying  words  backward  or 
forward  in  correcting. 

Page-cord.     Twine  used  for  tying  up  pages. 

Passing  the  make-up.  Passing  to  the  next 
hand  in  order  the  lines  remaining  (if  any) 
after  a  compositor  has  made  up  his  matter,  to- 
gether with  the  gauge  and  proper  folio. 

Peel.  A  broad,  thin  board  with  a  long 
handle. 

Perfecting.  Printing  the  second  form  of  a 
sheet. 

Perforating  rule.  Brass  or  steel  rule,  some- 
what higher  than  type. 

Pi.     Type  promiscuously  intermingled. 


Pick.  A  particle  of  ink  or  paper  imbedded 
in  the  hollow  of  a  letter,  filling  up  its  face  and 
occasioning  a  spot. 

Pigs.  An  ancient  nickname  given  in  deri- 
sion by  compositors  to  pressmen.  The  press 
room  was  called  a  pigsty. 

Planer.  A  smooth  block  of  wood  used  for 
leveling  the  surface  of  pages  of  type  when 
imposed. 

Planing  down.  To  bringdown  types  evenly 
on  their  feet,  by  laying  a  planer  on  a  page  and 
striking  it  firmly  with  a  mallet. 

Platen.  The  part  of  a  printing  press  which, 
acted  upon  by  the  lever,,  gives  the  impression 
to  a  sheet. 

Point-holes.  Fine  holes  made  by  the  points 
to  register  the  second  impression  by. 

Points.  Two  thin  pieces  of  steel  with  a 
point  at  one  end,  adjusted  to  the  tympan  with 
screws,  to  make  register. 

Quadrate.  A  low  square  blank  type,  used 
to  indent  the  first  line  of  a  paragraph,  and  to 
fill  up  blank  spaces. 

Quarters.  Octavos  and  twelves  are  said  to 
be  imposed  in  quarters,  not  from  their  equal 
divisions,  but  because  they  are  imposed  and 
locked  up  in  four  parts. 

Quarto,  or  Jfto.     Four  pages  to  a  form. 

Quire.     Twenty-four  sheets  of  paper. 

QUoins.    Small  wedges  for  locking  up  a  form . 

Quotation  furniture.  Quotations  cast  of  vari- 
ous sizes  in  length  and  width,  used  for  blank- 
ing and  as  furniture. 

Quotations.     Large  hollowed  quadrates. 

Rack.     Receptacle  for  cases. 

Ratchet.  An  instrument  for  turning  the 
screws  of  stereotype  blocks. 

Ratting.  Working  at  less  than  established 
prices. 

Ream.     Twenty  quires  of  paper. 

Recto.     Right  hand  page. 

References.  Letters  or  characters  serving  to 
direct  the  reader's  attention  to  notes  at  the 
foot  of  the  page. 

Register.  To  cause  the  pages  in  a  sheet  to 
print  precisely  back  to  back. 

Register  sheet.  The  sheet  used  to  make  reg- 
ister. 

Reglet.  Thin  furniture,  of  an  equal  thick- 
ness all  its  length.  It  is  made  to  match  the 
depth  of  type. 

Reiteration .  The  form  printed  on  the  second 
side. 

Revise.  The  last  proof  of  a  form  before 
working  it  off. 

Riding.  One  color  falling  on  another*  Type 
at  the  end  of  a  line  catching  against  a  lead. 

Rise.  A  form  is  said  to  rise  when,  in  rais- 
ing it  from  the  correcting  stone,  no  letters 
drop  out. 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


357 


Roller.  A  wooden  cylinder  covered  with 
composition,  which,  set  in  an  iron  frame,  re- 
volves upon  a  rod,  and  is  used  for  inking 
type. 

Rounce.  The  handle  for  running  in  and 
out  the  carriage  of  a  hand  press. 

Round  pick.  A  dot  in  a  letter  in  a  stereo- 
type plate  caused  by  an  air  bubble. 

Running  titl>-.  The  title  of  the  book  or  sub- 
ject placed  at  the  top  of  the  pages. 

Runs  on  sorts.  Requiring  an  inordinate  pro- 
portion of  particular  letters. 

Saw-block.  A  box  similar  to  a  carpenter's 
miter-block,  to  guide  in  cutting  furniture,  etc. 

Schedule.  A  sheet  of  paper  passed  with  the 
make-up,  containing  folios,  on  which  the  com- 
positor marks  his  name  opposite  to  the  pages 
set  by  him. 

Set  off.  When  sheets  that  are  newly  worked 
off  soil  those  that  come  in  contact  with  them, 
they  are  said  to  set-off. 

Shank.  The  metal  body  upon  which  the 
face  of  a  letter  stands. 

Sheep's  foot.  An  iron  hammer  with  a  claw 
end. 

Sheetwise.  When  the  pages  of  a  sheet  are 
imposed  in  two  forms,  which  are  backed  in 
printing. 

Shooting  stick-.  A  wedge  shaped  instrument 
for  locking  up  a  form. 

Short  cross.  The  short  bar  which,  crossing 
the  long  bar,  divides  the  chase  into  quarters. 

Shoulder.  The  surface  of  the  shank  of  a 
type  not  covered  by  the  letter. 

Side  sorts.  Types  in  the  side  and  upper 
boxes  of  a  case,  consisting  of  letters  not  fre- 
quently used. 

Side  sticks.  Sloping  furniture  on  the  out- 
side of  the  pages  next  to  the  chase,  where  the 
quoins  are  inserted. 

Signature.  A  letter  or  a  figure  used  at  the 
bottom  of  the  first  page  of  a  sheet,  to  direct 
the  binder  in  placing  the  sheets  in  a  volume. 

Slice  galley.  A  galley  with  an  upper  mova- 
ble bottom,  called  a  slice,  used  for  pages  and 
jobs  too  large  to  be  lifted  by  the  fingers. 

Slug.  A  thick  lead.  Sometimes  with  a 
word  or  figure  on  top,  used  to  denote  the  own- 
ership of  matter  on  galleys. 

Slur.  A  blurred  impression  in  a  printed 
sheet. 

Solid  pick.  A  letter  in  a  stereotype  plate 
filled  up  with  metal,  resulting  from  an  imper- 
fect mold. 

Sorts.  The  letters  in  the  several  case  boxes 
are  separately  called  sorts,  in  printers'  and 
founders'  language. 

Space  rules.  Fine  lines  cast  type  high,  and 
of  even  ems  in  length,  for  table  and  algebra- 
ical work. 


Spaces.  Low  blank  types  used  to  separate 
words. 

Squabble.  A  page  or  form  is  squabbled 
when  the  letters  are  twisted  out  of  a  square 
position. 

Stand.  The  frame  on  which  the  cases  are 
placed. 

Stem.     The  vertical  strokes  of  a  type. 

Stereotype  printing.  Printing  from  stereo- 
typed plates. 

Stet.  Written  opposite  to  a  word  in  a  proof, 
to  signify  that  the  word  erroneously  struck  out 
shall  remain. 

Sub.  A  compositor  occasionally  employed 
on  a  daily  paper,  to  fill  the  place  of  an  absen- 
tee. 

Superior  letters.  Letters  of  a  small  face, 
cast  by  the  founder  near  the  top  of  the  line. 

Table-work.  Matter  consisting  partly  of 
rules  and  figures. 

Take,  or  leaking.     A  given  portion  of  copy. 

Token.     Two  hundred  and  fifty  sheets. 

Turn  for  a  letter.  When  a  sort  runs  short, 
a  letter  of  the  same  thickness  is  substituted, 
placed  bottom  upward. 

Tympan.  A  frame  covered  with  parchment 
or  muslin  and  attached  to  the  press-bed  to  lay 
the  sheet  on  before  printing. 

Underlay.  A  piece  of  paper  or  card  placed 
under  types  or  cuts  to  improve  the  impression. 

Upper  case.  The  case  containing  capital 
and  small  capital  letters,  fractions,  etc. 

Verso.     Left-hand  page. 

Wayz-goose.  A  term  given  in  England  to 
the  annual  dinner  customary  among  printers 
there  during  the  summer  months. 

White  line.     A  line  of  quadrates. 

White  page.     A  blank  page. 

While  paper.  Until  the  second  side  of  a 
sheet  is  printed,  pressmen  call  the  heap  white 
paper. 

Work  and  turn.  When  a  sheet  is  printed 
half-sheetwise,  the  paper  must  be  turned  and 
worked  on  the  second  side. 

Working  in  pocket.  When  the  hands  share 
equally  their  earnings  on  a  work. 

Telegraph,  The.— The  word  is  Greek, 
meaning  "to  write  from  a  distance."  The 
Greeks  never  thought  of  doing  such  a  thing. 
Like  most  scientific  designations,  it  is  a  made- 
up  word  out  of  that  wonderful  tongue.  Before 
Morse's  time  it  had  come  to  mean  the  giving 
of  any  information  from  afar.  The  ideas  of 
speech,  quick  delivery,  are  involved.  If  time 
is  not  the  essential,  we  may  go  or  send.  In- 
dians use  columns  of  smoke.  We  use  signals 
and  the  heliograph.  Vessels  at  sea  have  long 
used  visual  telegraphic  signals.  But  as  soon  as 
it  was  known  that  electricity  could  be  sent 
long  distances  over  wires,  human  genius  began 


358 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


to  devise  means  for  using  it  for  sending  mes- 
sages. Many  of  these  devices  were  tried  and 
failed.  Some  of  them  seem  now  to  us  absurd, 
because  they  were  attempted  before  even  the 
battery  was  invented,  when  the  current  was 
obtained  by  friction.  In  1832  an  American, 
Morse,  while  on  a  voyage  home  from  Europe  in 
a  sailing  vessel,  began  to  think  of  making 
what  we  now  know  as  a  telegraph.  After 
more  than  eight  years  of  waiting,  Congress 
made  an  appropriation  for  building  a  line  be- 
tween Baltimore  and  Washington.  The  story 
of  this  first  line  is  curious,  almost  absurd, 
showing  how  little  the  inventor  knew  when  he 
began  it,  and  how  much  was  learned  during 
its  construction.  Morse  had  an  assistant  named 
Alfred  Vail,  who  is  the  author  of  most  of  the 
features  of  the  telegraph  which  have  proved 
useful,  as  we  now  know  it. 

In  principle,  and  even  in  practice,  the  tele- 
graph is  one  of  the  simplest  of  electrical  ap- 
pliances. Any  two  operators  can  communi- 
cate with  each  other  over  a  great  distance  with 
two  parts  only  ;  a  battery  and  a  wire,  for  the 
wonderful  alphabet  of  Vail,  the  dots  and 
dashes,  can  be  read  in  any  language,  and  by 
sight,  hearing,  tasting,  or  feeling.  Something 
to  produce  a  current,  and  a  wire  to  carry  it, 
are  all  that  are  absolutely  necessary.  There  is 
usually  only  one  wire.  There  would  be  two, 
but  the  earth  acts  in  place  of  the  return  wire, 
and  the  connection  is  simply  made  at  the  bat- 
tery, along  the  wire,  and  into  the  ground. 
The  only  machine,  so  to  speak,  that  is  neces- 
sary in  practice  is  the  small  electro-magnet 
which  one  hears  pulling  down  the  armature  to 
it  every  time  a  connection  is  made  by  the  op- 
erator at  the  other  end  of  the  circuit  who  is 
sending  a  message,  and  spelling  out  the  words 
of  it  with  the  click  and  pause  sound  which 
would  be  the  dot  and  dash  of  the  old  roll  of 
paper  indented  by  a  pointed  stylus,  now  dis- 
carded. This  electro-magnet  and  its  action 
with  an  interrupted  current  has  been  briefly 
explained.  The  key  with  which  the  message 
is  spelled  out  is  a  lever  with  a  button  at  the 
end,  which,  when  pressed  down,  makes  a  con- 
tact and  completes  the  circuit  over  the  wire 
and  the  windings  of  the  electro-magnet,  and, 
when  released,  breaks  it  again. 

Telephone,  The. —  This  wonderful  ad- 
vance in  electrical  science  was  made  practical 
in  1875,  and  is  the  invention  of  Prof.  A.  G. 
Bell,  Chicago.  There  were  simultaneous  in- 
ventions by  Gray,  Edison,  and  others.  In 
reality,  the  telephone  is  simple  in  construc- 
tion, but  it  is  difficult  to  explain  in  words. 
The  human  voice,  recognizable  in  articulate 
words,  is  apparently  carried  for  miles  on  a 
wire.     Yet  it  is  well  to  understand  in  the  be- 


ginning that  such  is  not  the  case.  The  lis- 
tener does  not  hear  any  person  talk.  All  that 
goes  over  the  wire  is  thousands  of  varying 
impulses  of  electricity.  The  entire  secret  lies 
in  electrical  induction. 

It  has  been  shown  that  electricity  produces 
magnetism.  Following  it  has  been  shown  that 
this  process  can  be  reversed,  and  that  mag- 
netism produces  electricity.  This  last  fact  was 
made  use  of  in  the  original  Bell  telephone. 
The  Blake  transmitter  is  now  used,  slightly 
modifying  the  action,  but  not  altering  the 
principle  of  the  instrument,  and  an  endeavor 
to  explain  this  will  be  made.  It  has  been 
shown  that  an  approach  to,  or  a  receding  from, 
a  wire  carrying  a  current,  produces  an  induced 
current.  Then  it  was  shown  that  if  one  of  the 
pieces  were  a  magnet,  and  there  was  a  rapid 
approach  and  receding  by  a  piece  of  soft  iron, 
an  induced  current  would  also  be  produced. 

Now  there  is  in  the  transmitting  instrument 
of  a  telephone  a  bar  magnet,  and  on  one  end 
of  this  is  wound  several  layers  of  fine  insulated 
wire.  The  ends  of  .this  wire  run  off  and  be- 
come a  part  of  the  circuit  between  two  tele- 
phones. No  current  passes  over  this  circuit 
ordinarily,  but  one  can  be  induced  if  a  piece  of 
iron  is  made  to  move  quickly,  to  tremble,  near 
the  bar.  This  is  accomplished  by  placing 
crosswise  to  the  end  of  the  bar  magnet  the 
thin  black  disc  of  sheet-iron  against  which,  so 
to  speak,  one  talks  when  using  the  telephone. 
The  voice  impinging  upon  this,  causes  it  to 
tremble ;  to  approach  to  and  recede  from  the 
magnet,  not  vaguely  and  without  rule,  but  pre- 
cisely in  proportion  to  the  tone  of  the  voice. 
Every  time  one  of  these  very  small  movements 
of  the  disc  occurs  a  small  impulse  is  sent  from 
the  magnet  out  over  the  circuit  whose  coil  in- 
closes it. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  circuit  there  is  a  pre- 
cisely similar  arrangement  of  bar  magnet  and 
coil  and  disc,  inclosed  in  that  trumpet-shaped 
receiving  instrument  which  is  held  to  the  ear. 
The  magnetism  in  this  last  magnet  is  increased 
with  each  impulse  in  precise  proportion  to  the 
power  of  the  impulse,  and  this  disc  of  the  re- 
ceiving instrument  is  drawn  toward  its  mag- 
net and  released  again  in  unison  with  the 
movements  of  the  disc  in  the  transmitter, 
which  movements,  as  stated,  are  great  or 
small,  or  slow  or  fast,  in  accordance  with  the 
tones  of  the  voice  of  the  speaker. 

It  follows  that  the  mechanical  rattle  of  a 
disc  of  sheet-iron  held  close  to  the  ear  pro- 
duces sounds  that  vary  in  pitch  and  intensity 
precisely  as  those  do  which  are  produced  by 
the  impinging  of  the  human  voice  upon  the 
other  disc,  a  mile  or  more  away.  The  move- 
ment of  the  transmitting  disc  controls  those 


SCIENCE,    INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


359 


of  the  receiving  disc  through  the  medium  of 
varying  impulses  of  electricity  sent  to  the  mag- 
net of  the  latter  by  the  magnet  of  the  former. 
The  movements  of  the  former  are  controlled 
by  the  human  voice.  It  follows  that  the  move- 
ments of  the  latter  are  also  controlled  by  the 
same  voice.  It  is  the  reversal  of  a  process.  If 
a  disc  is  moved  by  the  voice  in  a  certain  way, 
the  moving  of  a  disc  in  the  same  way  by  some 
other  means  will  imitate  the  voice.  So  far  as 
volume  is  concerned  the  imitation  is  micro- 
scopic. But  it  can  be  heard,  and  answers  all 
purposes.  It  is  doubtful  if,  among  all  the 
productions  of  human  genius,  there  will  ever 
be  anything  nearer  the  miraculous  than  the 
almost  universally  used  telephone. 

Telescopes. —  This  invention  is  noticed 
by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571 .  Roger  Bacon, 
A.  D.  1250,  described  telescopes  and  micro- 
scopes exactly,  and  yet  neither  was  made  till 
one  Metius,  at  Alkmaar,  and  Jansen,  of  Mid- 
dleburg,  made  them  about  the  same  time  ;  the 
latter  from  an  accidental  discovery  made  by  his 
children,  1590-1609.  Galileo  imitated  their 
invention  by  its  description,  and  made  three  in 
succession,  one  of  which  magnified  a  thousand 
times.  AVith  these  he  discovered  Jupiter's 
moons,  and  the  phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes 
became  very  popular,  and  were  improved  by 
Zucchi,  Huygens,  Gregory,  and  Newton  ;  and 
finally  by  Martin,  Hall,  Dolland,  and  Herschel. 
Achromatic  telescopes  were  made  by  Hall  about 
1723.  Many  excellent  and  powerful  tele- 
scopes have  since  been  constructed. 

Terms  in  Electricity. —  The  technical 
terms  used  in  regard  to  electricity  refer  to 
units  of  various  nature.  Thus  the  unit  of 
capacity  is  one  farad  ;  the  unit  of  activity,  one 
watt :  the  unit  of  work,  one  joule  ;  the  unit  of 
quantity,  one  coulomb  ;  the  unit  of  current, 
one  ampere  ;  the  unit  of  resistance,  one  ohm  ; 
the  unit  of  magnetic  field,  one  gauss  ;  the  unit 
of  pressure,  one  volt ;  the  unit  of  force,  one 
dyne.  The  names  are  mostly  derived  from  the 
names  of  men  that  have  been  famous  in  the 
field  of  electrical  research.  Thus  Michael  Far- 
aday. James  Watt,  and  James  P.  Joule,  famous 
English  discoverers,  give  their  names  to  the 
first  three  units  mentioned  ;  Charles  A.  Cou- 
lomb and  Andre  M.  Ampere,  French  invent- 
ors, to  the  two  units  following;  G.  S.  Ohm 
and  Carl  F.  Gauss.  Germans,  name  two  more 
units;  and  the  volt  is  named  from  the  Italian 
discoverer,  Volta.  The  dyne  is  derived  from 
the  root  word  of  dynamo,  itself  meaning  force. 

Thermometer,  The. —  The  thermometer 
is  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  heat  or  tem- 
perature of  bodies  by  the  regular  expansion  of 
mercury  or  alcohol  in  a  graduated  glass  tube. 
Halley   proposed  the  substitution  of  mercury 


for  alcohol  in  1G9hT.  The  thermometers  usually 
employed  are  Fahrenheit's,  the  Centigrade, 
and  Reaumur's,  the  first  invented  in  1726, 
and  the  two  others  soon  afterwards. 

The  following  table  is  interesting  as  a  com- 
parison of  the  three  thermometers  :  — 


Reau- 

Centi- 

Fahren- 

mur. 

grade. 

heit. 

0 

0 

32 

8 
16 

10 
20 

50 

Cotton  cultivation 

68 

32 

40 

104 

.40 

'    50 

122 

48 

CO 

140 

56 

70 

158 

64 

80 

176 

72 

90 

194 

Water  boils 

80 

100 

212 

Ice  melts  at  32°;  temperature  of  globe,  50°  ; 
blood  heat,  98°  ;  alcohol  boils,  174°  ;  water 
boils,  212°  ;  lead  melts,  594°  ;  heat  of  common 
fire,  1,140°;  brass  melts,  2,233°;  iron  melts, 
3,479°. 

Thunder  is  caused  by  the  sudden  re- 
entrance  of  the  air  into  a  vacuum  which  is  sup- 
posed to  be  caused  by  the  lightning  in  its  pas- 
sage through  the  atmosphere.  The  electricity 
exerts  a  powerful  repulsive  force  upon  the  par- 
ticles of  air  along  the  path  of  its  discharge, 
thus  making  a  momentary  vacuum.  Into  this 
void  the  surrounding  air  rushes  with  a  violence 
proportioned  to  the  intensity  of  the  electricity, 
and  is  thus  thrown  into  vibrations,  which  are 
the  source  of  the  sound. 

Tides,  The The  ebb  and  flow  of  tidal 

waters  depend  upon  the  moon  to  a  great  extent. 
Twice  every  day  we  have  the  tides,  twelve 
hours  apart,  and  the  flow  and  ebb  are  merely 
examples  of  the  attraction  of  gravitation  which 
is  exercised  on  all  bodies,  whether  liquid  or 
solid.  The  tides  may  be  compared  to  a  great 
wave,  which,  raised  by  the  moon's  attraction, 
follows  her  in  her  course  round  the  earth.  The 
sun  also  aids  in  this  effect,  but  as  the  moon  is 
so  much  nearer  the  earth  her  influence  is  far 
greater.  The  tides  are  highest  at  the  equator 
and  lowest  at  the  poles,  because  the  tropics 
are  more  exposed  to  the  lunar  attraction. 

Tohacco. —  The  name  tobacco  is  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  taken  from  Tobacco,  a 
province  of  Yucatan  ;  by  others  from  Tobago, 
an  island  in  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  and  by  still 
others  from  Tobasco,  in  the  Gulf  of  Florida. 
The  plant,  although  it  is  asserted  that  the 
Chinese  have  used  it  from  earliest  times, 
was  not  introduced  into  Europe  until  after  the 
discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  He  first 
found  it  in  use  on  the  Island  of  San  Domingo 
in  the  West  Indies.  The  Indian,  among  all 
the  tribes  from  Peru  to  Upper  Canada,  smoked 
it  in  pipes.  The  seed  of  the  plant  was  first 
introduced  in   Europe  by  Gonzalo  Hernandez 


360 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


de  Oviedo,  who  took  it  to  Spain  and  cultivated 
it  for  ornamental  purposes  ;  but  its  narcotic 
qualities  were  shortly  afterward  discovered  and 
the  practice  of  smoking  it  soon  became  gen- 
eral, and  its  manufacture  into  snuff  folio  wed  in 
course  of  time.  It  was  introduced  in  Italy  and 
France  in  1560,  and  was  brought  into  the  latter 
country  by  Jean  Nicot,  the  French  Embassador 
to  Portugal,  in  whose  honor  it  received  its  bo- 
tanical name  Xieotiana,  whence  the  name  nico- 
tine. The  plant  was  introduced  into  England 
by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  It  was  along  in  the 
seventeenth  century  before  it  was  known  to 
be  used  in  Asia,  but  the  Oriental  nations  at 
the  present  time  are  probably  the  greatest 
smokers  in  the  world. 

Type-Setting  Machines.  —  The  first 
type-setting  machine  appears  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  William  Church  of  Connecticut 
about  1820.  This,  after  the  lapse  of  twenty 
years,  was  followed  by  a  number  of  others, 
scarcely  a  year  passing  without  one  or  more 
being  made  the  subject  of  a  patent.  In  1857 
a  machine  was  invented  by  Robert  Hattersley 
which  is  capable  of  setting  from  4,000  to  6,000 
types  in  an  hour  —  about  three  men's  work. 
This  machine,  which  occupies  a  space  of  about 
two  or  three  feet,  has  a  horizontal  stage  on 
which  is  placed  a  partitioned  tray,  containing 
the  rows  of  type  running  from  back  td  front, 
each  row  being,  of  course,  all  the  same  letter. 
Descending  vertically  along  the  front  of  this 
tray  is  a  series  of  as  many  wires  with  pistons 
as  there  are  rows  of  types,  and  these  pistons 
are  depressed  by  the  keys  acting  by  bell 
cranks,  and  then  return  to  their  positions 
by  means  of  India  rubber  bands  or  springs. 
A  propeller  kept  in  a  state  of  tension  by  an 
India  rubber  string  is  placed  in  the  rear  of  each 
row  of  types,  and  draws  them  forward  to  the 
piston.  When  the  girl  working  the  machine 
presses  down,  say,  an  e  key,  it  depresses  the  e 
piston,  which  pulls  down  with  it  an  e  type,  and 
drops  it  into  a  tube  or  channel,  which  conveys 
it  to  what  represents  the  composing-stick,  and 
so  on  with  every  letter,  figure,  comma,  or  space. 
Another  successful  machine  is  the  Mitchell 
type-setter.  The  compositor  has  a  key-board, 
each  key  of  which  strikes  out  a  type  from  a 
brass  slide  placed  on  an  incline.  The  type 
travels  along  an  endless  band  to  a  spot  where 
it  is  turned  on  end  and  pushed  forward  by  a 
notched  wheel.  The  apparatus  comprises  nu- 
merous bands,  the  lengths  and  velocities  of 
which  so  vary  as  to  enable  the  types  at  differ- 
ent distances  from  the  wheel  to  reach  it  in  the 
order  in  which  the  keys  are  struck.  The  words 
are  built  up  in  rows  thirty  inches  long,  and 
"justified,"  as  is  the  case  with  the  Hattersley 
machine,  by  hand. 


Typewriters. —  Perhaps  the  earliest  form 
of  a  typewriter  is  a  rude  machine  invented  in 
England  in  1714,  without  any  practical  fruits. 
M.  Foucault  sent  to  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1855,  a  writing  machine  for  the  blind,  but  the 
first  of  what  are  now  popularly  known  as 
typewriters,  was  patented  in  1868  by  C.  L. 
Sholes,  of  Wisconsin.  This  has  been  im- 
proved, until  now  it  is  possible  to  attain  a 
speed  of  seventy-five  to  eighty  words  a  minute 
in  writing  with  this  machine,  which  is  fast 
enough  for  reporting  speeches.  The  princi- 
pal advantages  gained  are  rapidity  of  execu- 
tion and  legibility.  A  typewriter  can  write 
with  both  hands  and  several  fingers  in  instant 
succession,  every  letter  being  made  with  a  sin- 
gle light  touch,  instead  of  requiring  from  three 
to  seven  distinct  strokes  and  dots,  as  in  ordi- 
nary script. 

Umbrellas  are  by  no  means  a  modern  in- 
vention. They  are  found  sculptured  on  the 
monuments  of  Egypt,  and  on  the  ruins  of 
Nineveh,  and  their  use  in  China  and  India  is 
also  very  ancient.  In  Greece  they  had  a  part 
in  certain  religious  ceremonies  ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt,  from  the  paintings  on  ancient  Greek 
vases,  that  umbrellas  very  much  like  those  in 
use  at  the  present  time  were  known  many  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  They  were  also  used" 
among  the  Romans,  but  only  by  women.  The 
umbrella  also  seems  to  have  been  a  part  of  an 
insignia  of  royalty,  as  is  still  the  case  in  parts 
of  Asia  and  Africa.  An  English  dictionary, 
published  in  1708,  defines  an  umbrella  as  "  a 
screen  commonly  used  by  women  to  keep  off 
rain."  Jonas  Ilanway  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  man  to  have  carried  an  umbrella 
through  the  streets  of  London  in  rainy  weather, 
about  1750,  and  he  was  hooted  and  jeered  at 
by  boys  for  his  fears  of  a  wetting.  It  is  not 
known,  however,  when  their  use  began  in 
England,  as  representations  of  such  articles  are 
found  in  very  ancient  manuscripts.  Umbrellas 
were  introduced  in  America  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  their  use  at  first 
was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  women,  as 
it  was  considered  very  effeminate  to  carry  one. 

Undulatory  Theory  of  Light. —  For  a 
long  while  there  were  two  rival  theories  to 
account  for  the  nature  of  light  and  optical 
phenomena,  and  it  is  only  of  late  years  that  the 
observations  and  experiments  of  scientists  have 
fully  established  the  undulatory  theory  and 
disproved  the  corpuscular  theory.  The  former 
maintains  that  light  is  a  transference  of  energy 
to  the  eye  ;  the  latter,  that  it  is  a  transference 
of  matter.  The  Undulatory  theory  assumes  the 
entire  universe  and  all  matter  to  be  pervaded 
with  a  highly  elastic  imponderable  fluid,  which 
is  called   ether.     Eight,  then,  consists  in  the 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


361 


propagation  of  energy  by  a  wave  motion 
through  this  fluid  —  a  process  exactly  anal- 
ogous to  the  transmission  of  sound  in  air  and 
of  waves  in  water.  This  theory  explains  the 
nature  of  radiant  heat  also  and  its  relation  to 
light,  considering  it  is  an  undulatory  motion, 
in  this  same  ether,  of  similar  character  but 
different  degree.  The  now  discarded  corpus- 
cular theory,  which  was  supported  by  no  less  a 
man  than  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  assumed  that  an 
infinite  number  of  minute  material  particles 
emanated  from  a  luminous  body,  and,  imping- 
ing on  the  eye,  gave  the  sensation  of  light. 
Huygens  has  the  credit  of  having  propounded, 
developed,  and  illustrated  the  undulatory 
theory.  His  propositions  and  conclusions  were 
finally  and  fully  substantiated  by  the  succes- 
sive experiments  and  demonstrations  of  Young, 
Fizeau,  and  Foucault.  The  velocity  of  light, 
or  the  rate  at  which  this  wave  motion  is  com- 
municated through  the  ether,  is  186,000  miles 
a  second. 

Vaccination,  as  a  preventive  of  small- 
pox, was  discovered  by  Dr.  Edward  Jenner,  an 
English  physician.  His  attention  was  directed 
to  the  subject  upon  casually  hearing  that  per- 
sons engaged  in  milking  cows  frequently  had 
the  cowpox,  a  mild  disorder  of  the  eruptive 
kind  appearing  on  the  udder  of  the  animal, 
and  communicated  in  a  similar  form  to  the 
hands,  and  that  the  belief  was  common  among 
the  agricultural  classes  that  whoever  had  taken 
the  disease  was  secure  against  the  infection  of 
smallpox.  After  frequent  experiments  he 
ascertained  that  only  one  form  of  the  eruption 
on  the  cow's  udder  possessed  this  property,  a 
number  of  these  experiments  being  made  upon 
his  son,  a  boy  six  years  old.  He  labored 
against  opposition  for  many  years  before  the 
value  of  his  discovery  was  acknowledged  by 
the  medical  profession.  There  are  several 
places  in  the  United  States  where  a  business  is 
made  of  supptying  the  market  with  "  vaccine 
points" — small  quills,  with  a  coating  of  the 
cow  virus' on  the  ends.  The  name  is  derived 
from  caeca,  meaning  a  cow. 

Vacuum.  —  This  word  means,  literally, 
empty  space,  or  space  wholly  devoid  of  matter. 
In  this  sense,  the  results  of  modern  scientific 
investigation  tend  to  prove  that  a  vacuum  can- 
not exist,  as  all  space  is  pervaded  by  the  im- 
ponderable elastic  fluid  called  ether,  whose 
existence  must  be  allowed  to  explain  the  trans- 
mission of  light  and  heat  from  distant  lumi- 
nous bodies.  (See  Undulatory  Theory  of 
Light.)  In  common  language,  a  vacuum 
(more  or  less  perfect)  is  said  to  be  produced 
when  ordinary  ponderable  matter,  as  air,  has 
been  removed  from  the  interior  of  a  closed 
vessel.     Until   the   beginning   of  the  present 


century  the  most  perfect  vacuum  that  could  be 
obtained  wTas  what  is  called  the  Torricellian 
vacuum  —  i.  e.,  the  space  above  the  mercury 
in  a  carefully  filled  barometer  tube.  Such  a 
vacuum  is,  however,  almost  useless  for  experi- 
mental purposes ;  and,  besides,  it  contains 
mercurial  vapor.  By  modern  scientific  meth- 
ods and  appliances  a  vacuum  may  be  obtained 
in  which  there  is  leftlessthan  1-135,000  of  the 
original  volume  of  air.  An  ordinary  air-pump 
in  good  working  order  will  remove  all  but 
about  1-120  of  the  air  in  the  receiver.  The 
old  phrase  that  "Nature  abhors  a  vacuum," 
was  used  to  account  for  various  phenomena  in 
the  past  —  among  them  the  rise  of  water  in 
pumps.  Most  of  these  are  now  well  under- 
stood, the  simple  natural  laws  governing  them. 
Water,  for  instance,  rises  in  a  tube,  when  the 
air  is  exhausted  above  it,  owing  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  atmosphere  on  the  open  surface  of 
the  liquid  in  which  the  end  of  the  tube  is  im- 
mersed. This  pressure  or  weight  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a  column 
of  water  about  thirty-two  feet  high,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, will  raise  the  water  to  this  height. 
Velocity. — The  average  velocity  of  various 
bodies  is  here  given  :  — 

Per  hour.  Per  sec. 

A  man  walks 3  miles,  or  4  feet. 

A  horse  trots 7      "        or  10     " 

A  horse  runs 20      "        or  29     " 

Steamboats  move 18      "       or  26     " 

Sailing  vessels  move 10      "       or  14     " 

Slow  rivers  flow 3      "       or  4     " 

Rapid  rivers  flow 7      "       or  10     " 

A  moderate  wind  blows 7      "       or  10     " 

A  storm  moves 36      "        or  52     " 

A  hurricane  moves 80      "        or  117     " 

A  rifle  ball  moves ■ 963      "        or  1,466     " 

Sound  moves 743      "        or  1,142     " 

Light  moves 192,000  miles  per  second. 

Electricity  moves 288,000      "        "  " 

Violin. —  The  origin  of  the  violin  can  be 
traced  back  to  a  stringed  instrument  called  the 
ravanastron,  invented,  it  is  believed,  in  5000 
B.  C,  by  Ravana,  King  of  Ceylon.  The 
crwth,  which  was  in  use  in  Wales  long  before 
the  sixth  century,  and  to  which  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  gave  the  name  of  fythel,  whence  our 
fiddle,  was  a  similar  instrument.  The  violin 
of  modern  form  was  not  made  until  the  fifteenth 
or  sixteenth  centuries,  and  its  earliest  maker 
was  Gaspard  di  Salo,  of  Lombardy  ;  and  the 
Italian  school  of  violin-making  was  probably 
founded  by  him  at  Brescia.  These  Brescian 
instruments  —  that  is  to  say.  those  made  by 
Giovanni  Paolo  Magini,  still  hold  a  place 
among  the  best  ever  made.  It  was  not  long, 
however,  after  the  establishment  of  the  Bres- 
cian school  when  the  makers  of  Cremona  be- 
gan to  produce  instruments  which  have  been 
objects  of  wonder  and  admiration  from  their 
time  to  the  present.     The  three  greatest  Crem- 


362 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


onese  makers  were  Nicholas  Amati,  Joseph 
Guarneri  del  Gesu  and  Antonius  Stradivarius. 
To  those  who  at  the  present  time  willingly  pay 
hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  dollars  for  a 
violin  made  by  one  of  these  great  makers, 
it  may  be  of  interest  to  know  that  they  all 
were  simple,  hard-working  artisans,  who  sold 
their  works  of  genius  for  a  few  florins. 

Volcanoes. —  A  volcano  is  a  mountain,  or 
opening  in  the  earth's  crust,  through  which 
issue  fire,  smoke,  ashes,  lava,  steam,  etc. 
Volcanoes  may  be  distinguished  as  extinct 
and  active.  Extinct  volcanoes  are  such  as  are 
now  at  rest,  but  were  subject  to  eruptions  in 
former  ages,  as  is  shown  by  their  form  and 
structure,  and  the  presence  of  craters.  Active 
volcanoes  are  such  as  are  either  in  a  constant 
state  of  eruption,  or  have  eruptions  from  time 
to  time,  with  intervals  of  rest. 

Volcanoes  throw  out  an  enormous  amount  of 
material.  Whole  islands  and  portions  of  con- 
tinents have  been  formed  by  volcanic  action. 
Iceland  is  an  example  of  a  volcanic  island. 

The  lava,  when  it  first  issues  from  a  volcano, 
is  somewhat  like  melted  iron  running  from  a 
furnace,  but  soon  cools  on  the  surface  and 
forms  a  black,  porous  crust.  Sometimes  the 
streams  are  so  thick  that  the  interior  remains 
hot  for  twenty  years. 

A  terrific  eruption  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  A.  D. 
79,  destroyed  the  flourishing  cities  of  Pompeii, 
Herculaneum,  and  Stabise,  and  covered  them 
with  ashes  and  cinders  to  the  depth  of  fifteen 
feet. 

About  sixty  eruptions  of  Mt.  Etna  are  re- 
corded. In  1669,  a  stream  of  lava  from  this 
mountain  overflowed  the  ramparts  of  Catania, 
sixty  feet  in  height,  and  destroyed  a  portion  of 
the  city.  In  1832,  several  craters  opened  in 
the  sides  of  the  mountain,  and  a  stream  of 
lava  eighteen  miles  long,  or.e  mile  broad,  and 
thirty  feet  deep,  poured  over  the  adjacent 
fields. 

In  1835,  the  terrible  eruption  of  Conseguina 
occurred.  It  lasted  three  days,  during  Avhich 
the  light  of  the  sun  was  obscured  over  half  of 
Central  America,  and  more  than  40,000  square 
miles  are  said  to  have  been  covered  with  dust, 
ashes,  and  lava. 

Water  Gas —  Much  of  the  illuminating 
gas  now  used  is  made  by  the  comparatively 
new  process  in  which  the  main  volume  of  the 
gas,  consisting  of  hydrogen,  is  taken  out  of 
water.  In  the  original  coal  gas  process  the 
illuminating  agent  is  obtained  directly  from 
the  distillation  of  soft  or  bituminous  coal; 
and  impurities  being  removed  by  washing  it 
with  water  and  then  passing  it  through  lime, 
the  gas  is  ready  for  burning.  The  new  proc- 
ess is,  in  outline,  as  follows  :  Steam  is  passed 


through  retorts  filled  with  anthracite  coal  raised 
to  a  white  heat  by  an  air  blast.  In  its  passage 
it  is  decomposed,  and  the  gas  issuing  from  the 
pipes  at  the  top  consists  of  a  mixture  of  hydro- 
gen and  carbon  dioxide.  This  serves  as  the 
carrier  for  the  true  illuminating  agents,  which 
are  a  comparatively  small  percentage  of  the 
entire  volume,  and  these  are  combined  by 
mingling  with  naphtha  vapor.  This  mixture 
has  now  about  the  same  composition  as  the 
ordinary  coal  gas,  but  must  be  fixed  —  tha^is, 
made  a  stable  compound  —  by  subjecting  it  to 
the  effect  of  heat  and  cold.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  conducting  it  through  two  series  of 
pipes,  surrounded  in  one  case  by  cold,  running 
water,  and  in  the  other  by  steam.  It  is  then 
purified  in  the  same  way  as  mentioned  above. 
By  passing  it  through  a  water  tower  loosely 
filled  with  something,  as  charcoal,  down 
through  which  water  trickles  as  the  gaseous 
mixture  ascends,  the  ammonia  is  dissolved  out ; 
then,  by  passing  it  through  thin  layers  of  lime, 
the  other  main  impurity,  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen, is  removed.  It  is  then  ready  for  distri- 
bution through  the  city.  Its  illuminating 
power  is  about  the  same  as,  or  somewhat 
greater  than,  that  of  coal  gas.  The  water 
process  produces  the  gas  at  a  much  lower  cost ; 
but  in  the  other  process  there  are  a  number  of 
by-products  derived  from  the  distillation  of 
the  coal — e.  r/.,  coke,  coal  tar,  and  also  aqua 
ammonia,  which  is  present  in  greater  quanti- 
ties in  the  coal  gas —  which  are  sold,  and  thus 
make  the  entire  cost  of  manufacture  about  the 
same  in  each  case. 

Weaving". —  The  art  of  weaving  appears 
to  have  been  practiced  in  China  from  the  ear- 
liest antiquity  —  more  than  a  thousand  years 
before  it  was  known  in  Europe  or  Asia.  Poets 
assign  the  art  to  the  spider.  Women  origi- 
nally spun,  wove,  and  dyed  ;  and  the  origin  of 
these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  ancient  nations,  to 
different  women  as  women's  art.  The  Egyp- 
tians ascribed  the  art  to  Isis,  the  Greeks  to 
Minerva,  and  the  Peruvians  to  the  wife  of 
Manco  Capac.  In  most  Eastern  countries, 
the  employment  of  weaving  is  still  performed 
by  the  women.  The  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat, 
had  not  any  seam,  being  woven  from  the  top 
throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  In  1331,  two 
weavers  from  Brabrant  settled  at  York,  Eng- 
land, where  they  manufactured  woolen.  Flem- 
ish dyers,  cloth  drapers,  linen  makers,  silk 
throwsters,  etc.,  settled  at  Canterbury,  Nor- 
wich, Colchester,  Southampton,  and  other 
places,  on  account  of  the  Duke  of  Alva's  per- 
secution, 1567,  and  carried  on  the  occupation 
of  weaving. 

Whisky. —  The  process  of  distilling  liquors 
from    grain    is   thought    to    have    been  first 


SCIENCE,  INVENTION,  DISCOVERY. 


363 


discovered  in  India,  and  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Moors  about  1150.  Its  use  in 
Ireland  dates  back  to  about  the  same  time,  but 
it  was  not  introduced  into  England  until  the 
close  of  the  century.  When  first  made, 
whisky  was  used  as  a  medicine  ;  and  direc- 
tions for  making  usquebaugh,  or  aqua  vitse, 
are  contained  in  the  "  Red  Book  of  Ossory," 
a  volume  compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
in  which  it  is  described  as  a  panacea  for  all 
diseases.  The  name  whisky  was  at  first  given 
by  the  Scotch  Highlanders  to  the  liquor  which 
they  distilled  from  barley  only,  and  had  not, 
until  later  times,  its  present  more  general 
application.  Usquebaugh  was  a  Celtic  name 
for  the  liquor,  from  which  the  word  whisky 
is  no  doubt  derived. 

Wire. —  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is 
ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg,  about 
1410.  Mills  for  this  purpose  were  set  up  at 
Nuremberg  in  1563.  The  first  wire  mill  in 
England  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663. 
The  astonishing  ductility,  which  is  one  of  the 
distinguishing  qualities  of  gold,  is  no  way 
more  conspicuous  than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylin- 
der of  forty-eight  ounces  of  silver,  covered 
with  a  coat  of  gold  weighing  only  one  ounce, 
is  usually  drawn  into  a  wire,  two  yards  of 
which  weigh  only  one  grain  ;  so  that  ninety- 
eight  yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than 
forty-nine  grains,  and  one  single  grain  of  gold 
covers  the  whole  ninety-eight  yards.  Eight 
grains  of  gold,  covering  a  cylinder  of  silver 
are  commonly  drawn  into  a  wire  13,000  feet 
long ;  yet  so  perfectly  does  it  cover  the  silver 
that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover  any 
appearance  of  the  silver  underneath. 

X  or  Rontgen  Rays  are  a  newly  dis- 
covered form  of  energy  that  is  radiated  from  a 
highly  exhausted  discharge  tube,  and  devel- 
oped by  an  electrical  discharge.  The  rays  are 
so  called  for  their  discoverer,  Prof.  W.  C. 
Rontgen  of  Wurtzburg,  who  gave  them  the 
name  "  X  rays  "  because  he  was  ighorant  of 
their  precise  nature,  the  letter  "  X  "  being  the 
usual  algebraic  symbol  for  an  unknown  quan- 
tity. The  Rontgen  rajTs  resemble  ordinary 
light  in  being  propagated  in  straight  lines,  in 
being  capable  of  reflection,  in  causing  phos- 
phorescence, and  in  affecting  a  sensitized  plate. 
They  differ  from  it  in  being  invisible,  in  not 
being  capable  of  refraction  or  polarization,  and 
in  being  able  to  traverse  many  substances 
that  are  opaque  to  ordinary  light.  The  phe- 
nomena caused  by  the  passage  of  electricity 
through  exhausted  tubes  have  long  attracted 
attention.  It  was  noticed  by  Faraday  in  1837, 
and  by  Plucker,  in  1858.  who  was  the  first  to 
cause  apparatus  to  be  made  whereby  a  practi- 
cally permanent  vacuum  could  be  maintained 


in  a  glass  bulb.  The  physicist  Crookes  im- 
proved the  tube  and  made  many  experiments 
with  "cathode  rays."  The  discovery  of 
Rontgen  was  announced  in  1896  as  a  new  form 
of  radiation.  The  discovery  was  accidental, 
and  was  made  by  observing  that  a  highly  fiour- 
escent  substance  with  which  he  was  experi- 
menting gave  out  light  whenever  a  neighbor-  , 
ing  Crookes  tube  was  excited,  though  this 
tube  was  covered  with  an  opaque  cloth.  The 
phenomena  differed  from  cathode  rays,  and  it 
was  found  that  when  the  human  hand  was 
interposed  between  the  tube  and  a  photo- 
graphic plate,  the  new  rays  caused  a  marked 
shadow  picture  of  the  skeleton  to  appear  on 
the  plate.  Nothing  but  a  shadow  picture  was 
possible  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  rays  are 
capable  of  but  slight  reflection.  Extraordi- 
nary and  widespread  interest  was  at  once 
aroused,  but  the  purely  scientific  interest  was 
for  the  time  being  overshadowed  in  the  public 
mind  by  the  sensational  announcement  that  a 
means  of  "  seeing  through  "  the  human  body 
had  been  devised.  Notwithstanding  these 
exaggerations,  experimenters  in  all  countries 
verified  Prof  Rontgen 's  own  claims. 

The  shadow  pictures  are  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes,  such  as  locating  foreign 
bodies,  examining  fractures  and  malformations 
of  bones,  in  dental  surgery,  and  in  detecting 
adulterations.  The  rays  have  also  been  util- 
ized in  France  for  the  study  of  fossils. 

Zodiac,  The,  is  the  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  an  imaginary  band  extending 
around  the  celestial  sphere,  having  as  its  me- 
sial line  the  ecliptic  or  apparent  path  of  the 
sun.  The  signs  of  the  zodiac  embrace  the 
twelve  important  constellations  which,  owing 
to  the  motions  of  the  earth,  appear  to  revolve 
through  the  heavens  within  a  belt  extending 
nine  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  sun's  apparent 
annual  path,  and  within  or  near  which  all  the 
planets  revolve.  Since  the  sun  appears  suc- 
cessively in  each  of  these  constellations  during 
the  year,  the  zodiac  was  divided  into  twelve 
equal  parts,  corresponding  to  the  months. 
These  signs  and  their  subdivisions  were  used 
in  measuring  time,  and  as  a  basis  of  astro- 
nomical and  astrological  calculations  and  predic- 
tions. Astronomers  now,  for  convenience,  use 
these  signs,  giving  to  each  constellation  an  ex- 
tent of  thirty  degrees,  although  the  constella- 
tions vary  in  size.  These  signs  are  Aries, 
representing  the  ram  ;  Taurus,  the  bull ;  Gem- 
ini, the  twins ;  Cancer,  the  crab ;  Leo,  the 
lion ;  Virgo,  the  virgin ;  Libra,  the  balance ; 
Scorpio,  the  scorpion  ;  Sagittarius,  the  archer; 
Capricornus,  the  goat;  Aquarius,  the  water- 
bearer,  and  Pisces,  the  fishes.  On  the  20th  of 
March  the  sun  enters  Aries,  and  at  midnight 


364 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Virgo,  the  opposite  constellation,  will  be  over- 
head. During  the  month  of  April  the  sun 
will  pass  into  Taurus,  and  at  midnight  Libra 
will  be  overhead.  The  early  astronomers  were 
astrologers,  and  claimed  to  be  able  to  predict 
the  future  careers  of  individuals  and  nations 
by  observing  the  positions  and  movements  of 
^the  planets  and  the  condition  of  the  weather 
at  the  most  important  periods  of  men's  lives. 
A  man  born  when  the  sun  was  in  the  coustella- 
tion  Scorpio  was  believed  to  be  naturally  bent 
toward  excessive  indulgence  of  the  animal 
passions  ;  one  born  when  the  sun  was  in  Aries 
was  destined  to  be  a  great  scholar  or  ruler ; 
one  born  when  the  sun  was  in  Pisces  was  pre- 
destined to  grovel  or  be  a  servant,  and  so  on. 
The  porticoes  of  the  temples  of  Denderah  and 
Esne,  in  Egypt,  have  representations  of  the 
zodiacal  constellations  which  are  of  great  an- 
tiquity and  have  formed  a  fruitful  theme  of 
discussion ;  but  the  truth  seems  to  be  that 
nothing  is  as  yet  known  respecting  these  an- 
cient representations,  for  the  manner  in  which 
the  investigations  have  been  mixed  up  with 
the  Biblical  question  of  the  antiquity  of  man 
has  prevented  any  truly  scientific  research. 
The  Greeks  would  seem  to  have  borrowed  their 
constellations  from  the  Egyptians  and  Baby- 
lonians, and  this  is  corroborated  to  some  ex- 
tent by  occasional  remarks  of  Greek  writers  as 
to  the  positions  of  various  constellations  at 
certain  times,  which  positions  are  inconsistent 
with'  the  supposition  of  the  observer  being  in 
Greece.  The  zodiacal  figures  of  the  Hindus, 
ancient  Persians.  Chinese,  and  Japanese  have 
such  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Egyptians  that  there  can  be  little  doubt  as  to 
their  common  origin. 

Zoology  is  that  science  which  treats  of  ani- 
mals, their  structure,  habits,  and  classification. 

There  are  four  principal  divisions  of  animals, 
based  on  distinct  types  of  structure,  and  in- 
cluding all  the  denizens  of  the  earth,  the  water, 


and  the  air.     Following  are  the  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  beginning  with  the  lowest : — 

CLAS8ES  OF  SUB- 
DIVISIONS. 

1.  Amoeba,  sponges,  pro- 
tei,  etc.  They  have  no 
mouth,  and  no  distinct 
members,  but  are  ca- 
pable of  making  many 
changes  in  their  form. 


SUB-KINGDOMS   OR 
DIVISIONS. 

I.  Protozoa— First-liv- 
ing things,  or  lowest  form 
of  animal  life. 

II.  Radiata— Radiates, 
that  is,  such  as  are  shaped 
like  a  star  or  flower,  and 
have  their  organs  arrang- 
ed uniformly  around  a 
common  center. 


III.  Mollusca  — Mol- 
lusks,  that  is,  soft-bodied, 
without  joints,  and  with- 
out vertebrae,  but  usually 
protected  by  a  shell. 


IV.  Articulata— Ar- 
ticulates, that  is,  animals 
having  the  body  and  mem- 
bers jointed,  but  without 
an  internal  skeleton. 


V.  Vertebrat a— Ver- 
tebrates, that  is,  animals 
that  have  a  backbone,  and 
an  articulated  or  jointed 
skeleton,  and  a  great  ner-  "* 
vous  cord,  the  spinal  mar  • 
row,  inclosed  in  a  bony 
sheath. 


1.  Coral  animals,  sea- 
anemones,  etc. 

2.  Jelly-fishes,  sea-nettles. 

3.  Star-Ashes,  sea-urchins. 

1.  Bryozoa,  that  is,  moss 
animals ;  as  sea-mats, 
white  sea-weeds,  etc. 

2.  Brachiopods,  that  is, 
with  arm-feet,  or  spiral 
appendages;  as  the  lin- 
gulae,  spirifers,  etc. 

3.  Ascidians,  that  is, 
pouch-like;  as  salpa;, 
etc. 

4.  Acephals,  that  is,  head- 
less ;  as  oysters,  etc. 

5.  Cephalates,  that  is, with 
heads ;  as  snails,  etc. 

6.  Cephalopods,  that  is, 
with  heads  and  feet,  or, 
more  strictly,  tentacles. 

'  1.  Worms,  as  earthworms, 
leeches,  etc. 

2.  Crustaceans,  as  crabs, 
lobsters,  etc. 

3.  Centipedes,  etc. 

4.  Spiders,  etc. 
„  5.  Beetles,  butterflies,  etc. 

1.  Fishes. 

2.  Reptiles,  that  is,  creep- 
ing things,  as  turtles, 
frogs,  snakes,  lizards, 
etc. 

3.  Birds,  that  is,  "Every 
winged  fowl." 

4.  Mammalia,  that  is,  ;;ni- 
mals  with  teats. 

The  last  class,  Mammalia,  is  further  sub- 
divided into  fourteen  orders,  of  which  the  most 
distinctive,  still  ascending  from  the  lower  to 
the  higher,  are  four,  namely  : — 

1.  Cetacea,  that  is,  of  the  whale  tribe. 

2.  Quadrupeds,  that  is,  four-footed  animals  generally-. 

3.  Quadrumana,  that  is,  four-handed;  as  the  gorilla, 

chimpanzee,  ape,  and  monkey. 

4.  Bimana,  that  is,  two-handed;    of  wh:ch  the  on.y 

representative  is  man. 


/te  "» 


o 
- 


Book  V. 

Domestic  Economy,  Hygiene, 

Dietetics. 


Domestic  Economy,  Hygiene,  Dietetics. 


AIR. 

The  common  air  is  a  fluid  composed  mainly 
of  two  gases,  in  certain  proportions ;  namely, 
oxygen  as  twenty  and  nitrogen  as  eighty  parts 
in  a  hundred,  with  a  very  minute  addition  of 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Such  is  air  in  its  pure  and 
right  state,  and  such  is  the  state  in  which  we 
require  it  for  respiration.  When  it  is  loaded 
with  any  admixture  of  a  different  kind,  or  its 
natural  proportions  are  in  any  way  deranged, 
it  cannot  be  breathed  without  producing  inju- 
rious results.  We  also  require  what  is  apt  to 
appear  a  large  quantity  of  this  element  of 
healthy  existence.  The  lungs  of  a  healthy 
full-grown  man  will  inhale  the  bulk  of  twenty 
cubic  inches  at  every  inspiration,  and  he  will 
use  no  less  than  fifty-seven  hogsheads  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

Now,  there  are  various  circumstances  which 
tend  to  surround  us  at  times  with*  vitiated  air, 
and  which  must  accordingly  be  guarded 
against.  That  first  calling  for  attention  is  the 
miasma  or  noxious  quality  imparted  to  the  air 
in  certain  districts  by  stagnant  water  and  de- 
caying vegetable  matter.  It  is  now  generally 
acknowledged  that  this  noxious  quality  is  in 
reality  a  subtle  poison,  which  acts  on  the  hu- 
man system  through  the  medium  of  the  lungs, 
producing  fevers  and  other  epidemics. 

Putrid  matter  of  all  kinds  is  another  con- 
spicuous source  of  noxious  effluvia.  The  filth 
collected  in  ill-regulated  towns,  ill-managed 
drains,  collections  of  decaying  animal  sub- 
stances placed  too  near  or  within  private  dwell- 
ings, are  notable  for  their  effects  in  vitiating 
the  atmosphere,  and  generating  disease  in 
those  exposed  to  them.  In  this  case,  also,  it 
is  a  poison  diffused  abroad  through  the  air 
which  acts  so  injuriously  on  the  human  frame. 

The  human  subject  tends  to  vitiate  the 
atmosphere  for  itself,  by  the  effect  which  it 
produces  on  the  air  which  it  breathes.  Our 
breath,  when  we  draw  it  in,  consists  of  the  in- 
gredients formerly  mentioned ;  but  it  is  in  a 
very  different  state  when  we  part  with  it.  On 
passing  into  our  lungs  the  oxygen,  forming  the 
lesser  ingredient,  enters  into  combination  with 
the  carbon  of  the  venous  blood  (or  blood  which 
has  already  performed  its  round  through  the 
body)  ;  in  this  process  about  two  fifths  of  the 
oxygen  is  abstracted  and  sent  into  the  blood, 
only  the  remaining  three  fifths  being  expired, 
along  with  the  nitrogen  nearly  as  it  was  before. 
In  place  of  the  oxygen  consumed,  there  is  ex- 
pired an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas, 
such  gas  being  a  result  of  the  process  of  com- 


bination just  alluded  to.  Now,  carbonic  acid 
gas,  in  a  larger  proportion  than  that  in  which 
it  is  found  in  the  atmosphere,  is  noxious.  The 
volume  of  it  expired  by  the  lungs,  if  free  to 
mingle  with  the  air  at  large,  will  do  no  harm  ; 
but,  if  breathed  out  into  a  close  room,  it  will 
render  the  air  unfit  for  being  again  breathed. 
Suppose  an  individual  to  be  shut  up  in  an  air- 
tight box  :  each  breath  he  emits  throws  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  carbonic  acid  gas  into  the  air 
filling  the  box ;  the  air  is  thus  vitiated,  and 
every  successive  inspiration  is  composed  of 
worse  and  worse  materials,  till  at  length  the 
oxygen  is  so  much  exhausted  that  it  is  insuffi- 
cient for  the  support  of  life.  He  would  then 
be  sensible  of  a  great  difficulty  in  breathing, 
and  in  a  little  time  longer  he  would  die. 

Most  rooms  in  which  human  beings  live  are 
not  strictly  close.  The  chimney  and  the  chinks 
of  the  doors  and  windows  generally  allow  of  a 
communication  to  a  certain  extent  with  the 
outer  air,  so  that  it  rarely  happens  that  great 
immediate  inconvenience  is  experienced  in 
ordinary  apartments  from  want  of  fresh  air. 
But  it  is  at  the  same  time  quite  certain  that, 
in  all  ordinary  apartments  where  human  beings 
are  assembled,  the  air  unavoidably  becomes 
considerably  A-itiated,  for  in  such  a  situation 
there  cannot  be  a  sufficiently  ready  or  copious 
supply  of  oxygen  to  make  up  for  that  which 
has  been  consumed,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
will  be  constantly  accumulating.  This  is  par- 
ticularly the  case  in  bedrooms,  and  in  theaters, 
churches,  and  schools. 

Perhaps  it  is  in  bedrooms  that  most  harm 
is  done.  These  are  generally  smaller  than 
other  rooms,  and  they  are  usually  kept  closed 
during  the  whole  night.  The  result  of  sleep- 
ing in  such  a  room  is  very  injurious.  A  com- 
mon fire,  from  the  draught  which  it  produces, 
is  very  serviceable  in  ventilating  rooms,  but  it 
is  at  best  a  defective  means  of  doing  so.  The 
draught  which  it  creates  generally  sweeps 
along  near  the  floor  between  the  door  and  the 
fire,  leaving  all  above  the  level  of  the  chinmev- 
piece  unpurified.  Yet  scarcely  any  other  ar- 
rangement is  anywhere  made  for  the  purpose 
of  changing  the   air  in  ordinary  rooms. 

FOOD. 

A  food  is  a  substance  which,  when  intro- 
duced into  the  body,  supplies  material  which 
renews  some  structure  or  maintains  some  vital 
process ;  and  it  is  distinguished  from  a  medi- 
cine in  that  the  latter  modifies  some  vital  ac- 
tion, but  does  not  supply  the  material  which 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


367 


sustains  such  action.  It  is  essential  to  the 
idea  of  a  food  that  it  support  or  increase  vital 
actions:  whilst  medicines  usually  may  lessen, 
increase,  or  otherwise  modify  some  of  them. 
"  Foods  are  derived,"  says  Dr.  Edward  Smith, 
'•from  all  the  great  divisions  of  nature  and 
natural  products,  as  earth,  water,  and  air, 
solids,  liquids,  and  gases;  and  from  substances 
which  are  living  and  organic,  or  inanimate  and 
inorganic.  The  popular  notion  of  food  as  a 
solid  substance  derived  from  animals  and  veg- 
etables, whilst  comprehensive  is  too  exclusive, 
since  the  water  which  we  drink,  the  air  which 
we  breathe,  and  certain  minerals  found  in  the 
substance  of  the  earth,  are,  adopting  the  defi- 
nition given,  of  no  less  importance  as  foods. 
It  is.  however,  of  great  interest  to  note  how  fre- 
quently all  these  are  combined  in  one  food,  and 
how  closely  united  are  substances  which  seem 
to  be  widely  separated.  Thus  wTater  and  min- 
erals are  found  in  both  flesh  and  vegetables, 
whilst  one  or  both  of  the  components  parts  of 
the  air,  viz.,  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  are  dis- 
tributed through  every  kind  of  food  which  is 
alone  capable  of  sustaining  life.  Hence,  not 
only  may  we  add  food  to  food  to  supply  the 
waste  of  the  body,  but  we  may  within  certain 
limits  substitute  one  for  another  as  our  appe- 
tites or  wants  demand.  .  .  .  Further, 
there  seems  to  be  an  indissoluble  bond  existing 
between  all  the  sources  of  food.  There  are 
the  same  classes  of  elements  in  flesh  as  in  flour, 
and  the  same  in  animals  as  in  vegetables. 

"  The  vegetable  draws  water  and  minerals 
from  the  soil,  whilst  it  absorbs  and  incorporates 
the  air  in  its  own  growth,  and  is  then  eaten 
to  sustain  the  life  of  animals,  so  that  animals 
gain  the  substances  which  vegetables  first  ac- 
quired. But  in  completing  the  circle  the  veg- 
etable receives  from  the  animal  the  air  (car- 
bonic acid)  which  was  thrown  out  in  respira- 
tion, and  lives  and  grows  upon  it ;  and  at 
length  the  animal  itself  in  whole  or  in  part, 
and  the  refuse  which  it  daily  throws  off,  be- 
come the  food  of  the  vegetable.  Even  the  very 
bones  of  an  animal  are  by  the  aid  of  nature  or 
man  made  to  increase  the  growth  of  vegetables 
and  really  to  enter  into  their  structure  ;  and 
being  again  eaten,  animals  may  be  said  to  eat 
their  own  bones,  and  live  on  their  own  flesh." 
It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  animal  and  veg- 
etable foods  contain  precisely  the  same  ele- 
ments though  in  different  combinations.  At 
the  same  time  they  differ  sufficiently  to  make 
a  due  proportion  of  each  necessary  to  perfect 
nutrition.  One  sterling  point  of  difference  is, 
that  nitrogen  constitutes  a  much  larger  per- 
centage of  animal  bodies  than  of  vegetables. 
Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  important  ele- 
ments of  food ;  only  such  substances  as  con- 


tain it  can  efficiently  produce  flesh  or  repair 
wasted  tissue.  So  important  is  this  distinction, 
in  fact,  that  one  of  the  divisions  of  food  most 
generally  recognized  by  physiologists  is  into 
nitrogenous  and  non-nitrogenous,  or,  as  Lie- 
big  termed  them,  the  flesh-forming  and  the 
heat-producing.  Both  kinds  are  essential  to 
the  maintenance  of  life,  and  it  is  because  veg- 
etables as  a  whole  are  deficient  in  nitrogen 
that  the  highest  degree  of  bodily  vigor  cannot 
be  kept  up  by  them  alone. 

It  is  understood  that  the  structures  of  the 
body  are  in  a  state  of  continual  change, 
so  that  atoms  which  are  present  at  one  hour 
may  be  gone  the  next,  and  when  gone  the 
structures  will  be  so  far  wasted,  unless  the  proc- 
ess of  waste  be  accompanied  by  renewal.  But 
the  renewing  substance  must  be  of  the  same 
nature  as  that  wasted,  so  that  bone  shall  be  re- 
newed by  the  constituent  elements  of  bone, 
and  flesh  by  those  of  flesh.  This  is  the  duty 
assigned  to  food, —  to  supply  to  each  part  of 
the  body  the  very  same  kind  of  material  that 
it  lost  by  waste.  As  foods  must  have,  the 
same  composition  as  the  body,  or  supply  some 
such  other  materials  as  can  be  transformed 
into  the  substances  of  the  body,  it  is  desirable 
to  gain  a  general  idea  of  what  these  substances 
are.  The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  prin- 
cipal materials  of  which  the  body  is  com- 
posed :  — 

Flesh,  in  its  fresh  state,  contains  water,  fat, 
fibrin,  albumen,  besides  compounds  of  lime, 
phosphorus,  soda,  potash,  magnesia,  silica,  and 
iron,  and  certain  extractives,  whose  nature  is 
unknown.  Blood  has  a  composition  similar  in 
elements  to  that  of  flesh. 

Bone  is  composed  of  cartilage,  fat,  and  salts 
of  lime,  magnesia,  soda,  and*potash,  combined 
with  phosphoric  and  other  acids. 

Cartilage  consists  of  chondrin,  from  which 
gelatine  is  formed,  with  salts  of  soda,  potash, 
lime,  phosphorus,  magnesia,  sulphur,  and  iron. 

The  brain  is  composed  of  water,  albumen, 
fat  (so-called),  phosphoric  acid,  osmazome, 
and  salts. 

The  liver  consists  of  water,  fat,  and  albu- 
men, with  phosphoric  and  other  acids,  in  con- 
junction with  soda,  iime,  potash,  and  iron. 

The  lungs  are  formed  of  a  substance  called 
connective  tissue,  from  which  gelatine  is  formed 
by  prolonged  boiling,  albumen,  a  substance 
analogous  to  casein,  various  fatty  and  organic 
acids,  with  salts  of  soda  and  iron,  and  water. 

Bile  consists  of  water,  fat,  resin,  sugar,  fatty 
and  organic  acids,  cholesterin,  and  salts  of 
potash,  soda,  and  iron. 

Hence,  it  is  requisite  that  the  body  should 
be  provided  w-ith  salts  of  potash,  soda,  lime, 
magnesia,    sulphur,    iron,  and  manganese,   as 


368 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


well  as  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  phosphoric, 
and  fluoric  acids  and  water ;  also,  nearly  all 
the  fat  which  it  consumes  daily,  and  probably 
all  the  nitrogenous  substances  which  it  re- 
quires and  which  are  closely  allied  in  compo- 
sition, as  albumen,  fibrin,  etc.  "So  great  an 
array  of  mysterious  substances,"  says  Dr. 
Smith,  "  might  well  prevent  us  from  feeding 
ourselves  or  others  if  the  selection  of  food  de- 
pended solely  upon  our  knowledge  or  judg- 
ment ;  but  it  is  not  so,  for,  independently  of 
the  aid  .derived  from  our  appetites,  there  is  the 
great  advantage  of  having  foods  which  con- 
tain a  proportion  of  nearly  all  these  elements  ; 
and  combinations  of  foods  have  been  effected 
by  experience  which  protect  even  the  most 
ignorant  from  evil  consequences.  Thus  flesh, 
or  the  muscular  tissue  of  animals,  contains 
precisely  the  elements  which  are  required  in 
our  flesh-formers,  and,  only  limited  by  quan- 
tity, our  heat-generators  also  ;  and  life  may  be 
maintained  for  very  lengthy  periods  upon  ani- 
mal food  and  water.  Seeing,  moreover,  that 
the  source  of  flesh  in  animals  which  are  used 
as  food,  is  of  vegetable  origin,  it  follows  that 
vegetables  should  contain  the  same  elements 
as  flesh,  and  it  is  a  fact  of  great  interest  that 
in  vegetables  we  have  food  elements  closely 
analogous  to  those  contained  in  the  flesh  of 
animals.  Thus,  in  addition  to  water  and  salts, 
common  to  both,  there  is  vegetable  chondrin, 
vegetable  albumen,  vegetable  fibrin,  and  vege- 
table casein,  all  having  a  composition  almost 
identical  with  animal  albumen,  fibrin,  chondrin 
and  casein."  The  articles  containing  most 
of  the  three  articles  needed  generally  in  the 
body  are  as  follows  :  for  fat  and  heat-making 
—  butter,  lard,  sugar  and  molasses;  for  flesh 
or  muscle-forming- — lean  meat,  cheese,  peas, 
beans,  and  lean  fishes ;  for  brain  and  nerves — 
shell  fish,  lean  meats,  pease,  beans,  and  very 
active  birds  and  fishes,  who  live  chiefly  on  food 
in  which  phosphorus  abounds.  Tn  a  meat 
diet,  the  fat  supplies  the  carbon  for  keeping 
up  the  heat  of  the  body,  and  the  lean  furnishes 
nutriment  for  the  muscles,  brain,  and  nerves. 
Green  vegetables,  fruits,  and  berries  furnish 
additional  supplies  of  the  acids,  the  salts,  and 
water  needed. 

Kinds  of  Food. —  The  simplest  and  most 
powerful  agent  in  determining  the  character  of 
our  food  is  climate.  In  cold  countries  the 
requirements  of  man  are  very  different  from 
those  felt  in  the  tropics,  and  from  the  Esqui- 
maux, who,  according  to  Dr.  Kane,  will  drink 
ten  or  twelve  gallons  of  train  oil  in  a  day,  to 
the  Peruvians  and  other  tropical  nations  for 
whom  the  banana  suffices  for  nearly  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  there  are  various  gradations  in 
which  the  constituents  of  the  diet  bear  a  very 


direct  relation  to  the  prevailing  temperature. 
In  cold  regions  man  requires  such  food  as  not- 
only  supplies  him  with  nutriment,  but  also 
with  heat;  as  oil,  butter,  fat,  sugar,  and  other 
substances  in  which  carbonaceous  elements 
predominate.  In  warm  countries,  on  the  con- 
trary, it  is  one  of  the  most  essential  conditions 
of  good  health,  that  his  food  should  be  as  lit- 
tle heating  as  possible.  Tn  our  own  climate 
this  law  holds  good  as  between  summer  and 
winter;  in  the  latter  season,  plenty  of  lean 
meat,  butter,  potatoes,  eggs,  sugar,  and 
similar  food  are  necessary  to  keep  the  animal 
machine  in  working  order,  while  in  summer 
the  diet  should  consist  chiefly  of  those  sub- 
stances of  which  nitrogenous  or  flesh-forming 
elements  compose  the  largest  part.  There  is 
probably  no  other  cause  so  fruitful  in  produc- 
ing the  dyspepsia  and  similar  diseases  of  which 
Americans,  as  a  nation,  are  in  a  peculiar  degree 
the  victims  as  the  neglect  to  harmonize  the 
food  with  the  changing  seasons. 

The  next  most  important  question  in  deter- 
mining the  character  of  our  food  is  that  of  its 
digestibility ;  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  nutritive  value  and  the  digestibility 
of  food  have  no  necessary  relation  to  each 
other.  A  food  may  have  a  very  high  nutri- 
tive value  and  yet  be  so  indigestible  as  to  be 
practically  useless,  and  on  the  other  hand  it 
may  be  very  easily  digested  and  worth  little  or 
nothing  for  nutrition.  No  general  rules  as  to 
the  digestibility  of  different  foods  can  be  laid 
down,  because  it  depends  very  largely  upon  in- 
dividual habits  and  conditions.  Persons  who 
have  a  strong  constitution,  and  take  sufficient 
exercise,  may  eat  almost  anything  with  appar- 
ent impunity ;  but  young  children  who  are 
forming  their  constitutions,  and  persons  who 
are  delicate,  and  who  take  but  little  exercise, 
are  very  dependent  for  health  upon  a  proper 
selection  of  food.  As  a  general  thing,  when 
the  body  requires  a  given  kind  of  diet,  spe- 
cially demanded  by  brain,  lungs,  or  muscles,  the 
appetite  will  crave  that  food  until  the  neces- 
sary amount  is  secured.  If  the  food  in  which 
the  needed  aliment  abounds  be  not  supplied, 
other  food  will  be  taken  in  larger  quantities 
than  needed  until  that  amount  is  gained  ;  for 
all  kinds  of  food  have  supplies  for  every  part 
of  the  body,  though  in  different  proportions. 
Thus,  for  example,  if  the  muscles  are  worked 
a  great  deal,  food  in  which  nitrogen  abounds 
is  required,  and  the  appetite  will  remain  un- 
appeased  until  the  requisite  amount  of  nitro- 
gen is  secured.  Should  food  be  taken  which 
has  not  the  requisite  quantity,  the  consequence 
will  be  that  the  vital  powers  will  be  needlessly 
taxed  to  throw  off  the  excess.  There  are  other 
kinds  of  food  which  are  not  only  nourishing 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


369 


but  stimulating,  so  that  they  quicken  the 
functions  of  the  organs  on  which  they  operate  ; 
the  condiments  used  in  cookery,  such  as  pep- 
per, mustard,  and  spices,  are  of  this  nature. 
There  are  certain  states  of  the  system  in  which 
these  stimulants  may  be  beneficial  and  even 
necessary ;  but  persons  in  perfect  health,  and 
especially  young  children,  never  receive  any 
benefit  from  such  food,  and  just  in  proportion 
as  condiments  operate  to  quicken  the  action  of 
the  internal  organs,  they  tend  to  wear  down 
their  powers.  The  same  observation  applies 
to  the  use  of  wines  and  other  spirituous  and 
malt  liquors.  Under  certain  conditions  where 
the  vital  powers  are  low,  they  are  a  highly  im- 
portant addition  to  ordinary  food  ;  but  when 
used  habitually,  their  temporary  stimulation 
is  gained  at  the  expense  of  permanently  weak- 
ening the  digestive  organs  which  finally  refuse 
to  perform  their  work  without  some  such  ex- 
ternal aid.  It  follows  from  the  above  that  the 
requirements  of  food  in  each  case  may  in  a  nor- 
mal condition  of  things  be  left  to  the  individual 
taste,  to  be  selected  and  prepared  as  is  indi- 
cated by  experience  to  be  most  appropriate. 

Nutritiousness  of  Food. — The  follow- 
ing table  from  authentic  sources  shows  the 
ascertained  percentage  of  nutriment  in  the 
common  articles  of  table  consumption  :  — 


Kind  of  Food.  |  Preparation. 

I 


Almonds   

Apples , 

Apricots 

Barley.   

Beans,  dry 

Beef 

Blood 

Bread 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cherries 

Chickens 

Codfish 

Cucumbers 

Eggs...„.   

Flour,  bolted.. . 
Flour,  unbolted 
Gooseberries. . . 

Crapes 

Haddock 

Melons 

Milk 

Mutton 

Oatmeal 

Oils 

Pease,  dry 

Peaches 

Pears 

Plums 

Pork 

Potatoes 

Rice 

Rye  flour 

Sole 

Soup,  barley... 
Strawberries. . . 

Turnips 

Veal 

Venison 

Wheat  bread.. . 


raw 

raw 

raw 

boiled 

boiled 

roast 

baked 

boiled 

boiled 

raw 

tricasseed 

boiled 

raw 

whipped 

in  bread 

in  bread 

raw 

raw 

boiled 

raw 

raw 

roast 

baked 

raw 

boiled 

raw 

raw 

raw 

roast 

boiled 

boiled 

baked 

fried 

boiled 

raw 

boiled 

fried 

broiled 

baked 


Per  cent,  of 
Nutriment 


10 
26 
92 
87 
26 
22- 
80 

7 
10 
25 
27 
21 

2 
13 
21 
35 
19 
27 
18 

3 

7 
30 
74 
96 
93 
20 
10 
29 
21 
13 
88 
79 
21 
20 
12 

4 
25 
22 
95 


Time  of 
Digestion. 


1      30 


Digestibility  of  Pood. — In  Order  of 
Time.  The  following  table  of  the  digesti- 
bility of  the  most  common  articles  of  tood, 
prepared  from  standard  authorities,  is  approxi- 
mately correct,  and  is  of  very  general  prac- 
tical interest :  — 


Quality. 


Cole  slaw 

Rice 

Pig's  feet,  soused 

Tripe,  soused 

Eggs,  whipped 

Trout,  salmon,  fresh 

Trout,  salmon,  fresh 

Soup,  barley 

Apples,  sweet,  mellow 

Venison  steak 

Brains,  animal 

Sago 

Tapioca 

Barley 

Milk.". 

Liver,  beef's,  fresh 

Egps,  fresh 

Codfish, cured,  dry 

Apples,  sour,  mellow 

Cabbage,  with  vinegar 

Milk 

Eggs,  fresh 

Turkey,  wild 

Turkey,  domestic 

Gelatine 

Turkey,  domestic 

Goose,  wild 

Pig,  sucking 

Lamb,  fresh 

Hash,  meat  and  vegetables 

Beans,  pod 

Cake,  sponge 

Parsnips 

Potatoes,  Irish 

Cabbage,  head 

Spinal  marrow,  animal 

Chicken,  full  grown 

Custard 

Beef,  with  salt  only 

Apples,  sour,  hard 

Oysters,  fresh 

Eggs,  fresh 

Bass,  striped,  fresh 

Beef,  fresh,  lean,  rare 

Pork,  recently  salted 

Mutton,  fresh 

Soup 

Chicken  soup 

Aponeurosis 

Dumpling,  apple 

Cake,  corn 

Oysters,  fresh 

Pork  steak 

Mutton,  fresh 

Bread,  corn 

Carrot,  orange 

Sausage,  fresh 

Flounder,  fresh 

Catfish,  fresh 

Oysters,  fresh 

Butter 

Cheese,  old,  strong 

Soup,  mutton 

Oyster  soup 

Bread,  wheat,  fresh 

Turnips,  flat 

Potatoes,  Irish 

Eggs,  fresh 

Green  corn  and  beans 

Beets 

Salmon,  salted 

Beef 

Veal,  fresh 


Preparation 


boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
raw 
boiled 
fried 
boiled 
raw 
broiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
broiled 
raw 
boiled 
raw 
raw 
raw 
roasted 
roasted 
boiled 
boiled 
roasted 
roasted 
roasted 
broiled 
warmed 
boiled 
baked 
boiled 
roasted 
raw 
boiled 
fricasseed 
baked 
boiled 
raw 
raw 

soft  boiled 
broiled 
roasted 
stewed 
broiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
baked 
roasted 
broiled 
roasted 
baked 
boiled 
broiled 
fried 
fried 
stewed 
melted 
raw 
boiled 
boiled 
baked 
boiled 
boiled 

hard  boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
boiled 
fried 
broiled 


370 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Composition  of  Various  Articles  of 
Food. —  In  100  parts. 


Kind  op  Food. 


Arrowroot 

Bacon,  dried 

Bacon,  green 

Barley  meal 

Beans 

Beef,  fat 

Beef,  lean 

Beer  and  porter 

Biscuit 

Bread  

Butter  and  fat 

Buttermilk 

Cabbage 

Carrots 

Cheese 

Cheese,  cheddar 

Cheese,  skim  

Corn  meal 

Cream 

Eels 

Egg,  entire 

Egg,  white  of 

Egg,  yolk 

Fisn,  white 

Liver,  ox 

Meat,  cooked,  roasted 

Milk,  human 

Milk,  new 

Milk,  skimmed 

Mutton,  fat 

Mutton,  lean 

Oatmeal 

Parsnips 

Pease 

Pork,  fat 

Potatoes 

Poultry 

Rice 

Rye  meal 

Salmon 

Sugar 

Treacle 

Tripe 

Turnips 

Veal 

Wheat  flour 


6 
5 

u 
a 

Is 

c" 

1* 

3 
.fi 

3 

18 

15 

8.8 

24 

7.1 

15 

6.3 

11.75 

24.3 

51 

14.8 

72 

19.3 

91 

0.1 

8 

15.6 

37 

8.1 

15 

88 

4.1 

91 

2.0 

83 

13 

36.8 

335 

38 

28.4 

44 

448 

14 

11.1 

C6 

2.7 

75 

9.9 

74 

14.0 

78 

20.4 

52 

16.0 

78 

18.1 

74 

18  9 

54 

27.6 

88 

3.4 

80 

4.1 

88 

4.0 

53 

12.4 

72 

18.3 

15 

12.6 

82 

1.1 

15 

23.0 

39 

9.8 

75 

2.1 

74 

21.0 

13 

6.3 

15 

8.0 

77 

16.1 

5 

23 

68 

13.2 

91 

1.2 

63 

16  5 

15 

10.8 

Carbohy- 
drates. 


oc 


82.0 
69.4 


64.7 


4.« 
4.11 
5 


58.4 
9.6 
55.4 

18.8 

79.1 
69.5 


5.1 

66.3 


4.:) 


3.8 

6.4 


0.4 

2.8 


5. 'J 

5.4 


5.4 
58 
2.0 


0.4 

3.7 


95.0 
77.0 


2.1 
4,2 


73.3 


Quantity  of  Food. —  With  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  food  to  be  taken,  this  also  depends 
upon  individual  conditions  and  cannot  be 
formed  into  a  general  rule.  Where  hunger  is 
felt  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  when  the 
hunger  has  been  fully  appeased  sufficient  food 
has  entered  the  stomach.  Such  are  the  cir- 
cumstances of  civilized  life,  however,  that  in 
most  cases  hunger  is  a  very  rare  sensation  ; 
and  food  is  prepared  and  eaten  more  to  gratify 
the  palate  than  because  nature  demands  it. 
On  this  point  each  individual  is  and  must  be 
a  law  unto  himself,  and  we  can  only  point  out 
the  consequences  of  eating  a  larger  quantity 
than  is  needed.  When  too  great  a  supply  of 
food  is  put  into  the  stomach,  the  gastric  juice 
only  dissolves  that  portion  of  it  which  the 
wants  of  the  system  demand  ;  most  of  the  re- 
mainder is  ejected   in    an    unprepared    state, 


the  absorbents  take  portions  of  it  into  the  cir- 
culatory system,  and  all  the  various  bodily 
functions  dependent  on  the  blood  are  thus 
gradually  and  imperceptibly  injured.  Very 
often,  indeed,  intemperance  in  eating  pro- 
duces immediate  results,  such  as  colic,  head- 
ache, indigestion,  and  vertigo ;  but  the  more 
common  result  is  the  gradual  undermining  of 
all  parts  of  the  human  frame,  shortening  life 
by  thus  weakening  the  constitution. 

As  to  the  hours  of  meals  these  are  of  no  im- 
portance provided  they  are  regular  and  come 
at  regular  intervals.  This  interval  should 
never  be  less  than  five  hours,  as  the  stomach 
requires  at  least  three  hours  to  digest  its  sup- 
ply of  food,  and  not  less  than  two  hours  should 
be  allowed  it  for  rest  and  recuperation. 

Eating  between  meals  is  a  most  injurious 
practice,  the  source  in  children,  especially,  of 
endless  stomachic  disorders.  It  may  be  weD 
to  give  children  under  ten  years  of  age  one 
more  meal  during  the  day  than  the  three  which 
adults  in  this  country  usually  allow  themselves  ; 
but  these,  as  we  have  said  above,  should  be  at 
regular  times  and  with  stated  intervals  between 
them. 

After  taking  a  full  meal,  it  is  very  impor- 
tant to  health  that  no  great  bodily  or  mental 
exertion  be  made  till  the  labor  of  digestion  is 
over.  Muscular  exertion  draws  the  blood  to 
the  muscles,  and  brain  work  draws  it  to  the 
head  ;  and  in  consequence  of  this  the  stomach 
loses  the  supply  which  is  necessary  to  it  when 
performing  its  office,  the  adequate  supply  of 
gastric  juice  is  not  afforded,  and  indigestion  is 
the  result.  The  heaviness  which  is  felt  after 
a  full  meal  is  a  sure  indication  of  the  need 
of  quiet ;  when  the  meal  is  moderate,  the 
process  of  digestion  will  be  sufficiently  ad- 
vanced in  an  hour,  or  an  hour  and  a  half,  to 
justify  the  resumption  of  bodily  or  mental 
labor. 

The  Diet  of  Brain  Workers. —  It  has 
long  been  one  of  the  pet  theories  of  popular 
physiology,  that  fish  and  otlier  substances  com- 
posed largely  of  phosphorus,  are  the  most  ap- 
propriate diet  for  brain  workers  ;  but  it  is  now 
conceded  that  the  best  food  for  the  brain  is 
that  which  best  nourishes  the  whole  body  with 
special  reference  to  the  nervous  system,  viz.  : 
fat  and  lean  meat,  eggs,  milk,  and  the  cereals. 
Discussing  this  point  in  a  recent  treatise,  Dr. 
George  M.  Beard  says:  "The  diet  of  brain 
workers  should  be  of  a  large  variety,  delicately 
served,  abundantly  nutritious,  of  which  fresh 
meat,  lean  and  fat,  should  be  a  prominent 
constituent.  In  vacations,  or  whenever  it  is 
desired  to  rest  the  brain,  fish  may,  to  a  certain 
extent,  take  the  place  of  meat.  We  should 
select  those  articles  that  are  most  agreeable  to 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


371 


our  individual  tastes,  and,  so  far  as  possible, 
we  should  take  our  meals  amid  pleasant  social 
surroundings.  In  great  crises  that  call  for  un- 
usual exertion,  we  should  rest  the  stomach, 
that  for  the  time  the  brain  may  work  the 
harder ;  but  the  deficiency  of  nutrition  ought 
always  to  be  supplied  in  the  first  interval  of 
repose." 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  OF 
THE  HUMAN  BODY. 

The  human  body  is  composed  of  the  follow- 
ing elements,  all  of  which  are  found  also  in 
the  food  provided  by  nature,  or  in  air  or 
water,  and  all  must  be  supplied,  day  by  day, 
or  some  bad  results  are  sure  to  follow  : — 


lb.  oz.  GE. 


Oxygen,  a  gas,  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
"occupy  a  space  equal  to  750  cubic  feet, 

Hydrogen,  a  gas,  in  quantity  sufficient  to 
occupy  3000  feet,  which' with  oxygen, 
constitutes  water,  the  weight  of  the 
two  indicating  nearly  the  necessary 
amount  of  water \ 

Carbon,  constituting  fat,  and  used  also 
for  fuel  to  create  animal  heat 

Nitrogen,  which  constitutes  the  basis  of 
the  muscles,  and  solid  tissues,  and 
whieh  is  supplied  by  that  part  of  the 
food  which  we  shall  denominate  Ni- 
trates   

Phosphorus,  the  physical  source  of  vitali- 
ty, and  the  most  important  of  the 
mineral  elements,  will  represent  the 
whole  class  which  we  shall  denominate 
the  Phosphates 

Calcium,  the  metallic  base  of  lime,  which 
is  the  base  of  the  bones 

Fluorine,  found  combined  in  small  quanti- 
ties in  bones 

Chlorine,  constituting,  with  sodium,  com- 
mon salt,  found  in  the  blood 

Sodium,  the  base  of  all  the  salts  of  soda. . 

Iron,  which  is  supposed  to  give  color  to 
the  blood 

Potassium,  the  base  of  all  the  salts  of  pot- 
ash   

Magnesium,  the  base  of  magnesia,  and 
mairnesian  salts 

Silicon,  the  base  of  silex,  which  is  found 
in  the  hair,  teeth,  and  nails 


Ill 


190 
0 
8 

47 

lie 
toe 

zoo 

12 
2 


The  elements  of  a  man  weighing  154  lbs. 

Classification  of  Food. —  Food  may  be 
divided  into  three  classes.  That  class  which 
supplies  the  lungs  with  fuel,  and  thus  furnishes 
heat  to  the  system,  and  supplies  fat  or  adipose 
substance,  etc.,  we  shall  call  Carbonates,  car- 
bon being  the  principal  element ;  that  which 
supplies  the  waste  of  muscles,  we  shall  call 
Nitrates,  nitrogen  being  the  principal  element ; 
and  that  which  supplies  the  bones,  and  the 
brain,  and  the  nerves,  and  gives  vital  power, 
both  muscular  and  mental,  we  shall  call  the 
Phosphates,  phosphorus  being  the  principal  ele- 
ment. These  last  might  be  subdivided  into 
the  fixed  and  the  soluble  phosphates, — the 
fixed  being  a  combination  principally  with 
lime  to  form  the  bones,  and  the  soluble  being 
combinations  with  potash  and  soda,  to  work 


the  brain  and  nerves  ;  but  our  analyses  as  yet 
are  too  imperfect  to  allow  a  subdivision,  and 
as  all  the  mineral  elements  are  more  or  less 
combined  with  each  other,  and  all  reside  to- 
gether in  articles  of  food,  we  shall  include 
all  mineral  elements  under  the  term  Phos- 
phates. 

The  waste,  and  consequently  the  supply,  of 
these  three  classes  of  elements  is  very  differ- 
ent, four  times  as  much  carbonaceous  food 
being  required  as  nitrogenous,  and  of  the 
phosphates  not  more  than  two  per  cent,  of  the 
carbonates.  Altogether,  the  waste  of  these  prin- 
ciples will  average  in  a  man  of  moderate  size, 
with  moderate  heat,  more  than  one  pound  in  a 
day,  varying  very  much  according  to  the  amount 
of  exercise  and  the  temperature  in  which  he 
lives.  These  elements  must  all  be  supplied  in 
vegetable  or  animal  food,  not  one  being  allowed 
to  become  a  part  of  the  system  unless  it  has  been 
first  organized  with  other  elements  of  food,  in 
some  vegetable,  or  in  water,  or  the  atmosphere  ; 
but  being  appropriated  by  some  animal,  remain 
organized  and  adapted  to  the  human  system, 
so  that  animal  and  vegetable  food  contain  the 
same  elements  in  the  same  proportion  and 
nearly  the  same  chemical  combinations,  and 
are  equally  adapted  to  supply  all  necessary  el- 
ements. 


In  Animal  Food, 


In  Vegetable  Food, 


The  Carbonates 
are  furnished  in 


Fat. 


)    Albumen, 
The  Nitrates  in    J   Fibrin,  and 
)   Casein. 

The  Carbonates    1    Sugar, 

|    Starch,  and  a 
are  furnished  in  )    little  Fat. 


The  Nitrates  in 


Gluten, 
Albumen, 
and  Casein. 


The  Phosphates  in  both  animal  and  vege- 
table food  are  found  inseparably  connected 
with  the  nitrates,  none  being  found  in  any  of 
the  carbonates,  and  generally  in  the  propor- 
tion of  from  two  to  three  per  cent,  of  all  the 
principles  in  vegetable,  and  from  three  to  five 
in  animal  food. 

The  Carbonates  of  both  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble food  are  chemically  alike  —  fat,  sugar,  and 
starch,  all  being  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen, 
and  hydrogen,  and  in  about  the  same  chemical 
combinations  and  proportions. 

The  Nitrates,  also  albumen,  gluten,  fibrin, 
and  casein,  are  alike  in  chemical  combina- 
tions and  elements,  being  composed  of  nitro- 
gen, oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and  a  little  carbon 
not  digestible.  These  simple  bodies  are  not, 
however,  capable  of  being  assimilated  and  con- 
verted into  tissue  ;  they  must  be  previously 
combined,  primarily  by  the  vegetable  kingdom. 


372 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Analysis  of  Articles  of  Food  in  their  Natural  State. 

Articles. 

Nitrates. 

Carbonates. 

Phosphates. 

Water. 

Wheat 

15.0 

17.0 

17.0 

12.0 

35.0 

6.0 

8.6 

13.8 

24.0 

23.4 

26.6 

6.5 

1.4 

1.5 

1.2 

1.1 

0.6 

4.0 

6.4 

1.5 

5.0 

6.0 

3.0 

16.0 

15.0 

110 

12.5 

10.0 

20.0 

14.0 

13.0 

15.0 

14.0 

15.0 

14.0 

17.0 

15.0 

17.0 

20.0 

17.0 

18.0 

18.0 

10.0 

12.0 

14.0 

15.5 

17.5 

69.8 

69.5 

66.4 

73.0 

45.0 

80.0 

75.4 

71.5 

57.7 

60.0 

58.5 

79.5 

22.5 

26.5 

7.0 

4.0 

6.6 

5.0 

3.6 

1.0 

10.0 

8.0 

7.0 

16.5 

30.0 

35.0 

40.0 

50.0 

35.0 

very  little 

very  little 

very  little 

very  little 

some  fat 

very  little 

very  little 

very  little 

very  little 

some  fat 

some  fat 

some  fat 

some  fat 

very  little 

very  little 

very  little 

none 

28% 

all  carbonates 

1.6 

3.5 

3.0 

1.0 

4.0 

1.0 

1.8 

1.7 

3.5 

2.5 

1.5 

0.5 

0.9 

2.9 

1.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

0.5 

1.0 

1.0 

0.5 

4.5 

5.0 

3.5 

3.5 

1.5 

4.5 
5  or  6 
5  or  6 
5  or  6 
5  or  6 
3  or  4 
5  or  6 
5  or  6 
5  or  6 

5  or  6 

6  or  7 

3  or  4 

4  or  5 
3  or  4 
2  or  3 
2  or  3 

5  or  6 
4.5 
5.5 

14.0 

14.0 

13.6 

14.0 

14.0 

14.0 

14.2 

Rye 

13.0 

14.8 

Pease 

14.1 

14.0 

13.5 

75.2 

67.5 

82.0 

Turnips 

90.5 

Carrots 

87.5 

Cabbage 

90.0 

Cauliflower 

90.0 

97.0 

84.0 

Milk  of  cow 

86 .0 

Human  milk 

89.5 

Veal 

62.5 

Beef 

50.0 

50.5 

44.0 

Pork 

38.5 

73.0 

Codfish 

79.0 

Haddock  

82.0 

Sole 

79.0 

Plaice 

80.0 

78.0 

Turbot 

79.0 

Trout 

75.0 

Whiting 

78.0 

Smelt 

75.0 

Salmon 

74.0 

Eels 

75.0 

Herring 

75.0 

74.0 

87.0 

Clam 

Lobster 

79.0 

80.0 

54.0 

CLEANLINESS. 

To  keep  the  body  in  a  cleanly  condition  is 
the  third  important  requisite  for  health.  This 
becomes  necessary  in  consequence  of  a  very 
important  process  which  is  constantly  going  on 
near  and  upon  the  surface  of  the  body. 

The  process  in  question  is  that  of  perspira- 
tion. The  matter  here  concerned  is  a  watery 
secretion  produced  by  glands  near  the  surface 
of  the  body,  and  sent  up  through  the  skin  by 
channels  imperceptibly  minute  and  wonderfully 
numerous.  From  one  to  two  pounds  of  this 
secretion  is  believed  to  exude  through  these 
channels,  or  pores,  in  the  course  of  twenty-four 
hours,  being,  in  fact,  the  chief  form  taken  by 
what  is  called  the  waste  of  the  system,  the  re- 
mainder passing  off  by  the  bowels,  kidneys, 
and  lungs.  To  promote  the  egress  of  this 
fluid  is  of  great  consequence  to  health  ;  for, 
when  it  is  suppressed,  disease  is  apt  to  fall 
upon  some  of  the  other  organs  concerned  in 
the  discharge  of  waste. 


One  of  the  most  notable  checks  which  per- 
spiration experiences  is  that  produced  by  a 
current  of  cold  air  upon  the  skin,  in  which 
case  the  pores  instantly  contract  and  close, 
and  the  individual  is  seized  with  some  ailmenf 
either  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  organs  of  waste 
whichever,  is  in  him  the  weakest,  or  in  the  in- 
ternal lining  of  some  part  of  the  body,  all  of 
which  is  sympathetic  with  the  condition  of  the 
skin.  A  result  of  the  nature  of  that  last 
described  is  usually  recognized  as  a  cold  or 
catarrh.  We  are  not  at  present  called  on  par- 
ticularly to  notice  such  effects  of  checked  per- 
spiration, but  others  of  a  less  immediately 
hurtful  or  dangerous  nature. 

The  fluid  alluded  to  is  composed,  besides 
water,  of  certain  salts  and  animal  matters, 
which,  being  solid,  do  not  pass  away  in  vapor, 
as  does  the  watery  part  of  the  compound,  hut 
rest  on  the  surface  where  they  have  been  dis- 
charged. There,  if  not  removed  by  some  arti- 
ficial means,  they  form  a  layer  of  hard  stuff, 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,   HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


373 


and  unavoidably  impede  the  egress  of  the  cur- 
rent perspiration.  By  cleanliness  is  merely 
meant  the  taking  proper  means  to  prevent  this 
or  any  other  matter  accumulating  on  the  sur- 
face, to  the  production  of  certain  hurtful  con- 
sequences. 

Ablution  or  washing  is  the  best  means  of 
attaining  this  end  ;  and  accordingly  it  is  well 
for  us  to  wash  or  bathe  the  body  very  frequently. 
Many  leave  by  far  the  greater  part  of  their 
bodies  unwashed,  except,  perhaps,  on  rare  oc- 
casions, thinking  it  enough  if  the  parts  ex- 
posed to  common  view  l>e  in  decent  trim.  If 
the  object  of  cleaning  were  solely  to  preserve 
fair  appearances,  this  might  be  sufficient;  but 
the  great  end,  it  must  be  clearly  seen,  is  to 
keep  the  skin  in  a  fit  state  for  its  peculiar  and 
very  important  functions.  Frequent  change 
of  the  clothing  next  to  the  skin  is  of  course  a 
great  aid  to  cleanliness,  and  may  partly  be 
esteemed  as  a  substitute  for  bathing,  seeing 
that  the  clothes  absorb  much  of  the  impuri- 
ties, and,  when  changed,  may  be  said  to  carry 
these  off.  But  still  this  will  not  serve  the  end 
nearly  so  well  as  frequent  ablution  of  the 
whole  person.  Anyone  will  be  convinced  of 
this,  who  goes  into  a  bath,  and  uses  the  flesh- 
brush  in  cleansing  his  body.  The  quantity  of 
scurf  and  impurity  which  he  will  then  remove, 
from  even  a  body  which  has  changes  of  linen 
once  a  day,  will  surprise  him. 

EXERCISE. 

Bodily  exercise  is  absolutely  essential  to  the 
maintenance  of  good  health.  The  human  body 
may  be  regarded  as  a  complex  machine,  the 
various  parts  of  which  are  so  beautifully 
adapted  to  each  other,  that,  if  one  be  dis- 
turbed, all  must  suffer.  The  bones  and  mus- 
cles are  the  portions  of  the  frame  on  which 
motion  most  depends.  There  are  four  hun- 
dred muscles  in  the  body,  each  of  which  has 
certain  functions  to  perform  that  cannot  be 
disturbed  without  danger  to  the  whole,  and  it 
is  a  wise  provision  of  nature  that  the  more 
these  muscles  are  exercised  the  stronger  do 
they  become  :  hence  it  is  that  laborers  are 
stronger  and  more  muscular  than  persons  whose 
lives  are  passed  in  easy  or  sedentary  occupa- 
tions. Besides  strengthening  the  limbs,  mus- 
cular exercise  has  a  most  beneficial  influence 
on  respiration  and  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Says  a  distinguished  medical  writer:  "Exer- 
cise tells  by  inciting  both  heart  and  lungs  to 
increased  action  and  energy,  and  this,  done  in 
a  pure  air,  is  great  gain  to  the  purification  of 
the  blood  ;  but  exercise  does  much  more,  for 
not  only  are  the  lungs,  with  their  large  capac- 
ity for  air,  great  purifiers,  but  the  skin  is  little 
less  effective  towards  the  same  end.     All  know 


the  palpable  effect  of  exercise  upon  the  skin  ;  but 
many  are  not  aware  that  the  sensible  perspira- 
tion is  but  an  increase  of  an  insensible  per- 
spiration which  is  unceasiugly  poured  out  from 
myriads  of  little  pores  —  the  mouths  of  the 
sweat  glands  and  the  oil  glands  of  the  skin. 
The  ordinary  insensible  perspiration  is  contin- 
ually freeing  us  from  amass  of  impurity  which 
cannot  be  retained  in  our  system  without  in- 
jury. Convert  the  insensible  perspiration  into 
sensible,  by  exercise,  and  produce  moderate 
sweating,  and  if  the  clothing  be  rational,  you 
will  give  off  to  the  winds  the  cause  of  many  a 
headache  and  gloomy  thoughts.  Now  this  in- 
creased skin  secretion  must  come  from  some- 
where ;  and  so  it  does,  for  the  increased 
exertion  causes  increased  wear  and  tear  of 
system  ;  every  step  works  up  tissue  ;  and  mus- 
cles, blood  vessels,  nerves,  are  all  used  quicker 
than  when  there  is  no  action.  Off  go  these 
used-up  matters,  probably  the  worst  first, 
through  lungs  and  skin,  as  fast  as  they  can, 
and  the  man  begins  to  feel  this  waste,  for  from 
all  sides  there  are  telegraphs  to  the  stomach 
for  supplies,  and  he  finds  himself  getting  ex- 
cessively hungry,  the  dinner  hour  very  wel- 
come, and  the  formerly  capricious  stomach 
ready  for  anything ;  and  so  new  supplies  go  in 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  old  used-up  works, 
and  the  physical  man  is  greatly  renovated  — 
taken  to  pieces,  as  it  were,  and  built  up  again. 

1.  In  order  that  exercise  may  be  truly  ad- 
vantageous, the  parts  must  be  in  a  state  of 
sufficient  health  to  endure  the  exertion.  In  no 
case  must  exercise  be  carried  beyond  what  the 
parts  are  capable  of  bearing  with  ease ;  other- 
wise a  loss  of  energy,  instead  of  a  gain,  will 
be  the  consequence. 

2.  Exercise  to  be  efficacious,  even  in  a 
healthy  subject,  must  be  excited,  sustained, 
and  directed  by  that  nervous  stimulus  which 
gives  the  muscles  the  principal  part  of  their 
strength,  and  contributes  so  much  to  the  nutri- 
tion of  parts  in  a  state  of  activity. 

3.  The  waste  occasioned  by  exercise  must 
be  duly  replaced  by  food  ;  as,  if  there  be  any 
deficiency  in  that  important  requisite,  the  blood 
will  soon  cease  to  give  that  invigoration  to  the 
parts  upon  which  increased  health  and  strength 
depend. 

Kinds  of  Bodily  Exercise. —  Exercise 
is  usually  considered  as  of  two  kinds  —  active 
and  passive.  The  active  consists  in  walking, 
running,  leaping,  riding,  fencing,  rowing, 
skating,  swimming,  dancing,  and  various  ex- 
ercises, such  as  those  with  the  poles,  ropes, 
etc.,  prescribed  in  gymnastic  institutions.  The 
passive  consists  in  carriage-riding,  sailing, 
friction,  swinging,  etc. 

Walking  is  perhaps  the  readiest  mode  of  tak- 


374 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


tng  exercise,  and  the  one  most  extensively  re- 
sorted to.  If  it  brought  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  as  thoroughly  into  exertion  as  the  lower, 
it  would  be  perfect,  for  it  is  gentle  and  safe 
with  nearly  all  except  the  much  debilitated. 
To  render  it  the  more  effectual  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  it  were  well  to  walk  at  all 
times,  when  convenient,  singly  and  allow  the 
arms  and  trunk  free  play.  It  is  best  to  walk 
with  a  companion,  or  for  some  definite  object, 
as  the  flow  of  nervous  energy  will  be  by  these 
means  promoted,  and  the  exercise  be  rendered, 
as  has  been  already  explained,  the  more  serv- 
iceable. 

Very  long  or  rapid  walks  should  not  be  at- 
tempted by  individuals  of  sedentary  habits, 
nor  by  weakly  persons.  Their  frames  are 
totally  unprepared  for  such  violent  exertion. 

Running  as  an  Exercise.—  Among  the 
means  which  nature  has  bestowed  on  animals 
in  general  for  the  preservation  and  enjoyment 
of  life,  running  is  the  most  important.  Since, 
then,  it  is  pointed  out  to  us  by  nature,  it  must 
be  in  a  high  degree  innocent.  It  is  very  sin- 
gular that  we  should  apparently  do  all  we  can 
—  which,  fortunately,  is  not  much — to  make 
our  children  unlearn  the  art  of  running.  Our 
earliest  physical  treatment  of  them  seems  cal- 
culated to  destroy  their  aptitude  for  it ;  in  a 
little  time,  it  is  too  often  the  case  that  the  city 
boy  scarcely  dares  look  as  if  he  wished  to  run, 
we  prohibit  it  so  strongly  as  vulgar,  and  when 
he  is  more  grown  up  gentility  steps  in  and  pro- 
hibits it  altogether.  Medical  prejudices  and  our 
own  convenience  contribute  likewise  their 
share,  and  never  allow  our  children,  boys  and 
girls,  to  acquire  an  art  innocent  of  itself  and 
necessary  to  all.  It  is  possible  that  a  person 
may  get  injury  from  running,  but  the  fault  is 
not  in  the  exercise,  but  in  the  person  who  runs 
without  having  had  proper  training  and  prac- 
tice. 

Running  should  only  be  practiced  in  cool 
weather ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  late  fall, 
winter,  and  early  spring  months. 

The  clothing  should  be  light,  the  head  bare, 
and  the  neck  uncovered.  As  soon  as  the  ex- 
ercise is  finished,  warm  clothing  should  be  put 
on  and  gentle  exercise  continued  for  some  time. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a  race  course.  The 
teacher  of  a  school  may  take  his  pupils  into 
the  fields  and  find  suitable  ground  for  them. 
Then  his  pupils  may  exercise  their  bodies  in 
other  ways,  acquire  strength,  agility,  health, 
and  the  capacity  of  continued  exertion  ;  the 
will  is  brought  into  play  vigorously,  which  is 
a  great  aid  in  the  battle  of  life. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  overdo,  and  thus, 
perhaps  for  life,  weaken  or  injure  the  heart. 
The   race,  at   first,  should  be  short   and  fre- 


quently repeated,  rather  than  long,  and  full 

S  speed  should  not  be  attempted  lor  some   time. 
Running  is  well  adapted  to  young  and  mid- 

I  die  aged  persons,  but  not  to  those  who  are  fat. 
Sedentary  persons  may  find  great  benefit  in  it 

[  after  the  day's  work  is  ended.  If  they  live  in 
cities,  a  quiet  spot  in  the  park  maybe  selected, 

j  and  short  trials  adapted  to  the  strength  entered 
into.  Invalids  may  do  the  same  thing,  only 
they  must  be  more  careful  than  the  robust  never 
to  over-exert  themselves. 

Girls  may  run  as  well  as  boys,  and,  while 
they  cannot  go  so  fast,  they  can  race  much 
more  gracefully  and  beautifully.  Indeed,  there 
can  be  few  more  attractive  sights  than  that  of 
a  race  between  bec.utiful  girls  from  ten  to  twelve 
years  of  age.  After  maturity,  the  change  in 
the  formation  of  the  bones  of  the  pelvis  in  girls 
renders  running  less  easy  and  graceful.  In 
ancient  Greece  girls  were  trained  to  run  races 
as  well  as  boys,  and  to  their  superb  physical 
culture  was  in  great  part  due  the  grandeur 
and  beauty  of  Greek  life  during  the  years  of 
their  ascendency.  The  modern  style  of  dress 
for  young  women  is  also  entirely  unsuited  to 
running. 

Fencing  is  of  all  active  exercises  that  which 
is  the  most  commendable,  inasmuch  as  it 
throws  open  the  chest,  and  at  the  same  time 
calls  into  action  the  muscles  both  of  the  upper 
and  lower  extremities.  Add  to  this  that  it 
improves  very  much  the  carriage  of  the  body  ; 
for  which  reason  it  may  be  reckoned  a  branch 
of  polite  education. 

Dancing  is  exhilarating  and  healthful,  and 
seems  to  be  almost  the  only  active  exercise 
which  the  despotic  laws  of  fashion  permit 
young  ladies  to  enjoy. 

Rope  Jumping.  —  As  the  cool  weather 
approaches  the  jumping  rope  maybe  more  and 
more  in  the  hands  of  girls.  Properly  used  it 
is  not  an  objectionable  plaything.  But  chil- 
dren cannot  be  too  frequently  cautioned  against 
jumping  against  time  or  competing  to  see  who 
can  jump  the  greatest  number  of  times  with- 
out stopping. 

Repose  a  Condition  Demanded  by 
Exercise. —  Exercise  demands  occasional  pe- 
riods of  repose,  and,  in  particular,  that  a  cer- 
tain part  of  every  twenty-four  hours  be  spent 
in  sleep.  After  having  been  engaged  in  daily 
occupations  for  fourteen  or  sixteen  hours,  a 
general  feeling  of  fatigue  and  weakness  is  in- 
duced ;  the  motions  of  the  body  become  diffi- 
cult, the  senses  confused,  the  power  of  volition 
or  will  suspended,  and  the  rest  of  the  mental 
faculties,  becoming  more  and  more  inactive, 
sink  at  length  into  a  state  of  unconsciousness. 
The  sense  of  sight  first  ceases  to  act  by  the 
closing  of  the  eyelids  ;  then  the  senses  of  taste 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


375 


and  smell  become  dormant ;  and  then  those  of 
hearing  and  touch.  The  muscles,  also,  dis- 
pose themselves  with  a  certain  reference  to 
ease  of  position,  those  of  the  limbs  having 
grown  indolent  before  those  that  support  the 
head,  and  those  that  support  the  head  be- 
fore those  of  the  trunk.  In  proportion  as 
these  phenomena  proceed,  the  respiration  be- 
comes slower  and  more  deep,  the  circulation 
diminishes  in  impetus,  the  blood  proceeds  in 
great  quantity  toward  the  head,  and  all  the 
functions  of  the  internal  organs  become  re- 
tarded. In  this  state,  shut  out  as  it  were  from 
the  external  world,  the  mind  still  retains  its 
wonted  activity,  deprived,  however,  of  the 
guidance  of  judgment  and  the  power  of  dis- 
tinct recollection  ;  in  consequence  of  which,  it 
does  not  perceive  the  monstrous  incongruities 
of  the  imagery  which  sweeps  before  it,  and 
takes  but  faint  cognizance  of  the  time  which 
elapses. 

It  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that  the 
more  uninterrupted  sleep  is,  the  more  refresh- 
ing and  salutary  will  be  its  effects  ;  for  dur- 
ing this  period,  the  body  undoubtedly  acquires 
an  accession  of  nervous  energy,  which  restless- 
ness, however  induced,  must  disturb ;  and 
therefore  the  state  of  the  body  before  going  to 
sleep,  the  kind  of  bed,  and  the  manner  of 
clothing,  require  especial  attention.  As  the 
functions  of  the  body  are  performed  more 
slowly  during  our  sleeping  than  our  waking 
hours,  a  full  meal  or  supper,  taken  immedi- 
ately before  going  to  bed,  imposes  a  load  on 
the  stomach  which  it  is  not  in  a  condition  to 
digest,  and  the  unpleasant  consequence  of  op- 
pressive and  harassing  dreams  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  ensue.  "When  the  sleeper  lies  on  his 
back,  the  heart  pressing,  while  pulsating,  on 
the  lungs,  gives  rise  to  a  sense  of  intolerable 
oppression  on  the  chest,  which  seems  to  bear 
down  upon  the  whole  body,  so  that  in  this 
painful  state  not  a  muscle  will  obey  the  im- 
pulse of  the  will,  and  every  effort  to  move  ap- 
pears to  be  altogether  unavailing.  This  con- 
stitutes incubus  or  nightmare  ;  and  it  may  be 
observed,  that,  as  acidity  on  the  stomach,  or 
indigestion,  gives  rise  to  such  dreams,  so  all 
dreams  of  this  disturbed  character  are  converse 
indications  of  indigestion  ;  for  which  reason 
the  great  physiologist  Haller  considered  dream- 
ing to  be  a  symptom  of  disease. 

The  kind  of  bed  on  which  we  repose  requires 
attention.  Some  are  advocates  for  soft,  others 
for  hard,  beds  ;  hence  some  accustom  themselves 
to  feather  beds,  others  to  mattresses.  The 
only  difference  between  a  soft  and  a  hard  bed 
is  this  —  that  the  weight  of  the  body  in  a  soft 
bed  presses  on  a  larger  surface  than  on  a  hard 
\ed,  and  thereby  a  greater  deg?3e  of  comfort 


is  enjoyed.  Parents  err  in  fancying  that  a 
very  hard  bed  contributes  to  harden  the  con- 
stitution of  their  children  ;  for  which  reason 
they  lay  them  down  on  mattresses,  or  beds 
with  boarded  bottoms.  A  bed  for  young 
children  cannot  be  too  soft,  provided  the  child 
does  not  sink  into  it  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
surrounding  parts  of  the  bed  bend  over  and 
cover  the  body.  The  too  great  hardness  of 
beds,  says  Dr.  Darwin,  frequently  proves  in- 
jurious to  the  shape  of  infants,  by  causing 
them  to  rest  on  too  few  parts  at  a  time  ;  it  also 
causes  their  sleep  to  be  uneasy  and  unrefresh- 
ing.  Whatever  be  the  time  chosen  for  sleep, 
it  is  evident  that  no  person  can  with  impunity 
convert  day  into  night.  Eight  o'clock  for 
children,  and  eleven  for  adults,  may  be  recom- 
mended as  good  hours  for  retiring  to  rest.  It 
is  well  known  that  children  require  more  sleep 
than  adults ;  and  more  sleep  is  requisite  in 
winter  than  in  summer.  The  average  duration 
of  sleep  which  may  be  recommended  for  adults 
is  eight  hours  ;  but  much  depends  upon  habit, 
and  many  persons  require  only  six.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  observe  that,  on  rising  in 
the  morning,  the  strictest  attention  should 
be  paid  to  washing  the  face,  neck,  and  hands  ; 
the  mouth  and  teeth  should  also  be  well 
cleansed.  The  most  simple  powder  for  the 
teeth  is  finely  brayed  charcoal,  a  little  of 
which  will  clear  away  all  impurities,  and  pre- 
serve the  teeth.  On  leaving  the  bedroom,  the 
windows  should  be  opened,  and  the  clothes  of 
the  bed  turned  down,  in  order  that  the  exhala- 
tions of  the  body  during  sleep  may  be  dissi- 
pated. If,  instead  of  this,  the  bed  be  made 
immediately  after  we  have  risen,  these  exhala- 
tions are  again  folded  up  with  the  clothes  —  a 
practice  which  is  not  consonant  either  with 
cleanliness  or  health. 

Overworking  the  Undeveloped 
Brain.  —  "Overwork,"  properly  so-called, 
can  only  occur  when  the  organ  upon  which 
the  stress  of  the  labor  falls  is  as  yet  immature, 
and,  therefore,  in  process  of  development. 
When  an  organ  has  reached  the  maturity  of 
its  growth  it  can  only  work  up  to  the  level  of 
its  capacity  or  faculty  for  work  !  Fatigue  may 
produce  exhaustion,  but  that  exhaustion  will 
come  soon  enough  to  save  the  organ.  Re- 
peated "efforts"  may,  under  abnormal  condi- 
tions, follow  each  other  too  rapidly  to  allow  of 
recuperation  in  the  intervals  of  actual  exertion, 
and  as  the  starting  point  will,  in  each  succes- 
sive instance,  be  lowerthan  the  previous  state, 
there  may  be  a  gradual  abasement ;  but  even 
this  process  should  not  seriously  injure  a 
healthy  and  well  developed  organ.  In  short, 
a  great  deal  of  nonsense  has  been  said  and 
written   about  the    "overwork"    of    mature 


376 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


brains,  and  there  are  grounds  for  believing  that 
an  excuse  has  been  sought  for  idleness,  or  in- 
dulgence in  a  valetudinarian  habit,  in  the  pop- 
ular outcry  on  this  subject  which  awhile  ago 
attracted  much  attention.  Nevertheless  there 
can  be  no  room  to  question  the  extreme  peril 
of  "  overwork "  to  growing  children  and 
youths  with  undeveloped  brains. 

The  excessive  use  of  an  immature  organ  ar- 
rests its  development  by  diverting  the  energy 
which  should  be  appropriated  to  its  growth, 
and  consuming  it  in  work.  What  happens  to 
horses  which  are.  allowed  to  run  races  too  early 
happens  to  boys  and  girls  who  are  overworked 
at  school.  The  competitive  system  as  applied 
to  youths  has  produced  a  most  ruinous  effect 
on  the  mental  constitution  which  this  genera- 
tion has  to  hand  down  to  the  next,  and 
particularly  the  next  but  one  ensuing.  School 
work  should  be  purely  and  exclusively  directed 
to  development.  "  Cramming  "  the  young  for 
examination  purposes  is  like  compelling  an 
infant  in  arms  to  sit  up  before  the  muscles  of 
its  back  are  strong  enough  to  support  it  in  the 
upright  position,  or  to  sustain  the  weight  of 
its  body  on  its  legs  by  standing  while  as  yet 
the  limbs  are  unable  to  bear  the  burden  im- 
posed on  them. 

A  crooked  spine  or  weak  or  contorted  legs  is 
the  inevitable  penalty  of  such  folly.  Another 
blunder  is  committed  when  one  of  the  organs 
of  the  body  —  to  wit,  the  brain  —  is  worked 
at  the  expense  of  other  parts  of  the  organism, 
in  face  of  the  fact  that  the  measure  of  general 
health  is  proportioned  to  the  integrity  of  de- 
velopment, and  the  functional  activity  of  the 
body  as  a  whole  in  the  harmony  of  its  compo- 
nent systems.  No  one  organ  can  be  developed 
at  the  expense  of  the  rest  without  a  corre- 
sponding weakening  of  the  whole. 

Mental  Exercise. —  The  same  rules  and 
regulations  by  which  exercise  may  be  service- 
able to  the  physical  system,  hold  good  respect- 
ing the  mental  faculties.  These,  as  is  gener- 
ally allowed,  however  immaterial  in  one  sense, 
are  connected  organically  with  the  brain  —  a 
portion  of  the  animal  system  nourished  by  the 
same  blood,  and  regulated  by  the  same  vital 
laws,  as  the  muscles,  bones,  and  nerves.  As, 
by  disuse,  muscle  becomes  emaciated,  bone 
softens,  blood  vessels  are  obliterated,  and 
nerves  lose  their  natural  structure,  so,  by  dis- 
use, does  the  brain  fall  out  of  its  proper  state, 
and  create  misery  to  its  possessor  ;  and  as,  by 
over-exertion,  the  waste  of  the  animal  system 
exceeds  the  supply,  and  debility  and  unsound- 
ness are  produced,  so,  by  over-exertion,  are  the 
functions  of  the  brain  liable  to  be  deranged 
and  destroyed.  The  processes  are  physiologic- 
ally the  same,  and  the  effects  bear  an  exact  rela- 


tion to  each  other.  As  with  the  bodily  powers, 
the  mental  are  to  be  increased  in  magnitude 
and  energy  by  a  degree  of  exercise  measured 
with  a  just  regard  to  their  ordinary  health  and 
native  or  habitual  energies.  Corresponding, 
moreover,  to  the  influence  which  the  mind  has 
in  giving  the  nervous  stimulus  so  useful  in 
bodily  exercise,  is  the  dependence  of  the  mind 
upon  the  body  for  supplies  of  healthy  nutri- 
ment;  and,  in  like  manner  with  the  bodily 
functions,  each  mental  faculty  is  only  to  be 
strengthened  by  the  exercise  of  itself  in  partic- 
ular. 

It  ought  to  be  universally  known,  that  the 
uses  of  our  intellectual  nature  are  not  to  be 
properly  realized  without  a  just  regard  to 
the  laws  of  that  perishable  frame  with  which 
it  is  connected  ;  that,  in  cultivating  the  mind, 
we  must  neither  overtask  nor  undertask  the 
body,  neither  push  it  to  too  great  a  speed,  nor 
leave  it  neglected  ;  and  that,  notwithstanding 
this  intimate  connection  and  mutual  depend- 
ence, the  highest  merits  on  the  part  of  the 
mind  will  not  compensate  for  muscles  mis- 
treated, or  soothe  a  nervous  system  which  se- 
vere study  has  tortured  into  insanity.  To  come 
to  detail,  it  ought  to  be  impressed  on  all,  that 
to  spend  more  than  a  moderate  number  of 
hours  in  mental  exercise  diminishes  insensibly 
the  powers  of  future  application,  and  tends  to 
abbreviate  life  ;  that  no  mental  exercise  should 
be  attempted  immediately  after  meals,  as  the 
processes  of  thought  and  of  digestion  cannot 
be  safely  prosecuted  together  ;  and  that,  with- 
out a  due  share  of  exercise  to  the  whole  of  the 
mental  faculties,  there  can  be  no  soundness  in 
any,  while  the  whole  corporeal  system  will 
give  way  beneath  a  severe  pressure  upon  any 
one  in  particular.  These  are  truths  completely 
established  with  physiologists,  and  upon  which 
it  is  undeniable  that  a  great  portion  of  human 
happiness  depends. 

THE  HUMAN  PUESE. 

The  phenomenon  known  as  the  arterial 
pulse  or  arterial  pulsation  is  due  to  the  disten- 
tion of  the  arteries  consequent  upon  the  inter- 
mittent injection  of  blood  into  their  trunks, 
and  the  subsequent  contraction  which  results 
from  the  elasticity  of  their  walls.  It  is  per- 
ceptible to  the  touch  in  all  excepting  very  minute 
arteries,  and,  in  exposed  positions,  is  visible  to 
the  eye.  The  pulse  is  usually  examined  at  the 
radial  artery  at  the  wrist,  the  advantages  of 
that   position   being   that   the    artery   is   very 

i  superficial,  and  that  it  is  easily  compresset- 
against  the  bone.     It  is  usual  and  convenient, 

|  though  not  quitfe  accurate,  to  include  under 
the  term  the  conditions  observed  between  the 
beats,    as   well   as   those   produced  by  them. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


37V 


The  condition  of  the  pulse  depends  mainly  on 
two  factors,  each  of  which  may  vary  inde- 
pendently of  the  other:  First,  the  contraction 
of  the  heart,  which  propels  the  stream  of 
blood  along  the  artery ;  and,  second,  the  re- 
sistance in  the  small  arteries  and  capillaries, 
which  controls  the  rate  at  which  it  leaves  the 
artery.  The  first  determines  the  frequency 
and  rhythm  of  the  pulse  and  the  force  of  the 
beats  ;  but  the  tension  of  the  artery  between 
them  and  their  apparent  duration  depends 
mainly  upon  the  peripheral  resistance.  "  Feel- 
ing the  pulse,"  therefore,  gives  important  in- 
formation besides  the  rate  of  the  heart's  action, 
and  implies  much  more  than  the  mere  count- 
ing of  pulsations.  Dr.  Broadbent  says  :  ''A 
complete  account  of  the  pulse  should  specify 

(1)  the  frequency  —  i.  e.,  the  number  of  beats 
per  minute,  with  a  note  of  any  irregularity  or 
intermission    or   instability  of    the    rhythm ; 

(2)  the  size  of  the  vessel ;  (3)  the  degree  of 
distention   of   the  artery  between  the  beats ; 

(4)  the  character  of  the  pulsation  —  whether 
its  access  is  sudden  or  gradual,  its  duration 
short  or  long,  its  subsidence  abrupt  or  slow, 
note  being  taken  of  dicrotism,  when  present; 

(5)  the  force  or  strength  of  both  the  constant 
and  variable  pressure  within  the  artery,  as 
measured  by  its  compressibility  ;  (6)  the  state 
of  the  arterial  walls." 

The  frequency  of  the  pulse  varies  with  age, 
from  130  to  140  per  minute  at  birth  to  70  to 
75  in  adult  males,  and  with  sex,  being  six  or 
eight  beats  more  in  adult  females.  In  some 
individuals  it  deviates  considerably  from  this 
standard,  and  may  even  be  habitually  below 
forty  or  above  ninety  without  any  signs  of  dis- 
ease. Ifc  is  increased  by  exertion  or  excite- 
ment, by  food  or  stimulants,  diminished  in  a 
lying  posture  or  during  sleep.  In  disease 
(acute  hydrocephalus,  for  example),  the  pulse 
may  reach  150  or  even  200  beats ;  or,  on  the 
other  hand  (as  in  apoplexy  and  in  certain  or- 
ganic affections  of  the  heart,  it  may  be  as  slow 
as  between  30  and  20. 

The  normal  regular  rhythm  of  the  pulse 
may  be  interfered  with  either  by  the  occa- 
sional dropping  of  a  beat  (intermission),  or  by 
variations  in  the  force  of  successive  beats,  and 
in  the  length  of  the  intervals  separating  them 
(irregularity).  These  varieties  often  occur  in 
the  same  person,  but  they  may  exist  independ- 
ently of  each  other.  Irregularity  of  the  pulse 
is  natural  to  some  persons  ;  in  others  it  is  the 
mere  result  of  debility  ;  but  it  may  be  caused 
by  the  most  serious  disorders,  as  by  disease  of 
the  brain,  or  by  organic  disease  of  the  heart. 

The  other  qualities  of  the  pulse  are  much 
more  difficult  to  recognize  though  of  no  less 
importance.     The  degree  of  tension  or  resist- 


ance to  compression  by  the  fingers  varies 
greatly  :  in  a  soft  or  "  low  tension  "  pulse  the 
artery  may  be  almost  imperceptible  between 
the  beats ;  in  a  hard  or  "  high  tension  "  pulse 
it  may  be  almost  incompressible.  An  unduly 
soft  pulse  is  usually  an  indication  of  debility ; 
an  unduly  hard  one  is  most  often  characteristic 
of  disease  of  the  kidneys  and  gout.  But  the 
tension,  like  the  frequency  of  the  pulse,  under- 
goes considerable  variations  in  health  from 
temporary  causes,  and  may  in  certain  individ- 
uals be  habitually  above  or  below  the  average 
without  actual  disease. 

The  force  of  the  beats  is  a  measure  of  the 
vigor  and  efficiency  of  the  heart's  action.  A 
strong  pulse  is  correctly  regarded  as  a  sign  of 
a  vigorous  state  of  the  system  ;  it  may,  how- 
ever, arise  from  hypertrophy  of  the  left  ven- 
tricle of  the  heart,  and  remain  as  a  persistent 
symptom  even  when  the  general  powers  are 
failing.  As  strength  of  the  pulse  usually  in- 
dicates vigor,  so  weakness  of  the  pulse  in- 
dicates debility.  Various  expressive  adjectives 
have  been  attached  to  special  conditions  of  the 
pulse,  into  the  consideration  of  which  our 
space  will  not  permit  us  to  enter.  Thus,  we 
read  of  the  jerking  pulse,  the  hobbling  pulse, 
the  corded  pulse,  the  wiry  pulse,  the  thrilling 
pulse,  the  rebounding  pulse,  etc.  The  full 
significance  of  changes  of  the  pulse  in  disease 
can  only  be  appreciated  by  considering  them 
in  connection  with  the  other  signs  and  symp- 
toms of  the  case. 

Average  frequency  at  different  ages  in 
health. 

AGES  :  BEATS  PER  MINUTE  : 

In  the  foetus  in  utero between  150  and  140 

Newborn  infants between  140  and  120 

During  the  first  year from  1.30  down  to  115 

During  the  second  year from  150  down  to  100 

During  the  third  year from  105  down  to  95 

From  7th  to  14th  year from  90  down  to  80 

From  14th  to  21st  "year from  85  down  to  75 

From  21st  to  60th  year from  75  down  to  70 

In  old  age between  75  and  70 

Co-Relation  of  Pulse  and  Tempera- 
ture.—  Asa  general  rule  the  co-relation  of 
pulse  and  temperature  may  be  stated  as  fol- 
lows, namely : — 

An  increase  of  temperature   of    one  degree 

above  98°  F.  corresponds  with  an  increase  of 

ten  beats  of  the  pulse  per  minute,  as  in  the 

following  table :  — 

Temperature  of  98°  corresponds  with  a  pulse  of  GO 

"  99°  "  "  "  "  -    70 

"  100J  "  "  "  "  "     80 

«  101°  "  "  "  "  "    90 

102°  "  "  '•  "  "  100 

103°  "  "  "  "  "  110 

104°  "  "  "  "  "  120 

U  105o  ..  a         ..         II         II    13<) 

«'  106°  "  "       "      "      "  140 

Thermometry. —  In  children  the  temper- 
ature is  normally  one  or  two  degrees  higher 
than  in*  adults. 


378 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


The  temperature  is  normally  one  degree 
higher  under  the  tongue  than  in  the  axilla.  It 
is  highest  upon  awakening  in  the  morning ; 
lowest  at  midnight. 

A  rise  of  one  degree  in  temperature  usually 
marks  an  increase  of  the  pulse  from  six  to  ten 
beats  a  minute. 

Continued  temperature  above  98.50°  indi- 
cates prostration  and  illness;  101°  to  105°, 
severe  fever;  105°  to  108°,  danger;  108°  to 
109°,  impending  death. 

A  temperature  of  105°  or  106°  on  the  first 
day  of  illness,  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  epheme- 
ral fever ;  it  is  not  typhoid  or  typhus,  but 
probably  malarious. 

Though  the  typical  evidences  of  pneumonia 
are  present,  if  the  thermometer  fails  to  reach 
101.70°,  it  may  be  concluded  no  soft  infiltration 
of  lungs  is  present. 

High  temperature  after  the  eruption  of 
measles  has  faded,  indicates  complications. 
An  evening  typhoid  temperature  of  103.5°  in- 
dicates a  mild  course  of  fever ;  105°  in  the 
evening  or  104°  in  the  morning,  in  the  third 
week,  indicates  danger.  A  temperature  of 
104°  and  upwards,  in  pneumonia,  indicates  a 
severe  attack.  A  temperature  of  104°  is 
always  alarming  in  acute  rheumatism ;  look 
for  cardiac  complications.  Tn  jaundice  a  rise 
of  temperature  is  unfavorable.  A  rise  of  tem- 
perature in  a  puerperal  female  indicates  the 
approach  of  pelvic  inflammation.  An  increase 
of  temperature  in  tuberculosis  shows  an  ad- 
vance of  the  disease,  or  rise  of  complications. 

Daily  fluctuations  of  temperature  are  asso- 
ciated with  malaria]  fever,  typhus,  typhoid, 
exanthemata,  rheumatism,  pyaemia,  pneu- 
monia, and  acute  tuberculosis.  An  even  tem- 
perature from  morning  until  evening  is 
favorable.  A  high  temperature  from  evening 
until  morning  is  unfavorable.  A  falling  tem- 
perature from  evening  until  morning  is  favor- 
able. A  rising  temperature  from  evening  until 
morning  is  dangerous.  The  temperature  of 
the  body  must  be  normal  before  convalescence 
begins. 

Respiration. 

Two  months  to  two  years 35  per  minute 

Two  to  six  years 23   "        " 

Six  to  twelve  years 20   "       " 

Twelve  to  fifteen  years 18   "       " 

Fifteen  to  twenty^one  years 16  to  18   "       " 

Respiration  and  pulsation  in  the  adult  female 
is  usually  a  trifle  faster  than  in  the  male, 
especially  during  pregnancy. 

ALE. 

This  a  liquor  manufactured  from  malt, 
•which  is  usually  produced  from  the  parched 
grain  of  germinating  barley  by  a  process  of 
great  antiquity  called  brewing.     It  can,  how- 


ever, be  made  from  the  dried  germinating 
grain  of  wheat  and  other  cereals ;  any  sub- 
stance containing  sugar  being  capable  of  yield- 
ing a  wort  or  solution  which  may  be  fermented 
or  converted  into  ale  or  beer.  In  several  of  the 
English  pale  ales  the  proportion  of  alcohol  is 
as  high  as  10  per  cent.,  and  the  average  is  from 
5  to  7  per  cent.  So  that  a  pint  of  good  ale 
contains  the  same  amount  of  alcohol  as  a  bot- 
of  claret.  These  ales,  with  tiiose  of  Scotland, 
are  largely  imported,  and  are  generally  much 
superior  to  the  American  product.  Burton 
ale,  so  called  from  the  place  where  it  is  made, 
is  one  of  the  strongest  and  very  popular.  It 
is  of  a  somewhat  thick,  glutinous  consistence, 
and  sweetish  to  the  taste  ;  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  it  produces  intoxication  in  those  who 
are  not  accustomed  to  it.  The  best  Eng- 
lish ales  are  Bass  and  Allsopp's.  Scotch  ale, 
especially  the  Edinburgh  brands,  has  a  pale 
flavor,  extremely  vinous  and  very  like  some  of 
the  light  French  wines.  It  is  mild  in  its 
effect,  pale  in  color,  and  the  taste  of  the  hops 
does  not  predominate  as  in  the  India  pale  ale 
(manufactured  especially  for  the  Indian  mar- 
ket) and  Allsopp's.  Scotch  ales  are  also  said 
to  be  less  liable  to  adulteration  than  the 
English.  American  ales  are  very  light,  rarely 
containing  more  than  3  per  cent  of  alcohol, 
and  resemble  what  is  known  in  England  as 
"  table  beer."  They  are  for  the  most  part 
pure,  however,  and  when  fresh  make  a  very 
mild  and  agreeable  beverage.  The  best  are 
made  in  the  limestone  districts  of  the  North- 
west. 

BATH. 

The  skin  of  the  human  being  is  not  merely 
an  outward  covering  for  the  body,  but  an 
organ  the  proper  performance  of  whose  work 
is  of  vital  importance  to  good  health.  Its 
seven  million  pores  are  not  a  useless  part  of 
the  animal  economy,  but  form  the  sluices 
through  which  the  system  throws  off  a  por- 
tion of  its  waste  and  deleterious  matter ;  this 
matter  is  removed  in  the  form  of  an  impercep- 
tible watery  vapor,  mixed  with  a  few  saline  and 
gaseous  substances,  and  the  quantity  capalde 
of  being  gotten  rid  of  in  this  way,  in  the  space 
of  twenty-four  hours,  amounts  in  round  num- 
bers to  twenty  ounces.  The  retention  of  this, 
by  reason  of  the  inability  of  the  skin  to  per- 
form its  functions,  is  of  course  productive  of 
great  injury  to  the  system,  throwing  more  than 
their  due  share  of  work  on  the  other  secretive 
organs.  The  only  method  of  keeping  the  skin 
clear  and  in  proper  working  order  is  bathing 
with  sufficient  frequency.  .  Bathing  not  only 
removes  the  matter  which  the  skin  has  already 
discharged,  but  stimulates  its  activity,  and  in- 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


379 


creases  its  efficiency.  The  temperature  of  the 
water  is  a  highly  important  circumstance,  and 
medical  writers  usually  classify  baths,  as  cold, 
warm,  and  hot. 

Cold  Bath. —  The  cold  bath  is  taken  in 
water  which  is  cold  as  compared  with  the 
normal  heat  of  the  body,  or  at  a  temperature 
of  33°  to  65°.  The  effect  of  such  a  bath  on 
a  person  in  good  health  is,  on  first  plunging 
in,  a  sensation  of  extreme  cold  (the  duration 
of  which  depends  on  the  temperature  of  the 
water  and  the  condition  of  the  bather),  and  is 
followed  by  a  reaction  which  brings  on  a  sensa- 
tion of  warmth  and  a  feeling  of  lightness  and 
vigor.  By  degrees,  if  the  body  continue  to  be 
immersed,  the  bather  again  begins  to  feel  cold, 
chilliness,  accompanied  by  shivering,  comes 
on,  the  pulse  grows  feebler  and  slower,  and  the 
whole  body  becomes  languid  and  powerless. 
The  time  to  leave  the  bath  is  during  the  period 
of  warmth,  "before  the  second  chilliness  be- 
gins ;  and  immediately  on  stepping  out  the 
bather  should  rub  himself  dry  with  a  coarse 
towel,  and  continue  rubbing  till  the  skin  is  in 
a  glow.  The  ultimate  effect  of  the  cold  bath 
has  been  differently  described  by  different  phy- 
sicians, and  some  are  strongly  opposed  to  its 
use  at  all ;  but,  where  it  agrees,  it  is  tonic  and 
bracing,  it  improves  the  digestion,  stimulates 
the  skin,  and  renders  the  circulation  more 
active  and  vigorous.  It  also  hardens  the  sys- 
tem and  causes  it  to  be  much  less  sensitive  to 
changes  of  temperature,  being  on  this  account 
an  excellent  protection  against  taking  cold  on 
exposure.  Its  beneficial  effect  depends  much 
oji  the  strength  of  the  reaction  ;  if,  therefore, 
on  coming  out  of  the  cold  bath,  the  person 
feels  dull  and  chilly,  or  complains  of  headache, 
or  a  sensation  of  tightness  across  the  chest,  the 
cold  'hath  disagrees,  and  should  be  discontinued 
or  modified. 

But  many  persons  experiencing  these  symp- 
toms seem  to  need  just  the  sort  of  stimulus  the 
cold  bath  gives.  This  they  can  get  by  apply- 
ing cold  water  with  a  wash  rag  to  a  square 
foot  or  two  of  the  skin  at  a  time,  rubbing  the 
space  into  a  glow  with  a  towel,  and  repeating 
the  process  until  the  whole  body  has  been 
bathed.  The  writer  knows  instances  where 
this  method  has  cured  people  too  sensitive  to 
cold. 

The  diseases  for  which  cold  baths  are  valu- 
able as  a  remedy  are  morbid  irritability  and 
sensibility,  accompanied  by  general  debility : 
also  for  asthma,  in  the  intervals  between  the 
paroxysms,  when  the  system  is  in  other  re- 
spects in  a  proper  condition  for  it.  When 
there  is  a  tendency  to  colds  and  rheumatism, 
the  cold  bath  is  an  excellent  preventive  ;  for 
this   purpose   it  should  be  used  continuously 


throughout  the  year.  It  is  improper  in  the 
case  of  those  who  have  a  tendency  to  consump- 
tion, or  who  are  constitutionally  liable  to 
bowel  complaints  ;  and  it  should  never  be  ven- 
tured on  by  anyone  suffering  from  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of 
the  bronchia  and  intestinal  canal.  The  best 
time  for  taking  a  cold  bath  is  in  the  early 
morning  just  after  rising.  But  persons  of 
feeble  circulation  in  whom  reaction  does  not 
readily  follow,  had  better  not  take  a  cold  bath 
before  their  breakfast  is  digested. 

Warm  Bath.  —  This  includes  all  baths 
ranging  in  temperature  from  66°  to  95°.  Its 
effect  is  very  different  from  that  of  the  cold 
bath.  There  is  no  shock,  but  the  temperature 
is  grateful  to  the  bather  ;  the  blood  circulates 
more  rapidly,  and  a  gentle  glow  pervades  the 
body  ;  the  skin  absorbs  water,  is  softened,  and 
throws  off  the  scales  of  decomposed  matter 
which  may  have  accumulated  on  it ;  pain  is 
allayed,  and  nervous  irritation  is  soothed. 
The  warm  bath  is  especially  grateful  and  ben- 
eficial after  -  excessive  muscular  exertion,  or 
after  the  fatigue  and  excitement  of  traveling. 
It  refreshes  and  tranquilizes  the  system  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  has  none  of  the  tonic  in- 
fluence of  the  cold  bath,  and  its  frequent  use 
tends  to  relax  and  debilitate,  while  rendering 
the  system  more  sensible  to  changes  of  temper- 
ature. The  best  temperature  for  the  bath  of 
a  healthy  person  is  what  is  called  tepid,  and  it 
is  also  the  most  agreeable.  A  distinctly  warm 
bath  taken  just  before  going  to  bed  will  prob- 
ably cure  any  tendency  to  wakefulness,  espe- 
cially if  the  wakefulness  come  from  overuse 
of  the  brain.  No  bath  whatever  should  be 
taken  while  digestion  is  going  on  —  say  in  less 
than  two  hours  after  a  meal. 

Hot  Bath. —  This  has  a  temperature  rang- 
ing from  98°  (blood-heat)  to  112°.  It  is  a 
very  powerful  stimulant,  and  should  never  be 
used  by  persons  in  a  good  state  of  health. 
Even  in  cases  of  disease,  it  should  only  be 
taken  under  a  physician's  advice.  As  the  ob- 
ject is  to  stimulate  the  vital  actions,  the  bather 
should  never  remain  long  enough  in  the  bath 
to  produce  exhaustion, —  the  average  time  is 
from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  best  way  to 
obtain  the  full  beneficial  effect  of  the  hot  bath 
is  to  commence  with  tepid  water  and  gradually 
increase  the  temperature.  The  hot  bath  is 
chiefly  used  where  it  is  desirable  to  produce 
abundant  perspiration,  when  it  should  be  fol- 
lowed by  rolling  the  patient  in  blankets. 

Shower  Bath. —  When  cold  water  is  used, 
the  effect  of  this  bath  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
ordinary  cold  bath,  but  the  shock  from  the 
shower  bath  is  greater  than  that  from  simple 
immersion,  especially  if  the  quantity  of  water 


380 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


be  large,  the  temperature  low,  and  the  fall 
considerable.  Its  effects  are  also  more  speedy, 
and  extend  more  to  the  internal  organs  than 
those  of  the  common  bath.  When  the  result 
is  beneficial  the  glow  is  felt  almost  imme- 
diately, consequently  when  recourse  is  had  to 
it,  the  hather  should  withdraw  immediately 
after  the  shock ;  if  its  use  is  prolonged  it 
quickly  lowers,  and  at  last  destroys  the  sensi- 
bility, and  is  then  highly  injurious.  For  del- 
icate persons,  the  tepid  shower  bath  is  prefera- 
ble ;  and  salt  added  to  the  water  is  an  improve- 
ment. When  used  for  hygienic  purposes  the 
best  time  to  take  the  shower  bath  is  imme- 
diately after  rising  in  the  morning. 

Sponge  Bath. —  Sponging  the  body  off 
with  water  and  a  sponge  or  cloth  is  as  effectual, 
though  perhaps  not  as  pleasant,  as  any  other 
form  of  bathing,  and  may  be  resorted  to  when 
bathing  conveniences  are  not  at  hand.  It  is 
frequently  adopted  in  cases  of  fever,  to  cool 
the  surface  of  the  body ;  but  as  its  action  is 
powerful  it  is  rather  venturesome  to  employ  it 
except  as  directed  by  the  physician.  Spong- 
ing is  also  used  successfully  as  a  tonic  to  ward 
off  disease.  It  is  found  especially  serviceable 
when  a  person  is  disposed  to  asthma  or  is  suf- 
fering from  a  cough.  For  this  purpose  the 
chest  may  be  sponged  daily,  and  afterwards 
well  rubbed  and  dried,  so  as  to  produce  a  glow 
on  the  surface.  In  some  cases  vinegar  and 
water,  or  salt  and  water  are  preferable  and 
then  much  rubbing  is  not  necessary.  This  is 
an  excellent  method  for  bathing  very  young 
children. 

THE  TREATMENT  OF  CORPU- 
LENCE. 

According  to  Ebstein,  in  his  work  on  cor- 
pulence, fattening  is  strictly  analogous  to  the 
fattening  of  cattle,  and  depends  on  overfeed- 
ing. He,  however,  disputes  the  current  view 
that  fat  makes  fat ;  on  the  contrary,  he  thinks 
fatty  food  protects  the  albumen,  and  prevents 
its  forming  fat.  His  plan  of  treatment,  there- 
fore, consists  in  moderating  the  quantity  of 
food,  and  while  cutting  off  all  vegetable  carbo- 
hydrates, sugar,  starch,  etc.,  allowing  a  mod- 
erate quantity  of  fat,  two  or  three  ounces 
daily  to  be  taken.  He  also  suggests  that  the 
diet  should  be  monotonous,  greasy,  and  suc- 
culent, so  as  to  cause  satiety  rapidly.  He  dis- 
allows beer,  but  permits  light  wines. 

The  plan  advocated  appears  rational,  and  is 
free  from  the  objection  to  Banting's  method, 
which  is  too  much  like  starvation.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  diet  used  successfully  by  Ebstein 
in  one  of  his  cases  :  2&- 

Breakfasf.  —  One  large  cup  of  black  tea  — 
about  half  a  pint  —  without  sugar  ;  two  ounces 


of  white  bread  or  brown  bread,  toasted,  with 
plenty  of  butter. 

Dinner Soup,    often  with  marrow;    from 

four  to  six  and  one  half  ounces  of  roast  or 
boiled  meat ;  vegetables  in  moderation,  legu- 
minous preferably, and  cabbages.  Turnips  were 
almost,  and  potatoes  altogether,  excluded. 
After  dinner  a  little  fresh  fruit.  For  second 
course  a  salad  or  stewed  fruit  without  sugar. 
Two  or  three  glasses  of  light  wine,  and  imme- 
diately after  dinner  a  large  cup  of  black  tea, 
without  milk  or  sugar. 

Supper. —  A  large  cup  of  black  tea,  as  be- 
fore. An  egg,  a  little  fat  roast  meat,  or  both, 
or  some  ham  with  its  fat,  Bologna  sausage, 
smoked  or  dried  fish,  about  an  ounce  of  white 
bread  well  buttered,  occasionally  a  small  quan- 
tity of  cheese,  and  some  fresh  fruit. 

On  this  diet  the  patient  lost  twenty  pounds 
in  six  months. 

Ebstein  insists  on  the  necessity  of  always 
keeping  to  the  restricted  diet  if  the  tendency 
to  corpulence  is  to  be  successfully  combated. 

Dr.  George  Johnson's  diet  for  excess  of  fat : 
The  patient  may  eat :  lean  mutton  and  beef, 
veal,  lamb,  tongue,  sweetbreads,  soups,  not 
thickened,  beef  tea  and  broths,  poultry,  game, 
fish,  cheese,  eggs,  bread  in  moderation,  greens, 
spinach,  watercress,  mustard  and  cress,  let- 
tuce, asparagus,  celery,  radishes,  French  beans, 
green  pease,  Brussels  sprouts,  cabbage,  cauli- 
flower, onions,  broccoli, sea-kale,  jellies, flavored 
but  not  sweetened,  fresh  fruit  in  moderation, 
without  sugar  or  cream,  pickles. 

May  not  eat:  Fat  bacon  and  ham,  fat  of 
meat,  butter,  cream,  sugar,  potatoes,  carrots, 
parsnips,  beet  root,  rice,  arrowroot,  sago,  tapi- 
oca, macaroni,  vermicelli,  semolina,  custard, 
pastry,  and  pudding  of  all  kinds,  sweet  cakes. 

May  drink:  Tea,  coffee,  cocoa  from  nibs, 
with  milk,  but  without  cream  or  sugar,  dry 
wines  of  any  kind,  in  moderation,  brandy, 
whisky,  or  gin,  in  moderation  and  without 
sugar,  light  bitter  beer.  Apollinaris  water, 
soda  water,  seltzer  water. 

May  not  drink:  Milk,  except  sparingly, 
porter  and  stout,  sweet  ales,  sweet  wines.  As 
a  rule,  alcoholic  liquors  should  be  taken  very 
sparingly,  and  never  without  food. 

MEDICINAL  FOOD. 

Spinach  has  a  direct  effect  upon  complaints 
of  the  kidneys  ;  the  common  dandelion,  used  as 
greens,  is  excellent  for  the  same  trouble  ;  aspar- 
agus purifies  the  blood  ;  celery  acts  admirably 
upon  the  nervous  system,  and  is  a  cure  for 
rheumatism  and  neuralgia  ;  tomatoes  act  upon 
the  liver  ;  beets  and  turnips  are  excellent  appe- 
tizers ;  lettuce  and  cucumbers  are  cooling  in 
their  effects  upon  the  system  ;  beans  are  a  very 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


381 


nutritious  and  strengthening  vegetable  ;  while 
onions,  garlic,  leeks,  chives,  and  shallots,  all 
of  which  are  similar,  possess  medicinal  virtues 
of  a  marked  character,  stimulating  the  circu- 
latory system,  and  the  consequent  increase  of 
the  saliva  and  the  gastric  juice  promoting 
digestion.  Red  onions  are  an  excellent  diu- 
retic, and  the  white  ones  are  recommended 
raw  as  a  remedy  for  insomnia.  They  are 
tonic,  nutritious.  A  soup  made  from  onions 
is  regarded  by  the  French  as  an  excellent  restora- 
tive in  debility  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Eggs  are  considered  one  of  the  best  reme- 
dies for  dysentery.  Beaten  up  slightly,  with 
or  without  sugar,  and  swallowed,  they  tend 
by  their  emollient  qualities  to  lessen  the  in- 
flammation of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  and, 
by  forming  a  transient  coating  on  those  organs, 
enable  Nature  to  resume  her  healthful  sway 
over  the  diseased  body.  Two,  or  at  most 
three,  eggs  per  day,  would  be  all  that  is  re- 
quired in  ordinary  cases;  and,  since  the  egg  is 
not  merely  medicine,  but  food  as  well,  the 
lighter  the  diet  otherwise,  and  the  quieter  the 
patient  is  kept,  the  more  certain  and  rapid  is 
the  recovery. 

LOCATION  OF  THE  HOUSE. 

Its  situation  is  a  most  important  factor  in 
the  choice  of  a  dwelling.     The  climate,  the 
direction  in  which  it  faces,  its  altitude,  its  loca- 
tion upon  a  hillside  or  in  a  valley,  the  neigh- 
boring   rivers,    ponds,    lakes,     swamps,     and  j 
marshes,   whether  upon   dry,  sandy,  or  rocky  | 
soil,   all  these  features  are  to  be  considered,  j 
The   severity  of  the  sun's  rays,  the  prevailing  j 
direction    of  the  wind,   temperature,   and  hu- 
midity vary  in    different   localities.       Rooms 
facing  south  are  warmer,  but  subject  to  greater 
changes  of  temperature  ;  those  facing  north  are 
cooler,  but  preserve  a  more  equable  tempera- 
ture.    Houses  situated  in  deep  forests  or  lying 
between  dense  clumps  of  large  trees  are  apt  to 
be  unhealthy  from  dampness.     But  a  wood  at  j 
some  distance  from  the  house  is  an  advantage, 
since  it  furnishes  a*bundance  of  oxygen  besides  ! 
protection  from  high  winds  and  excessive  heat. 

It  is  best  not  to  live  near  a  factory,  mine,  or 
hospital,   since  injurious   gases,    vapors,    and 
dust  particles  may  be  developed  there.  Swamps 
and  marshes,  too,  are  bad  neighbors,  for  the 
humid  air  is  often  vitiated  by  the  emanations  j 
of  decomposing  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  j 
These  are  very  unhealthy,  often  causing  marsh 
fever,  malaria,  and  other  ailments.       In  trop- 
ical and  sub-tropical  regions,  where  cold  north- 
ern  winds  are   unfelt,   such  swamps  may   be 
rendered  harmless  by  planting  eucalyptus  trees  j 
in  their  vicinity  ;  and  sunflowers,  in  the  tem- 
perate zone,  may  be  made  to  serve  a  similar 


purpose  in  some  degree,  especially  when  planted 
in  large  numbers. 

SPRENG    FEVER. 

Its  Antidote. —  A  wrriter  gives  the  symp- 
toms and  several  remedies  for  a  very  common 
complaint,  prevalent  with  almost  every  one  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  at  this  season  of  the  year. 
The  hampered  body,  says  the  writer,  which 
has  been  coddled,  petted,  stuffed  with  carbon- 
bearing  fats,  and  calorified  in  every  possible 
way,  begins  to  protest.  The  machinery  is 
clogged;  headache,  dyspepsia,  and  the  thou- 
sand nameless  sensations  of  discomfort  which 
we  charge  to  variable  weather,  afflict  and 
hamper  poor  humanity.  To-day  the  fog 
depresses  our  vital  force,  to-morrow  the  brain 
is  pierced  with  blinding  sunshaft ;  and  so  each 
j  day's  external  is  made  responsible  for  internal 
shortcoming.  The  litterateur,  in  atrabilious 
humor,  afflicts  the  world  with  morbid  philos- 
ophy. The  pastor  sees  weak  humanity  more 
than  ever  sinful,  and  his  Lenten  homilies  are 
unconsciously  tinctured  with  a  deeper  dye  for 
the  pangs  of  his  own  mortality.  The  house- 
wife, in  overheated  rooms,  with  a  monotone  of 
circumscribed  care  and  too  little  outside  diver- 
sion, finds  dirt  and  despair  in  the  kitchen, 
chaos  in  the  nursery,  a  forlorn  hope  in  her 
mending  basket. 

Among  other  remedies  for  people  who  say, 
"  I  always  have  a  bilious  attack  in  the  spring," 
the  following  seems  the  most  potent :  — 

On  rising,  sponge  the  body  lightly  and 
quickly  with  cold  water,  briskly  toweling  after. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  this  be  a  long  or 
laborious  operation  ;  the  more  rapidly  the  bet- 
ter, with  sufficient  friction  to  bring  a  glow  to 
the  skin.  If  you  cannot  secure  time  to  go 
over  the  whole  bodily  surface,  at  least  make  it 
a  point  to  daily  sponge  the  trunk  and  arms. 
Rousing  and  stimulating  the  whole  system, 
clearing  and  opening  the  pores,  it  imparts  an 
indescribable  freshness  and  exhilaration,  amply 
repaying  the  effort.  Rehabilitated,  you  are 
now  ready  for  your  morning  bitters,  namely, 
the  clear  juice  of  a  fresh  lemon  in  a  wineglass 
of  water,  without  sugar.  This  is  a  bomb 
straight  at  the  enemy,  for  a  more  potent  sol- 
vent of  bile  is  not  in  the  materia  medico. 
Searching  out  rheumatic  tendency,  attacking 
those  insidious  foes  which  are  storing  up  an- 
guish against  our  later  days  —  calculi  —  it 
pervades  the  system  like  a  fine  moral  sense, 
rectifying  incipient  error.  It  is  needful,  per- 
haps, to  begin  with  two  lemons  daily,  the 
second  at  night  just  before  retiring. 

A  primitive  but  most  efficacious  prescrip- 
tion, which  corrected  the  physical  reaction 
after  a  pork -eating  winter  for   our  ancestors, 


382 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


was  a  wineglass  full  of  very  hard  cider,  made 
effervescent  by  a  crumb  of  sal  soda.  More 
potent  and  palatable  is  the  concentric  force  of 
the  pure  lemon  acid. 

We  venture  to  claim  for  this  self-treatment 
alone,  faithfully  applied,  more  relief  for  the 
body  and  stimulus  to  the  mind  than  from  a 
battery  of  pills  or  quarts  of  herb  decoction. 

Common  Sense  in  Summer.  —  The 
employment  of  the  natural  common  sense  pos- 
sessed by  intelligent  adult  humanity  would  do 
much  to  mitigate  the  discomforts  of  our  torrid 
summers.  Natural  appetite,  if  not  corrupted 
or  perverted,  is  an  excellent  guide  to  eating 
and  drinking.  The  following  of  Procrustean 
rules  as  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of  food  is 
pernicious.  An  unvarying  amount  of  food, 
as  three  hearty  meals  each  day,  which  might 
be  healthful  for  winter  or  the  cool  weather  of 
autumn,  is  not  appropriate  for  the  intense 
heats  of  summer.  No  set  of  rules  can  be  laid 
down  for  anybody's  guidance,  still  less  is  it 
competent  to  make  rules  for  everybody's  guid- 
ance ;  but  a  few  simple  suggestions  made  by  a 
physician  recently  may  not  be  amiss. 

He  said  :  "  Keep  cool  in  temper  ;  enter  into 
no  argument  or  contention  on  politics,  ethics, 
or  religion  ;  restrain  anger  ;  attempt  no  athletic 
feats  of  rowing,  walking,  or  ball  playing ; 
look  on  the  pleasant  side  of  your  circumstances  ; 
be  kindly  affectionate,  as  St.  Paul  recom- 
mended ;  do  not  sit  outdoors  long  after  sun- 
down—  the  less  of  this  the  better;  never 
work  before  breakfast ;  eschew  meats  as  much 
as  possible  and  chew  food  thoroughly ;  drink 
but  little  ice  water  or  hot  tea  and  coffee  — 
warm  tea  is  not  injurious.  Lemonade  in 
moderate  quantities  is  not  hurtful.  Alcoholic 
stimulants  should  be  tabooed  entirely  unless  a 
physician's  prescription  compel  their  use.  Do 
not  allow  your  dress  to  be  a  burden  in  material 
or  amount,  nor  have  it  so  light  and  thin  that 
the  body,  from  perspiration,  becomes  chilled." 

BREAKFAST. 

The  substantial  and  hearty  meal  partaken 
of  by  Americans  is  the  bone  of  a  very  great 
.contention.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  maintained 
it  is  the  ruin  of  digestion  and  the  most  pro- 
lific source  of  dyspepsia,  etc.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  shown  that,  for  a  busy,  active  peo- 
ple, and  also  for  a  people  who  generally  have 
only  two  meals  a  day  —  breakfast  and  dinner 
—  the  meal  is  none  too  substantial.  However, 
which  is  right  or  wrong,  must  be  a  matter  of 
individual  opinion  and  experience. 

The  difficulty  lies  in  what  is  eaten  at  break- 
fast. More  attention  could  be,  with  very  great 
advantage,  bestowed  on  this  meal.  The  table, 
to  begin  with,  could  be  fresher  and  more  cheer- 


ful, with  flowers  and  fruit ;  tablecloth  and 
napkins  white,  with  a  colored  border  too,  have  a 
much  more  pleasing  effect  than  a  cloth  en- 
tirely colored.  Too  often  the  breakfast-room 
is  about  the  worst  for  the  purpose  in  the  house 
—  dark,  dismal,  and  chilly. 

The  dishes  should  be  varied ;  a  change 
should  be  striven  for  every  day.  The  beef- 
steak one  day  should  be  plain,  another  day 
with  fine  herbs  or  stewed  tomatoes  over  it, 
with  brown  oyster  sauce  or  onion  sauce,  etc.  ; 
then  vary  it  with  chops,  eggs,  kidneys  broiled, 
stewed,  or  saute'  ;  with  fish,  in  the  many  differ- 
ent ways  described ;  tripe,  oysters,  liver,  and 
the  many  other  preparations  given,  such  as 
savory  hashes  of  game,  beef,  lamb  ;  with  slices 
of  cold,  boiled  and  roast  beef,  mutton,  etc.  ; 
grilled  or  deviled,  and  served  with  any  sort  ot 
piquant  sauce. 

Fresh  fruit  and  salads  are  to  be  commended 
for  breakfast  —  very  relishable  and  extremely 
healthful.  Oatmeal,  too,  is  to  be  particularly 
recommended  ;  eat  it  the  first  thing  at  break- 
fast every  morning.  Eschew  too  liberal  in 
diligence  in  hot  breads  ;  accustom  yourselves 
to  eating  bread  (homemade)  twelve  hours  old. 

Breakfast  parties  are  rapidly  comv.g  into 
fashion  —  they  have  been  popular  abi  ad  for 
some  time  —  usually  served  at  9  A.  M.  to  12 
M.  Of  course  the  earlier  they  are  served  the 
more  appropriate  they  are  as  breakfasts.  Som<; 
bills  of  fare  are  given  as  selections  for  parties 
and  also  for  family  use.  The  dishes  marked 
in  italics  may  be  left  out,  if  thought  too  elab- 
orate, without  spoiling  the  effect  of  the  break- 
fast. 

Family  Breakfasts. 

Spring. 

Oatmeal  and  milk. 

Stewed  apples. 

Rolls,  butter,  coffee,  chocolate,  bronia,  or  tea 

Beefsteak,  broiled  oysters. 

Lyonnaise  potatoes,  poached  eggs  on  toast. 

Rice  cakes,  syrup. 

Spring. 

Cracked  wheat  and  milk. 

Stewed  prunes. 

Bread  or  rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Mutton  chops,  fried  baron. 

Boiled  eggs,  potatoes  a  la  mnitre  d'hotel. 

Waffles,  cinnamon  and  sugar. 

Spring. 

Fried  hominy. 

Stewed  dried  peaches. 

Rolls  or  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Broiled  ham,  with  fried  eggs. 

Mutton  and  potato  hash,  browned. 

Baked  potatoes. 

Flanuei  cakes,  powdered  sugar. 

Summer. 
Coarse  hominy,  bolted. 
Strawberries  and  cream. 
Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 
Broiled  chicken,  stewed  potatoes. 
Dried  beef,  dressed  with  cream. 
Radishes. 
Muffins. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


383 


Summer. 

Oatmeal  and  milk. 

Fresh  currants  and  sugar. 

Buttered  toast,  bread,  coffee,  etc. 

Broiled  bluetish  or  whitcrish. 

Stewed  potatoes. 

Minced  mutton,  served  on  toast. 

Shirred  eggs. 

Hominy  cakes,  syrup. 

Summer. 
Cracked  wheat  and  milk. 
Fresh  raspberries. 
Rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 
Cold  roast  beef,  sliced  thin. 
Frizzled  ham,  with  eggs. 
Fried  potatoes,  sliced  cucumbers. 
Graham  gems,  or  popovers. 

Autumn. 

Oatmeal  mush,  fried  in  slices. 
Peaches  and  cream,  or  blackberries. 
Brown  bread,  rolls,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 
Lamb  chops,  fried  potatoes. 
Mushrooms  baked,  and  served  on  toast. 
Sliced  tomatoes,  dressed  as  a  salad. 

Autumn. 

Hulled  corn,  with  cream. 

Baked  pears,  grapes. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Veal  cutlets,  potato  balls. 

Omelette,  with  grated  ham. 

Virginia  bakes  (thin  corn  meal  pancakes). 

Autumn. 

Coarse  hominy,  boiled  and  browned. 
Peaches  and  cream. 
Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 
Beefsteak,  oysters  on  toast. 
Stewed  potatoes. 
Muffins. 

Winter. 

Fried  mush. 

Baked  sweet  apples. 

Rolls,  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Turkey  hash,  stewed  potatoes. 

Salt  mackerel. 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 

Winter. 

Cracked  wheat. 

Baked  pears. 

Rolls,  Graham  bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Sausages,  garnished  with  fried  sour  apples. 

Quail  on  toast,  baked  potatoes, 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 

Winter. 

Fried  hominy. 

Stewed  apples. 

Bread,  butter,  coffee,  etc. 

Venison  steak,  cold  sparerib,  sliced. 

Potatoes  a  la  maitre  d'hotel. 

Buckwheat  cakes,  syrup. 

Breakfast  Parties. 

Early  Spring. 

Grapes,  apples,  oranges. 

j  Cutlets  of  bass  en  papillote.     1  Latour  Biancne 

j  Cucumbers  pickled.  j  i^atour  iiiancne. 

)  Roast  English  snipe. 

j  Baked  mushrooms. 

i  Lobster  salad. 

)  Bread,  butter,  crackers. 

i  Chocolate  eclairs. 

|  Vanilla  ice  cream. 

Summer. 
Berries  and  peaches  with  cream. 

!  Brook  trout  broiled,  with  tomato  sauce.   } 
Boiled  potatoes,  pickled  gherkins,  and  5  Chablis. 
olives  ) 

(  Fib1eeatns°f  ****  ^^  WiUl  Um*  |  Chateau  La  Rose. 
Cauliflower  bread-crumbed. 

S  Fillets  of  chickens  en  fricassee,  with  ) 
rice.  J  Hochheimer. 

Brussel  sprouts  a  la  Bechamel.  ) 


Sherry. 


Coffee. 


( Fried  oysters. 

I  Celery  and  lettuce,  mixed  with  mayonnaise. 
Tutti  f  rutti,  assorted  cake,  coffee. 

Winter. 

Chicken  consomme  with  poached  eggs.    (Madeira). 
Small  middle  cut(darne;  of  salmon, )  p,    t 

with  anchovy  sauce  and  shrimps.  J  V  ,„,* 
Potatoes  a  la  Printaniere.  )  ^dl;our- 

Chicken  croquettes.  i  Clos 

)  Canned  string  beans  (Haricots  verts).  |  Vougeot. 
Sorbet  au  kirchwasser. 
i  Roast  saddle  of  Southdown  mutton, ) 
]     sauce  soubise.  J  Sauterne. 

( Turnips  au  veloute.  ) 

l  Broiled  quails  aux  croutons. 
I  Endive,  with  plain  dressing. 
(  Cream  in  mold  of  swan  and  cygnets.        ) 
j  Macaroons,  bonbons,  chocolate  wafers.   [  Sherry. 
(  Fruits,  and  nuts.  ) 

Vienna  coffee  (coffee  with  whipped  cream  piled  on  it). 

Dinner. —  On  ordinary  occasions,  where 
incomes  are  not  above  the  average,  circum- 
stances generally  determine  what  folks  shall 
have  for  dinner.  A  very  modest  meal,  how- 
ever, may  be  tastefully  spread  and  served,  and 
there  is  no  reason  why,  so  far  as  they  are 
available,  it  should  not  have  the  benefit  of  the 
principles  that  apply  to  the  most  elegant 
banquets. 

In  the  first  place,  a  good  dinner  need  not  be 
expensive,  though  (as  is  not  always  the  case 
where  much  money  is  spent)  there  is  no  end 
to  the  expense  that  may  be  indulged  in  with- 
out preventing  the  result  being  good. 

To  one  philosophizing  much  on  the  subject, 
the  order  of  the  fundamental  courses  of  a  good 
dinner  is  apt  to  suggest  the  old  saw  of  "  fish, 
flesh,  fowl,  and  good  salt  herring."  Expand 
flesh  to  mean  all  edible  flesh  but  game-birds, 
interpret  good  salt  herring  as  meaning  some- 
thing pungent  —  the  whole  range  of  salads 
(herring  salad  if  you  like  it), — keep  in  mind 
what  everybody  knows,  that  before  dinner 
comes  soup,  and  after  it  dessert,  and  you  have 
the  key  to  the  whole  subject  —  fish,  flesh, 
fowl,  and  good  salt  herring.  All  beyond  this 
is  mere  elaboration,  and  all  that  requires  varia- 
tion from  it  is  exceptional.  Give  a  man  more 
and  he  should  feel  honored ;  give  him  this, 
and  he  should  feel  contented,  for  he  cannot 
say  that  he  has  not  had  a  good  dinner. 

Now  for  the  elaborations. 

I.  Five  small  raw  oysters,  opened  (on  the 
deep  shell,  so  as  to  retain  the  liquor)  just 
before  dinner,  and  put  at  each  plate  before  the 
dining  room  is  opened.  A  colored  doiley  may 
be  put  under  them  on  each  plate.  If  oysters 
are  not  in  season,  substitute  small  round  clams. 
If  weather  is  quite  warm,  let  them  rest  on  each 
plate  in  a  bed  of  cracked  ice.  In  either  case, 
quarter  of  a  lemon  on  each  plate.  With  clams, 
red  pepper  within  reach. 

II.  After  fish,  either  patties,  bits  of  toast, 
each  supporting  a  single  selected  mushroom, 
and  saturated  with  brown  sauce,  or  some  simi- 


384 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


lar  trifle.     Whatever  is  used,  letlmt  one  be  put 
on  each  plate,  and  before  the  plates  are  handed. 

III.  If  you  have  more  than  one  meat,  let 
the  first  be  relatively  substantial,  and  the  sec- 
ond of  a  lighter  character.  For  instance  - —  a 
fillet  of  beef  might  be  followed  by  chicken  cro- 
quettes, or  a  boiled  turkey  (which  is  never 
really  good  without  oyster  sauce)  by  mutton 
chops  with  almond  paste.  Other  things  even, 
let  a  roast  precede  a  boil,  but  put  the  heavier 
thing  first. 

IV.  After  meats,  entries,  such  as  croquettes, 
calves'  brains,  deviled  kidneys,  oysters  fried 
or  broiled,  etc. 

V.  Before  game,  a  small  glass  of  sorbet  to 
each,  to  be  brought  in  in  the  glasses. 

VI.  With  game,  jelly  ;  though  true  epicures 
don't  take  it.  The  salad  is  frequently  served 
with  the  game,  though,  for  those  who  wish 
both  jelly  and  salad,  this  is  awkward  if  jelly 
be  served. 

VII.  After  salad,  cheese,  either  one  of  me- 
dium strength,  or  two  kinds  —  one  pungent, 
one  mild.  The  waiter  had  best  hand  both 
kinds  together  (previously  cut  up)  for  the 
company  to  choose.     With  this,  hard  crackers. 

VIII.  If  you  elaborate  your  dessert,  let  the 
order  be  :  pastry  or  pudding,  ices,  fruits,  nuts, 
and  raisins,  bonbons. 

IX.  Black  coffee  in  small  cups.  Sugar  (in 
lumps)  to  be  passed  separately.  This  is  quite 
frequently  reserved  till  the  ladies  have  left  the 
table  and  served  to  them  in  the  parlor,  and  to 
the  gentlemen  in  the  dining  room. 


BILL,   OF  FAKE. 

WINES. 

Raw  oysters  or  clams. 
SOUP. 

Sauterne,    or    any    light 
white  wines. 

Olives. 
FISH. 

SHERRY. 

Olives,     Dressed   cucum- 
bers, etc. 
Either     Bouchies     a     la 
Reine,     Mushrooms      on 
toast,  or  something  sim- 
ilar. 

Latour  Blanche,    Chablis, 
Chateau,  Yquem,  or  other 
white  wine  with  a  body. 
Some   like    a   substantial 
white  wine  with  oysters. 

MEAT. 

CHAMPAGNE. 

If  more  than  one,  roast 
first,  or  the  heavier  first. 

Cigarettes. 

Entries  (any   light   made 

dishes  not  sweet). 

Sorbet. 

RED    WINE    NOT 

SWEET, 

GAME. 
SALAD. 

i.    e.,   Claret   or   Bur- 
gundy, etc. 

Olives,  Pickles,  etc. 
Cheese,  Crackers. 

PORT. 

DESSERT. 

Pastry.    Ices.    Fruit. 

Nuts  and  Raisins. 

Bonbons. 

Black  Coffee. 

Still    white    wine,    any 
named  above. 

Liqueurs,     Brandy,     Cor- 
dials, etc. 

The  fundamentals  (both  of  food  and  wine) 
are  printed  in  capitals.  Of  course  no  list 
could  include  everything.  This  one  merely 
attempts  to  give  what  can  frequently  be  real- 


ized. If  you  care  for  anything  more,  you 
have  probably  already  so  far  studied  the  sub- 
ject as  to  bo  beyond  the  need  of  any  aid. 

If  you  omit  any  of  the  courses  indicated  by 
capitals,  let  them  be  game  first,  then  fish,  then 
salad,  last  soup. 

Setting  the  Table.—  To  raise  feeding 
from  the  grade  of  an  animal  function  into 
that  of  a  fine  art  is  worth  anybody's  while, 
and  almost  anybody  can  do  it.  It  need  cost 
but  a  little  polishing  of  glass  and  metal,  and 
a  handful  of  flowers,  to  make  a  very  plain 
table  pleasing  to  even  the  critical  eye. 

Have  a  thick,  soft  blanket  under  the  table- 
cloth. It  prevents  noise  from  laying  things 
down,  and  gives  a  pleasant  feeling  to  the  hand 
resting  on  the.  table. 

Decoration. —  The  first  rule  for  setting  a 
table  well  is  not  to  put  on  it  anything  to  eat. 
Exception  may  be  made  in  favor  of  a  few  or- 
namental plates  containing  bright  colored 
pickles,  olives,  fruits,  and  confectionery. 
These  are  admissible  only  in  so  far  as  they  are 
decorative.  Let  each  course  be  brought  on 
and  removed  separately  after  the  guests  are 
seated. 

Now  here  is  a  very  important  matter,  which 
even  good  dinner-givers  sometimes  neglect. 
Do  not  let  the  ornament  in  the  center  be  so 
high  as  to  prevent  people  naturally  seeing  each 
other  across  the  table.  If  you  do,  it  will  con- 
fine the  talk  to  people  sitting  next  each  other, 
and  seriously  impede  general  and  lively  con- 
versation. There  is  no  denying  that  a  high 
center  ornament  is  decorative  and  excellent  for 
a  supper  where  people  stand.  But  a  little  taste 
and  ingenuity  will  devise  low  ones  suitable  for 
dinners,  that  will  not  interfere  with  the  dis- 
tinctively human  enjoyment  —  conversation. 
Flowers,  of  course,  are  generally  the  most 
available  material.  They  should  not  be  gath- 
ered, however,  into  a  single  flat  mass,  but 
should  be  placed  at  a  height  of  two  or  three 
inches  on  small  plates  or  the  narrow  troughs 
now  to  be  found  at  the  crockery  stores,  and 
grouped  around  some  object  not  much  over  a 
foot  high  in  the  center.  This  central  object 
can  be  a  bouquet,  a  stand  of  fruit,  or  any  other 
tasteful  thing  that  ingenuity  may  suggest.  In 
warm  weather  ice,  either  in  a  large,  clear 
block,  or  several  pieces  too  large  to  melt  out 
of  proportion  during  the  meal,  combined  with 
ferns  or  flowers,  is  suggestive,  and  may  be 
made  very  beautiful.  The  writer  wishes  to 
state,  most  emphatically,  that,  generally,  on 
noticing  that  dinner  is  passing  off  with  pecul- 
iar spirit,  he  has  also  noticed  that  the  orna- 
ments are  so  disposed  as  not  to  impede 
intercourse. 

A   small   bouquet   de  corsage  at  each  lady's 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,   DIETETICS. 


385 


place,  and  a  flower  with  a  leaf  tied  to  it  at  each 
gentleman's,  for  his  buttonhole,  are  very 
agreeable. 

Chairs. —  Avoid  cane  seats  in  a  dining 
room.  Where  fine  fabrics  and  laces  are  kept 
on  them  so  long  a  time  continuously  (longer 
than  anywhere  else),  they  play  havoc. 

Plates. —  One  should  be  at  each  seat.  The 
raw  oysters  or  clams,  on  a  separate  plate,  are 
placed  on  the  first  plate.  So  with  the  soup. 
The  first  plate  is  exchanged  for  the  plate  with 
the  fish.  Always  have  a  stock  of  plates  in 
reserve  sufficient  for  all  the  courses  and  prop- 
erly heated.  The  most  decorated  plates  are 
best  enjoyed  about  the  time  of  salad  or  cheese 
and  at  dessert. 

Knives  and  Forks. — Tt  saves  the  waiter's 
time  to  start  with  at  least  two  forks,  and  two 
knives  by  each  plate.  It  is  not  bad  to  have 
three.  One  knife  should  be  of  silver,  for  the 
fish.  Silver  knives  are,  of- course,  essential 
for  fruit. 

Napkins  are  never  supposed  to  appear  a 
second  time  before  washing.  Hence  napkin 
rings  are  domestic  secrets,  and  not  for  com- 
pany. 

AVines  that  can  be  drunk  at  the  temperature 
of  the  room  maybe  on  the  table  from  the  start, 
and  they  add  to  the  decoration. 

Wineglasses. —  Three  or  four  with  the 
water  glass,  are  enough  to  start  with.  If  you 
have  more  wines,  bring  the  glasses  on  with 
them,  and  substitute  them  for  the  sherry  glass, 
santerne  glass,  etc.  Provide  colored  glasses  for 
still,  white  wines.  Americans  pretty  generally 
set  their  glasses  in  a  row  at  the  right  of  the 
plate,  in  a  direction  across  the  table.  .  The 
French  quite  generally  set  theirs  in  front  of  the 
plate,  parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  table. 
Liqueur  glasses  come  on  with  the  liqueurs. 

Clams  (don't  forget  the  ice  in  warm 
weather)  should  always  be  on  the  table  before 
the  company  comes  in.  The  plates  with  ice 
are  too  ticklish  for  the  waiter  to  pass  over 
shoulders.     Taking  up  the  plates  is  easier. 

Ice  Pitchers  are  not  articles  of  dinner 
table  furniture,  exceptthatin  very  hot  weather 
one  may  be  used  from  a  side  table. 

Carafes  and  cracked  ice  should  be  within 
everybody's  reach. 

Cards  on  Plates,  bearing  the  names  of 
the  company,  so  as  to  seat  them  with  reference 
to  congeniality,  are  very  important.  For  host 
or  hostess  to  marshal  them  after  they  are  in 
the  dining  room  is  not  nearly  so  easy  as  for 
them  to  marshal  themselves  by  the  cards,  and 
the  host  and  hostess  are  sure,  in  the  confusion 
of  the  moment,  to  get  people  placed  exactly  as 
they  did  not  intend  to  have  them. 

Bread. —  Cut  pieces  about  four  inches  long, 


two  wide,  and  two  thick,  and  always  place  a 
piece  beside  each  plate  in  setting  the  table. 

Finger  Bowls  are  to  be  passed  after 
pastry  on  plates  with  doilies  between  the  plates 
and  the  bowls.  The  plates  are  to  be  used  for 
fruit  and  nuts,  if  there  are  any.  If  none  are 
handed,  the  finger  bowl  will  not  be  taken  from 
the  plate.  The  finger  bowl  should  be  filled 
about  one  third,  contain  a  slice  of  lemon,  and 
in  very  warm  weather,  a  bit  of  ice. 

Fruit. —  It  is  well  to  have  a  dish,  atone 
side,  independent  of  any  that  may  be  on  the 
table,  with  grapes  cut  into  small  bunches,  and 
oranges  and  large  fruits  halved.  If  fruit 
decorating  the  table  is  to  be  used,  let  it  be  re- 
moved and  so  prepared  before  it  is  passed. 

We  append  bills  of  fare  —  four  for  entertain- 
ments and  twelve  for  family  dinners.  Al- 
though they  are  scattered  through  the  seasons, 
they  are  almost  all  available  at  any  season, 
and  with  the  help  of  the  separate  articles  on 
like  subjects  will  probably  aid  the  house- 
keeper in  answering  the  constantly  recurring 
question,  "  What  shall  we  have  for  dinner?  " 

Washington's  Birthday. 

Oysters  on  Half  Shell. 

Mock  Turtle  Soup. 

Baked  White  Fish,  Bechamel  Sauce. 

Boiled  Turkey,  Oyster  Sauce. 

Boiled  Sweet  Potatoes. 

Steamed  Potatoes.  Stewed  Tomatoes. 

Scalloped  Onions. 

Salmi  of  Game. 

Olives.  Chicken  Salad. 

Washington  Pie.  Bavarian  Cream. 

Variegated  Jelly.  Marble  Cake. 

Candied  Fruits.  Raisins  and  Nuts. 

Coffee. 

April  19. 

Cream  of  Spinach  Soup. 

Boiled  Shad,  Sauce  Tartare. 

Leg  of  Mutton  a  la  Venison. 

Steamed  Potatoes.  Creamed  Parsnips. 

Oyster  Patties.  Currant  Jelly. 

Lettuce  Salad. 

Delmonico  Pudding.  Pineapple  Sherbet. 

Rolled  Jelly  Cake.  Fruit.  Coffee. 

July  4. 

Clam  Soup. 

Boiled  Cod,  with  Lobster  Sauce. 

Roast  Lamb,  Mint  Sauce. 

New  Potatoes  Boiled. 

Green  Pease.  Spinach  with  Eggs. 

Cucumbers  Sliced. 

Chicken  Patties. 

Naple  Biscuits.  Vanilla  Ice  Cream. 

Chocolate  Macaroons.  Strawberries. 

Coffee. 

Thanksgiving  Day. 

Oysters  on  Half  Shell. 

Cream  of  Chicken  Soup. 

Fried  Smelts,  Sauce  Tartare. 

Roast  Turkey,  Cranberry  Sauce. 

Mashed  Potatoes.  Baked  Squash. 

Boiled  Onions.  Parsnip  Fritters. 

Olives.  Chicken  Salad. 

Venison  Pastry. 

Pumpkin  Pie.  Mince  Pie. 

Charlotte  Russe.  Almond  Ice  Cream. 

Lemon  Jelly.  Hickory  Nut  Cake. 

'  Cheese.  Fruits. 

Coffee. 


386 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Family  Dinners. 


January  4. 
Beef   soup    with     vegeta- 
bles. 
Bream,  with  oyster  sauce. 
Boiled  potatoes. 
Corned  beef,  with  carrots. 
Stewed  kidneys. 
Spanish  puffs. 

February  18. 

Bouillabaisse. 

Boiled  Chicken. 

Fried  parsnips,  caper 
sauce. 

Fillets  of  bass,  with  pick- 
les. 

Mince  patties. 

March  21. 

Oysters,  with  lettuce. 
Roast  sirloin  of  beef. 
Potato  croquettes. 
Cabbage  boiled  with 

cream. 
Baked  lemon  pudding. 

April  3. 

Fried  oysters,  sliced  cu- 
cumbers. 

Smelts  fried  with  fat  salt 
pork. 

Baked  potatoes. 

Lamb  chops,  with  baked 
macaroni. 

Pumpkin  pie  and  coffee. 

May  20. 

Clam  soup. 

Boiled  leg  of  mutton,  to- 
mato sauce. 

Mashed  potatoes. 

Oyster  plant  in  batter. 

Lettuce  and  green  onions. 

Raisin  pudding,  sherry 
sauce. 

June  12. 

Salmon. 

Chicken  soup  with  barley. 

Cold  roast    mutton,   with 

boiled  cauliflower. 
Lettuce,    with   cives    and 

olives  mixed. 
Charlotte  Russe. 


July  10. 

Consomme  aux  nouilles. 

Rock  bass,  with  fried  po- 
tatoes. 

Tomatoes,  with  slices  of 
chicken  dressed  in  may- 
onnaise. 

Peaches  and  cream. 

August  14. 

Clams  on  the  half  shell, 
pickles. 

Broiled  porterhouse  steak. 

Green  pease  and  asparagus. 

Strawberry  shortcake,  cof- 
fee. 

September  24. 

Oyster  soup. 

Broiled  eels,  with  cucum- 
bers. 

Braised  fowl. 

String  beans. 

Celery,  with  capers. 

Currant  tart.with  whipped 
cream. 

October  25. 

Pot-au-feu. 

Halibut,  with  parsley  sauce. 

The  beef,  with  the  vege- 
tables. 

Potato  salad. 

Tapioca  pudding,  sauce  an 
quatre  fruits. 

Cream  cakes. 

November  30. 
Mock  turtle. 

Turkey,  cranberry  sauce. 
Rice  croquettes. 
Kgg  plant  stuffed. 
Snipe,  fried  oysters. 
Water-cresses,   with   hard 

boiled  eggs. 
German  puffs. 

Peceraber  14. 
Puree  of  beans. 
Broiled  herring,  Dutch 

sauce. 
Ribs  of  beef. 
Boiled  potatoes. 
Stewed  tomatoes. 
Pumpkin  pie. 

LUNCH. 

Where  late  dinners  are  the  custom  it  is 
necessary  that  something  should  be  eaten  in 
the  long  interval  between  breakfast  and  din- 
ner, and  this  meal  is  called  lunch.  The  best 
time  for  lunch  is  either  twelve  or  one  o'clock, 
according  as  the  breakfast  hour  is  early  or  late  ; 
it  should  not  be  later  than  one  o'clock  or  it 
may  spoil  the  appetite  for  dinner.  The  hour, 
moreover,  should  always  be  the  same  ;  and  the 
meal  should  never  be  shirked,  as  it  is  too  apt 
to  be  by  business  men,  in  favor  of  any  of  those 
miserable  pretexts  of  the  barroom  or  confec- 
tionery counter  which  are  among  the  most 
fruitful  causes  of  dyspepsia  and  its  train  of  ills. 
Lunch  should  be  made  a  regular  repast,  to 
which  the  guest  may  sit  down,  eating  and  en- 
joying his  food  deliberately. 

The  very  best  midday  refreshment  for  busy 
people,  involving  the  least  possible  interrup- 


tion to  their  pursuits,  is  a  bowl  of  good  soup  ; 
such  as  consomme"  (with  vermicelli  or  maca- 
roni), mock-turtle,  ox-tail,  gumbo,  or  giblet. 
All  these  combine  the  advantage  of  being  hot, 
of  taking  little  time  to  eat,  and  of  containing 
much  nutriment  in  small  bulk.  Bread  may 
be  soaked  in  any  of  these,  or  eaten  as  an  ac- 
companiment. If  they  cause  thirst,  it  may  be 
allayed  with  a  wineglassf ul  of  toast  and  water, 
or  a  little  cold  tea. 

The  three  following  Bills  of  Fare  are  given 
for  entertainments,  in  order  to  show  the  man- 
ner of  the  serving.  The  plates  are  to  be 
changed  precisely  as  for  dinner.  Those  dishes 
which  are  printed  in  italics  may  be  omitted  if 
desired. 

Spring. 

LUNCKEON  FOR   TEN   PERSONS. 

Consomme4,  with  vermicelli.    (Sherrv.) 
(  Boiled  blueflsh,  with  lobster  si i  oe.  1      Haute- 
j  Potato  croquettes.  I  Sauterne. 

Vol-au-vent  of  oysters  ) 

Que  wiles  of  partridge .  >    Chambertin. 

Green  peas.  ) 

(  Roast  sirloin  of  beef  d  la  jardiniere. 

|  Artichokes  au  gratin. 
1'niK-h  a  la  liomaine. 

[^SSSST^]  Champagne. 
Plum  pudding  glace\ 
Assorted  cakes,  crackers,  bonbons,  coffee. 

Summer. 

LI  "NrilEON   FOR   EIGHTEEN   PERSONS. 

Oy3ters  k  la  poulette.    Rudesheimer 
Sorrel  soup  aux  croutons.    Madeira. 

(  Salmon  cutlets,  broiled,  with  I  (-jaret 

(     green  pease.  J 

(  Chickens,  roasted,  with  ) 

\     apple  sauce.  [  Chateau  Yquem. 

(  Macaroni,  with  cheese.  ) 

^Z^'T^rl,}  Champagne. 

(  Lobster  salad. 

j  Crackers  and  cheese. 
Ice  cream,  milk  punch,  f  rappee. 
Cakes,  bonbons,  coffee.    Maraschino. 

Winter. 

LUNCHEON  FOR  SIX   PERSONS. 

Mock  turtle  soup.    Sherry. 
Fillets  of  flounders, saute, 

caper  sauce. 
Fried  potatoes. 


Claret. 


|  Marcobrunner 

I  BoueMea  ofMcken,  J  R    ,  Hermitage. 

i  Cauliflower.  )  fe  t 

Roast  turkey  with  stewed  mushrooms  (whit?). 

i  Reed  birds,  "  cm  petit  sate."    I  pomni.iry 

j  Fried  oysters.  «  *' 

Ice  cream,  cakes,  etc. 
Cafenoir. 

SUPPER  AND  TEA. 

In  the  large  cities,  where  late  dinners  are 
the  rule,  tea  is  an  obsolete  meal,  lunch  in  the 
middle  of  the  day  having  taken  its  place. 
Some,  it  is  true,  have  adopted  the  continental 
practice  of  eating  late  suppers  ;  but  the  prac- 
tice is  unquestionably  a  bad  one,  except  for 
those  who  sit  up  very  late  or  who  work  hard 
at   night.     A   dinner   requires   at   least    foiu 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


387 


hours  to  digest,  even  in  a  perfectly  healthy 
stomach,  and  the  digestive  organs  afterwards 
require  a  period  of  rest.  To  take  in  more  food 
while  the  process  of  digestion  is  in  full  opera- 
tion cannot  but  be  injurious,  and  the  conse- 
quences, in  the  shape  of  dyspepsia  and  sleep- 
lessness, are  not  slow  in  manifesting  them- 
selves. When  dinner  is  taken  at  midday,  the 
tea  may  consist  of  any  of  the  dishes  suggested 
for  breakfast  and  lunch.  (See  Breakfast  and 
Lunch.)  For  late  suppers,  the  lighter  the 
food  the  better.  Fresh  fish,  sardines,  well- 
ripened  fruit,  a  cream,  light  pudding,  blanc- 
mange, a  little  iced  fruit,  fruit  jelly,  prunes, 
etc.,  are  appropriate.  Strong  tea  or  coffee 
should  not  be  drunk  ;  nor  wine,  unless  it  be  a 
very  light  one. 

SMALL  POINTS    ON    TABLE    ETI- 
QUETTE. 

Delicacy  of  manner  at  table  stamps  both 
man  and  woman,  for  one  can,  at  a  glance, 
discern  whether  a  person  has  been  trained  to 
eat  well  —  i.  e.,  to  hold  the  knife  and  fork 
properly,  to  eat  without  the  slightest  sound  of 
the  lips,  to  drink  quietly,  to  use  the  napkin 
rightly,  to  make  no  noise  with  any  of  the  im- 
plements of  the  table,  and  last,  but  not  least, 
to  eat  slowly  and  masticate  the  food  thor- 
oughly. All  these  points  should  be  most  care- 
fully taught  to  children,  and  then  they  will 
always  feel  at  their  ease  at  the  grandest  tables 
in  the  land.  There  is  no  position  where  the 
innate  refinement  of  a  person  is  more  fully  ex- 
hibited than  at  the  table,  and  nowhere  that 
those  who  have  not  been  trained  in  table  eti- 
quette feel  more  keenly  their  deficiencies.  The 
knife  should  never  be  used  to  carry  food  to 
the  mouth,  but  only  to  cut  it  up  into  small 
mouthfuls ;  then  place  it  upon  the  plate  at  one 
side,  and  take  the  fork  in  the  right  hand,  and 
eat  all  the  food  with  it.  When  both  have  been 
used  finally,  they  should  be  laid  diagonally 
across  the  plate,  with  both  handles  toward  the 
right  hand  ;  this  is  understood  by  well-trained 
waiters  to  be  the  signal  for  removing  them,  to- 
gether with  the  plate. 

Be  careful  to  keep  the  mouth  shut  closely 
while  masticating  the  food.  It  is  the  opening 
of  the  lips  which  causes  the  smacking  which 
seems  very  disgusting.  Chew  your  food  well, 
but  do  it  silently,  and  be  careful  to  take  small 
mouthfuls.  The  knife  can  be  used  to  cut  the 
meat  finely,  as  large  pieces  of  meat  are  not 
healthful,  and  appear  very  indelicate.  At 
many  tables,  two,  three,  or  more  knives  and 
forks  are  placed  on  the  table,  the  knives  at  the 
right  hand  of  the  plate,  the  forks  at  the  left, 
—  a  knife  and  a  fork  for  each  course,  so  that 
there  need  be  no  replacing  of  them  after  the  ! 


breakfast  and  dinner  is  served.  The  smaller 
ones,  which  are  for  game,  dessert,  or  for  hot 
cakes  at  breakfast,  can  be  tucked  under  the 
edges  of  the  plate,  and  the  large  ones,  for  the 
meat  and  vegetables,  are  placed  outside  of  them. 
Be  very  careful  not  to  clatter  your  knives  and 
forks  upon  your  plates,  but  use  them  without 
noise.  When  passing  the  plate  for  a  second 
helping,  lay  them  together  at  one  side  of  the 
plate,  with  handles  to  the  right.  When  you 
are  helped  to  anything,  do  not  wait  until  the 
rest  of  the  company  are  provided,  it  is  not  con- 
sidered good  breeding.  Soup  is  always  served 
for  the  first  course,  and  it  should  be  eaten  with 
dessert  spoons,  and  taken  from  the  sides,  not 
,  the  tips  of  them,  without  any  sound  of  the 
:  lips,  and  not  sucked  into  the  mouth  audibly 
from  the  ends  of  the  spoon.  Bread  should 
not  be  broken  into  sdUp  or  gravy.  Never  ask 
to  be  helped  to  soup  a  second  time.  The 
hostess  may  ask  you  to  take  a  second  plate, 
but  you  will  politely  decline.  Fish  chowder, 
which  is  served  in  soup  plates,  is  said  to  be  an 
exception  which  pi*oves  this  rule,  and  when 
eating  of  that  it  is  correct  to  take  a  second 
plateful  if  desired. 

Another  generally  neglected  obligation  is 
that  of  spreading  butter  on  one's  bread  as  it 
lies  on  one's  plate,  or  but  slightly  lifted  at  one 
end  of  the  plate  ;  it  is  very  frequently  buttered 
in  the  air,  bitten  in  gouges,  and  still  held  in 
the  face  and  eyes  of  the  table  with  the  marks 
of  the  teeth  on  it.  This  certainly  is  not  alto- 
gether pleasant,  and  it  is  better  to  cut  it,  a  bit 
at  a  time,  after  buttering  it,  and  put  piece  by 
piecein  the  mouth  with  one's  finger  and  thumb. 
Never  help  yourself  to  butter,  or  any  other 
food  with  your  own  knife  or  fork.  It  is  not 
considered  good  taste  to  mix  food  on  the  same 
plate.  Salt  must  be  left  on  the  side  of  the 
plate,  and  never  on  the  tablecloth. 

Let  us  mention  a  few  things  concerning  the 
eating  of  which  there  is  sometimes  doubt.  A 
cream  cake  and  anything  of  similar  nature 
should  be  eaten  with  knife  and  fork,  never 
bitten.  Asparagus — which  should  be  always 
served  on  bread  or  toast  so  as  to  absorb  super- 
fluous moisture  —  may  be  taken  from  the 
finger  and  thumb  ;  if  it  is  fit  to  be  set  before 
you,  the  whole  of  it  may  be  eaten.  Pastry 
should  be  broken  and  eaten  with  a  fork,  never 
cut  with  a  knife.  Raw  oysters  should  be  eaten 
with  a  fork,  also  fish.  Pease  and  beans,  as  we 
all  know,  require  the  fork  only  ;  however,  food 
that  cannot  be  held  with  a  fork  should  be  eaten 
with  a  spoon.  Potatoes,  if  mashed,  should 
be  mashed  with  the  fork.  Green  corn  should  be 
eaten  from  the  cob  ;  but  it  must  be  held  with 
a  single  hand. 

Celery,  cresses,  olives,  radishes,  and  relishes 


388 


THE   CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


of  that  kind  are,  of  course,  to  be  eaten  with 
the  fingers  ;  the  salt  should  be  laid  upon  one's 
plate,  not  upon  the  cloth.  Fish  is  to  be  eaten 
with  the  fork,  without  the  assistance  of  the 
knife  ;  a  bit  of  bread  in  the  left  hand  some- 
times helps  one  to  master  a  refractory  morsel. 
Fresh  fruits  should  be  eaten  with  a  silver- 
bladed  knife,  especially  pears,  apples,  etc. 

Berries,  of  course,  are  to  be  eaten  with  a 
spoon.  In  England  they  are  served  with  their 
hulls  on,  and  three  or  four  are  considered  an 
ample  quantity.  But  then,  in  England  they 
are  many  times  the  size  of  ours  ;  there  they  take 
the  big  berry  by  the  stem,  dip  into  powdered 
sugar,  and  eat  it  as  we  do  the  turnip  radish. 
It  is  not  proper  to  drink  with  a  spoon  in  the 
cup ;  nor  should  one,  by  the  way,  ever  quite 
drain  a  cup  or  glass. 

Don't,  when  you  driflk,  elevate  your  glass  as 
if  you  were  going  to  stand  it  inverted  on  your 
nose.  Bring  the  glass  perpendicularly  to  the 
lips,  and  then  lift  it  to  a  slight  angle.  Do  this 
easily. 

Drink  sparingly  while  eating.  It  is  far  bet- 
ter for  the  digestion  not  to  drink  tea  or  coffee 
until  the  meal  is  finished.  Drink  gently,  and 
do  not  pour  it  down  your  throat  like  water 
turned  out  of  a  pitcher. 

When  seating  yourself  at  the  table,  unfold 
your  napkin  and  lay  it  across  your  lap  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  will  not  slide  off  upon  the 
floor;  a  gentleman  should  place  it  across  his 
right  knee.  Do  not  tuck  it  into  your  neck, 
like  a  child's  bib.  For  an  old  person,  how- 
ever, it  is  well  to  attach  the  napkin  to  a  napkin 
hook  and  slip  it  into  the  vest  or  dress  button- 
holes, to  protect  the  garments,  or  sew  a  broad 
tape  at  two  places  on  the  napkin,  and  pass  it 
over  the  head.  When  the  soup  is  eaten,  wipe 
the  mouth  carefully  with  the  napkin,  and  use 
it  to  wipe  the  hands  after  meals.  Finger 
bowls  are  not  a  general  institution,  and  yet 
they  seem  to  be  quite  as  needful  as  the  napkin, 
for  the  fingers  are  also  liable  to  become  a  little 
soiled  in  eating.  They  can  be  had  quite 
cheaply,  and  should  be  half  filled  with  water, 
and  placed  upon  the  side  table  or  butler's  tray, 
with  the  dessert,  bread  and  cheese,  etc. 
They  are  passed  to  each  person  half  filled  with 
water,  placed  on  a  parti-colored  napkin  with  a 
dessert  plate  underneath,  when  the  dessert  is 
placed  upon  the  table.  A  leaf  or  two  of  sweet 
verbena,  an  orange  flower,  or  a  small  slice  of 
lemon,  is  usually  put  into  each  bowl  to  rub 
upon  the  fingers.  The  slice  of  lemon  is  most 
commonly  used.  The  finger  tips  are  slightly 
dipped  into  the  bo\*l,  the  lemon  juice  is 
squeezed  upon  them,  and  then  they  are  dried 
softly  upon  the  napkin.  At  dinner  parties  and 
luncheons  they  are  indispensable. 


Spoons  are  sometimes  used  with  firm  pud- 
dings, but  forks  are  the  better  style.  A  spoon 
should  never  be  turned  over  in  the  mouth. 

Ladies  have  frequently  an  affected  way  of 
holding  the  knife  half-way  down  its  length, 
as  if  it  were  too  big  for  their  little  hands  ;  but 
this  is  as  awkward  a  way  as  it  is  weak ;  the 
knife  should  be  grasped  freely  by  the  handle 
only,  the  forefinger  being  the  only  one  to 
touch  the  blade,  and  that  only  along  the  back 
of  the  blade  at  its  root,  and  no  further  down. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  course,  where  they 
have  been  used,  knife  and  fork  should  be  laid 
side  by  side  across  the  middle  of  the  plate  — 
never  crossed  ;  the  old  custom  of  crossing  them 
was  in  obedience  to  an  ancient  religious  for- 
mula. The  servant  should  offer  everything  at 
the  left  of  the  guest,  that  the  guest  may  be  at 
liberty  to  use  the  right  hand.  If  one  has  been 
given  a  napkin  ring,  it  is  necessary  to  fold 
one's  napkin  and  use  the  ring ;  otherwise  the 
napkin  should  be  left  unfolded. 

BRANDY. 

Brandy  is  made  by  distillation  from  wine, 
and  genuine  brandy  can  be  made  in  no  other 
way ;  it  is,  therefore,  in  its  pure  state  the 
choicest  and  most  agreeable  of  the  class  of  ar- 
dent spirits.  The  best  brandy  is  made  from  the 
white  wines  of  Cognac  and  Armagnac  districts 
of  France  ;  but  as  1000  gallons  of  wine  makes 
only  100  to  150  gallons  of  brandy,  it  may  be 
imagined  that  some  inferior  wines  are  gener- 
ally substituted  for  delicate  and  highly  flavored 
wines.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  greater 
part  of  the  brandy  consumed  all  over  the  world 
is  not  made  from  wine  at  all,  but  is  simply  al- 
cohol distilled  and  flavored  with  oil  of  Cognac. 
Fiery  potato  spirits  are  also  frequently  con- 
verted into  so-called  brandy  by  distillation  and 
"flavoring."  Among  the  adulterations  of 
brandy,  hot  and  pungent  substances,  such  as 
pepper,  capsicum,  ginger,  etc.,  are  added  to 
give  the  appearance  of  strength.  They  may 
be  detected  by  evaporating  a  little  of  the  sus- 
pected brandy  nearly  to  dryness,  when  the 
acrid  and  burning  taste  will  be  sensibly  in- 
creased if  such  substances  haVe  been  used. 

The  "liquors  manufactured  in  this  country 
and  known  as  apple  brandy,  peach  brandy, 
blackberry  brandy,  and  the  like,  are  not  bran- 
dies at  all  but  a  radically  different  spirit. 

BANANA. 

A  variety  of  the  plantain,  found  in  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America,  and  through- 
out the  tropical  regions  of  both  hemispheres. 
In  the  countries  where  it  grows  it  is  almost  al- 
ways the  staple  food,  occupying  the  same  place 
there  as  the  cereals  with  us.     No  other  product 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


b»9 


of  the  vegetable  kingdom  affords  so  much  nu- 
triment from  a  given  space  of  ground  as  the 
banana,  and  no  other  food  is  so  peculiarly 
adapted  to  support  life  in  the  tropics.  It  is 
estimated  that  a  quarter  of  an  acre  planted  in 
bananas  will  produce  enough  for  a  family  of 
five  the  year  round.  It  grows  in  thick  clus- 
ters of  150  to  200  to  the  cluster.  It  is  eaten 
raw,  either  alone  or  cut  in  slices  with  sugar 
and  cream,  or  wine  and  orange  juice.  It  is 
also  roasted,  fried,  or  boiled,  and  is  made 
into  fritters,  preserves,  and  marmalades.  It 
is  dried  in  the  sun  and  preserved  as  figs  ;  meal 
is  extracted  from  it  by  pounding  and  made  into 
something  resembling  bread ;  and  the  fer- 
mented juice  affords  an  excellent  wine.  With 
us  it  is  brought  to  the  table  as  dessert,  and 
proves  universally  acceptable.  The  best  kind, 
when  they  can  be  procured  fresh,  are  the 
"  lady  fingers  "  as  they  are  called.  They  are 
found  in  our  markets  from  March  to  October. 

EFFECTS  OF  EXCESSIVE  EATING. 

The  consequences  of  uncontrolled  indulgence 
of  the  appetite  manifest  themselves  variously. 
The  immediate  result  of  over-eating  is  lethargy, 
heaviness,  and  tendency  to  sleep.  The  effect 
of  persisting  in  the  habit  will  depend  upon 
numerous  circumstances.  In  a  healthy  sys- 
tem, with  good  digestion  and  much  active  out- 
of-door  exercise,  bad  results  may  not  follow 
from  the  freest  use  of  plain  food.  In  other 
conditions  the  burden  may  fall  upon  the  over- 
worked digestive  organs,  which  are  irritated  by 
the  presence  of  the  excess  of  food  which  they 
cannot  appropriate.  If  digestion  be  strong,  an 
excess  of  nutriment  may  be  projected  into  the 
blood,  overloading  the  circulation.  If  food  is 
not  expended  in  force,  the  natural  alternative 
is  its  accumulation  in  the  system,  increasing 
the  volume  of  muscle  and  tissue,  and  swelling 
the  deposit  of  fat.  Degeneracy  of  the  struct- 
ures, mal-assimilation  of  nutritive  material, 
increased  proneness  to  derangement  and  dis- 
eased action,  and  various  unhealthy  conditions 
may  be  induced  by  the  habitual  employment 
of  too  much  food.  It  is  either  transmuted  into 
fat  and  flesh,  or  into  pain  and  disease.  Yet  it 
is  very  common  to  charge  upon  quantity  the 
evils  that  flow  from  quality  in  diet.  Injury 
may  spring  from  hearty  indulgence  in  a  rich, 
concentrated,  and  various  diet,  which  would 
not  flow  from  the  most  liberal  use  of  plain  and 
•  simple  food.  "Dine  upon  one  dish,  and  in 
that  consult  your  taste, "  is  an  excellent  motto. 

EFFECTS  OF    INSUFFICIENT  NU- 
TRITION. 

The  blood  is  the  stock  of  material  on  h:i:id. 
from  which  the  supplies  of  the  constantly  wast- 


ing system  are  withdrawn,  and  this  stock  is 
but  small.  It  contains,  dissolved,  only  about 
one  eighth  of  the  dry  matter  of  the  body,  so 
that  the  strength  can  be  sustained  only  a  very 
short  time  without  external  supplies.  Yet 
when  food  is  withheld,  life  holds  its  ground 
against  extensive  changes.  An  animal  does 
not  die  of  starvation  till  it  has  lost  two  fifths 
of  its  weight  and  more  than  a  third  of  its  heat. 
Yet,  so  important  is  the  prompt  and  regular 
ingestion  of  aliment,  to  keep  the  system  up  to 
the  par  of  its  activity,  that  even  transient  in- 
terruptions produce  serious  disturbance.  As 
the  demand  for  nourishment  is  the  prime 
necessity  of  our  being,  taking  precedence  of 
all  other  needs,  if  the  supply  be  suspended, 
the  clamors  of  the  system  for  food  rise  at  once 
above  all  other  wants.  Until  hunger  is  ap- 
peased, there  is  disquiet ;  the  mind  traverses 
with  less  than  its  usual  freedom,  the  temper  is 
more  easily  started,  and  sleep  fails  to  invigor- 
ate as  usual.  There  was  shrewd  practical 
wisdom  in  the  warning  of  Cardinal  De  Retz  to 
politicians,  never  to  risk  an  important  motion 
before  a  popular  assemblage,  however  proper 
or  wise  it  might  be,  just  before  dinner.  Of 
the  effects  of  insufficient  food,  Moleshott  speaks 
as  follows:  "There  is  another  instinct  by 
which  the  vigor  of  the  mind  is  vanquished  in 
a  more  melancholy  way.  Hunger  desolates 
head  and  heart.  Though  the  craving  for  nu- 
triment may  be  lessened  to  a  surprising  degree 
during  mental  exertion,  there  exists  nothing 
more  hostile  to  the  cheerfulness  of  an  active, 
thoughtful  mind,  than  the  deprivation  of 
liquid  and  solid  food.  To  the  starving  man, 
every  pressure  becomes  an  intolerable  burden  ; 
for  this  reason,  hunger  has  effected  more  revo- 
lutions than  the  ambition  of  disaffected  sub- 
jects. It  is  not,  then,  the  dictate  of  cupidity 
or  the  claim  of  idleness  which  prompts  the 
belief  in  a  natural  human  right  to  work  and 
food." 

DIET  OF  INFANCY. 

Nature  prescribes  the  infant's  diet  in  the 
composition  of  its  mother's  milk  ;  but  nature 
is  sometimes  defeated  in  her  intention,  as  the 
mother's  diet  controls  the  milk  secretion  both 
in  quantity  and  quality.  If  her  food  be  scanty, 
or  low  and  light,  the  infant  will  be  imper- 
fectly nourished.  The  lactic  secretion  requires 
to  contain  its  due  proportion  of  casein,  sugar, 
oil,  and  phosphate  of  lime ;  and  to  produce 
these  copiously,  a  varied  nutritious  diet  of  good 
bread,  meat,  milk,  eggs,  and  potatoes  is  re- 
quired. The  aliment  which  the  mother  fur- 
nishes to  her  child  is  more  richly  nutritive  than 
that  which  she  retains  for  her  own  nourish- 
ment.   She  should  avoid  indigestible  substances 


390 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


and  especially  take  but  little  vinegar  or  acid 
fruits,  as  these  both  diminish  the  amount  of 
milk  and  render  what  there  is  less  nutritious. 
The  nursing  mother  may  with  great  advantage 
make  free  use  of  milk  itself,  as  it  furnishes, 
ready  formed,  the  substances  she  is  required  to 
impart.  Should  there  be  tendency  to  acidity, 
it  may  be  corrected  by  mixing  the  milk  with 
a  mild  alkali,  such  as  one  fourth  or  one  fifth 
of  its  bulk  of  soda  water.  It  becomes  often 
necessary  that  children  should  be  surrendered 
to  wet  nurses.  As  the  composition  and  con- 
sequent physiological  effects  of  milk  gradually 
change  in  the  successive  months  after  the 
child's  birth,  it  is  important  that  the  ages  of 
the  children,  both  of  the  mother  and  wet- 
nurse,  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same. 
That  nature,  temper,  and  character  are  com- 
municated by  her  milk,  from  the  mother  to 
the  nursing  child,  is  not  an  idle  prejudioe. 
Not  only  do  bodily  circumstances  of  health 
affect  the  lactic  secretion,  but  conditions  of 
the  mind  and  passions  also.  A  paroxysm  of 
anger  may  pervert  and  even  poison  the  foun- 
tain of  life  ;  ' '  and  there  is  no  thought  more 
natural  than  that  on  the  breast  of  its  mother 
the  infant  may  imbibe  together  with  its  milk, 
her  nobleness  of  mind."  When  the  exigency 
occurs,  therefore,  the  selection  of  wet  nurses 
is  a  matter  of  much  importance.  If  they  have 
been  accustomed  to  plain,  substantial  diet,  it 
is  highly  unwise  to  pamper  them  with  deli- 
cacies, as  is  sometimes  done  in  affluent  fami- 
lies, indigestion  and  bad  bodily  conditions 
being  very  liable  to  ensue.  As  respects  the 
use  of  spirits  under  these  circumstances,  Dr. 
Chambers,  himself  no  advocate  of  abstinence, 
has  the  following  remarks:  "  Nursing  women 
are  desired  to  drink  an  unusual  quantity  of 
porter,  wine,  bitters,  and  what  not,  till  they 
get  bloated,  thick-complexioned,  stupid,  and 
dyspeptic.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  alcohol 
and  other  ingredients,  in  such  a  diet,  arrest 
metamorphosis,  detain  in  the  system  the  se- 
cretions we  want  to  flow  out,  and  fill  those 
which  do  flow  out,  with  effete  matter.  If  the 
constitution  of  the  mother  is  robust  enough  to 
stand  this  bad  usage,  and  still  afford  the  due 
quantum  of  milk  for  her  child,  yet  that  must 
tv  of  inferior  quality  to  what  she  otherwise 
would  have  made,  and  the  innocent  consumer 
suffers."  The  milk  of  the  cow  differs  so  con- 
siderably from  that  of  the  mother,  that  it 
should  be  corrected  if  it  is  to  be  given  to  the 
infant.  This  is  done  by  adding  a  third  or  a 
fourth  of  water,  and  about  one  twenty-fifth  its 
weight  of  refined  sugar  ;  it  should  be  warmed 
to  the  temperature  of  the  body,  98°.  To  this, 
solid  substances  may  be  gradually  added,  as 
wheate.i  bread  or  boiled  farina,  but  not  arrow- 


root, tapioca,  sago,  or  rice,  upon  which  many 
children  are  fed  to  death.  These  are  not  com- 
plete nutriments  and  are  incapable  of  promoting 
the  growth  of  either  bones  or  flesh.  Even 
after  weaning,  soft  mixtures  of  good  bread 
with  milk  and  sugar,  or  with  the  juices  of 
meat ;  also  the  more  readily  digestible  roots 
and  vegetables,  together  with  soups  prepared 
from  the  meat  of  young  animals,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  best  food.  After  the  teeth  are  cut, 
meat  and  bread  in  their  simple  form  may  also 
be  given.  Aliments  difficult  of  digestion,  fat 
meat,  heavy  bread,  rich  pastry,  unripe  fruit, 
leguminous  seeds,  and  heating  condiments  are 
carefully  to  be  avoided  for  children. 

DIET    OF    CHILDHOOD    AND 
YOUTH. 

Besides  the  maintenance  of  activity,  the  diet 
of  this  period  must  be  such  as  to  harden, 
strengthen,  and  expand  the  system.  The  mus- 
cles increase  in  fibrin  and  firmness,  tissues  are 
developed  and  strengthened,  and  the  gelatinous 
model  of  the  bones  is  solidified  and  enlarged 
into  a  strong  skeleton  by  the  gradual  deposit 
of  bone-earth.  With  these  changes  there  is 
also  a  slowly  augmenting  acti/ity  of  bodily 
transformation,  the  excretion  of  carbonic  acid 
by  the  lungs,  and  of  urea  by  the  kidneys,  in- 
creasing in  amount  up  to  the  twenty-fifth  or 
thirtieth  year.  The  demand  for  food  is,  there- 
fore, more  peremptory  during  the  growing 
time  of  youth  than  at  any  portion  of  subse- 
quent life.  As  regards  the  indulgence  of  the 
appetite  at  this  period,  perhaps  there  is  no  bet- 
ter guide  than  the  indications  of  nature.  So 
children  have  plain  food,  if  healthy  and  active, 
they  will  hardly  eat  sufficient  to  injure  them- 
selves. It  is  not  right  to  subject  the  young  to 
a  regimen  adjusted  to  the  adult ;  they  require 
more  nutritious  food,  and  to  satisfy  the  appe- 
tite oftener.  Something  to  eat  in  mid-fore- 
noon and  mid-afternoon  will  often  be  necessary, 
but  the  thing  should  be  done  strictly  upon 
system,  as  the  habit  of  eating  irregularly,  at 
every  capricious  call  of  appetite,  is  wrong  and 
injurious.  Yet,  though  the  diet  of  youth 
should  be  nutritive  and  strength-imparting,  it 
is  of  the  first  necessity  that  it  should  be  plain 
and  unexciting.  Luxurious,  stimulating  food, 
charged  with  condiments  and  nerve-provoca- 
tives, gives  rise  to  a  morbid  precocity  of  in- 
stincts, thoughts,  and  actions,  and  helps  to 
explain  the  unhealthy  prematurity  and  slender 
figures  and  pale  faces  of  boys  and  girls  brought 
up  in  towns. 

DIET  OF  MIDDLE  LIFE. 

When  maturity  has  been  reached,  there 
comes  a  period,  varying  in  duration,  but  ex- 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


39! 


tending  perhaps  from  the  ages  of  twenty-five 
to  forty-five,  in  which  the  bodily  exchanges 
are  in  equilibrium,  the  expenses  and  receipts  of 
nutrition  are  balanced,  and  the  individual 
neither  gains  nor  loses  weight.  No  portion  of 
the  food  is  now  to  be  appropriated  as  hereto- 
fore, in  growth  ;  it  may  all  be  devoted  to  ex- 
ertion. It  is  the  time  of  maximum  power, 
the  effective  working  period  of  life.  The  diet 
should  be  varied  and  strong,  but  of  course 
ought  to  be  modified  in  accordance  with  the  ac- 
tivity, constitution,  and  various  circumstances. 
For  hard,  exhausting  labor,  brow  a  or  lean 
meat,  the  leguminous  seeds,  bread,  and  an  ad- 
mixture of  vegetables  may  be  employed.  It 
can  hardly  be  necessary  to  add  in  the  light  of 
the  principles  of  nutrition  which  have  been 
established,  that  fat  pork  is  generally  much 
over-estimated  by  laborers ;  it  is  the  blood 
producing  beans  and  bread  with  which  it  is 
always  associated  that  chiefly  imparts  the 
strength.  It  has  been  sufficiently  pointed  out 
that  persons  in  light  sedentary  occupations, 
brain-workers  and  idlers,  should  avoid  those 
more  indigestible  substances,  and  while  rein- 
ing in  the  appetite,  or,  at  all  events,  not  spur- 
ring it,  should  live  upon  a  diet  of  the  most 
easily  digestible  substances. 

DIET  OF  ADVANCED  LIFE. 

As  age  comes  on,  the  nutritive  conditions 
of  youthhood  are  reversed,  the  body  can  no 
longer  digest  and  appropriate  sufficient  to  meet 
its  destructive  losses,  and  there  is  a  decrease 
of  strength  and  weight.  The  tissues  shrink, 
as  we  see  in  the  shriveled  hands  and  wrinkled 
brow,  the  hair  is  changed  in  composition,  the 
bones  become  more  earthy  and  brittle,  the  car- 
tilages ossify,  there  is  a  general  diminution  of 
fat,  and  a  loss  of  fluids  in  all  parts  except  the 
brain,  which  becomes  more  watery.  The  stom- 
ach participates  in  the  general  decline,  its  di- 
minished and  weakened  juices  becoming  less 
capable  of  dissolving  the  necessary  food ;  the 
circulation  is  retarded  and  the  general  vitality 
lowered.  As  the  solvent  powers  of  the  stom- 
ach begin  to  be  enfeebled,  and  the  appetite 
becomes  languid,  elderly  people  should  be  ad- 
monished to  exercise  care  in  selecting  food, 
and  not  waste  the  power  they  have  on  refrac- 
tory, indigestible  aliments.  Young  and  tender 
meats,  strong  broths,  milk,  light,  well-baked 
bread,  and  tender  succulent  vegetables,  tax  the 
digestive  organs  least.  Nor  should  they  com- 
mit the  error  of  supposing  that  the  waning 
powers  of  advancing  life  can  be  sustained  by 
increasing  the  quantity  of  food  eaten.  Dr. 
Cheyne  remarked  more  than  a  hundred  years 
ago,  "  Every  man  after  fifty  ought  to  begin  to 
lessen  the  quantity  of  his  aliment;  and  if  he 


would  avoid  great  and  dangerous  distempers, 
and  preserve  his  senses  and  faculties  clear  to 
the  last,  he  should  go  on  every  seven  years 
abating  gradually."  When  hints  like  these 
are  neglected,  and  persons  persist  in  a  high 
and  hearty  diet,  keeping  up  a  plethoric  state 
of  the  system,  serious  and  fatal  consequences 
often  ensue.  The  blood  vessels  of  the  brain 
are  not  only  weaker  than  those  of  any  other 
part  of  the  body,  but  they  derive  no  support 
as  other  vessels  do  from  the  elastic  pressure  of 
surrounding  muscles.  In  the  imperfect  nutri- 
tion and  growing  debility  of  advancing  age, 
these  vessels  participate,  so  that  with  over- 
fullness  there  arises  liability  of  their  giving 
away,  as  in  brain  congestion  or  apoplexy. 

GYMNASTICS     AND     PHYSICAL, 
DEVELOPMENT. 

The  principal  methods  of  developing  the 
physical  man  now  prescribed  by  trainers  are 
exercise  with  dumbbells,  the  bar  bell,  and 
the  chest  weight.  The  rings  and  horizontal 
and  parallel  bars  are  also  used,  but  not  nearly 
to  the  extent  that  they  formerly  were.  The 
movement  has  been  all  in  the  direction  of 
the  simplification  of  apparatus ;  in  fact,  one 
well  known  teacher  of  the  Boston  Gymnasium, 
when  asked  his  opinion,  said:  "Four  bare 
walls  and  a  floor,  with  a  well  posted  instruc- 
tor, is  all  that  is  really  required  for  a  gymna- 
sium." 

Probably  the  most  important  as  well  as  the 
simplest  appliance  for  gymnasium  work  is 
the  wooden  dumbbell,  which  has  displaced  the 
ponderous  iron  bell  of  former  days.  Its  weight 
is  from  three  quarters  of  a  pound  to  a  pound 
and  a  half,  and  with  one  in  each  hand  a  variety 
of  motions  can  be  gone  through,  which  are  of 
immense  benefit  in  building  up  or  toning  down 
every  muscle,  and  all  vital  parts  of  the  body. 

The  first  object  of  an  instructor  in  taking  a 
beginner  in  hand  is  to  increase  the  circulation. 
This  is  done  by  exercising  the  extremities,  the 
first  movement  being  one  of  the  hands,  after 
which  come  the  wrists,  then  the  arms,  and 
next  the  head  and  feet.  As  the  circulation  is 
increased,  the  necessity  for  a  larger  supply  of 
oxygen,  technically  called  "oxygen-hunger," 
is  created,  which  is  only  satisfied  by  breathing 
exercises,  which  develop  the  lungs.  After  the 
circulation  is  in  a  satisfactory  condition,  the 
dumbbell  instructor  turns  his  attention  to  ex- 
ercising the  great  muscles  of  the  body,  begin- 
ning with  those  of  the  back,  strengthening 
which  holds  the  body  erect,  thus  increasing 
the  chest  capacity,  invigorating  the  digestive 
organs,  and  in  fact  all  the  vital  functions.  By 
the  use  of  very  light-  weights  an  equal  and 
symmetrical  development  of  all  parts  of  the 


392 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


body  is  obtained,  and  then  there  are  no  sudden 
demands  on  the  heart  and  lungs. 

After  the  dumbbell  comes  exercise  with  the 
round  or  bar  bell.  This  is  like  the  dumbbell, 
with  the  exception  that  the  bar  connecting  the 
balls  is  four  or  five  feet,  instead  of  a  few 
inches,  in  length.  Bar  bells  weigh  from  one  to 
two  pounds  each,  and  are  found  most  useful  in 
building  up  the  respiratory  and  digestive  sys- 
tems, their  special  province  being  the  strength- 
ening of  the  erector  muscles  and  increasing  the 
flexibility  of  the  chest. 

Of  all  fixed  apparatus  in  use,  the  pulley 
weight  stands  easily  first  in  importance. 
These  weights  are  available  for  a  greater  vari- 
ety of  objects  than  any  other  gymnastic  appli- 
ance, and  can  be  used  either  for  general 
exercise  or  for  strengthening  such  muscles  as 
most  require  it.  With  them  a  greater  local- 
ization is  possible  than  with  the  dumbbell,  and 
for  this  reason  they  are  recommended  as  a 
kind  of  supplement  to  the  latter.  As  chest 
developers  and  correctors  of  round  shoulders, 
they  are  most  effective.  As  the  name  implies, 
they  are  simply  weights  attached  to  ropes, 
which  pass  over  pulleys,  and  are  provided  with 
handles.  The  common  pulley  is  placed  at 
about  the  height  of  the  shoulder  of  an  aver- 
age man,  but  recently  those  which  can  be 
adjusted  to  any  desired  height  have  been  very 
generally  introduced. 

When  more  special  localization  is  desired 
than  can  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  ordinary 
apparatus,  what  is  known  as  the  double-action 
chest  weight  is  used.  This  differs  from  the 
ordinary  kind  in  being  provided  with  several 
pulleys,  so  that  the  strain  may  come  at  differ- 
ent angles.  Double-action  weights  may  be 
divided  into  threeclasses  —  high,  low,  andside 
pulleys  —  each  with  its  particular  use. 

The  highest  of  all,  known  as  the  giant  pul- 
leys, are  made  especially  for  developing  the 
muscles  of  the  back  and  chest,  and  by  stretch- 
ing or  elongating  movements  to  increase  the 
interior  capacity  of  the  chest.  If  the  front  of 
the  chest  is  full  and  the  back  or  side  chest 
deficient,  the  pupil  is  set  to  work  on  the  giant 
pulley.  To  build  up  the  side-walls,  he  stands 
with  the  back  to  the  pulley  box  and  the  left 
heel  resting  against  it ;  the  handle  is  grasped 
in  the  right  hand  if  the  right  side  of  the 
chest  is  lacking  in  development,  and  then 
drawn  straight  down  by  the  side;  a  step  for- 
ward with  the  right  foot,  as  long  as  possible, 
is  taken,  the  line  brought  as  far  to  the  front 
and  near  the  floor  as  can  be  done,  and  then 
the  arm,  held  stiff,  allowed  to  be  drawn  slowly 
up  by  the  weight.  To  exercise  the  left  side 
the  same  process  is  gone  through  with,  the 
handle  grasped   in   the   left   hand.     Another 


kind  of  giant  pulley  is  that  which  allows  the 
operator  to  stand  directly  under  it,  and  is  used 
for  increasing  the  lateral  diameter  of  the  chest. 
The  handles  are  drawn  straight  down  by  the 
sides,  the  arms  are  then  spread  and  drawn 
back  by  the  weights.  Generally  speaking, 
high  pulleys  are  most  used  for  correcting  high, 
round  shoulders ;  low  pulleys  for  low,  round 
shoulders  ;  side  pulleys  for  individual  high  or 
low  shoulders,  and  giant  pulleys  for  the  devel- 
opment of  the  walls  of  the  chest  and  to  correct 
spinal  curvature. 

The  traveling  rings,  a  line  of  iron  rings  cov- 
ered with  rubber  and  attached  to  long  ropes 
fastened  to  the  ceiling  some  ten  feet  apart,  are 
also  valuable  in  developing  the  muscles  of  the 
back,  arms,  and  sides.  The  first  ring  is  grasped 
in  one  hand,  and  a  spring  taken  from  an  ele- 
vated platform.  The  momentum  carries  the 
gymnast  to  the  next  ring,  which  is  seized  with 
the  free  hand,  and  so  the  entire  length  of  the 
line  is  traversed.  The  parallel  bars,  low  and 
high,  the  flying  rings,  the  horizontal  bar,  and 
the  trapeze  all  have  their  uses,  but  of  late 
years  they  have  been  relegated  to  a  position  of 
distinct  inferiority  to  that  now  occupied  by  Ihe 
dumbbells  and  pulley  weights. 

POSOLOGICAL  TABLE. 

Medicines,  with  doses  for  adults.  For  pa- 
tients over  20  years  of  age,  the  full  dose;  from 
14  to  20  years,  §  of  full  dose  ;  7  to  14  years. 
\  dose  ;  4  to  7  years,  \  dose  ;  3  years,  1  dose  ; 
2  years,  \  dose  ;    1  year,  TV  dose. 

MEDICINE.  DOSE. 

Arsenic,  Fowler's  Solution  of 2  to  10  drops 

Aconite,  Extract  of 1-6  to  12  grain 

Aconite,  Tincture  of 1  to  Sumps 

Aloes,  Purified 1  to  5  {Trains 

Aloes,  Fills  of 1  to  4  pills 

Aloes,  Pills  of  Asafoetida  and 1  to  4  pills 

Asafoetida,  Mixture  of H2  to  2  tahlespoonfuls 

Asafwtida,  Tincture  of .%  to2  teaspoon  fu  Is 

Asafoetida,  Pill  of " 1  to  4  pills 

Atropia,  Sulphate  of 5J0  to  A,  of  a  grain 

Belladonna,  Extract  of 14  to  1  grain 

Belladonna,  Fluid  Extractor 1  to  5  drops 

Belladonna,  Tincture  of 5  to  30  1 1  nips 

Bismuth,  Subnitrate  of 10  to  80  grains 

Bromide  of  Ammonia 5  to  20  grains 

Bromide  of  Potassium 5  to  20  grains 

Bromide  of  Sodium 5  to  20  plains 

Buchii,  Fluid  Extract  of 10  to  60  drops 

C'aliliar  Bean,  Extract  of %  to  1  gram 

Calomel J  to  10  grains 

Camphor,  Spirits  of 5  to  15  drops 

Camphor  Water 1  to  4  teaspoonf  uls 

Capsicum,  Tincture  of 10  to  20  drops 

Castor  Oil V4  to  2  tahlespoonfuls 

Chloral,  Hydrate  of 5  to  30  {Trains 

Cinchona,  Sulphate  of 5  to  30  grains 

Cinchona,  Compound  Tincture  of 1  to  4  teaspoonfuls 

Cod  Liver  Oil %  to  1  tablespoonf  nl 

Copper,  Sulphate  of J  to  yj  grain 

Corrosive  Sublimate n^°Tn  grain 

Cream  of  Tartar 5  to  CO  grains 

Croton  Oil 1  to  2  drops 

Digitalis,  Extract  of K  to  2  grains 

Digitalis,  Tincture  of 5  to  60  drops 

Dover's  Powder 5  to  10  grains 

Epsom  Salts %  to  2  tahlespoonfuls 

Ergot,  Fluid  Extract  of y,  to  2  teaspoonfuls 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


393 


MEDICINE.  DOSE. 

Gelseiniuin,  Fluid  Extract  of 5 to  10  drops 

Gentian,  Extract  of 1  to  5  grains 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  dilute 1  to  5  drops 

H \  use yanius,  Fluid  Ex t  ract  of 5  to  20  drops 

Hyiiscyaimis,  Tincture  of %  to  2  teaspoonfuls 

Iodine,  Compound  Tincture  of 2  to  5  drops 

Iodide  of  Potassium 5  to  30  grains 

Ipecacuanha,  Fluid  Extract  of 2  to  30  drops 

Ipecacuanha,  Syrup  of 1  to  4  teaspoonfuls 

Ipecacuanha,  Troches  of  Morphine  and.  ..1  to  10  troches 

Iron,  Reduced 1  to  2  grains 

Iron,  Pyrophosphate  of 2  to  5  grains 

Iron,  Tincture  of  the  Chloride  of 5  to  30  drops 

Lactic  Acid 15  to  30  drops 

Laudanum 15  to  40  drops 

Lead,  Sugar  of %  to5  grains 

May  Apple,  Resin  of |  to  '4  grain 

-May  Apple,  Extract  of 3  to  8  grains 

Muriatic  Acid,  dilute 5  to  10  drops 

Morphine %  to  %  grains 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of %  to  2  tablespoonfuls 

Mustard,  Ground 1  to  2  teaspoonfuls 

Nitre,  Sweet  Spirits  of %  to  1  teaspoonf ul 

Nitro-Muriatic  Acid,  dilute 2  to  10  drops 

Nux  Vomica,  Tincture  of 10  to  25  drops 

Opium,  Extract  of %  to  2  grains 

Opium,  Tincture  of 15  to  40  drops 

Opium,  Camphorated  Tincture  of  ...V4  to  2  tablespoonfuls 

Paregoric V4  to  2  tablespoonfuls 

Potassium,  Bicarbonate  of 5  to  20  grains 

Potassium,  Bitartrate  of 5  to  60  grains 

Potassium,  Bromide  of 5  to  20  grains 

Potassium,  Chlorate  of 5  to  20  grains 

Potassium,  Iodide  of 5  to  30  grains 

Potassium,  Liquor  Of 2  to  20  drops 

Pepsin 5  to  10  grains 

Quassia,  Tincture  of 5  to  00  drops 

Quinine 2  to  10  grains 

Salicin 5  to  20  grains 

Senna,  Confection  of 1  to  2  teaspoonfuls 

Senna,  Fluid  Extract  of 1  tablespoonful 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of 5  to  30  grains 

Soda,  Salicylate  of 10  to  30  grains 

Squill, Syrup  of y2  to  1  teaspoonful 

Strychnia,  Sulphate  of jV  to  T'5  of  a  grain 

Turpentine,  Spirits  or  Oil  of 5  to  10  drops 

Valerian,  Tincture  of V2  to  2  teaspoonf  ills 

Veratrum  Viride,  Tincture  of 1  to  4  drops 

Zinc,  Oxide  of %  to  5  grains 


DISINFECTANTS    AND     HOW    TO 
USE  THEM. 

The  National  Board  of  Health  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
our  leading  physicians  and  chemical  experts,  of 
which  Professor  C.  F.  Chandler  of  New  Yrork 
was  chairman,  have  issued  the  following  in- 
structions for  disinfection,  intended  especially 
for  the  guidance  of  physicians  and  nurses  in  ' 
the  yellow  fever  districts,  but  which  are  equally 
applicable  in  other  classes  of  contagious  dis-  \ 
eases.     In  submitting  this  report  the  chairman  ! 
says  :  — 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  committee  to  pre- 
pare concise  directions  for  disinfection,  so 
simple  and  clear  that  they  may  be  easily  fol-  ' 
lowed  by  any  person  of  intelligence. 

In  the  selection  of  disinfecting  agents  the 
aim  has  been  :  1st,  to  secure  agents  which 
can  be  relied  upon  to  accomplish  the  work ; 
2d,  which  can  be  procured  in  a  state  of  com- 
parative purity  in  every  village  in  the  United 
States  ;  3d,  so  cheap  that  they  may  be  used  in 
adequate  quantities. 

It  is  extremely  important  that  the  people 


I  should  be  instructed  with  regard  to  disinfec- 
tion. They  must  be  taught  that  no  reliance 
can  be  placed  upon  disinfectants  simply  be- 
cause they  smell  of  chlorine  or  carbolic  acid, 
or  possess  the  color  of  permanganate,  and 
that,  in  general,  proprietary  disinfectants  with 
high-sounding  names  are  practically  worthless, 
as  they  either  have  no  value  whatever,  or,  if 
value,  cost  many  times  as  much  as  they  are 
worth,  and  cannot  be  used  in  sufficient 
quantity. 

Explanations. —  Disinfection  is  the  de- 
struction of  the  poisons  of  infectious  and  con- 
tagious diseases. 

Deodorizers,  or  substances  which  destroy 
smells,  are  not  necessarily  disinfectants,  and 
disinfectants  do  not  necessarily  have  odor. 

Disinfection  cannot  compensate  for  want  of 
cleanliness  or  ventilation. 

I. DISINFECTANTS  TO  BE  EMPLOYED. 

1.  Roll  sulphur  (brimstone)  for  fumiga- 
tion. 

2.  Sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  dissolved  in 
water  in  the  proportion  of  one  and  a  half 
pounds  to  the  gallon  ;  for  soil,  sewers,  etc. 

3.  Sulphate  of  zinc  and  common  salt,  dis- 
solved together  in  water  in  the  proportion  of 
four  ounces  sulphate  and  two  ounces  salt  to 
the  gallon  ;  for  clothing,  bed  linen,  etc. 

Note. —  Carbolic  acid  is  not  included  in 
the  above  list  for  the  following  reasons  :  It  is 
very  difficult  to  determine  the  quality  of  the 
commercial  article,  and  the  purchaser  can 
never  be  certain  of  securing  it  of  proper 
strength ;  it  is  expensive,  when  of  good  qual- 
ity, and  experience  has  shown  that  it  must  be 
employed  in  comparatively  large  quantities  to 
be  of  any  use ;  it  is  liable  by  its  strong  odor 
to  give  a  false  sense  of  security. 

II. HOW  TO  USE    DISINFECTANTS. 

1.  In  the  Sick  Room. —  The  most  available 
agents  are  fresh  air  and  cleanliness.  The 
clothing,  towels,  bed  linen,  etc.,  should  at 
once,  on  removal  from  the  patient,  be  placed 
in  a  pail  or  tub  of  the  zinc  solution,  boiling 
hot  if  possible,  before  removal  from  the  room. 

All  discharges  should  either  be  received  in 
vessels  containing  copperas  solution,  or,  when 
this  is  impracticable,  should  be  immediately 
covered  with  copperas  solution.  All  vessels 
used  about  the  patient  should  be  cleansed  with 
the  same  solution. 

Unnecessary  furniture — especially  that  which 
is  stuffed  —  carpets  and  hangings,  when  possi- 
ble, should  be  removed  from  the  room  at  the 
outset ;  otherwise,  they  should  remain  for 
subsequent  fumigation  and  treatment. 

2.  Fumigation  with  sulphur  is  the  only 
practicable  method  for  disinfecting  the  house. 


394 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


For  this  purpose  the  rooms  to  be  disinfected 
must  be  vacated.  Heavy  clothing,  blankets, 
bedding,  and  other  articles  which  cannot  be 
treated  with  zinc  solution,  should  be  opened 
and  exposed  during  fumigation,  as  directed 
below.  Close  the  rooms  as  tightly  as  possible, 
place  the  sulphur  in  iron  pans  supported  upon 
bricks,  set  it  on  fire  by  hot  coals,  or  with  the 
aid  of  a  spoonful  of  alcohol,  and  allow  the 
room  to  remain  closed  for  twenty-four  hours. 
For  a  room  about  ten  feet  square,  at  least  two 
pounds  of  sulphur  should  be  used  ;  for  larger 
rooms,  proportionally  increased  quantities. 

3.  Premises. —  Cellars,  yards,  stables,  gut- 
ters, privies,  cesspools,  water-closets,  drains, 
sewers,  etc.,  should  be  frequently  and  liberally 
treated  with  copperas  solution.  The  copperas 
solution  is  easily  prepared  by  hanging  a  basket 
containing  about  sixty  pounds  of  copperas  in  a 
barrel  of  water. 

4.  Body  and  Bed  Clothing,  etc. — It  is  best  to 
burn  all  articles  which  have  been  in  contact 
with  persons  sick  with  contagious  or  infectious 
diseases.  Articles  too  valuable  to  be  destroyed 
should  be  treated  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Cotton,  linen,  flannels,  blankets,  etc., 
should  be  treated  with  the  boiling  hot  zinc 
solution,  introducing  piece  by  piece,  securing 
thorough  wetting,  and  boiling  for  at  least  half 
an  hour. 

b.  Heavy  woolen  clothing,  silks,  furs,  stuffed 
beds  covers,  beds,  and  other  articles  which  can- 
not be  treated  with  the  zinc  solution,  should 
be  hung  in  the  room  during  fumigation, 
pockets  being  turned  inside  out,  and  the 
whole  garment  thoroughly  exposed.  After- 
ward they  should  be  hung  in  the  open  air, 
beaten,  and  shaken.  Pillows,  beds,  stuffed 
mattresses,  upholstered  furniture,  etc.,  should 
be  cut  open,  the  contents  spread  out  and  thor- 
oughly fumigated.  Carpets  are  best  fumi- 
gated on  the  floor,  but  should  afterward  be 
removed  to  the  open  air  and  thoroughly  beaten. 

SLEEPLESSNESS. 

Nothing  lowers  the  vital  forces  more  than 
sleeplessness,  which  may  generally  be  traced 
to  one  of  four  causations  :  (1)  mantal  worry  ; 
(2)  a  disordered  stomach  ;  (3)  excessive  muscu- 
lar exertion  ;  (4)  functional  or  organic  disease. 
Loss  of  sleep  is,  when  rightly  understood,  one 
of  Nature's  premonitory  warnings  that  some 
of  her  physical  laws  have  been  violated.  When 
we  are  troubled  with  sleeplessness,  it  becomes 
requisite  to  discover  the  primary  cause,  and 
then  to  adopt  suitable  means  for  its  re- 
moval. When  insomnia,  or  sleeplessness, 
arises  from  mental  worry,  it  is  indeed  most 
difficult  to  remove.  The  best  and  perhaps 
the  only  effectual  plan   under   such    circum- 


stances to  reach  the  root  of  the  disorder  is  ;-. 
spare  diet,  combined  with  plenty  of  outdoor 
exercise,  thus  to  draw  the  blood  from  tha 
brain  ;  for  it  is  as  impossible  for  the  brain  to 
continue  active  without  a  due  circulation  of 
blood  as  it  is  for  an  engine  to  move  without 
steam. 

When  suffering  from  mental  distress,  a  hot 
soap  bath  before  retiring  to  rest  is  an  invalua- 
ble agent  for  obtaining  sleep,  as  by  its  means 
a  more  equable  blood  pressure  becomes  estab- 
lished, promoting  a  decrease  of  the  heart's 
action  and  relaxation  of  the  blood  vessels. 
Many  a  sleepless  night  owes  its  origin  to  the 
body's  temperature  being  unequal.  In  mental 
worry,  the  head  is  often  hot  and  the  feet  cold, 
the  blood  being  driven  to  the  brain.  The 
whole  body  should  be  well  washed  over  with 
carbolic  soap  and  sponged  with  very  hot  water. 
The  blood  then  becomes  diverted  from  the 
brain,  owing  to  an  adequate  diffusion  of  circu- 
lation. Tea  and  coffee  should  not  be  taken 
of  an  evening  when  persons  suffer  from  insom- 
nia, as  they  directly  induce  sleeplessness,  be- 
ing nervine  stimulants.  A  sharp  walk  of 
about  twenty  minutes  is  also  very  serviceable 
before  going  to  bed. 

Sleeplessness  is  sometimes  engendered  by  a 
disordered  stomach.  Whenever  this  organ  is 
overloaded,  its  powers  are  disordered,  and 
wakefulness  or  a  restless  night  is  its  usual  ac- 
companiment. Dr.  C.  J.  B.  Williams,  F.R.S., 
remarks  that  no  food  should  be  taken  at  least 
within  one  hour  of  bedtime.  It  cannot  be  too 
generally  realized  that  the  presence  of  undi- 
gested food  in  the  stomach  is  one  of  the  most 
prevailing  causes  of  sleeplessness. 

Persons  suffering  from  either  functional  or 
organic  disease  are  peculiarly  liable  to  sleep- 
lessness. When  inability  to  sleep  persistently 
occurs,  and  cannot  be  traced  to  any  perverted 
mode  of  life  or  nutrition,  there  is  good  reason 
for  surmising  that  some  latent  malady  gives 
rise  to  a  condition  so  truly  distressing.  Under 
these  circumstances,  instead  of  making  bad 
wrorse,  by  swallowing  deadly  sleeping  drugs,  a 
scientific  physician  should  be  without  delay 
consulted.  Functional  disorders  of  the  stomach, 
liver,  and  heart,  are  often  the  primary  source 
of  otherwise  unaccountable  wakefulness. 

Recently  the  dangerous  and  lamentable 
habit  of  promiscuously  taking  sleeping  draughts 
has  unfortunately  become  very  prevalent,  en- 
tailing misery  and  ill  health  to  a  terrible  de- 
gree. Most  persons  addicted  to  this  destruc- 
tive practice  erroneously  think  that  it  is  better 
to  take  a  sleeping  draught  than  lie  awake.  A 
greater  mistake  could  hardly  exist.  All  opi- 
ates more  or  less  occasion  mischief,  and  even 
the  state    ^f   stupefaction   they  induce  utterly 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


395 


fails  to  bring  about  that  revitalization  resulting 
from  natural  sleep.  The  physiological  effect 
of  hypnotics,  or  sleeping  draughts,  upon  the 
system  is  briefly  as  follows  :  (1)  They  para- 
lyze the  nerve  centers  and  disorder  the  stomach, 
rendering  it  unfit  for  its  duties ;  witness  the 
sickness  and  loss  of  appetite  consequent  upon 
a  debauch.  Chloral,  chloroform,  opium,  etc., 
act  upon  the  system  much  in  the  same  way  as 
inebriation.  (2)  One  and  all  anaesthetics  in- 
troduced into  the  body  have  life-destroying 
properties  in  a  low  degree  —  proved  by  an 
overdose  being  fatal.  (3)  The  condition  they 
produce  is  not  sleep,  but  a  counterfeit  state  of 
unconsciousness.  (4)  They  directly  poison  the 
blood,  consequent  upon  its  carbonization,  re- 
sulting from  their  action.  While  speaking  of 
sedatives,  we  cannot  omit  drawing  special  at- 
tention to  chloral.  This  powerful  drug  is  pop- 
ularly supposed  to  give  a  quiet  night's  rest, 
without  any  of  the  after  effects  (headache, 
etc.)  produced  by  various  preparations  of 
morphia.  Now  chloral  is  what  is  termed 
cumulative  in  its  action,  which  implies  that 
even  the  same  dose,  persisted  in  for  a  certain 
length  of  time,  may  cause  death.  Of  all 
hypnotics,  chloral  is  by  far  the  most  deadly, 
and  should  never,  under  any  circumstances,  be 
taken  except  under  medical  supervision. 

To  epitomize  what  has  already  been  said  re- 
garding sleeplessness  :  its  rational  cure  should 
be  arrived  at  in  each  individual  case  by  seeking 
out  the  cause,  and  then  removing  the  morbid 
action,  of  which  it  is  but  a  natural  sequence. 

Lastly,  sleeplessness,  under  no  circumstances, 
should  be  neglected,  as  it  acts  disastrously 
both  on  the  mental  and  physical  forces. 

DRUGS. 

In  purchasing  drugs,  whether  in  the  raw 
state  or  in  the  form  of  extracts,  tinctures,  etc., 
it  is  very  important  to  obtain  them  from  a 
reputable  chemist,  who  will  take  care  that  the 
article  is  genuine  and  properly  labeled.  The 
adulteration  of  drugs  is  carried  on  to  an  enor- 
mous extent,  and,  as  commonly  sold  by  irre- 
sponsible parties,  the  strength  is  seldom  above 
one  half  of  what  it  ought  to  be.  Besides  this, 
there  is  the  danger  of  substituting  a  cheap 
drug  for  a  dear  one.  Drugs  are,  most  of  them, 
soon  spoiled  by  keeping,  and  in  all  cases  they 
should  be  preserved  in  well-stoppered  bottles 
—  with  the  exception  of  Epsom  salts,  niter, 
soda,  and  some  few  others,  which  will  keep 
without  injury  for  an  indefinite  time.  All 
vegetable  medicines  lose  their  virtues  in  the 
course  of  a  few  months,  if  not  carefully  closed 
from  the  air  ;  and  even  in  bottles,  they  seldom 
keep  good  for  a  year.  It  is  desirable,  there- 
fore, to  purchase  them  in  small  quantities  at  a 


time,  and  to  renew  them  at  intervals  of  twelve 
months.  Most  drugs  simply  lose  their  strength 
with  time;  but  laudanum,  on  the  contrary, 
becomes  stronger,  especially  if  it  be  left  un- 
corked ;  the  spirit  evaporates,  leaving  almost 
pure  opium.  This  must  be  guarded  against, 
as  the  most  fatal  results  might  occur  from  giv- 
ing a  dose  much  greater  (in  point  of  strength) 
than  was  intended. 

A  few  drugs  requiring  extended  notice  are 
given  under  separate  titles  in  this  work. 

The  additional  ones  given  below  are  least 
liable  to  abuse,  in  family  use.  Each  is  intro- 
duced in  alphabetical  order,  with  its  properties 
and  effects  given  under  the  respective  heads  — 
(a)  Physical  properties  ;  (ft)  Therapeutical  effects  ; 
(c)  Use;  and  (d)  Dose  and  mode  of  adminis- 
tration. Extracts,  tinctures,  and  all  such  com- 
pounds as  will  bear  keeping,  and  are  likely  to 
be  useful  in  a  family,  are  better  when  bought 
of  a  good  druggist  than  as  made  at  home. 
They  are  therefore  given  without  direction  to 
manufacture.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind, 
however,  that  drugs  of  any  kind  should  be 
used  very  sparingly  except  by  direction  of  a 
physician. 

Acid,  Acetic.  Vinegar  distilled  from 
wood,  and  purified. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Limpid,  colorless, 
volatile  ;  odor,  pungent  and  fragrant ;  taste, 
acid. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  escha- 
rotic,  but,  when  diluted  with  water,  cooling. 

(c)  Used  in  lotions  for  cooling  purposes 
diluted  with  water,  also  in  ringworm  and  re- 
moving warts. 

(rf)  Dose.  It  is  not  given  internally,  except 
in  combination  with  other  medicines. 

Acid,  Acetic  {diluted).  Diluted  acetic 
acid,  prepared  from  the  acid  just  described. 

(«)  Physical  properties.     A  clear  acid  fluid. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Astringent,  dia- 
phoretic, cooling,  and  antiseptic.  It  is  useful 
in  making  the  acetate  of  lead  more  soluble. 
Externally,  it  is  stimulant  in  its  full  strength, 
or,  when  mixed  with  water,  cooling. 

(r)  Used  in  fevers  internally  ;  or  as  a  gargle 
with  capsicum ;  or  as  an  inhalation  in  sore 
throat.  A  useful  lotion  when  mixed  with  spirit 
and  water,  in  bruises,  sprains,  and  burns. 

('/)  Dose.     Half  a  drachm  to  one  drachm. 

Acid,  Benzoic 

(a)  Physical  properties.  White  and  shin- 
ing crystals,  with  flakes  of  a  fragrant  aromatic 
odor,  and  acid  taste.  Sparingly  soluble  in 
water,  but  is  easily  dissolved  in  alcohol.  When 
heated,  is  completely  evaporated,  with  an  agree- 
able and  peculiar  odor ;  but  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  raised  too  high,  it  takes  fire,  and  burns 
with  a  yellow  flame. 


396 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant  and  ex- 
pectorant. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis. 

(d)  Dose.  Five  grains  to  half  a  drachm 
twice  a  day. 

Acid,  Carbolic  {pure  and  impure).  A 
powerful  antiseptic  substance,  obtained  from 
coal  tar  oil. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  The  pure  anhy- 
drous acid  is  in  long,  colorless,  prismatic  crys- 
tals, turning  a  pale  pink  on  keeping.  It  rapidly 
deliquesces  in  moist  air.  The  impure  is  a 
more  or  less  brown  liquid.  Both  strongly  re- 
semble tar  in  smell. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  effects.  Strongly  antisep- 
tic, antifermentative,  and  caustic. 

(c)  The  pure  acid  is  applied  on  cotton  for 
allaying  tenderness  and  pain  in  decayed  teeth. 
Being  a  caustic,  it  should  be  carefully  kept 
from  touching  anything  but  the  tooth  ;  when 
properly  used,  it  is  the  best  application  for 
toothache  arising  from  this  cause,  and  is  indeed 
a  specific. 

Dose.  About  a  grain  of  the  acid  is  enough 
for  toothache.  One  drachm  of  carbolic  acid  to 
a  pint  of  water  is  strong  enough  for  disinfect- 
ant purposes. 

Acid,  Citric,  prepared  from  the  juice  of 
lemons. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Sharp  acid  taste, 
white  semi-transparent  crystals  of  a  rhom- 
boidal  shape.  Decomposed  by  heat ;  soluble  in 
twice  their  weight  of  cold,  and  half  their 
weight  of  boiling  water. 

(J>)  Therapeutical  effects.      Refrigerant. 

(c)  Used  in  febrile  and  inflammatory  com- 
plaints ;  dissolved  in  water  as  a  substitute  for 
lemon  juice,  and  added  to  soda  to  form  the 
common  effervescing  draught. 

(d)  Dose.  10  grains  to  1  scruple;  15 
grains  of  the  acid  neutralize  20  grains  of  bicar- 
bonate of  soda,  to  form  the  effervescing 
draught. 

Acid,  Gallic,  prepared  from  galls. 

(o)  Physical  properties.  A  powder  of  nearly 
colorless  semi-crystalline  appearance ;  dissi- 
pated by  heat ;  dissolves  in  water  and  spirit. 

(c)  Used  in  discharges  of  blood  and  diar- 
rhoea, and  in  other  mucous  discharges.  Also 
in  hemorrhoids. 

(d)  Dose.  2  to  5  grains.  As  an  injection 
half  a  drachm  dissolved  in  one  ounce  of  water  ; 
an  ointment,  20  grains  are  mixed  with  an 
ounce  of  lard,  with  the  addition  of  30  or  40 
grains  of  powdered  opium. 

Acid,  Hydrochloric  (diluted).  Hydro- 
chloric acid,  mixed  with  three  times  its  bulk 
of  water. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Taste,  intensely 
acrid  and  caustic  ;  smell,  acrid  and  suffocating  ; 


the  acid  is  colorless  when  pure,  but  usually  is 
of  a  straw  color,  with  the  presence  of  peroxide 
of  iron,  or  nitrous  acid. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  antiseptic, 
and  partially  diuretic,  by  promoting  all  the 
secretions. 

(c)  Used,  when  combined  with  diluted  nitric 
acid,  in  affections  of  the  liver  ;  also  with  bit- 
ters, to  prevent  the  generation  of  worms ;  in 
gargles  for  sore  throat. 

(</)  Dose.     20  minims  to  40. 

Acid,  Sulphuric  (diluted).  Sulphuric  acid 
mixed  with  about  eleven  times  its  bulk  of 
water. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Strong  acid  taste, 
inodorous,  colorless,  and  transparent.  Specific 
gravity,  1.103. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  astringent, 
and  antiseptic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  also  to  check  sweat- 
ings, salivation,  and  diarrhoea ;  likewise  as  a 
gargle. 

(d)  Dose.  10  minims  to  30,  diluted  largely 
(2  drachms  to  8  ounces)  as  a  gargle,  with  honey, 
sage,  etc. 

Acid,  Tartaric. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Colorless  imper- 
fect crystals,  inodorous,  very  acid,  soluble, 
largely  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Refrigerant,  an- 
tiseptic, diuretic,  and  slightly  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  fevers,  etc.,  with  some  soda  or 
potassium,  as  an  effervescing  draught,  instead 
of  citric  acid  ;  the  proportions  being  the  same. 

iEther,  Sulphuric. 

(c)  Physical  properties.  A  limpid,  volatile, 
inflammable  fluid,  without  color,  produces  great 
cold  by  evaporation  ;  taste,  peculiar,  but  hot 
and  pungent ;  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  readily 
so  in  alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  A  diffusible  stim- 
ulant, afterwards  narcotic  and  antispasmodic  : 
externally  cooling ;  when  inhaled  producing 
anaesthesia. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria,  faintings,  asthma,  and 
other  spasmodic  complaints. 

(d)  Dose.     20  minims  to  60,  in  water. 
Aloes,     Barbadocs. —  The    inspissated 

juice,  of  the  cut  leaf  of  the  Aloe  spicata.  im- 
ported from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  West 
Indies. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Of  a  dark  brown 
color,  and  shining  resinous  surface,  with  a 
strong  disagreeable  odor,  and  very  bitter  taste  ; 
very  difficult  to  powder,  and  soluble  in  diluted 
alcohol. 

(b)  Tht  rapi  utical  <ff<  cft».  A  stimulating  pur- 
gative, producing  its  chief  effects  on  the  lower 
bowels.  Apt  to  produce  and  aggravate  hemor- 
rhoids. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


397 


(c)    Used  in   dyspepsia   and   in    head  affec- 
tions ;  also  as  a  common  purgative. 
•     (d)  Dose.     One  fourth  of  a  grain  to  5  grains, 
•well  powdered,  or  dissolved  in  hot  water. 

Alum. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  semi-transparent, 
rough,  irregular  mass  of  saline  matter.  Taste, 
acid-astringent.  Soluble  in  18  parts  of  water 
at  60  degrees,  and  in  a  little  more  than  an  equal 
weight  of  water  at  212  degrees. 

(/;)  Therapeutical  effects.  Astringent  and 
styptic. 

(c)  Used  internally  in  hemorrhages  ;  exter- 
nally in  ophthalmia,  or  as  a  gargle. 

(d)  Dose.  10  grains  to  20.  As  gargle  — 
1  drachm  to  a  pint  of  water. 

Ammonia,  Liquor  of.  Ammonia  con- 
densed in  water. 

(a)  Physical  Properties.  A  stimulating  so- 
lution.    Blisters  the  skin. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulating,  dia- 
phoretic, anti-acid,  when  given  internally. 
Externally,  irritant  and  eschorotic 

(e)  Used,  when  largely  diluted,  in  faintings, 
asphyxia,  hysteria,  spasms,  acidities  of  the 
stomach  ;  and,  externally,  as  an  irritant  of  the 
skin. 

(V/)  Dose.  The  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia 
is  the  usual  form  for  internal  use.  Dose  from 
15  to  40  minims. 

Ammonia,  Sesqui-Carbonate  of.  Am- 
monia united  with  carbonic  acid. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  mass  of  irregu- 
lar crystals,  somewhat  resembling  white  sugar, 
but  more  transparent  and  striated.  Smell, 
pungent ;  taste,  sharp  and  alkaline  ;  soluble  in 
four  times  its  weight  of  cold  water  ;  becomes 
opaque  and  friable  on  exposure  to  the  air. 

(.'>)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulating,  anti- 
spasmodic, diaphoretic,  and  anti-acid. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  hysteria,  and  all  dis- 
eases requiring  a  rapidly  acting  diffusible 
stimulant.  Externally,  to  the  nostrils  in 
syncope. 

(.-/)  Dose.  2  grains  to  5,  in  pills  or  dis- 
solved in  any  fluid. 

Antimony,  Potassio-Tartrate  of.  Tar- 
tar emetic. 

{a)  Physical  properties.  A  colorless,  trans- 
parent, inodorous,  crystallized  salt,  with  a 
slightly  metallic  taste.  Soluble  in  fifteen 
times  its  weight  of  cold  water,  and  twice  its 
weight  of  boiling  water :  insoluble  in  pure 
alcohol,  but  soluble  in  proof  spirit  or  wine. 
The  aqueous  solution  becomes  decomposed  by 
keeping. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Emetic  in  large 
doses  ;  diaphoretic  in  small  ones  ;  expectorant, 
slightly  aperient  and  alterative  ;  externally  ap- 
plied, produces  a  crop  of  pustules. 


(c)  Used  to  evacuate  the  stomach,  to  slow 
the  circulation,  and  to  produce  profuse  per 
spiration.  Externally  applied  in  the  form  of 
an  ointment,  to  produce  counter- irritation. 

(//)  Dose.  As  an  emetic,  1  grain  to  4 
grains  in  solution  ;  in  pneumonia,  1-2  a  grain 
to  3  grains,  often  repeated  ;  as  an  expectorant, 
or  diaphoretic,  1-8  of  a  grain  to  1-2  a  grain. 

Asafoetida,  Gum. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  mass  of  irregular 
pieces,  varying  in  color  from  red  or  reddish- 
brawn  to  white  ;  odor  resembling  garlic,  but 
more  fetid ;  taste,  bitter  and  slightly  acrid ; 
difficult  to  powder,  unless  rubbed  with  car- 
bonate of  ammonia.  Forms  a  milky  mixture 
with  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Antispasmodic,  ex- 
pectorant, anthelmintic. 

(e)    Used  in  hysteria,  flatulence,  colic,  etc. 

(d)  Dose.     5  to  10  grains. 

Bismuth,  Trisnitrate  of.  The  metal 
bismuth  united  with  nitric  acid. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  white,  tasteless, 
inodorous  powder,  very  slightly  soluble  in 
water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Antispasmodic, 
stomachic,  and  tonic. 

(e)  Used  much  in  dyspepsia,  attended  with 
pain  of  the  stomach,  and  water  brash,  and 
diarrhoea. 

(a*)  Dose.     5  to  10  grains. 

Borax.     Biborate  of  soda. 

(o)  Physical  properties.  Sweetish,  shining, 
efflorescent  crystals,  soluble  in  twelve  parts  of 
cold  and  two  parts  of  boiling  water. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  effects.  Absorbent,  cool- 
ing, and  alterative. 

(c)  Used  in  intestinal  irritation  of  infants. 
Externally  applied  to  thrush,  and  to  cutaneous 
diseases. 

(d)  Dose.  5  grains  to  30.  Externally  ap- 
plied, dissolved  in  eight  times  its  weight  of 
honey,  or  mucilage,  or,  better,  in  pure  water. 

Calomel,     See  Mercury. 

Camphor,  A  peculiar  substance,  ob- 
tained by  distillatiou  from  the  wood  of  the 
Laurus  camphor. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  In  large,  white 
semi-transparent  cakes,  with  a  strong  pecul- 
iarly fragrant  and  aromatic  odor  ;  taste,  bitter 
and  acrid  ;  insoluble  in  water  ;  soluble  in  alco- 
hol, ether,  acetic  acid,  and  the  fixed  oils. 

(/>)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  dia- 
phoretic, sedative  ;  externally,  soothing. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria,  asthma,  chorea,  and 
generally  in  spasmodic  diseases.  Externally, 
in  muscular  pains,  bruises,  etc. 

(d)  Dose.  3  grains  to  5,  in  pills.  When 
dissolved  in  water  as  camphor  mixture,  the 
quantity  is  scarcely  appreciable. 


398 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Cantharides,  Plaster  of.  Blistering 
plaster.  Sometimes  prepared  in  the  form  of  a 
tissue  paper,  imbued  with  the  active  principle. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  The  plaster  is  a 
firm  preparation  requiring  the  warmth  of  the 
hand  to  enable  it  to  be  spread  upon  leather  or 
calico.  It  soon  spoils  by  keeping  ;  and  if  more 
than  a  month  old  should,  after  spreading,  be 
dusted  over  with  powdered  cantharides. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  To  raise  the  cuti- 
cle from  the  cutis,  producing  at  the  same  time 
a  large  secretion  of  serous  fluid.  The  time 
varies  from  3  hours  to  12,  or  even  more.  In 
babies  the  blister  should  always  be  carefully 
watched  after  3  hours,  as  it  often  rises  rapidly 
and  would  be  liable  to  produce  severe  ulcera- 
tion of  the  skin.  Blistering  may  be  promoted 
by  applying  a  poultice  after  the  removal  of  the 
cantharides. 

Capsicum. 

(a)  Physical  Properties.  Berries  of  a  red 
color,  and  an  extremely  pungent  odor  and 
teste,  which  is  yielded  to  alcohol,  ether,  vine- 
gar, and  water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, and  rubefacient. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  flatulence  ;  externally, 
as  an  ingredient  in  gargles  for  relaxed  sore 
throat. 

(d)  Dose.  3  grains  to  5  grains,  in  pills ;  2 
drachms  to  8  ounces  form  the  strength  for  using 
as  a  gargle  diluted  largely  with  water. 

Castor  Oil,  obtained  from  Ricinus  com- 
munis. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  pale  yellow- 
colored,  transparent  and  viscid  oil,  with  a 
faint  odor  and  nauseous  taste. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.     Mildly  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  colic  and  in  those  cases  of  con- 
stipation which  will  not  bear  drastic  purga- 
tives ;  also  for  mixing  with  gruel  for  the  ordi- 
nary enema. 

(d)  Dose.  A  teaspoonful  to  one  or  two 
tablespoonfuls  ;  an  ounce  is  the  proper  quan- 
tity for  mixing  with  gruel  to  make  an  enema. 

Cerate.  A  species  of  ointment  made  rather 
hard  with  wax. 

(a)  Simple  Cerate,  Add  20  ounces  of 
melted  wax  to  a  pint  of  olive  oil,  and  mix  while 
warm,  stirring  till  cold. 

(6)  Cerate  of  Spermaceti.  Melt  to- 
gether eight  ounces  of  white  wax  and  ten  of 
spermaceti ;  then  add  a  pint  of  olive  oil,  and 
stir  together  till  they  cool. 

(c)  Cerate  of  Acetate  of  T^ead.  Melt 
four  ounces  of  white  wax  in  eight  fluid  ounces 
of  olive  oil ;  then  gradually  add  four  drachms 
of  powdered  acetate  of  lead,  previously  rubbed 
with  two  fluid  ounces  of  olive  oil,  and  stir  with 
a  spatula  till  they  unite. 


(d)  Cerate  of  Resin.     Mix  together  15 
ounces  each  of  resin  and  wax,  and  melt  \hem 
over  a  slow  fire  ;  then  add  a  pint  of  olive  oil,* 
and  press  the  cerate,  while  hot,  through  a  linen 
cloth. 

Chalk,  prepared.  Friable  carbonate  of 
lime,  rubbed  into  a  fine  powder  and  washed. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  An  inodorous,  in- 
sipid, white,  friable  powder,  heavy,  and  insolu- 
ble in  water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Anti-acid,  astring- 
ent, and  absorbent. 

(c)  Used  in  acidities  of  the  stomach  and 
bowels,  and  to  correct  the  irritation  which  is 
established  in  diarrhoea.  Externally  as  a  mild 
application  of  sores  and  burns. 

(d)  Dose.     10  to  15  grains. 
Chamomile  Flowers. 
(a)  Physical  properties. 

The  flowers  are  small,  with  a  strong,  fra,- 
grant  odor,  and  bitter  aromatic  taste,  an  J 
some  slight  degree  of  warmth.  Water  and  al- 
cohol both  absorb  the  virtues  of  this  plant. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  stomachic, 
and  carminative.  The  wrarm  infusion,  when 
weak,  is  emetic.     Externally  soothing. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  hysteria,  flatulence, 
and  also  to  work  off  emetics. 

(d)  Dose  of  the  powder.  30  to  40  grains 
twice  a  day.  The  infusion — a  half  ounce  to  a 
pint  of  water — is  usually  preferred. 

Chloride  of  Zinc.  A  combination  of 
Zinc  with  chlorine. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  In  solid  piece, 
snow-white,  inodorous,  having  a  strongly  styp- 
tic and  metallic  taste. 

(ft)  Powerfully  caustic,  destroying  the  vital- 
ity of  the  part  with  which  it  is  in  contact,  and 
causing  very  severe  pain.  In  solution  it  is 
used  as  a  disinfectant,  appearing  to  act  more 
energetically  than  chlorinated  soda  or  lime, 
with  a  less  disagreeable  odor  of  chlorine. 

(c)  Used  as  a  caustic  in  cancer  and  fungoid 
disease.  In  solution,  it  is  applied  to  cutaneous 
diseases,  and  to  mucous  membranes,  but  re- 
quires great  caution  in  its  use.  As  a  disin- 
fectant, it  must  be  largely  diluted.  (See  Dis- 
infectants.) 

Cincona  Bark  (yellow). 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Larger,  thicker,  and 
less  rolled  than  the  pale  bark.  Externally  of 
a  brownish  yellow,  and  internally  of  a  cinna- 
mon brown.  The  fracture  is  fibrous ;  taste 
bitter,  and  less  aromatic  than  the  pale,  with 
scarcely  any  degree  of  astringency. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  xVstringent,  tonic, 
antiseptic,  and  febrifuge. 

(c)  Used  in  typhoid  fevers,  and  in  all  low 
states  cf  the  system,  being  in  such  cases  su- 
perior to  quinine. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,   HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


399 


yd)  Dose.  10  grains  to  50,  in  wine  or  wine 
and  water. 

Cinnamon.  Bark,  oil,  and  water,  used 
as  a  warm  and  cordial  spice  to  prevent  the 
griping  of  purgatives,  etc. 

Cod-Liver  Oil,  Prepared  from  the  liver 
of  the  codfish. 

(a  )  Physical  properties.  An  oil  of  three  differ- 
ent colors  :  pale  yellow,  pale  brown,  and  dark 
brown.  The  pale  brown  appears  to  possess 
the  highest  virtues. 

(//)  Therapeutical  effects.  Nutritive  and  act- 
ing also  on  the  general  system. 

(')  Used  largely  in  consumption  and  chronic 
bronchitis  to  diminish  the  secretion  from  the 
lungs,  and  arrest,  to  some  extent,  the  waste 
incident  to  these  diseases ;  in  nervous  affec- 
tions as  a  nerve-food,  and  in  some  skin  dis- 
eases ;  also  in  other  exhausting  diseases. 

(d)  Dose.  One  drachm  carried  up  to  4  in  any 
convenient  vehicle,  as  infusion  of  cloves. 

Colocyntn.  The  peeled  fruit  of  the  bitter 
cucumber. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  white,  soft,  po- 
rous, medullary  substance,  investing  the  seeds 
with  an  intensely  bitter,  acrid,  and  nauseous 
taste. 

(J)  Therapeutical  effects.  Powerfully  ape- 
rient. 

(c)  Used,  with  warm  cordial  spices,  as  an 
ordinary  aperient.     (See  Extracts.) 

('/)  Dose.     5  to  10  grains. 

Conium  (Hemlock).  The  leaves  of  Conium 
maculatum,  an  indigenous  plant. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Has  a  heavy  nar- 
cotic smell,  with  a  bitter,  nauseous,  and  herba- 
ceous taste  ;  color,  dull  green  ;  powers  soon 
destroyed  by  light.  Should  be  gathered  just 
as  the  plant  comes  into  flower,  and  dried  in  the 
sun,  or  in  a  stove. 

(//)  Therapeutical  effects.  Sedative,  narcotic 
—  in  some  cases  alterative,  and  even  tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  scirrhous  and  cancerous  affec- 
tions externally,  and  internally  for  neuralgia 
and  pulmonary  complaints  ;  also  in  scrofulous 
complaints  of  children,  especially  in  ophthal- 
mia—  in  all  cases  requiring  great  caution  ;  ex- 
ternally as  a  poultice,  made  by  scalding  the 
fresh  leaves. 

(d)  Dose.     2  to  3  or  4  grains. 
Copaiba  Balsam. 

(«)  Physical  properties.  A  liquid  of  a  trans- 
parent yellowish  color,  and  peculiar  smell  and 
taste,  which  is  pungent,  acrid,  and  nause- 
ous ;  when  fresh,  of  the  consistency  of  linseed 
oil,  gradually  becoming  thicker  by  exposure  to 
the  air,  till  at  last  it  is  as  solid  as  resin  ;  soluble 
in  ether  and  alcohol. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  diuretic, 
purgative  in  large  doses ;  allays  irritation  of 


l£  to  3  ounces  twice  or  thrice  a 


the  mucous   membranes,  and   especially  those 
of  the  urinary  passages. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis,  spasmodic 
asthma,  whooping-cough,  and  in  chronic  in- 
flammation of  the  bladder,  etc. 

(d)  Dose.  10  minims  to  30  in  emulsion,  or 
in  the  gelatine  capsules  in  which  it  is  sold. 

Creosote.  A  peculiar  liquid  prepared  from 
pyroxylic  oil. 

(o)  Physical  properties.  An  oily,  colorless, 
transparent  fluid,  with  a  disagreeable  smell,  re- 
sembling somewhat  the  odor  of  badly-smoked 
meat. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  stomachic, 
diaphoretic,  antiseptic,  and  styptic. 

(c)  Used  internally  in  phthisis ;  also  in 
troublesome  vomiting,  from  any  cause  not 
readily  understood,  as  seasickness. 

Decoction  of  Cinchona. 

(a)  Boil  10  drachms  of  bruised  yellow 
cinchona  in  a  pint  of  water  for  ten  minutes, 
in  a  closed  vessel,  then  strain. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Antiseptic,  as- 
tringent, tonic,  febrifuge. 

(c)  Used  iu  fever,  malignant  sore  throat, 
dyspepsia. 

(d)  Dose. 
day. 

Decoction  of  Dandelion. 

(a)  Boil  4  ounces  of  bruised  dandelion  in  1^ 
pints  of  distilled  water  to  a  pint,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Diuretic,  slightly 
aperient,  and  specially  acting  on  the  liver. 

(c)  Used  in  torpid  conditions  of  the  liver, 
jaundice,  habitual  constipation,  etc. 

(d)  Dose.  2  or  3  ounces  twice  or  thrice  a 
day. 

Decoction  of  Iceland  Moss. 

(a)  Boil  5  drachms  of  Iceland  moss  in  a  pint 
and  a  half  of  water  down  to  a  pint,  and  strain. 

(//)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  emollient, 
slightly  astringent. 

(c)  Used  in  consumption  and  dysentery. 

(d)  Dose.     1  to  2  ounces. 
Decoction  of  Logwood, 

(a)  Boil  10  drachms  of  sliced  logwood  in 
H  pints  of  water  to  a  pint,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Astringent  and 
tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  diarrhoea  and  dysentery. 

(d)  Dose.  1  ounce  to  2  ounces  after  each 
action  of  the  bowels. 

Decoction  of  Poppyheads. 

(a)  Boil  five  ounces  of  bruised  poppyheads  in 
3  pints  of  water  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Anodyne  and 
soothing. 

(c)  Used  as  a  fomentation  in  painful  swell- 
ings and  inflammation. 


400 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Decoction  of  Sarsaparilla  (simple). 

(a)  Boil  four  ounces  of  sarsaparilla  in  4  pints 
of  water  to  2  pints,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Alterative*,  dia- 
phoretic, and  tonic. 

(c)  II se<l  in  cutaneous  diseases,  chronic 
rheumatism,  and  scrofula. 

(d)  Dose.     2  ounces,  twice  or  thrice  a  day. 
Decoction  of  Sarsaparilla  (compound). 

(a)  Mix  4  pints  of  boiling  decoction  of  sar- 
saparilla, 10  drachms  of  sliced  sassafras,  10 
drachms  of  guaiacum-woodshavings,10drachms 
of  bruised  stick-liquorice,  and  3  drachms  of 
mezereon  bark  ;  boil  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  strain. 

(b)  (c)  (d)  Therapeutical  effects.  The  same 
as  the  last,  but  warmer,  and  therefore  better 
suited  to  weak  stomachs. 

Dill  Water.  Prepared  from  Dill  seeds  by 
distillation. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  An  aromatic  odor, 
with  a  pungent  agreeable  taste. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Carminative  and 
stimulative. 

(c)  Used  in  the  flatulence  and  gripings  of 
children. 

(d)  Dose.     Y*  drachm  to  1^  ounce. 
Extract  of  Gentian. 

(a)  Made  from  the  gentian  root. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic  and  stom- 
achic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia. 

(d)  Dose.     5  to  20  grains. 

Extract  of  Henbane.  Prepared  from 
the  leaves  of  Hyoscyamus  niger. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  An  extract  of  a 
dingy  olive  color,  and  a  peculiar  disagreeable 
smell;    taste,  bitterish  and  saline. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Narcotic,  anodyne, 
and  antispasmodic. 

(c)  Used  instead  of  opium,  in  irritability  of 
the  nervous  system,  or  mucous  surfaces,  or  in 
combination  with  purgatives  to  prevent  their 
griping,  as  it  does  not  cause  constipation. 

(d)  Dose.     5  to  8  grains. 
Extract  of  Hop. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  dark -colored  bit- 
ter extract,  without  much  smell. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.    Tonic  and  sedative. 

(c)  Used   in  chronic  dyspepsia  and   loss  of 


(d)  Dose.     10  to  15  grains. 

Extract  of  Sarsaparilla  (liquid).  Pre- 
pared from  sarsaparilla,  and  used  for  the  same 
purposes  as  the  decoction.  It  is  sold  both  as 
a  simple  and  compound  extract. 

(a)  Dose.  30  drops  to  1  drachm  two  or 
three  times  a  day  in  water. 

Gamboge.  A  gum  resin,  of  a  purgative 
nature,  but  too  powerful  for  domestic  use. 


Horseradish  (the  fresh  root). 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Pungent  odor,  bit- 
ing, acrid  taste  ;  communicates  its  active  prin- 
ciples partially  to  water,  but  completely  to 
alcohol. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  diuretic, 
sudorific,  emetic. 

(c)  Used  in  paralytic  affections  and  chronic 
rheumatism. 

(d)  Dose.  1  to  2  drachms,  cut  into  small 
pieces,  or  made  into  an  infusion. 

Infusion  of  Chamomile. 
Chamomile  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  5  drachms  of  chamomile  flow- 
ers in  a  pint  of  boiling  distilled  water  for  ten 
minutes,  in  a  closed  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  stomachic  ; 
emetic,  when  warm.     Externally  soothing. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  and  to  assist  the  oper- 
ation of  emetics. 

(d)  Dose.  1  to  2  ounces.  For  emetic  pur- 
poses, a  weaker  infusion  is  used  in  large  quan- 
tities. 

Infusion  of  Cloves. 

(a)  Macerate  3  drachms  of  bruised  cloves  in 
a  pint  of  boiling  water,  in  a  covered  vessel, 
and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, slightly  tonic. 

(c)  Used  as  a  vehicle  for  more  active  tonics, 
especially  cod-liver  oil. 

(d)  Dose.     1  ounce  to  2  or  3. 
Infusion  of  Gentian  (compound). 

(a)  Macerate  2  drachms  of  sliced  gentian,  2 
drachms  of  dried  orange-peel,  and  4  drachms 
of  lemon  peel  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  for  an 
hour,  in  a  covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stomachic  and 
tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  and  general  debility. 
(<f)  Dose.     H  to  2  ounces  two  or  three  times 

a  day. 
Infusion  of  Linseed  (compound). 
Linseed  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  6  drachms  of  bruised  linseed 
and  10  drachms  of  sliced  fresh  liquorice  in  a 
pint  of  boiling  water,  for  four  hours,  near  the 
fire,  in  a  covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Soothing,  espe- 
cially to  the  mucous  passages. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  strangury. 

(d)  Dose,  ad  libitum. 

Infusion  of  Orange-peel  (compound). 

(a)  Macerate  half  an  ounce  of  dried  orange- 
peel,  two  drachms  of  lemon-peel,  one  drachm 
of  cloves  bruised,  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water, 
for  ;i  quarter  of  an  hour,  in  a  covered  vessel, 
and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  stom- 
achic, and  tonic. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


401 


(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  and  as  a  vehicle  for 
other  remedies. 

(d)  Dose.  1  ounce  to  2  or  3,  at  short  inter- 
vals. 

Infusion  of  Quassia. 

(a)  Macerate  10  scruples  of  quassia  sliced, 
in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  for  two  hours,  in  a 
covered  vessel. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic  and  stom- 
achic. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia. 

(d)  Dose.     1£  to  2  ounces. 
Infusion  of  Rhubarb. 

(a)  Macerate  3  drachms  of  sliced  rhubarb 
root  in  a  pint  of  boiling  water  for  two  hours, 
in  a  covered  vessel,  and  strain. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stomachic,  tonic, 
and  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  accompanied  with  con- 
stipation, especially  in  combination  with  gen- 
tian. 

(d)  Dose.     £  half  ounce  to  1£  ounce. 
Infusion  of  Roses  {compound). 

(a)  Put  three  drachms  of  the  dried  red  rose 
leaves  into  a  pint  of  boiling  water,  then  add  a 
fluid  drachm  and  a  half  of  diluted  sulphuric 
acid.  Macerate  for  two  hours,  and  strain  the 
liquor  ;  lastly,  add  6  drachms  of  sugar. 

(by  Therapeutical  effects.  Astringent,  re- 
frigerant, and  antiseptic. 

(c)  Used  as  a  drink  in  fevers  ;  also  as  a 
vehicle  for  sulphate  of  magnesia,  quinine,  etc. 

(</)  Dose.     1£  to  2  ounces. 

Infusion  of  Senna  (compound). 
.  Senna  tea. 

(a)  Macerate  15  drachms  of  senna  leaves, 
and  four  scruples  of  bruised  ginger  in  a  pint 
of  boiling  water  for  an  hour  in  a. closed  vessel, 
and  strain. 

(I>)    Therapeutical  effects.      Aperient. 

(c)  Used  as  a  vehicle  for  more  active  purga- 
tives, which  it  assists ;  or  by  itself  as  a  mild 
purgative.  ' 

('/)  Dose.     1  to  3  ounces. 

Ipecacuanha,  the  root. 

'a)  Physical  properties.  In  pieces  of  three 
or  four  inches  in  length,  with  a  resinous  frac- 
ture ;  an  acrid,  aromatic  somewhat  bitter  taste, 
slightly  nauseous ;  peculiar  odor ;  yields  its 
active  principle  to  water,  spirit,  and  wine. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Emetic,  diapho- 
retic, expectorant,  and  acting  peculiarly  on 
the  liver. 

(c)  Used  as  an  emetic  ;  also  as  an  expecto- 
rant in  bronchitis,  asthma,  etc.,  as  a  nauseate 
in  pneumonia,  diarrhoea,  dysentery  :  as  a  dia- 
phoretic in  various  diseases,  and  in  torpid 
liver,  to  promote  its  proper  secretions. 

(d)  Dose.  As  an  emetic,  15  to  30  grains : 
as  a  nauseate,  2  to  4  grains  ;  as  a  diaphoretic, 


1  grain,  with  a  small  dose  of  opium  ;  as  an 
expectorant  or  for  torpid  liver,  £  to  1  grain. 
Jalap,  the  Root. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Thin,  transverse 
slices,  or  round  masses ;  solid,  hard,  and 
heavy  ;  dark  gray  color,  striated  appearance  ; 
sickly  smell ;   taste  sweetish  but  nauseous. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.    Actively  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  obstinate  constipation,  worms, 
dropsy ;  requires  a  carminative  to  prevent 
griping  and  nausea. 

(d)  Dose.     10  grains  to  30. 
Laudanum,     (See  Opium.) 
Liniment  of  Ammonia, 

(a)  To  1  fluid  ounce  of  the  solution  of  am- 
monia add  2  fluid  ounces  of  olive  oil  and 
shake  together. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant  and  ru- 
befacient. 

(e)  Used  in  sore  throat  externally,  also  in 
chronic  rheumatism,  with  friction. 

Liniment  of  Camphor. 

(a)  Dissolve  1  ounce  of  camphor  in  4  fluid 
ounces  of  olive  oil. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.     Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  rheumatism,  with  fric- 
tion. 

Liniment  of  Camphor  (Compound). 

(a)  Dissolve  2£  ounces  of  camphor  and  1 
drachm  of  oil  of  lavender  in  17  fluid  ounces  of 
rectified  spirits  of  wine ;  then  add  3  fluid 
ounces  of  the  strong  solution  of  ammonia,  and 
shake  well  together. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effect1}.     Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  with  friction  in  the  same  way  as 
the  simple  liniment,  but  it  is  more  powerful. 

Liniment  of  Turpentine, 

(a)  Shake  well  together  2  ounces  of  soft 
soap  and  an  ounce  of  camphor,  with  16  fluid 
ounces  of  the  spirit  of  turpentine,  until  mixed. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.      Stimulant. 

(c)  Used  in  paralytic  affections  and  chronic 
rheumatism  ;  also  to  burns  and  scalds. 

Liquor  of  Acetate  of  Lead.  Sold  by 
the  druggists. 

(a)  Therapeutical  effects.  Sedative  and  as- 
tringent when  applied  externally. 

(b)  Used  as  a  lotion  to  inflamed  surfaces 
when  largely  diluted  with  water.  Goulard 
water  is  prepared  from  it  by  adding  a  fluid 
drachm  and  a  half  of  it  and  2  fluid  drachms  of 
proof  spirit  to  a  pint  of  distilled  water. 

Magnesia,  Carbonate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  solid,  white, 
tasteless,  inodorous  powder,  insoluble  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Anti-acid  and  pur- 
gative. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  with  costiveness,  in 
the  constipation  of  children  and  delicate  grown 
persons 


402 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


(rf)  Dose.     £  drachm  to  1  drachm  or  2. 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of.     Epsom  salts. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Small,  pointed  crys- 
tals of  a  transparent,  colorless  appearance  ;  in- 
odorous, with  a  disagreeable  bitter  taste ; 
dissolves  readily  in  water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.     Purgative. 

(c)  Used  as  a  cooling  laxative,  washing  the 
bowels  out,  but  not  searching  them. 

(d)  Dose.     1  drachm  to  1  ounce. 
Marsh  Mallows. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  root ;  long  cylin- 
drical ;  grayish  without,  white  within  ;  inodor- 
ous ;  taste  sweetish. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.     Soothing. 

(c)  Used  to  make  a  soothing  drink  in  irrita- 
tion of  the  mucous  membranes,  or  as  a  fomen- 
tation ;  boiling  the  leaves  and  roots  to  form  it. 

Mercury,  Ammonia-chloride  of. 
White  precipitate. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  white,  inodorous 
powder  ;  insipid,  insoluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Used  externally 
only  ;  it  is  detergent. 

(c)  Used  for  cutaneous  diseases  and  for  de- 
stroying lice,  etc.,  in  its  powdered  condition. 

Mercury,  Mild  Chloride  of.     Calomel. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  white,  semi-trans- 
parent crystalline  mass,  inodorous,  insipid, 
and  insoluble.  Usually  sold  as  a  heavy  white 
powder. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Alterative,  purga- 
tive, and  producing  absorption. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  diseases  of  the  liver  and 
general  torpidity  of  the  stomach  and  bowels  ; 
in  dropsy,  in  combination  with  other  medi- 
cines. A  most  dangerous  medicine  when  em- 
ployed by  those  who  are  not  aware  of  its 
powerful  effects. 

(d)  Dose.  1  grain  twice  a  day  as  an  alter- 
ative, 4  to  5  grains  as  an  aperient,  combined 
with,  or  followed  by,  some  mild  vegetable  pur- 
gative. 

Mercury,  Nitric  Oxide  of.  Red  pre- 
cipitate. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  powder  of  a 
brilliant  red  color,  insoluble  in  water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  external. 

(c)  Used  in  old  ulcers  and  to  heal  indolent 
sores  of  all  kinds  when  made  into  an  ointment 
with  lard.     (See  Ointments.) 

Mint-water.  Prepared  from  peppermint 
or  spearmint.     These  are  sold  -in  the  shops. 

(a)  Therapeutical  effects.  Both  are  carmin- 
ative and  slightly  stimulating.  Spearmint 
water  is  also  diuretic. 

(ft)  Used  as  a  vehicle  for  other  remedies. 

Mixture  of  Chalk. 

(a)  Rub  £  ounce  of  prepared  chalk  and  3 
drachms  of  sugar  with  a  fluid  ounce  and  a  half 


of  mixture  of  acacia  and  8  fluid  ounces  of  cin- 
namon water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Anti-acid,  absorb- 
ent, and  astringent  when  given  in  diarrhoea. 

(c)  Used  in  diarrhoea. 

(d)  Dose.     A  tablespoonf  ul  every  two  hours. 
Mixture  of  Iron  {compound). 

(a)  Rub  2  drachms  of  powdered  myrrh  and  1 
drachm  of  carbonate  of  potassium  with  a  fluid 
ounce  of  spirit  of  nutmeg ;  to  these,  while 
rubbing,  add  18  fluid  ounces  of  rose-water,  2 
drachms  of  sugar,  and  2£  scruples  of  pow- 
dered sulphate  of  iron.  Put  the  mixture  in  a 
well-stoppered  bottle. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stomachic,  as- 
tringent, tonic,  emmenagogue. 

(c)  Used  in  chlorotic  girls,  and  in  all  the 
defective  secretions  of  young  females. 

(d)  Dose.     1  to  l£  ounce. 
Ointment  of  Creosote. 

(a)  Rub  half  a  fluid  drachm  of  creosote 
with  an  ounce  of  lard,  until  they  are  incor- 
porated. 

(ft)    Therapeutical  effects.     Stimulant. 

(c)    Used  in  scald  head,  etc. 

Ointment  of  Galls  (compound). 

(a)  Mix  6  drachms  of  finely  powdered  galls, 
6  ounces  of  lard,  and  l£  drachm  of  powdered 
opium. 

(ft)  Astringent  and  anodyne. 

(t)  Used  for  hemorrhoids  ;  but  one  quarter 
of  the  quantity  of  gallic  acid  answers  much 
better. 

Ointment  of  Green  Iodide  of  Mer- 
cury. 

(a)  Mix  from  30  grains  to  1  drachm  of  green 
iodide  of  mercury  with  1  ounce  of  lard. 

(ft)  Used  in  scald  head,  for  which  it  is  very 
efficacious. 

Ointment  of  Nitric  Oxide  of  Mer- 
cury. 

(a)  Rub  1  ounce  of  finely  powdered  nitric 
oxide  of  mercury  with  10  ounces  of  wax,  and 
6  ounces  of  lard. 

(ft)    Therapeutical  effects.     Stimulant. 

(c)    Used  in  indolent  ulcers. 

Ointment  of  Zinc. 

(«)  Mix  1  drachm  of  oxide  of  zinc  with  6 
drachms  of  lard. 

(ft)  Used  as  a  cooling,  astringent,  and  dry- 
ing ointment. 

Olive  Oil. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  transparent 
fixed  oil,  of  a  yellowish  color ;  inodorous  and 
without  much  taste. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Soothing,  and 
slightly  aperient. 

(c)  Used  in  bronchial  irritation;  also  as  a 
vehicle  for  other  medicines  in  the  form  of  lini- 
ment. 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY,   HYGIENE,   DIETETICS. 


403 


(d)  Dose.     1  to  2  drachms. 
Peruvian  Balsam. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Of  the  consistence 
of  honey  ;  color,  browr.  ;  agreeable  smell,  and 
hot,  acrid  taste. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  expec- 
torant ;    externally  applied  to  indolent  ulcers. 

(<)    Used  in  catarrh  and  chronic  rheumatism. 

(d)  Dose.     15  minims  to  half  a  drachm. 

Pill  of  Mercury.     Blue  pill. 

(a)  The  metal  partially  oxidated,  and  mixed 
with  confection  of  roses. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Alterative  and 
purgative,  especially  on  the  liver. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia,  torpidity  of  the  liver, 
and  constipation. 

(d)  Dose.     1  to  5  or  6  grains. 
Pill  of  Rhubarb  (compound). 

(a)  Made  up  of  rhubarb,  aloes,  and  myrrh, 
(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.     Laxative. 

(c)  Used  in  dyspepsia  and  constipation. 

(d)  Dose.     Two  at  bedtime. 

Pitch,  Burgundy.  The  impure  resin  of 
the  Norway  spruce  fir. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  tenacious  mass, 
of  fragrant  odor,  semi-transparent,  and  unc- 
tuous. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant  and 
rubefacient. 

(c)  Used  externally  in  the  form  of  a  plaster 
in  bronchitis,  whooping  cough,  etc. 

Poultice  of  Charcoal. 

(a)  Macerate  for  a  short  time  before  the 
fire  2  ounces  of  bread  in  2  fluid  ounces  of  boil- 
ing water;  then  mix  and  gradually  stir  in  10 
drachms  of  linseed  meal ;  with  these  mix 
2  drachms  of  powdered  charcoal,  and  sprinkle 
a  drachm  on  the  surface. 

(ft)  Antiseptic  and  digestive. 

(r)  Used  in  gangrene. 

Poultice  of  Hemlock. 

(a)  Make  a  poultice  of  linseed  meal ;  then 
add  1  ounce  of  extract  of  hemlock  previously 
softened  with  water,  or  4  ounces  of  the  fresh 
leaves  scalded  and  bruised. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Anodyne  and  dis- 
cutient. 

(c)  Used  in  glandular  swellings  and  cancer- 
ous sores. 

Poultice  of  Linseed. 

(a)  Put  into  a  basin  enough  meal  to  form  a 
poultice,  making  a  hole  in  its  center ;  then 
pour  upon  it  boiling  water  to  fill  that  hole, 
and  stir  rapidly  with  a  kitchen  knife.  This 
will  generally  be  sufficient  to  make  the  poul/ 
tice  of  the  proper  consistency.  It  is  always 
better  to  add  enough  water  at  first,  as  it  is  not 
so  smooth  if  added  piecemeal. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  and  yet 
soothing. 


(c)  Used  for  abscesses  and  ulcers  when  in- 
flamed. 
Poultice  of  Mustard. 

(a)  Make  either  a  bread  or  a  linseed-meal 
poultice,  then  sprinkle  over  it  enough  flour  of 
mustard  to  conceal  its  surface,  and  wet  it  with 
a  little  boiling  water.  Some  people  add  hot 
vinegar  to  wet  it  with. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  and 
often  inclined  to  blister  the  skin. 

(c)  Used  as  a  rapid  counter-irritant. 

Poultice  of  Yeast. 

(a)  Mix  5  ounces  of  yeast  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  water,  at  100  degrees  ;  with  these 
stir  up  a  pound  of  flour,  so  as  to  make  a  poul- 
tice ;  place  it  by  the  fire  till  it  swells,  and  use. 

(ft)  Stimulant,  emollient. 

(c)  Used  for  indolent  abscesses  and  sores. 

Powder  of  Ipecacuanha  (compound). 
Dover's  powder. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Compound  of  opium, 
ipecacuanha,  and  sulphate  of  potassium. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Diaphoretic,  ano- 
dyne, and  narcotic. 

(c)  Used  to  produce  perspiration  in  rheuma- 
tism and  dysentery,  etc. 

(d)  Dose.     5  to  10  grains. 
Quinine,  Sulphate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Colorless,  inodor- 
ous, lustrous,  bitter  efflorescent  crystals,  totally 
soluble  in  water  previously  acidulated  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stomachic,  stimu- 
lant, febrifuge,  and  tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  general  debility,  neuralgia,  and 
after  fever. 

(d)  Dose.     1  to  3  grains. 

Rhubarb. — The  root,  whole  and  powdered. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  The  root  is  in  firm, 
flatfish,  irregular  pieces,  occasionally  pierced 
with  large  holes ;  color,  bright  yellow,  exter- 
nally ;  odor,  peculiar  and  aromatic  ;  taste,  bit- 
ter, astringent,  and  somewhat  nauseous ;  im- 
parts its  virtue  to  water  and  alcohol.  The 
powder  is  of  a  reddish  yellow. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.  Purgative  and 
stomachic  ;  acting  on  the  small  bowels. 

(c)  Used  as  a  mild  purgative  in  the  consti-' 
pation  of  children  and  adults. 

(d)  Dose.     10  to  30  grains. 
Saffron. 

(a)  A  coloring  matter  obtained  from  the 
Crocus  sativus. 

Senna. —  The  leaves. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Leaves  of  a  pale 
green  color ;  leaflets  broad,  lanceolate ;  the 
two  sides  unequal ;  odor  faint,  somewhat  like 
green  tea  ;  taste,  nauseous  and  bitter.  Yields 
its  properties  to  spirit  and  water. 

(ft)  Therapeutical  effects.     Cathartic. 


404 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


.(c)  Used  in  constipation,  and  to  lower  the 
system.     Made  into  the  infusion. 

(d)  Dose.  5  grains  to  25,  rubbed  down  with 
ginger  and  sugar. 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  heavy  white 
powder,  without  smell,  and  tasting  slightly 
soapy.     Entirely  soluble  in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.     Anti-acid. 

(c)  Used  in  the  manufacture  of  effervescing 
draughts,  and  for  acidities  of  the  stomach. 

(d)  Dose.     5  to  30  grains. 

Soda,  Sulphate  of. —  Glauber's  salts. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Crystals,  of  an  ex- 
ceedingly bitter  taste,  and  without  smell.  Solu- 
ble in  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Purgative  and 
diuretic. 

(c)  Used  in  costiveness. 

(d)  Dose.     £  to  1  ounce. 

Spirit  of  Ammonia  (aromatic). 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  compound,  con- 
taining carbonate  of  ammonia  and  aromatics, 
with  spirit ;  and  possessing  an  aromatic,  warm, 
and  alkaline  taste.  Miscible  with  water,  which 
it  renders  milky. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant  and 
cordial. 

(c)  Used  as  the  ordinary  diffusible  stimulus 
in  faintings  and  hysteria  ;  also  added  to  senna 
to  prevent  griping. 

(d)  Dose.     30  to  60  drops. 
Spirit  of  Ammonia  (fend). 

(a)  Physical  properties.  The  same  as  the 
above,  with  the  addition  of  asafcetida. 

'(/;)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant  and  an- 
tispasmodic. 

(c)  Used  in  hysterical  fits. 

(d)  Dose.     30  to  60  drops. 

Spirit  of  Horse-radish  (compound) . 

(a)  Mix  20  ounces  of  sliced  horse-radish, 
20  ounces  of  dried  orange  peel,  5  drachms  of 
bruised  nutmegs,  and  a  gallon  of  rectified  spirit 
with  10  pints  of  water  ;  then  distill  to  a  gallon, 
with  a  slow  fire. 

(h)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  diapho- 
retic and  diuretic. 

(c)  Used  internally  in  dyspepsia,  and  in  pa- 
ralysis, externally  rubbed  into  the  skin. 

(d)  Dose.     1  to  2  drachms. 

Spirit  of  Nitric  Ether.  Sweet  spirits 
of  niter. 

(«)  Physical  properties.  A  colorless,  trans- 
parent, volatile,  inflammable  fluid,  of  an  ethe- 
real odor. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Cooling,  diuretic, 
and  diaphoretic  ;  also  slightly  antispasmodic. 

(c)  Used  in  febrile  diseases,  dropsy,  and 
Bpasm. 

(d)  Dose.    20  to  60  minims,  largely  diluted. 


Squill. —  The  sea  onion. 

(a)  A  root  of  a  pear  shape,  covered  with 
several  thin  dry  tissues,  under  which  are  oval, 
flaky,  red  or  white  scales  ;  odor,  pungent ; 
taste,  acrid  and  bitter.  Imparts  its  virtue  to 
vinegar,  spirits,  and  water. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Expectorant, 
emetic,  diuretic. 

(c)  Used  in  chronic  bronchitis  and  asthma. 

(d)  Dose.  2  to  6  grains.  Syrup  of  squills, 
dose,  1  to  1£  drachms. 

Syrup  of  Iodide  of  Iron  is  used  in  order 
to  preserve  the  iodide  of  iron  from  injury. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Alterative,  and 
affording  the  effects  of  iron  and  iodine. 

(c)  Used  in  scrofulous  diseases,  and  in  cachec- 
tic states  of  the  system. 

(d)  Dose.     20  to  40  minims. 
Turpentine,  Spirit  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  A  limpid,  colorless 
fluid,  of  a  strong  odor  and  hot  taste,  exceed- 
ingly inflammable. 

(b)  Therapeuticid  effects.  Stimulant,  diuretic, 
carthartic,  and  destructive  to  worms. 

(c)  Used  in  hemorrhages,  lumbago,  etc.,  and 
to  destroy  worms  ;  also  externally  as  a  rubefa- 
cient. 

(d)  Dose.  10  drops  to  30  internally,  or  2  to 
4  drachms  mixed  with  castor  oil  as  a  vermi- 
fuge ;  but  it  should  not  be  given  internally 
without  the  sanction  of  a  physician. 

Tincture  of  Camphor  (compound.)  Par- 
egoric elixir. 

(a)  A  tincture  containing  camphor,  opium, 
anise,  and  benzoic  acid. 

(b)  Used  in  coughs. 

(c)  Dose.     1  drachm. 
Tincture  of  Ginger. 
Dose.     1  drachm. 

Tincture  of  Iodine,     (See  Iodine.) 

Dose.     5  to  15  minims. 

Tincture  of  Myrrh, 

Dose.  30  to  60  minims.  Useful  as  a  wash 
for  the  teeth.     Rarely  used  internally. 

Tincture  of  Opium.     Laudanum. 

Dose.     6  to  20  minims. 

Tincture  of  Quinine. 

Dose.     Teaspoonful. 

Tincture  of  Rhubarb  (compound).  A 
very  warm,  useful  preparation. 

Dose.     2  to  4  drachms. 

Tincture  of  Valerian  (compound). 

Dose.  30  to  60  minims,  in  dyspepsia  and 
hysteria. 

Tola,  Balsam  of. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Of  considerable  con- 
sistence ;  reddish  brown  in  color ;  odor,  very 
pungent;  taste,  warm,  and  sweetish. 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  A  stimulant  ex- 
pectorant. 


DOMESTIC    ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


405 


(c)  Used  in  chronic  coughs,  and  also  in 
wounds  and  ulcers. 

(d)  Dose.     10  grains. 
Valerian. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Several  long,  slen- 
der, dusky-brown  fibers,  issuing  from  one 
head ;  strong,  fetid  odor ;  warm,  bitterish, 
subacid  taste. 

(//)  Therapeutical  effects.  Antispasmodic, 
tonic. 

(c)  Used  in  hysteria. 

(d)  Dose.     1  drachm. 
Wine  of  Iron. 

(a)  Digest  for  30  days  2  ounces  of  tartar- 
ated  iron  in  a  pint  of  sherry. 

(fe)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stomachic  and 
tonic. 

(c)  Used  the  same  as  other  steel  medicines. 

(//)  Dose.     Two  tablespoonfuls. 

Wine  of  Opium. 

(«)  Prepared  with  opium  and  spices.- 

(b)  Therapeutical  effects.  Stimulant,  after- 
wards anodyne. 

(c)  Used  chiefly  as  an  application  to  the  eyes. 
(>/)  Dose.     10  to  20  minims. 

AVine  of  Potassio-tartrate  of  Anti- 
mony,    Antimonial  wine. 

(a)  Dissolve  2  scruples  of  potassio-tartrate 
of  antimony  in  a  pint  of  sherry. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Emetic  and  dia- 
phoretic. 

(c)  Used  in  inflammatory  diseases. 

(d)  Dose.     15  to  60  minims. 

Zinc,  Chloride  of.  A  powerful  drug, 
but  scarcely  adapted  to  domestic  use,  except  as 
a  disinfectant,  for  which  it  is  sold  in  solution. 
(See  Disinfectants.) 

Zinc,  Sulphate  of.     White  vitriol. 

(a)  Physical  properties.  Transparent  crys- 
tals. 

(6)  Therapeutical  effects.  Tonic,  astringent, 
and  emetic. 

(c)  Used  as  a  wash  or  as  an  emetic. 

(d)  Dose.  As  an  emetic,  10  to  30  grains  ; 
tonic,  2  grains. 

CHOICE  OF  ARTICLES  OP*FOOD. 

Nothing  is  more  important  in  the  affairs  of 
housekeeping  than  the  choice  of  wholesome 
food. 

Mackerel  must  be  perfectly  fresh.  The 
firmness  of  the  flesh  and  the  clearness  of  the 
eyes  must  be  the  criterion  of  fresh  mackerel, 
as  they  are  of  all  other  fish. 

Flounders,  and  all  flat  white  fish,  art; 
rigid  and  firm  when  fresh ;  the  under  side 
should  be  of  a  rich  cream  color. 

Cod  is  known  to  be  fresh  by  the  rigidity  of 
the  muscles  (or  flesh),  the  redaess  of  the  gills, 
and  clearness  of  the  eyes. 


Salmon. —  The  flavor  and  excellence  of  this 
fish  depend  upon  its  freshness,  and  the  short- 
ness of  time  since  it  was  caught. 

Herrings  can  only  be  eaten  when  very  fresh. 

Fresh  Water  Fish. — The  remarks  as  to 
firmness  and  clear,  fresh  eyes,  apply  to  this 
variety  of  fish,  of  which  there  are  pike,  perch, 
etc. 

Lobsters  recently  caught  have  always  some 
remains  of  muscular  action  in  the  claws,  which 
may  be  excited  by  pressing  the  eyes  with  the 
finger ;  when  this  cannot  be  produced,  the  lob- 
ster must  have  been  too  long  kept.  When 
boiled,  the  tail  preserves  its  elasticity  if  fresh, 
!  but  loses  it  as  soon  as  it  becomes  stale. 

Crabs  have  an  agreeable  smell  when  fresh. 

Prawns  and  Shrimps,  when  fresh,  are 
firm  and  crisp. 

Oysters. — If  fresh,  the  shell  is  firmly 
j  closed  ;  when  the  shells  of  oysters  are  opened, 
I  they  are  dead  and  unfit  for  food.  The  small- 
shelled  oysters  are  the  finest  in  flavor.  Larger 
kinds  are  generally  considered  only  fit  for 
stewing  and  sauces,  though  some  persons  pre- 
fer them. 

Beef. —  The  grain  of  ox  beef,  when  good,  is 
loose,  the  meat  red,  and  the  fat  inclining  to  yel- 
;  low.  When  meat  pressed  by  the  finger  rises  up 
quickly,  it  may  be  considered  as  that  of  an 
animal  which  was  in  its  prime  ;  when  the  dent 
made  by  pressure  returns  slowly,  or  remains 
visible,  the  animal  had  probably  passed  its 
prime,  and  the  meat  consequently  must  be  of 
inferior  quality. 

Veal  should  be  delicately  white,  though  it 
is  often  juicy  and  well  flavored  when  rather 
dark  in  color.  On  examining  the  loin,  if  the 
fat  enveloping  the  kidney  be  white  and  firm 
looking,  the  meat  will  probably  be  prime  and 
recently  killed. 

Mutton. — The  meat  should  be  firm  and 
close  in  grain,  and  red  in  color,  the  fat  white 
and  firm.  Mutton  is  in  its  prime  when  the 
sheep  is  about  five  years  old,  though  it  is  often 
killed  much  younger.  If  too  young,  the  flesh 
feels  tender  when  pinched,  if  too  old  on  being 
pinched  it  wrinkles  up,  and  so  remains.  In 
young  mutton,  the  fat  readily  separates ;  in 
old,  it  is  held  together  by  strings  of  skin. 

Lamb. — This  meat  will  not  keep  long  after 
it  is  killed.  The  large  vein  in  the  neck  is 
bluish  in  color  when  the  forequarter  is  fresh, 
green  when  becoming  stale.  In  the  hind- 
quarter,  if  not  recently  killed,  the  fat  of  the 
kidney  will  have  a  slight  smell,  and  the  knuckle 
will  have  lost  its  firmness. 

Pork. — When  good,  the  rind  is  thin, 
smooth,  and  cool  to  the  touch  ;  when  chang- 
ing, from  being  too  long  killed,  it  becomes 
flaccid  and  clammy. 


406 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Bacon  should  have  a  thin  rind,  and  the  fat 
should  be  firm  and  tinged  with  red  by  the  cur- 
ing ;  the  flesh  should  be  of  a  clear  red,  without 
intermixture  of  yellow,  and  it  should  firmly 
adhere  to  the  bone.  To  judge  the  state  of  a 
ham,  plunge  a  knife  into  it  to  the  bone  ;  on 
drawing  it  back,  if  particles  of  meat  adhere  to 
it,  or  if  the  smell  is  disagreeable,  the  curing 
has  not  been  effectual,  and  the  ham  is  not 
good ;  it  should,  in  such  a  state,  be  immedi- 
ately cooked. 

Venison.  When  good,  the  fat  is  clear, 
bright,  and  of  considerable  thickness. 

Turkeys. —  In  choosing  poultry,  the  age 
of  the  bird  is  the  chief  point  to  be  attended 
to.  An  old  turkey  has  rough  and  reddish 
legs  ;  a  young  one,  smooth  and  black.  Fresh 
killed,  the  eyes  are  full  and  clear,  and  the  feet 
moist.  When  it  has  been  kept  too  long,  the 
parts  about  the  vent  begin  to  wear  a  greenish, 
discolored  appearance. 

Common  Domestic  Fowls,  when 
young,  have  the  legs  and  combs  smooth  ;  when 
old,  they  are  rough,  and  on  the  breast  long 
hairs  are  found  instead  of  feathers.  Fowls 
and  chickens  should  be  plump  on  the  breast, 
fat  on  the  back,  and  white  legged. 

Geese.—  The  bills  and  feet  are  red  when 
old,  yellow  when  young.  Fresh  killed,  the 
feet  are  pliable,  stiff  when  too  long  kept. 
Geese  are  called  green  while  they  are  only  two 
or  three  months  old. 

Ducks. —  Choose  them  with  supple  feet 
and  hard,  plump  breasts.  Tame  ducks  have 
yellow  feet,  wild  ones  red. 

Pigeons  are  very  indifferent  food  when 
they  are  too  long  kept.  Suppleness  of  the 
feet  shows  them  to  be  young  ;  the  state  of  the 
flesh  is  flaccid  when  they  are  getting  bad  from 
keeping.  Tame  pigeons  are  larger  than  the 
wild. 

Partridges,  when  young,  have  yellow  legs 
and  dark  colored  bills.  Old  partridges  are 
very  indifferent  eating. 

Woodcock  and  Snipe,  when  old,  have 
the  feet  thick  and  hard ;  when  these  are  soft 
and  tender,  they  are  both  young  and  fresh 
killed.  When  their  bills  become  moist,  and 
their  throats  muddy,  they  have  been  too  long 
killed. 

SEASONABLE  FOOD 

To  be  Obtained  in  Our  Markets  During  the  Year. 

January. — Meats.  Beef,  mutton,  pork, 
lamb. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Rabbits,  hares,  par- 
tridges, woodcocks,  grouse  or  prairie  chickens, 
snipes,  antelope,  quails,  swans,  geese,  chick- 
ens, capons,    tame   pigeons,   wild  ducks,    the 


canvas-back  duck  being  the  most  popular  and 
highly  prized  ;  turkeys. 

Fish.  Haddock,  fresh  codfish,  halibut, 
flounders,  bass,  fresh  salmon,  turbot.  Frozen 
fresh  mackerel  is  found  in  our  large  cities  dur- 
ing this  month  ;  also  frozen  salmon,  red  snap- 
per, shad,  frozen  bluefish,  pickerel,  smelts, 
green  turtle,  diamond-back  terrapin,  prawns, 
oysters,  scallops,  hard  crabs,  white  bait,  fin- 
nan haddie,  smoked  halibut,  smoked  salmon. 

Vegetables.  Cabbage,  carrots,  turnips,  pars- 
nips, beets,  pumpkins,  chives,  celery,  winter 
squash,  onions,  white  and  sweet  potatoes,  Je- 
rusalem artichokes,  chicory,  Brussels  sprouts, 
kale  sprouts,  oyster  plant,  leeks,  cress,  cauli- 
flower. Garden  herbs,  both  dry  and  green, 
being  chiefly  used  in  stuffing  and  soups,  and 
for  flavoring  and  garnishing  certain  dishes,  are 
always  in  season,  such  as  sage,  thyme,  sweet 
basil,  borage,  dill,  mint,  parsley,  lavender, 
summer  savory,  etc.,  and  may  be  procured  green 
in  the  summer  and  dried  in  the  winter. 

Fruit.     Almonds,  apples. 

February. — Meats.  Beef,  mutton,  pork, 
lamb,  antelope. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Partridges,  hares,  rab- 
bits, snipes,  capons,  pheasants,  fowls,  pullets, 
geese,  ducks,  turkeys,  wild  ducks,  swan, 
geese,  and  pigeons. 

Fish.  Halibut,  haddock,  fresh  codfish, 
striped  bass,  eels,  fresh  salmon,  live  lobsters, 
pompano,  sheep's-head,  red-snapper,  white 
perch  (apanfish),  smelts  —  green  and  frozen; 
shad,  herring,  salmon-trout,  whitefish,  pick- 
erel, green  turtle,  flounders,  scallops,  prawns, 
oysters,  soft-shell  crabs  —  which  are  in  excel- 
lent condition  this  month  ;  hard  crabs,  white 
bait,  boneless  dried  codfish,  finnan  haddie, 
smoked  halibut,  smoked  salmon. 

Vegetables.  White  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
cabbage,  onions,  parsnips,  oyster  plant,  okra, 
celery,  chicory,  carrots,  turnips,  Jerusalem 
artichokes,  French  artichokes,  Brussels  sprouts, 
beets,  mushrooms  raised  in  hot  houses,  pump- 
kins, winter  squash,  dry  shallots  and  garden 
herbs  for  seasoning  put  up  in  the  dried  state. 

Fruit.  v  Apples,  chestnuts,  oranges. 

March. —  Meats.  Beef,  real,  mutton ,  lamb, 
pork. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Chickens,  turkeys,  duc*», 
rabbits,  snipes,  wild  pigeons,  capons. 

Fish.  Striped  bass,  halibut,  salmon,  live 
codfish,  chicken  halibut,  live  lobster,  Spanish 
mackerel,  flounders,  sheep's-head,  pompano, 
grouper,  red-snapper.  Shad  are  plentiful  this 
month.  Herring,  salmon-trout,  sturgeon, 
whitefish,  pickerel,  yellow  perch,  catfish,  green 
turtle,  terrapin,  scallops,  soft-shell  clams,  oys- 
ters, prawns,  smoked  salmon,  smoked  halibut, 
smoked  haddock,  salt  codfish. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


407 


Vegetables.  Cabbage,  turnips,  carrots,  pars- 
nips, artichokes,  white  potatoes,  sweet  pota- 
toes, onions,  leeks,  radishes,  Brussels  sprouts, 
celery,  mushrooms,  salsify,  chives,  cress,  pars- 
ley and  other  garden  herbs,  greens,  rhubarb 
and  cucumbers  raised  in  hot  beds. 

Fruit.     Apples,  chestnuts,  oranges. 

April. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  pork,  mutton, 
lamb. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Chickens,  fowls,  green 
geese,  young  ducks,  capons,  golden  plover, 
squabs,  wild  ducks. 

Fish.  Haddock,  fresh  cod,  striped  bass, 
halibut,  eels,  chicken  halibut,  live  lobsters, 
salmon,  white  perch,  flounders,  fresh  mackerel, 
sheep's  head,  smelts,  red-snapper,  bluefish, 
skate  or  ray  fish,  shad,  whitefish,  brook  trout, 
salmon-trout,  pickerel,  catfish,  prawns,  cray- 
fish, green  turtle,  oysters,  scallops,  frogs'  legs, 
clams,  hard  crabs,  white  bait,  smoked  halibut, 
smoked  salmon,  smoked  haddock,  salt  mackerel, 
salt  codfish. 

Vegetables.  Onions,  white  and  sweet  pota- 
toes, kale-sprouts,  rhubarb,  artichokes,  tur- 
nips, radishes,  Brussels  sprouts,  okra,  cab- 
bage, parsnips,  mushrooms,  cress,  carrots, 
beets,  dandelion,  egg  plant,  leeks,  lettuce, 
cucumbers,  asparagus,  string  beans,  peas, 
chives. 

Fruit.     Apples,  nuts,  oranges,  pears. 

May. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb, 
pork. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Fowls,  pigeons,  spring- 
chickens,  young  ducks,  chickens,  green  geese, 
young  turkeys. 

Fish.  Halibut,  haddock,  striped  bass,  sal- 
mon, flounders,  fresh  mackerel,  Spanish  mack- 
Kcel,  blackfish,  pompano,  butterfish,  weakfish, 
kingfish,  porgies,  shad,  bluefish,  clams,  brook- 
trout,  whitefish,  carp,  crayfish,  prawns,  green 
turtle,  soft  crabs,  frogs'  legs,  smoked  fish. 

Vegetables.  New  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
cabbage,  young  onions,  asparagus,  beets,  car- 
rots, kidney  beans,  string  beans,  lettuce,  to- 
matoes, cauliflower,  peas,  turnips,  squash, 
rhubarb,  spinach,  radishes,  artichokes,  sorrel, 
egg-plant,  cucumbers,  salads  generally. 

Fruit.     Apples,  pears. 

June. —  Meats.     Beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Chickens,  geese,  ducks, 
young  turkeys,  plovers,  pigeons. 

Fish.  Fresh  salmon,  striped  bass,  halibut, 
fresh  mackerel,  flounders,  kingfish,  blackfish, 
weakfish,  butterfish,  pompano,  Spanish  mack- 
erel, porgies,  sheep's-head,  sturgeon,  sea  bass, 
bluefish,  skate"  or  rayfish,  carp,  black  bass, 
crayfish,  lobsters,  eels,  white  bait,  frogs'  legs, 
soft  crabs,  clams. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  spinach,  cauliflower, 
string  beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  asparagus,   car- 


rots, artichokes,  parsnips,  onions,  cucumbers, 
lettuce,  radishes,  cress,  oyster  plant,  egg  plant, 
rhubarb,  and  all  kinds  of  garden  herbs,  sorrel, 
horse-radish. 

Fruit.  Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  currants, 
gooseberries,  melons,  pears,  strawberries. 

July. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton,  lamb, 
pork. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Fowks,  chickens,  pigeons, 
plovers,  young  geese,  turkey  plouts,  squabs, 
doe  birds,  tame  rabbits. 

Fish.  Spanish  mackerel,  striped  bass,  fresh 
mackerel,  blackfish,  kingfish,  flounders,  sal- 
mon, cod,  haddock,  halibut,  pompano,  butter- 
fish(a  sweet  panfish),  sheep's-head,  porgies,  sea 
bass,  weakfish,  swordfish,  tautog,  bluefish, 
skate,  brook  trout,  crayfish,  black  bass,  moon- 
fish  (a  fine  baking  or  boiling  fish),  pickerel, 
perch,  eels,  green  turtle,  frogs'  legs,  soft  crabs, 
white  bait,  prawns,  lobsters,  clams. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  asparagus,  pease,  green 
string  beans,  butter  beans,  artichokes,  celery, 
lettuce,  carrots,  salsify,  tomatoes,  spinach, 
mushrooms,  cabbage,  onions,  endive,  radishes, 
turnips,  mint,  various  kinds  of  greens  and 
salads. 

Fruit.  Apples,  apricots,  cherries,  currants, 
damsons,  gooseberries,  melons,  nectarines, 
peaches,  pears,  oranges,  pineapples,  plums, 
raspberries,  strawberries. 

August. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton, 
lamb,  pork. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Venison,  young  ducks, 
green  geese,  snipe,  plover,  turkeys,  guinea 
fowls,  squabs,  wild  pigeons,  woodcock,  fowls. 

Fish.  Striped  bass,  cod,  halibut,  haddock, 
salmon,  flounders,  fresh  mackerel,  bonito,  but- 
terfish, sea  bass,  kingfish,  sheep's-head,  porgies, 
bluefish,  moonfish,  brook  trout,  eels,  black 
bass,  crayfish,  skate  or  rayfish,  catfish,  green 
turtle,  white  bait,  squid,  frogs'  legs,  soft  crabs, 
prawns,  clams. 

Vegetables.  Carrots,  artichokes,  onions, 
string  beans,  lima  beans,  cauliflower,  Irish  po- 
tatoes, sweet  potatoes,  green  corn,  tomatoes, 
pease,  summer  squash,  cucumbers,  radishes,  let- 
tuce, celery,  rhubarb,  beets,  greens,  mushrooms, 
chives. 

Fruit.  Apples  (summer  pippin),  cherries, 
currants,  damsons,  gooseberries,  grapes,  melons, 
mulberries,  nectarines,  peaches,  pears,  plums 
(greengages) ,  raspberries. 

September. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton, 
lamb,  pork,  venison. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Larks,  woodcock,  snipe, 
wild  pigeons,  squabs,  young  geese,  young  tur- 
keys, plover,  wild  ducks,  wild  geese,  swans 
and  brant  fowls,  reed  birds,  grouse,  doe  birds, 
partridges. 

Fish.     Salmon,   halibut,  codfish,   pompano 


408 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


striped  bass,  haddock,  cero  (a  large  fish  similar 
to  the  Spanish  mackerel),  flounders,  fresh  mack- 
erel, blackfish,  Spanish  mackerel,  butterfish, 
whitefish,  weakfish,  smelts,  porgies,  squids, 
pickerel,  crayfish,  catfish,  bluefish,  wall-eyed 
pike,  sea  bass,  skate,  carp,  prawns,  white  bait, 
frogs'  legs,  hard  crabs,  moonfish,  soft  crabs, 
herrings,  lobsters,  clams. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  turnips,  arti- 
chokes, peas,  beans,  carrots,  onions,  salsify, 
mushrooms,  lettuce,  sorrel,  celery,  cauliflower, 
Brussels  sprouts,  sweet  potatoes,  squash,  rhu- 
barb, green  peppers,  parsnips,  beets,  green 
corn,  tomatoes,  cress. 

Fruit.  Apples,  damsons,  grapes,  hazelnuts, 
medlars,  peaches,  pears,  pineapples,  plums, 
quinces,  strawberries,  walnuts. 

October. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton, 
lamb,  pork,  venison,  antelope. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Turkeys,  geese,  fowls, 
pullets,  chickens,  wild  ducks,  the  canvas-back 
duck  being  the  most  highly  prized,  for  its  deli- 
cate flavor ;  woodcock,  grouse,  pheasants, 
pigeons,  partridges,  snipes,  reed  birds,  golden 
plover,  gray  plover,  squabs. 

Fish.  Striped  bass,  fresh  cod,  halibut,  had- 
dock, Spanish  mackerel,  fresh  mackerel,  cero, 
flounders,  pompano,  weakfish,  white  perch, 
grouper,  sheep's-head,  whitefish,  bluefish,  pick- 
erel, red  snapper,  yellow  perch,  smelts,  sea 
bass,  black  bass,  cisco,  wall-eyed  pike,  cray- 
fish, carp,  salmon  ti  out,  spotted  bass,  terrapin, 
frogs'  legs,  hard  crabs,  soft  crabs,  white  bait, 
green  turtle,  scallops,  eels,  lobsters,  oysters. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  turnips,  car- 
rots, cauliflowers,  parsnips,  string  beans,  *peas, 
lima  beans,  corn,  tomatoes,  onions,  spinach, 
salsify,  egg  plant,  beets,  pumpkins,  endive, 
celery,  parsley,  squash,  cucumbers,  mush- 
rooms, sweet  herbs  of  all  kinds,  salads  of  all 
kinds,  garlic,  shallots. 

Fruit.  Almonds,  apples,  black  and  white 
damsons,  hazelnuts,  grapes,  peaches,  pears, 
quinces,  walnuts. 

November. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton, 
pork,  venison,  antelope. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Rabbits,  hares,  pheas- 
ants, woodcock,  partridges,  quails,  snipe, 
grouse,  wild  ducks,  wild  geese,  fowls,  turkeys, 
pigeons. 

Fish.  Striped  bass,  fresh  cod,  halibut,  had- 
dock, salmon,  fresh  mackerel,  blackfish,  white- 
fish,  bluefish,  catfish,  redfish  or  spotted  bass, 
black  bass,  yellow  perch,  skate,  red  snapper, 
salmon  trout,  pickerel,  shad,  wall-eyed  pike, 
cisco,  crayfish,  terrapin,  green  turtle,  scallops, 
prawns,  white  bait,  frogs'  legs,  hard  crabs, 
oysters. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  carrots,  parsnips,  tur- 
nips, onions,  dried  beans,  artichokes,  cabbages, 


beets,  winter  squash,  celery,  parsley,  pump- 
kins, shallots,  mushrooms,  chicory,  all  sorts 
of  salads  and  sweet  herbs. 

Fruit.  Almonds,  apples,  chestnuts,  hazel- 
nuts, grapes,  pears. 

December. —  Meats.  Beef,  veal,  mutton, 
pork,  venison. 

Poultry  and  Game.  Rabbits,  hares,  grouse, 
pheasants,  woodcock,  snipe,  partridges,  tur- 
key, fowls,  chickens,  pullets,  geese,  wild  geese, 
ducks,  wild  duck,  tame  duck,  canvas-back 
duck,  quails. 

Fish.  Turbot,  sturgeon,  haddock,  halibut, 
eels,  striped  bass,  flounders,  salmon,  fresh  cod, 
blackfish,  whitefish,  grouper,  cusk,  shad,  mul- 
let (a  sweet  panfish),  black  bass,  yellow  perch, 
salmon-trout,  pickerel,  cisco,  skate,  wall-eyed 
pike,  terrapin,  crayfish,  green  turtle,  prawns, 
hard  crabs,  soft  crabs,  scallops,  frogs'  legs, 
oysters. 

Vegetables.  Potatoes,  cabbages,  onions, 
winter  squash,  beets,  turnips,  pumpkins,  car- 
rots, parsnips,  dried  beans,  dried  peas,  mush- 
rooms, parsley, shallots,  Brussels  sprouts,  leeks, 
horse-radish,  garlic,  mint,  '  sage,  and  small 
salads.  Garden  herbs,  which  are  mostly  used 
for  stuffings  and  for  flavoring  dishes,  soups, 
etc.,  or  for  garnishing,  may  be  found  either 
green  or  dried  the  year  round,  always  in  season. 

Melons  can  be  had  at  most  of  our  markets 
from  July  1st  until  the  15th  of  October;  they 
are  received  from  the  South  in  the  early  part 
of  the  season,  and  are  not  as  fresh  and  good 
as  those  ripened  in  our  own  vicinity. 

Fruits.     Apples,  chestnuts,  hazelnuts. 

TERMS  USED  IX  FRENCH  COOK- 
ERY. 

Many  dishes  and  processes  peculiar  to  French  cookery 
are  now  so  largely  introduced  into  culinary  and  other 
treatises,  that  a  glossary  of  them  can  scarcely  fail  to 
prove  practically  useful. 

Allemamle,  reduced  or  concentrated  white  veloute 
sauce,  thickened  with  cream  and  yolks  of  eggs,  and  sea- 
soned with  nutmeg  and  lemon  juice. 

Angelica  is  a  plant,  the  tender  tubular  branches  of 
which,  after  being  preserved  in  syrup,  are  used  for  the 
purpose  of  decorating  entremets,  etc. 

Assiette  Volante,  dish  passed  round. 

Aspic,  savory  jelly  for  cold  dishes. 

Au  Gratin,  dishes  prepared  with  sauce  and  crumbs 
and  baked. 

Au  Natural,  cooked  and  served  in  its  natural  state; 
plain. 

Baba,  a  light  sort  of  cake,  served  as  a  remove  to  the 
second  course  roast. 

Bechamel,  a  rich  white  sauce,  made  with  stock. 

Beignet,  fritter. 

Bisque,  a  sou])  of  shell  fish  and  game. 

Blanc,  a  rich  white  broth  in  which  game,  poultry, 
etc.,  are  cooked. 

To  Blanch,  to  place  any  article  on  the  fire  till  it 
boils,  then  plunge  it  in  cold  water ;  to  whiten  poultry, 
vegetables,  etc. ;  to  remove  the  skin  by  immersing  in 
boiling  water. 

Blanquette,  scollops  cut  from  cold  roast  joints  and 
warmed  in  allemande  sauce. 

Bouohees,  very  thin  patties  or  cakes,  as  name  indi- 
cates  —  mouthfuls. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,    DIETETICS. 


409 


Boudin,  a  delicate  kind  of  entree,  prepared  with 
quenelle,  force-meat,  or  mince. 

Bouilli,  boiled  fresh  beef  with  vegetables. 

Bouillon,  a  clear  soup,  stronger  than  broth,  yet  not 
bo  strong  :is  eonaommi,  which  Is"  reduced  "  soup. 

Bouquet  (garnished),  or  faggot,  consists  of  a  handful 
of  parsley,  six  green  onions,  a  small  bay  leaf,  and  a 
sprig  of  thyme,  neatly  tied  together  with  twine. 

Braise,  "meat  cooked  in  a  closely  covered  stewpan, 
so  that  it  retains  its  own  flavor  and  those  of  the  vegeta- 
bles and  flavorings  put  with  it. 

Brioche,  a  very  rich,  unsweetened  French  cake 
made  with  yeast. 

Buisson,  a  high  standing  dish  of  sugar-work  and 
pastry. 

Cannelon,  stuffed,  rolled-up  meat. 

Caramel,  burned  sugar  for  coloring  soups. 

Casserole,  a  mold  of  rice,  a  stewpan. 

Charlotte  consists  generally  of  very  thin  slices  of 
bread,  steeped  in  clarified  butter,  and  placed  in  sym- 
metrical order  in  a  plain  mold,  garnished  with  fruit  or 
preserves. 

Chartreuse  of  Vegetables,  a  mixed  preparation, 
consisting  of  vegetables  symmetrically  and  tastefully 
arranged  in  a  plain  mold,  the  interior  of  which  is  gar- 
nished with  either  game,  quails,  or  larks,  mixed  with 
pease  or  mushrooms,  etc. 

Compotier,  a  dish  to  hold  the  compote. 

Contise,  when  small  scollops  of  truffles,  red-tongue, 
etc.  are  inlaid,  as  ornaments,  by  incision  in  fillets  of  any 
kind,  they  are  said  to  be  contises. 

Consomme,  clear  sotip  or  bouillon,  boiled  down  till 
very  rich,  I.  e.,  consumed. 

Court  Bouillon,  a  preparation  of  wine,  water,  and 
savory  herbs  in  which  fish  is  cooked. 

Croquettes  and  Rissoles,  a  savory  mince  of  fish 
or  fowl,  made  with  sauce  into  shapes,  and  fried.  These 
words  both  signify  something  crisp. 

Croustades,  Pates-Chauds,  Tourtes,  Timbales, 
C  isseroles  of  Rice,  various  ornamental  pie-cases, 
made  either  of  paste,  or  prepared  rice. 

Croutons,  sippets  of  bread  of  various  size3  and 
shapes,  fried  in  clarified  butter,  and  used  to  garnish 
salmis,  fricassees,  dressed  vegetables,  etc. ;  they  are  also 
served  with  certain  soups,  chiefly  with  purees. 

Cullls.  a  very  rich  white  or  brown  gravy. 

En  Papillote,  cooked  in  oiled  paper. 

Entremets,  or  second  course  dishes,  consist  of  four 
distinct  sorts, namely :  cold  entrees ;  dressed  vegetables ; 
scalloped  shellfish  and  dressed  eggs ;  and  lastly,  of  the 
infinitely  varied  class  of  sweets,  consisting  of  puddings, 
gateaux',  timbales,  sweet  croquettes,  charlottes,  cro- 
quantes,  pastries,  jellies,  creams,  fritters,  etc. 

Entrees,  made  dishes  for  the  first  course. 

Espagnole  and  Veloute,  the  two  main  sauces  from 
which  all  others  are  made ;  the  first  is  brown,  the  other 
white. 

Fanchonettes  and  Florentines,  varieties  of  small 
pastry  meringued  over. 

Farcie,  force-meat. 

Feuilletage,  puff  paste. 

Flans,  Darioles,  and  Mirlitons,  varieties  of  French 
cheese-cakes. 

Fondant,  sugar  boiled  and  beaten  to  a  creamy 
paste. 

Fondue,  a  light  preparation  of  melted  cheese. 

Force,  a  coarse  kind  of  force-meat  used  for  raised 
pies  and  gratins. 

Fricandeau  and  Grenadins  consist  of  the  primest 
parts  of  veal,  of  fillets  of  poultry,  etc.,  smoothly  trim- 
med, larded,  and  brightly  glazed  with  a  concentration 
of  their  own  liquor ,  they  are  served  as  side  dishes. 

Fricassee  consists  of  chickens  cut  in  pieces,  and  pre- 
pared in  a  white  sauce.with  truffles,  mushrooms,  cock's- 
combs,  etc.,  as  accessories. 

Friture,  frying  pan. 

Gateau,  cake. 

Gaufifres,  a  light,  spongy  biscuit. 

Glace,  anything  iced.  This  word  is  sometimes  used 
figuratively  by  French  cooks,  to  signify  a  smooth, 
glossy  surface. 

Gras,  made  from  meat. 

Gratins,  a  term  applied  to  consolidated  soups  and 
sauces ;  also  to  certain  dishes  of  high  character,  consist- 
ing of  game,  poultry,  fish,  vegetables,  or  macaroni,  etc., 


improved  by  great  care  and  finish,  through  the  use  of 
concentrated  sauces  and  gravies. 

Hollandaise  Sauce,  a  rich  sauce  something  like 
hot  mayonnaise. 

Mors  d'tEuvres  (hot),  a  species  of  very  light  en- 
trees, such  as  patties  of  all  kinds,  rissoles,  croquettes, 
scolloped  fish,  shellfish,  macaroni,  poultry,  game, 
sweetbreads,  brains,  ox-piths,  horjies  of  fish,  poultry, 
or  game,  etc. 

Horg  d'CEuvres  (cold).  These  should  be  eaten  imme- 
diately after  the  soup  and  fish ;  they  are  considered  as 
appetizers  and  consist  of  sardines,  anchovies,  tunny, 
Dutch  herrings,  savory  butters,  oysters,  oiled  salads. 

Jardiniere,  a  mixed  preparation  of  vegetables, 
stewed  down  in  their  own  sauce. 

Liaison,  a  thickening  of  yolk  of  eggs  diluted. 

Macedoine  of  Vegetables  is  a  jardinifere,  with  the 
addition  of  some  kind  of  white  sauce. 

Macedoine  of  Fruit,  a  kind  of  jelly. 

Maigre,  made  without  meat. 

Marinade,  a  preparation  for  enriching  the  flavor  of 
meat,  fish,  etc.,  made  of  wine,  vinegar,  water,  herbs, 
vegetables,  oil,  liquor,  sugar,  and  spices. 

Matelote,  a  rich  fish  stew,  with  wine. 

Mayonnaise,  a  rich  salad  dressing. 

Miroton,  a  rechauffe',  very  nicely  prepared. 

Meringue,  sugar  and  white  of  egg  beaten  to  a 
sauce. 

Nougat,  a  mixture  of  almonds  and  sugar. 
Nouilles,  a  paste  of  flour,  cream,  and  eggs. 
Noix  de  Veau,  technical  term  meaning  cushion ;  that 
part  of  the  leg  of  veal  next  the  udder. 

Paner,  to  bread-crumb. 

Panierer,  to  cover  with  bread  crumbs. 

Passer,  to  fry  lightly. 

Pigne,  to  lard  oh  the  surface  only. 

Poelee,  a  braise  to  enrich  game,  etc. 

Potage,  soup  or  light  broth. 

Profltrolles,  a  light  pastry  used  as  an  entremet. 

Puree,  a  kind  of  pulpy  maceration  of  roasted  meats, 
and  of  vegetables,  or  fruits,  finished  by  being  passed 
through  a  tammy  or  sieve 

Quenelles,  a  rich  farcie  molded  in  forms  and  poached 
in  broth. 

Ragout,  a  rich  compound,  consisting  of  quenelles, 
mushrooms,  truffles,  fat  livers,  etc.,  mixed  in  a  sauce, 
and  used  for  garnished  removes  and  entrees. 

Releves  or  Removes,  the  top  and  bottom  dishes 
(as  they  are  designated  in  England),  serve  to  replace  the 
soup  and  fish  on  ordinary  tables.  These  usually  consist 
of  roast  joints,  turkeys,  capons,  fillets,  etc. 

Rissoles,  small  pastry,  either  of  savory  or  sweets, 
fried. 

Roux,  a  thickening  of  flour  add  butter. 

Salmis,  a  highly  finished  hash,  made  with  game  or 
wild  fowl,  cut  up  and  prepared  in  either  a  rich  gravy  or 
sauce. 

Salpicon,  a  preparation  of  red  tongue,  ham,  mush- 
rooms, and  chicken  or  game,  chiefly  used  to  fill  boudins, 
croquettes,  bouchees,  etc. 

Saute,  to  cook  quickly  over  a  sharp  fire  with  just 
enough  oil  or  butter  to  prevent  sticking. 

Sautoir,  saut^-pan. 

Souffle,  a  very  light,  much  whipped-up  pudding  or 
omelette. 

Tamis,  a  sieve  of  fine  cloth  wire,  also  of  coarse  woolen 
cloth. 
Timbale,  a  pie  raised  in  a  mold. 

Toppot,  the  surface  fat  from  the  common  stock  pot. 
Tourte,  a  tart  of  fresh  or  preserved  fruit. 

Vanner,  to  use  sauce  with  a  small  ladle  in  peculiar 
manner. 

Veloute,  the  stock  for  white  sauce,  as  EspagnoU  is 
for  brown. 

Vol  au  Vents,  patties  of  very  light  puff  paste,  made 
without  a  dish  or  mold,  and  <il!sd  with  meat  or  pre- 


410 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


HOUSEKEEPERS'  TIME-TABLE. 


Apples,  sour,  hard 

Apples,  sweet  and  mellow 

Asparagus ' 

Beans (pod) 

Beans  with  green  corn 

Beef 

Beefsteak 

Beefsteak 

Beef,  salted 

Bass,  fresh 

Beets,  young 

Beets,  old 

Bread,  corn 

Bread, wheat  

Butter 

Cabbage 

Cabbage  and  vinegar 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Cake,   sponge 

Carrot,  orange 

Cheese,  old, 

Chicken 

Codflsh,  dry  and  whole. .    

Custard  (one  quart) 

Duck,  tame 

Duck,  wild 

Dumpling,  apple 

Eggs,  hard 

Eggs,  soft 

Eggs 

Eggs 

Fowls,  domestic,  roasted, or... 
Gelatine 

Goose,  wild 

Lamb 

Meat  and  vegetables 

Milk 

Milk 

Mutton 

Mutton 

Onions 

Oysters 

Oysters 

Parsnips 

Pigs'  feet 

Pork 

Pork 

Pork,  raw,  or 

Pork 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Potatoes 

Rice 

Salmon,  fresh 

Sausage '■ 

Sausage 

Soup,  vegetable 

Soup,  chicken 

Soup,  oyster  or  mutton 

Spinach 

Tapioca 

Tomatoes 

Tomatoes 

Trout,  salmon,  fresh,  boiled  or 

Turkey,  boiled  or 

Turnips 

Veal 

Venison  steak 


Mode  of 
Prepara- 
tion. 


raw 

raw 

boiled 

boiled 

boiled 

roasted 

broiled 

fried) 

boiled 

broiled 

boiled 

boi  led 

baked 

baked 

melted 

raw 

raw 

boiled 

boiled 

baked 

boiled 

raw 
fricasseed 

boiled 

baked 

roasted 

roasted 

boiled 

boiled 

boiled 

fried 

raw 

boiled 

boiled 

roasted 

boiled 

hashed 

raw 
boiled 
roast 
broiled 

boiled 

roasted 

stewed 

boiled 

soused 

roast 

boiled 

fried 

broiled 

boiled 

baked 

roasted 

boiled 

boiled 

fried 

broiled 

boiled 

boiled 

boiled 

boiled 

boiled 

fresh 

canned 

fried 

roasted 

boiled 

broiled 

broiled 


Time  of 

Cooking. 


15  to  30 
1     00 


26 

15 
IS 
35 

'JO 

(id 
:io 
l.-, 
00 


1  00 

1-2  00 

—  45 

1  00 


1 
*  — 

1 
1 

1 


*—      20 

*—      20 

—      30 


*—  25 

—  20 
1-2  00 

—  5 
1  00 


so 

25 

20 

.",(( 
45 
45 

an 

8 
25 

aa 

0(1 

(III 

30 
00 
30 

llll 

80 
30 
20 
45 
20 

an 


i 

2 
t    3 


•Minutes  to  the  pound. 

t  Mutton  soup.  The  time  given  is  the  general  average ; 
the  time  will  vary  slightly  with  the  quality  of  the 
article. 

FRENCH-ENGEISH   DISHES. 

Potages  (po-ta-j).    Soups. 

Consomrue'  de  boauf  clair  (kon-so-me  de  beuf  kler). 

Amber,  or  clear  soup. 
Consomme  aux  legumes  (kon-so-me'  A  le-gu-m). 

Soup,  with  vegetables. 


Consomme  au  macaroni  (kon-so-me  6  ma-ka-ro-ni). 

Macaroni  soup. 
Consomme  aux  nouilles  (kon-so  me  6  nou-i). 

Noodle  sou)) 
Consomme  aux  vevniiccllcs  (kon-so-me  6  ver-mi-she-1). 

Vermicelli  soup. 
Consommi5  de  volaille  (kon-so-me  de  vo-la-i). 

Chicken  soup. 
Potage  aux  croutons  (po-ta-j  A  krou-ton). 

Soup,  with  bread. 
Potage  printanier  (po-ta-j  prin-ta-nie).  Spring  soup. 

Potage  a  la  julienne  (po-ta-j  ala  ju-lie-n).  Julienne  soup. 
Potage  d'  asperge  (po-ta-j  das-per-j).  Asparagus  soup. 
Potage  aux  queues  de  boeuf  (po-ta-j  0  keu  de  beuf). 

Ox-tail  soup. 
Potage  a  la  puree  de  volaille  (po-ta-j  a  la  pu-re"  de  vo-la-i). 

Chicken  puree. 
Potage  a  la  fausse  tortue  (po-ta-j  a  la  fd-se  tor-tu). 

Mock-turtle  soup. 
Potage  aux  huitres  (po-ta-j  6  ui-tr).  Oyster  soup. 

Potage  a  la  puree  d'haricots  I  po-ta-j  a  la  pu-re  da-ri-ko). 

Bean  soup. 
Potage  aux  tomates  (po-ta-j  6  to-ma-t).        Tomato  soup. 
Potage  a  la  puree  de  pommes  de  terre  (po-ta-j  a  la  pu-re 
pom  de  te-r).  Potato  soup. 

Puree  de  legumes  (pu-re"  de  le-gu-m).  Vegetable  puree. 
Soupe  a  l'oignon  (soup  a  lo-gnon).  Onion  soup. 

Soupe  a  l'oseille  (soup  a  16-ze-i).  Sorrel  soup. 

Poissons  (poa-son).     Fish. 
Saumon,  sauce  BoTJandalse  (so-mon,  sd-s  ho-lan-di-z). 

Salmon,  Hollandaise  sauce. 
Saumon,  sauce  homard  (so-mon,  so-s  ho-mar). 

Salmon,  with  lobster  sauce 
Saumon,  sauce  au  persil  (s6-mon,  sd-s  <*>  per-si). 

Salmon,  with  parsley  sauce. 
Saumon,  sauce  aux  ceufs  (so-mon,  so-s  6  euf). 

Salmon,  with  egg  sauce. 
Saumon,  aux  pommes  de  terre  (so-mon  8  po-m  de  te-r) 

Salmon,  with  potatoes. 
Tranches  de  saumon  (tran-sh  de  so-mon). 

Slices  of  salmon. 
Troncon  de  saumon  (tron-son  de  so-mon). 

Middle  cut  of  salmon. 
Cdtelettes  de  saumon  aux  cornichons(ke-t-le-t  de  sd-mon 
6  k6r-ni-shon).  Salmon  cutlets,  with  pickles 

Saumon  aux  concombres  (s6-mon  d  kon-kon-br). 

Salmon,  with  cucumbers. 
Sardines  grilhies  (sar-di-n  gri-i£).  Sardines,  broiled. 

Eperlans  frits  (e-per-lan  free-t).  Smelts,  Tried. 

Petites  truites  frites  (p5-ti  trui-t  free-t). 

Little  trout  fried. 
Truite  en  coquilles  (,trui-t  an  ko-ki-i).  Trout  in  shells. 
Truite  saumonee  (trui-t  sd-mo-n*).  Salmon  trout. 

Morue  a  la  sauce  aux  capres  (mo-ru  a  la  sd-s  d  ka-pr). 

Codflsh,  with  caper  sauce. 
Morue  a  la  Bechamel  (mo-ru  a  la  be-sha-mel). 

Codfish,  with  Bechamel  sauce. 
Morue  aux  pommes  de  terre  (md-ru  d  po-m  de  te-r). 

Codfish,  with  potatoes. 
Gratin  d'anguilles  (gra-tin  dan-ghi-i). 

Eels  an  gratin  (with  crumbs). 
Matelote  d'anguilles  (ma-t-lo-t  dan-ghi-i). 

Eels  en  matelote  (sailor  fashion). 
Maquereau  frais  a  la  maitre   d'hdtel  (ma-k-ro  fre  a  la 
me-tr  do-tel).    Fresh  mackerel,  with  maitre  d'hotel 
butter. 

Huitres  (ui-tr).    Oysters. 
Huitres  en  coquille  (ui-tr  an  ko-ki-i).      Oysters  in  shells. 
Huitres  frites  (ui-tr  free-t).  ( >ysters  fried. 

Beignets  d'huitres  (be-gne  dui-tr).  Oyster  fritters. 

Petite  vol-au-vent  d'huitres  (pe-ti  vol  d  van  dui-tr). 

Oyster  patties. 
Bouchees  d'huitres  (bou-she  dui-tr).  Oyster  patties. 

Sauces  (so-s).    Sauces. 
Sauce  a  la  Bechamel  (sd-s  a  la  be-sha-mel ). 

White  sauce  (made  with  stock). 
Sauce  aux  cornichons  (sd-s  d  kor-ni-shon).    Pickle  sauce. 


Sauce  aux  ceufs  (sd-s  6  euf).  Egg  sauce. 

Sauce  aux  capres  (sd-s  d  ca-pr).  Caper  sauce. 

Sauce  aux  anchois  (sd-s  A  An-shoa),  Anchovy  sauce. 

Suuce  aux  crevettes  (sd-s  A  kre-ve-t).  Shrimp  sauce. 

Sauce  homard  (sd-s  bo-mar).  Lobster  sauce. 

Suuce  aux  huitres  (sd-s  d  ui-tr).  Oyster  sauce. 

Sauce  au  pent]  (sd-s  A  per-*i  .  Parsley  sauce. 

Sauce  au  chou-fleur  (sd-s  d  shou-fleQr). 

Cauliflower  sauce. 
Sauce  au  vin  de  Madere  (sd-s  d  vin  de  ma-de-r). 

Madeira  wine  sauce. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


411 


Sauce  aux  groseilles  (so-s  6  grA-ze-i). 

Currant  jelly  sauce. 
Sauce  tomate  (so-s  to-raa-t).  Tomato  sauce. 

Sauce  aux  champignons  (so-s  6  chan-pi-gnon). 

Mushroom  sauce. 

Viandes  (vian-d).     Meats. 

Filet  do  boeuf  roti  (fi-le  de  beuf  rA-ti). 

Roast  fillet  of  beef. 
Filet  de  boeuf  pigue  (fi-l<5  de  beuf  pi-k). 

Fillet  of  beef,  larded. 
Filet  de  boeuf  aux  champignons  (fi-le  de  beuf  A  chan- 
pi-gnon).  Fillet  of  beef,  with  mushrooms. 

Boeuf  braise  (beuf  bra-ze).  Braised  beef . 

Boeuf  braise  k  la  jardiniere  (beuf   bra-ze  a    la  jar-di- 
nie-r).  Braised  beef,  with  vegetables. 

Il;i<  his  de  boeuf  (ha-shi  de  beuf).  Beef  hash. 

Bifteck  aux  champignons  (bif  tfek  A  chan-pi-gnon). 

Beefsteak,  with  mushrooms. 
Pate"  de  bifteeks  (pa-te  de  bif-tek).  Beefsteak  pie. 

Boeuf  a  la  mode  (beuf  a  la  mod).  A-la-mode  beef. 

Languc  de  boeuf  a  l'ecarlate  (lan-g  de  beuf  a  le-kar-la-t). 

Pickled  tongue. 
Langues  de  mouton  (lan-g  de  mou-ton). 

Mutton  tongue. 
Selle  de  mouton  rotic  (sk-1  de  mou-ton  rA-ti). 

Saddle  of  mutton,  roast. 
Poitrine  de  mouton  farcie  (poa-tri-n  de  mou-ton  far-se). 
Shoulder  of  mutton,  stuffed. 
Ragout  de  mouton  (ra-gou  de  mou-ton).        Mutton  stew. 
Cdtelettea  de  mouton  grilles  (kA-t-le-t  de  mou-ton  gri-i). 
Mutton  cutlets,  broiled. 
CAtelettes  de  mouton  pannes  (ko-t-le-t  de  mou-ton  pa-ne  i. 
Mutton  cutlets,  breaded. 
Cotelettes  de  mouton  aux  petits  pois  (kA-t-le-t  de  mou- 
ton A  pe-ti-poa).  Mutton  cutlets,  with  peas. 
Rognons  de  mouton  (ro-gnon  de  mou-ton). 

Sheep's  kidneys. 
CAtelettes  d'agneau  (kA-t-le-t  da-gno).  Lamb  cutlets. 
Croquettes  d'agneau  (kro-ke-t  da-gno). 

Lamb  croquettes. 
CAtelettes  de  roan,  sauce  tomate  (kA-t-le-t  de  vA  sA-s  to- 
ma-t.  Veal  cutlets,  with  tomato  sauce. 
Fricahdeau  de  veau  (f  ri-kan-dA  de  vA). 

Fricandeau  of  veal. 
Foie  tie  veau  grille  (foa  de  vA  gri-i).  Liver,  broiled. 

Cotelettes  de  pore  aux  cornichons  (kA-t-le-t  de  pAr  A  kAr- 
ni-shon).  Pork  cutlets,  with  pickles. 

Jambon  f roid  (jan-bon  froa).  Cold  ham. 

Blanquette  de  veau  (blan-ke-t  de  vA). 

Blanquette  of  veal. 

Ris  de  vean  (rl  de  vo).     Sweetbreads. 
Ris  de  veau  a  la  Milanaise  (ri  de  vA  a  la  mi-la-ne-z). 

Sweetbreads,  with  macaroni. 
Ris  de  veau  a  la  sauce  tomate  (ri  de  vA  a  la  sA-s  to-ma-t). 
Sweetbreads,  with  tomato  sauce. 
Ris  de  veau  aux  petits  pois  (ri  de  vA  A  pe-ti  poa). 

Sweetbreads,  with  peas. 
Ris  de  veau  pique  (ri  de  vA  pi-k).  Sweetbreads,  larded. 
Beignets  de  ris  de  veau  (be-gne  de  ri  de  vA). 

Sweetbread  fritters. 
Croquettes  de  ris  de  veau  (kro-ke-t  de  ri  de  vA). 

Sweetbread  croquettes. 

Volaille  et   Gibier  (vo-la-i  e  ji-bie).     Poultry  and 

Game. 
Dinde  farcie  (din-d  far-se).  Stuffed  turkey. 

Dinde  piquee  (dTn-d  pi-ko).  Larded  turkey. 

Dinde,  sauce  eoleii  (dln-d,  sA-s  se-l-ri). 

Turkey,  celery  sauce. 
Dinde,  sauvage  rAtie  (din-d,  sA-va-j  rA-ti). 

Roast  wild  turkey. 
Galantine  de  dinde  (ga-lan-ti-n  de  din-d).  Boned  turkey. 
Fricassee  de  tioulet  (fri-ka-s^  de  pou-le). 

Fricassee  of  chicken. 
Filets  de  poulet  aux  petits  pois  (fi-le  de  pou-le  A  pe-ti 
poa).  Chicken  breasts  with  peas. 

Poulets  nouveaux  rAtis  (])ou-le  nou-vA  rA-ti). 

Roast  spring  chicken. 
Poulets  aux  tomates  (pou-le  A  to-ma-t). 

Chickens,  with  tomatoes. 
Poulets  au  ris  (pou-le  A  rl).  Chickens,  with  rice. 

Poulets  aux  choux-fleurs  (pou-le  A  shA-fleur). 

Chickens,  with  cauliflowers. 
Poulets  sautes  (pou-le  so-te).  Fried  chickens. 

Croquettes  de  volaille  (kro-ke-t  de  vo-la-i ). 

Chicken  croquettes. 
Canard  sauvage  (ka-nar  sA-va-j).  Wild  duck. 

Pate  chaud  depigeons  (pa-te  shA  de  pi-jon).    Pigeon  pie. 


CompAte  de  pigeons  (con-po-t  de  pi-jon).  Pigeon  stew. 
Pigeons  rAtis  aux  espinards  (pi-jon  rA-ti  A  e-pi-nar). 

Roast  pigeons,  with  spinach. 
Pigeons  k  l'escarlate  (pi-jon  a  le-kar-la-t). 

Braised  pigeons,  with  spinach. 
Becasses  rAties  (b6-ka-s  rA-ti).  Roast  woodcock. 

Cailles  rAties  (ka-i  rA-ti).  Roast  quail*. 

CAtelettes  de  perdreux  (kA-t-le-t  de  per-dro). 

Partridge  cutlets 
Selle  de  venaison  (se-1  de  ve-ne-zon).  Saddle  of  venison. 
Pigeonnaux  au  cresson  (pi-jo-nAA  kre-son). 

Squabs,  with  water-cress. 
Faisan  pique  (fe-zan  pi-k<S).  Pheasant,  larded. 

Legumes  (le-gu-m).    Vegetables. 

Pommes  de  terre  k  la  sauce  blanche  (po-m  de  te-r  a  la 

so-s  blan-sh).  Potatoes,  with  white  sauce. 

Pommes  de  terre  k  la  Lyonnaise  (po-m  de  te-r  a  la  li-o- 

n£z).  Lyonnaise  potatoes. 

Pcmmes  de  terre  farcies  (po-m  de  te-r  far-se). 

Potatoes  in  cases. 
Pommes  de  terre  fritcs  (po-m  de  te-r  free-t). 

Fried  potatoes. 
Beignets  de  panais  be-gnfe  de  pa-ne).  Parsnip  fritters. 
Aspergcs  (as-per-j).  Asparagus. 

Choux-fleurs  a  la  creme  (shou-f'enr  a  la  kre-m). 

Caulitlowers,  with  cream  dressing. 
Epinards  (e-pi-nar).  Spinach. 

Haricots  verts  (ha-ri-ko-ver).  String  beans. 

Puree  de  pommes  de  terre  (pu-re  de  po-m  de  te-r). 

Mashed  potatoes. 
Petits  pois  au  beurre  (pe'ti  poa  A  beu-r). 

Peas,  with  butter. 
Tomates  farcies  (to-ma-t  far-si).  Stuffed  tomatoes. 

CEufs  (euf).    Eggs. 
(Eufs  farcis  (euf  far-si).  Stuffed  eggs. 

(Fufs  poches  (euf  po-sn6).  Poached  eggs. 

(Lufs  poches  aux  croutes  d'anchois  (euf  po-she  A  krou-t 
dan-shoa).  Poached  eggs  on  anchovy  toast. 

Omelette  aux  fines  herbes  (om-le-t  A  fi-n  er-b). 

Omelet,  with  fine  herbs. 
Omelette  aux  champignons  (om-le-t  A  shan-pi-gnon). 

Omelet,  with  mushrooms. 
Omelette  au  jambon  (om-le-t  A  jan-bon). 

Omelet,  with  ham. 
Omelette  au  rhum  (om-le-t  A  rom).  Omelet,  with  rum. 
Omelette  aux  confitures  (om-le-t  A  kon-fi-tu-r). 

Omelet,  with  preserves. 
Omelette  souffles  aux  confitures  (om-le-t  sou-fl^  A  kon- 
fi-tu-r).  Omelet  souffle^  with  preserves. 

Salades  (sa-la-d).    Salads. 

Mayonnaise  de  volaille  (mi-on-ne-z  de  vo-la-i). 

Chicken  mayonnaise. 
Mayonnaise  de  choux-fleurs  (mi-on-ne-z  de  shou-fleflr). 
Cauliflower  mayonnaise. 
Mayonnaise  de  tomates  (mi-on-ne»-z  de  to-ma-t). 

Tomato  mayonnaise. 
Salade  de  legumes  (sa-la-d  de  le-gu-m). 

Salad  of  vegetables. 
Salade  de  laitue  (sa-la-d  de  le-tfl).  Lettuce  salad. 

Beignets  (be-gne).    Fritters. 

Beignets  de  peches  (be-gnfe  de  pe-sh).  Peach  fritters. 
Beignets  de  bouilie  (be-gne  de  bou-i).  )  rr„am  friftPrii 
(  nine  frite  (kre-m  free-t).  f  cream  intters. 

Beignets  d'huitres  (be-gne  dui-tr).  Oyster  fritters. 

Bouchees  au  poulet  (bou-sh6  A  pou-le).  Chicken  patties. 
Boucbees  k  la  reine  (bou-she  a  la  rfe-n).    Any  kind  of 

meat  patties. 
Bouchees  aux  fraises  (bou-she  A  frfe-z'. 

Strawberry  patties. 
Bouchees  au  citron  (bou-she  A  si-tron). 

Patties,  with  lemon  paste. 
Tartelettes  aux  confitures  (tar-t-le-t  A  kon-fi-tu-r). 

Little  tarts  of  preserves. 
Tartelettes  aux  pommes  (tar-t-le-t  A  po-m-). 

Little  apple  tarts. 

Fundings  (pou-din-g).     Puddings. 

Ponding  de  cabinet  (pou-din-g  de  ka-bi-ne). 

Cabinet  pudding. 
Pouding  au  riz  (pou-din-g  A  ri).  Rice  pudding. 

Ponding  roule  (pou-din-g  rou-le).  Roly-poly  pudding. 
Pouding  au  pain  (pou-din-g  A  pan-g).  Bread  pudding. 
Pouding  de  riz  aux  peches  (pou-din-g  de  ri  A  pe-sh). 
Rice  pudding,  with  peaches. 
Souffle  de  pommes  (sou-fle  de  po-m).  Apple  souffle. 


412 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Tarte  aux  pommes  (tar-t  6  po-m).  Apple  pie. 

Bavaroise  au  chocolat  (ba-va-roa-z  6  sho-ko-la). 

Chocolate  Bavarian  cream. 
Bavaroise  au  cafe  (ba-va-roa-z  6  ka-f6). 

Coffee  Bavarian  cream. 
Bavaroise  a  l'ananas  (ba-va-roa-z  a  la-na-na). 

Pineapple  Bavarian  cream. 

Desserts  (de-ser).  "  Desserts. 

Blanc-manger  (blan-man-j6).  Blanc-mange. 

Compote  de  p^ctaes  (kon-po-t  de  pe-sh)    Peach  compote. 
Compote  de  pommes  (kon-po-t  de  po-m). 

Apple  compote. 
Champagne  f  rapp«5  (shan-pa-gn  f  ra-pe). 

Iced  champagne. 
Creme  glacee  a  la  vanille  (kre-m  gla-se1  a  la  va-ni-i). 

Ice  cream,  vanilla. 
Glaces  (gla-se).  Ices  of  any  kind. 

Glace  de  creme  au  chocolat  (gla-s  de  kre-m  6  sho-ka-la). 

Chocolate  ice  cream. 
Gelee  au  Madere  (je-l£  6  ma-de-r).  Madeira  wine  jelly. 
Gelee  f  ouettee  aux  fruits  (j8-l£  foue-te'  o  f rui). 

Whipped  jelly  with  fruits. 
Gelee  au  vin  de  champagne  (jfi-16  6  vin  de  shan-pa-gn). 

Champagne  jelly. 
Gelee  a  la  mac^doine  (jS-le'  a  la  ma-se-doa-n). 

Jelly,  with  fruits. 
Macarons  aux  amandes  (ma-ka-ron  6  a-man-d^). 

Macaroons. 
Marmelade  d'abricots  (mar-m6-la-d  d-abri-ko). 

Peach  marmalade. 

Miscellaneous  Dishes. 

Celeri  (s^-l-ri).  Celery. 

Fromage  (f  ro-ma-j).  Cheese. 

Macaroni  au  fromage  (ma-ka-ro-ni  o  fro-ma-j). 

Macaroni,  with  cheese. 
Macaroni,  sauce  tomate  (ma-ka-ro-ni  sft-s  to-mat). 

Macaroni,  tomato  sauce. 
Coquilles  de  volaille  (ko-ki-i  de  vo-la-i). 

Chickens  in  shells. 
Coquilles  de  homard  (ko-ki-i  de  ho-mar). 

Lobster  in  shells. 
Coquilles  de  poisson  (ko-ki-i  de  poa-son).  Fish  in  shells. 
Coquilles  de  champignons  (ko-ki-i  de  shan-pi-gnon). 

Mushrooms  in  shells. 
Cafe  (ka-f<5).  Coffee. 

Cafe1  noir  (ka-fe'  no-ar).  Black  coffee. 

Fromage  de  Brie  (fro-ma-j  de  bri).  Brie  cheese. 

Fromage  de  Bx>quefort  (fro-ma-j  de  ro-k-for). 

Roquefort  cheese. 


MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS  IN 
ORDINARY  USE  AMONG 
HOUSEKEEPERS. 

4  Teaspoonfuls  equal  1  tablespoonful  liquid. 

4  Tablespoonfuls  equal  1  wine-glass,  or  half 
a  gill. 

2  Wine-glasses  equal  one  gill,  or  half  a  cup. 

2  Gills    equal    1    coffeecupful,    or    16    table- 
spoonfuls. 

2  Coffeecupfuls  equal  1  pint. 

2  Pints  equal  1  quart. 

4  Quarts  equal  1  gallon. 

2  Tablespoonfuls  equal  1  ounce,  liquid. 

1  Tablespoonful  of  salt  equals  1  ounce. 
16  Ounces  equal  1  pound,  or  a  pint  of  liquid. 

4  Coffeecupfuls  of  sifted  flour  equal  1  pound. 

1  Quart  of  unsifted  flour  equals  1  pound. 

8  or  10  ordinary  sized  eggs  equal  1  pound. 

1  Pint  of    sugar   equals    1    pound.      (White 

granulated.) 

2  Coffeecupfuls  of    powdered  sugar  equal  1 

pound. 
1  Coffeecupful  of  cold  butter,   pressed  down, 
is  one  half  pound. 


1  Tablespoonful  of  soft  butter,  well  rounded, 
equals  1  ounce. 

An  ordinary  tumblerful  equals  one  coffeecup- 
ful, or  half  a  pint. 

About  twenty-five  drops  of  any  thin  liquid 
will  fill  a  common  sized  teaspoon. 

One  pint  of  finely-chopped  meat,  packed 
solidly,  equals  one  pound. 

A  set  of  tin  measures  (with  small  spouts  or 
lips),  from  a  gallon  down  to  half  a  gill,  will  be 
found  very  convenient  in  every  kitchen, 
though  common  pitchers,  bowls,  glasses,  etc., 
may  be  substituted. 

BEDS  AND  BEDDING. 

For  beds  an  elastic  material  is  required, 
with  a  variation  in  its  heat  conducting  powers 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year  and  the  age 
of  the  individual.  Thus  the  infant  and  the 
aged,  in  both  of  whom  vitality  is  low,  require 
the  slowest  conductor  that  can  be  procured, 
especially  in  the  winter  season.  For  the  mid- 
dle-aged, on  the  other  hand,  the  same  material 
which  is  desirable  for  the  first  and  last  periods 
of  life  would  be  much  too  warm  and  relaxing. 
In  the  order  of  their  conducting  powers,  the 
various  materials  for  beds  stand  as  follows, 
beginning  with  the  warmest  or  slowest  con- 
ductor :  First,  down  ;  second,  feathers  ;  third, 
wool;  fourth,  wool-flock;  fifth,  hair;  sixth, 
cotton-flock;  seventh,  "excelsior";  eighth, 
sea  moss;  ninth,  paper  shavings;  and  tenth, 
straw.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  first  two  are 
peculiarly  fitted  for  the  very  young  and  the 
old  ;  while  wool  and  hair,  holding  an  interme- 
diate position,  are  best  adapted  for  healthy 
persons  of  middle  age.  Where  a  particularly 
cool  mattress  is  required,  as  for  those  who 
perspire  freely,  or  for  warm  weather,  the  sea 
moss  and  paper  shavings  are  the  best  materials, 
and  as  the  latter  can  be  obtained  everywhere, 
a  mattress  made  of  it  is  often  a  very  grateful 
addition  to  the  furniture  of  a  bed.  Feathers 
and  down  were  formerly  almost  universally 
employed  for  beds  in  this  country,  but  their 
place  is  now  largely  supplied  by  wool  and  hair, 
which  are  sufficiently  soft  for  comfort  and  not 
hot  enough  to  promote  perspiration.  Wool 
mattresses  are  very  healthy  and  pleasant  to  lie 
upon,  though  at  first  they  feel  rather  hard  and 
unyielding  to  those  accustomed  to  feathers ; 
by  placing  a  spring  mattress  under  them,  they 
are  rendered  yielding  enough  for  anyone. 
The  best  of  all  materials  for  beds,  however,  is 
hair.  It  is  more  healthful  than  feathers,  more 
comfortable  than  any  of  the  cheaper  materials, 
and  is  equally  serviceable  in  summer  and  win- 
ter. Mattresses  of  it  can  be  made  thick  or 
otherwise,  according  as  springs  or  other  mat- 
tresses are  used ;   and  though  expensive,  the 


DOMESTIC   ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


413 


same  hair  can  be  made  over  several  times,  and 
so  made  to  do  many  years'  service.  Straw 
mattresses  are  seldom  used  except  for  putting 
under  hair  or  feather  beds ;  where  used  for  a 
top  mattress,  the  straw  is  generally  mixed  with 
moss  or  cotton.  For  the  cheaper  kinds  of  beds 
the  material  called  "  excelsior  "  is  superior  to 
any  other. 

Springs  add  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  a  bed, 
and  they  can  be  had  now  in  any  style  and  at 
almost  any  price.  Their  cost  is  but  little  more 
than  that  of  an  under  mattress,  which  can  then 
be  dispensed  with.  But  the  ' l  spring  mattress  ' ' 
should  never  be  used ;  it  almost  inevitably 
becomes  the  harbor  of  bedbugs  and  other  ver- 
min which  cannot  be  got  at  without  destroy- 
ing the  mattress.  The  "woven-wire  mattress," 
a  recent  invention,  is  probably  the  most  perfect 
apparatus  of  the  kind  ever  devised,  and  though 
expensive,  will  stand  many  years  of  ordinary 
use.  The  only  objection  to  it  we  have  heard 
is  that  when  used  long  by  heavy  people  it  is 
liable  to  "  sag." 

Pillows  are  seldom  made  of  any  other 
material  than  feathers,  though  hair,  sponge, 
or  chipped  cork  is  occasionally  used.  Feather 
pillows  should  never  be  stuffed  very  full,  as 
this  gives  them  a  hardness  and  inelasticity 
which  is  peculiarly  disagreeable  and  also  in- 
jurious. In  buying  them  it  is  best  to  choose 
the  feathers  first  and  have  them  made  up  to 
suit ;  select  goose  or  chicken  feathers  of  the 
softest  and  most  downy  kind.  Hair  pillows 
are  cooler  than  feather,  though  not  so  soft 
and  yielding.  They  are  recommended  for  per- 
sons with  a  tendency  to  fullness  in  the  head, 
and  for  all  young  children.  It  is  necessary  to 
make  them  lower  than  those  made  of  feathers. 
An  excellent  pillow  for  invalids  or  feeble  per- 
sons is  sold  at  the  drug  stores  in  the  shape 
of  an  india-rubber  sack,  which  can  be  inflated 
with  air  to  any  desired  degree  of  flexibility. 

Sheets  were  formerly  almost  universally 
made  of  linen,  but  experience  has  proved  that 
cotton  is  much  better.  Linen  in  any  shape, 
when  brought  into  contact  with  the  skin,  con- 
ducts away  the  heat  of  the  body  very  rapidly. 
In  winter  in  our  climate  linen  sheets  are 
scarcely  endurable  on  account  of  their  cold- 
ness ;  and,  being  comparatively  impervious  to 
air,  and  therefore  confining  perspiration,  are 
inferior  at  all  times  to  cotton. 

The  best  material  for  sheets  is  ' '  Russian 
sheeting";  it  will  last  twice  as  long  as  any 
other,  and  though  yellow  at  first,  will  soon 
bleach.  It  is  a  mistake  to  make  sheets  exactly 
to  fit  the  bed.  They  should  be  about  a  yard 
larger  each  way  than  the  bed. 

Pillow  Cases  of  linen  are  very  pleasant 
to  the  head,  and  may  be  appropriately  used 


with  cotton  sheets.  They  are  a  luxury  at  best, 
however,  rumpling  easily  and  requiring  more 
frequent  change  than  cleanliness  alone  would 
call  for.  A  popular  method  of  arrangement  is 
to  make  the  pillow  cases  of  cotton  and  cover 
the  pillows  during  the  day,  while  they  are  not 
in  use,  with  linen  "shams"  —  simple  squares 
of  linen  which  may  be  tastefully  ornamented. 

STIMULANTS     AND    NARCOTICS. 

Stimulants,  such  as  wine,  beer,  whisky,  rum, 
gin,  brandy,  etc.,  are  not  food;    but  they  are- 
good  medicines,  when  properly  administered. 

Stimulants  exalt  nervous  action  temporarily, 
and  compel  the  wheels  to  revolve  rapidly ; 
but  they  supply  no  threads  to  either  the  woof 
or  warp,  and,  sooner  or  later,  break  the  shuttle. 

The  man  who  has  eaten  one  pound  of  beef 
daily,  for  one  year,  does  not  find  it  necessary, 
in  order  to  obtain  the  same  effect,  to  eat  two 
pounds  daily  for  the  next  year ;  but  he  who 
drinks  one  pint  of  whisky  daily  for  one  year, 
must  take  two  pints  daily  the  second  year  to 
obtain  the  same  effect. 

Any  article  of  food  or  of  drink,  the  use  of 
which  creates  the  necessity  for  larger  quanti- 
ties, and  at  shorter  intervals,  in  order  to  attain 
the  same  mental  and  physical  elevation,  by 
that  fact  proves  itself  pernicious. 

Stimulants  may  be  employed  as  medicines, 
to  encourage  digestion  temporarily,  to  sustain 
life  until  nourishment  can  be  introduced  ;  or, 
in  declining  life,  to  enliven  an  existence  which 
nature  has  limited,  but  which  she  will  not 
longer  attempt  to  repair  or  prolong. 

Stimulants,  habitually  used,  cause  indiges- 
tion, inflammation  of  the  stomach,  disease  of 
the  liver,  of  the  kidneys,  and  of  the  bladder, 
chronic  diarrhoea,  piles,  neuralgia,  nervous 
tremors,  paralysis,  insanity,  idiocy,  rheuma- 
tism, gout,  dropsy,  sore  eyes,  eruptions,  car- 
buncles, boils,  tubercles  on  the  nose,  ulcers  on 
the  legs.  They  fill  the  almshouses,  dispen- 
saries, and  prisons ;  they  supply  the  gallows 
with  most  of  its  victims,  and  occasion,  directly 
or  indirectly,  one  half  of  all  the  poverty,  suf- 
fering, and  sadness  which  clouds  this  world. 

It  is  no  proof  because  a  man  grows  fat,  and 
his  face  becomes  red  under  the  use  of  stimu- 
lants, that  he  is  improving  in  health. 

Cholera,  and  all  other  pestilential  diseases, 
make  their  first  visits  to  those  who  use,  habitu- 
ally, stimulating  drinks. 

Dirt,  debauchery,  disease,  and  death  are  links 
of  the  same  chain. 

If  stimulants  must  be  used  by  those  "  who, 
being  well,  would  wish  to  be  better,"  no  doubt 
ales  and  wines  are  to  be  preferred  to  alcoholic 
drinks. 

Coffee  and  tea  are  modified  stimulants,  whose 


414 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK.  OF  FACTS. 


influences  are  more  exactly  limited  to  the  ner- 
vous system  than  alcoholic  stimulants.  Habit- 
ually used  in  excess,  they  cause  indigestion, 
emaciation,  neuralgia,  paralysis,  impaired  vis- 
ion, wakefulness,  restlessness,  palpitation  of 
the  heart,  etc.  They  are,  however,  sometimes 
excellent  medicines ;  and  may  be  drunk  in 
moderate  quantities  by  most  persons  who  are 
in  health  without  doing  appreciable  harm. 

Of  tobacco,  Franklin  has  said  that  "he 
could  not  think  it  had  ever  done  much  good  in 
the  world,  since  he  never  knew  a  person  who 
used  it  habitually  who  would  recommend  an- 
other to  do  the  same." 

Tobacco  is  certainly  not  food  for  man,  nor 
has  it  much  value  as  a  medicine.  The  tobacco 
worm  is  the  only  animal  known  to  thrive  upon 
its  use. 

Tobacco  causes  neuralgia,  paralysis,  espe- 
cially of  the  nerve  of  vision,  tremors,  etc.  It 
impairs  the  appetite,  dries  up  the  fluids,  gives 
a  dirty,  parchment  color  to  the  skin,  stains 
the  teeth,  makes  the  gums  spongy  and  tender, 
renders  the  breath  foul,  and  causes  not  un- 
frequently  cancer  of  the  mouth,  lips,  and 
tongue. 

The  habitual  use  of  opium  and  other  narcot- 
ics causes  neuralgia,  restlessness,  wakeful- 
ness, paralysis,  indigestion,  innutrition,  and 
dropsy. 

COFFEE— ITS    USES    AND    MEDI- 
CINAL QUALITIES, 

Dr.  Bock  of  Leipsic  says  :  * '  The  nervous- 
ness and  peevishness  of  our  times  are  chiefly 
attributable  to  tea  and  coffee  ;  "  he  says  that 
"the  digestive  organs  of  confirmed  coffee 
drinkers  are  in  a  state  of  chronic  derangement, 
which  reacts  on  the  brain,  producing  fretful 
and  lachrymose  moods.  Ladies  addicted  to 
strong  coffee  have  a  characteristic  temper, 
which  may  be  described  as  a  mania  for  acting 
the  persecuted  saint,"  etc. 

I  cannot  agree  with  Dr.  Bock  that  the  ner- 
vousness and  peevishness  of  the  present  time 
are  to  be  attributed  to  the  use  of  coffee.  If 
people  are  more  nervous  or  in  worse  humor 
now  than  formerly,  we  may  find  other  causes 
arising  from  the  customs  and  habits  of  society 
much  more  likely  to  produce  such  a  state  of 
things  than  the  use  of  this  particular  article  of 
diet.  I  have  no  intention  of  pointing  out 
many  changes  and  peculiarities  in  the  habits 
of  the  age,  to  show  many  other  more  promi- 
nent reasons  for  people  being  in  bad  humor 
besides  the  use  of  coffee.  My  object  is  to  de- 
fend coffee  from  a  slander  aimed  at  one  of  our 
best  friends  —  a  friend  more  likely  to  relieve 
the  morbid  state  of  things  complained  of,  than 
to  produce  it.      Who  that  has  exoerienced  the 


good  effects  of  coffee  can  sit  quietly  and  hear 
it  abused?  Especially  by  an  estimable  phy- 
sician who  has  written  learned  books  on  the 
nervous  system.  The  nerves  of  every  honest 
friend  of  coffee  tremble  with  the  shock  of  an 
attack  from  such  a  quarter. 

Let  us  examine  the  effects  of  coffee  on  the 
economy.  Taken  in  moderation  it  is  a  mental 
and  bodily  stimulant  of  a  most  agreeable 
nature  ;  and,  followed  by  no  harmful  reaction, 
it  produces  contentment  of  mind,  allays  hun- 
ger and  bodily  weakness,  and  increases  the  in- 
centive and  capacity  for  work,  makes  man 
forget  his  misfortunes,  and  enables  those  who 
use  it  to  remain  a  long  time  without  food  or 
sleep,  to  endure  unusual  fatigue,  and  preserve 
their  cheerfulness  and  contentment. 

Jomand  says  :  "  An  infusion  made  with  ten 
ounces  of  coffee  enabled  me  to  live  without 
other  food  for  five  consecutive  days,  without 
lessening  my  ordinary  occupations,  and  to  use 
more  and  more  prolonged  muscular  exercise 
than  I  was  accustomed  to,  without  any  other 
physical  injury  than  a  slight  degree  of  fatigue 
and  a  little  loss  of  flesh." 

The  mental  exhilaration,  physical  activity, 
and  wakefulness  it  causes,  explain  the  fond- 
ness for  it  which  has  been  shown  by  so  many 
men  of  science,  poets,  scholars,  and  others 
devoted  to  thinking.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
called  "  the  intellectual  beverage." 

It  supported  the  old  age  of  Voltaire,  and 
enabled  Fontenelle  to  pass  his  hundred  years. 
The  action  of  coffee  is  directed  chiefly  to 
the  nervous  system.  It  produces  a  warming, 
cordial  impression  on  the  stomach,  quickly 
followed  by  a  diffused,  agreeable  nervous  ex- 
citement, which  extends  itself  to  the  cerebral 
functions,  giving  rise  to  increased  vigor  of 
imagination  and  intellect,  without  any  subse- 
quent confusion  or  stupor,  such  as  are  char- 
acteristic of  narcotics. 

Coffee  contains  essential  principles  of  nu- 
trition far  exceeding  in  importance  its  exhila- 
rating properties,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
desirable  articles  for  sustaining  the  system  in 
certain  prostrating  diseases  ;  as  compared  with 
the  nutrition  to  be  derived  from  the  best  ox 
soups,  coffee  has  decidedly  the  advantage,  am' 
to  be  preferred  in  many  instances. 

Liebig  says:  "We  shall  nevj&r  know  how 
men  were  first  led  to  the  use  of  coffee,  but  that 
we  may  consider  the  article  as  remarkable  for 
its  action  on  the  brain  and  the  substance  of 
the  organs  of  motion,  and  as  an  element  of 
food  for  organs  as  yet  unknown,  which  are 
destined  to  convert  the  blood  into  nervous 
substance,  and  thus  recruit  the  energy  and  the 
nervous  moving  and  thinking  faculties." 
The    medicinal    effects   of    coffee    are    very 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


415 


great.  In  intermittent  fever  I  have  used  it 
with  the  happiest  effect  in  cutting  short  the 
attack,  and  if  properly  managed  is  better  in 
many  cases  than  the  sulphate  of  quinine.  In 
that  low  state  of  intermittent,  as  found  on  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi  river  and  other  ma- 
larial districts,  accompanied  with  enlarged 
spleen  and  torpid  liver,  when  judiciously  admin- 
istered it  is  one  of  the  surest  remedies.  In 
these  cases  it  should  be  given  in  decoction  made 
with  four  ounces  of  well  roasted  and  ground 
coffee,  boiled  in  a  quart  (1G  ounces)  of  water 
in  a  covered  vessel,  down  to  half  a  pint  (4 
ounces),  and  two  tablespoon fuls  given  hotevery 
two  hours,  commencing  six  hours  before  the 
expected  attack,  and  keeping  the  patient  well 
covered  in  bed. 

It  has  been  found  that  in  typhus  fever  coffee 
increases  the  elimination  of  urea,  and  so  far 
purifies  the  blood  without  increasing  the  de- 
structive metamorphosis  of  tissue,  and  that  it 
lessens  coma  and  low  delirium. 

In  yellow  fever,  from  a  long  experience,  I 
consider  coffee  as  my  chief  reliance,  after  other 
necessary  remedies  have  been  administered  ;  it 
restrains  tissue  change,  and  thus  becomes  a 
conservator- of  force,  in  that  state  in  which 
the  nervous  system  tends  to  collapse,  because 
the  blood  has  become  impure  ;  it  sustains  the 
nervous  power  until  the  depuration  and  re- 
organization of  the  blood  are  accomplished,  and 
has  the  advantage  over  other  stimulants  in  in- 
ducing no  injurious  secondary  effects. 

In  spasmodic  asthma  its  utility  is  well  es- 
tablished, and  in  whooping  cough,  stupor, 
lethargy,  etc. 

In  the  hysterical  attacks  of  some  females, 
for  which  the  physician  can  form  no  diagnosis 
or  cause  for  the  peculiar  and  eccentric  symp- 
toms manifested  ;  a  screaming,  crying,  staring, 
kicking  patient,  with  no  coherent  answer  for 
the  medical  adviser,  at  the  same  time  with  an 
evident  tendency  to  act  the  persecuted  saint  — 
give  her  a  cup  of  well  made,  strong,  black 
coffee,  she  becomes  quiet,  revives,  smiles  be- 
nignly, as  if  she  had  swallowed  a  panacea  that 
had  suddenly  delivered  her  from  the  clutches 
of  the  imps  of  Satan  and  wafted  her  from  all 
the  miseries  of  a  condemned  and  tortured  spirit 
to  the  elysian  fields  of  houris. 

We  have  used  it  as  a  remedy  in  croup, 
diphtheria,  nephritis,  chronic  diarrhoea,  etc. 
In  poisoning  from  opium  it  is  well  known  as 
the  best  remedy,  and  always  on  hand. 

Hayne  says:  "That  in  a  case  of  violent 
spasmodic  disease,  attended  with  short  breath, 
palpitation  of  heart,  and  a  pulse  so  much 
increased  in  frequency  Hint  it  could  scarcely 
be  counted,  immediate  relief  was  obtained  from 
S  cup  of  coffee,  after   the  most  powerful  anti- 


spasmodics had  been  used  in  vain  for  several 
hours,"  etc. 

After  a  hearty  meal  a  cup  of  coffee  will  re- 
lieve that  sense  of  oppression  so  apt  to  be  ex- 
perienced, and  enable  the  stomach  to  perform 
its  offices  with  comparative  facility. 

In  fact,  coffee  carries  healing  on  its  wings. 
It  is  opposed  to  malaria,  to  all  noxious  vapors  ; 
as  a  disinfectant  it  has  wonderful  powers ; 
as  an  instantaneous  deodorizer  it  has  no  equal ; 
for  the  sick  room,  the  fetid  odors  arising 
from  cutaneous  exhalations  are  immediately 
neutralized  by  simply  passing  a  chafing  dish 
with  burning  coffee  grains  through  the  room. 

It  may  be  urged  that  an  article  possessing 
such  powers  and  capacity  for  such  energetic 
action  must  be  injurious  as  an  article  of  diet 
of  habitual  employment,  and  not  without  del- 
eterious properties ;  but  I  have  never  noticed 
any  corresponding  nervous  derangement  after 
its  effects  have  disappeared,  as  is  seen  in  nar- 
cotics and  other  stimulants.  The  action  im- 
parted to  the  nerves  is  natural  and  healthy, 
and  I  must  positively  deny  that  the  habitual 
use  of  the  article  is  injurious. 

Habitual  coffee  drinkers  generally  enjoy 
good  health  and  live  to  a  good  old  age.  Some 
of  the  Oldest  persons  I  have  ever  known  have 
used  it  from  earliest  infancy  without  feeling 
any  depressing  reaction,  such  as  is  produced 
by  alcoholic  stimulants. 

In  Porto  Rico  our  fairest  part  of  creation,  at 
the  tenderest  age,  have  been  induced  to  forget 
the  delicious  draught  from  the  maternal  foun- 
tain by  the  substitution  of  a  decoction  of 
coffee,  which  soon  becomes  the  daily  beverage. 
—  Henry  Segur,  M.  D. 

COFFEE. 

Coffee  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Arabia,  but 
is  has  spread  from  thence  throughout  the  trop- 
ical portions  of  the  world  and  parts  of  the 
temperate  zone  ;  it  will  grow  in  any  climate 
where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  below 
fifty-five  degrees.  The  best  coffee  of  com- 
merce comes  from  Arabia,  and  is  known  as 
Mocha,  the  next  best  is  the  Java,  and  after 
that  the  Ceylon,  Bourbon,  and  Martinique. 
The  principal  supply  of  the  United  States, 
however,  is  derived  from  Brazil,  which  fur- 
nishes three  fourths  of  the  whole  import.  This 
is  known  as  the  Rio,  and  is  the  kind  always 
supplied  unless  another  variety  is  asked  for. 

The  only  way  to  secure  pure  coffee  is  to  buy 
the  raw  beans,  roast,  and  grind  them  at  home. 
When  coffee  is  bought  already  roasted,  the  dis- 
advantage is  in  its  losing  its  delicate  aroma 
very  rapidly ;  when  it  is  "both  roasted  and 
ground,  it  very  generally  is  adulterated  with 
chicory,  pease,  or  potatoes.      Good  coffee  can- 


416 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


not  by  any  means  be  made  from  it,  and  in 
many  cases  dangerous  decoctions  have  been 
made  from  adulterated  coffee.  In  buying  raw 
coffee,  choose  that  which  is  dry  and  light ;  the 
coffee  which  feels  dense  and  weighty  is  green. 
Coffee  which  is  from  eight  to  ten  months  old  is 
the  best  selection. 

The  roasting  of  coffee  in  a  proper  manner 
requires  great  nicety,  and  cannot  be  done  suc- 
cessfully without  the  aid  of  some  such  appa- 
ratus as  those  to  be  had  for  that  purpose  in 
the  better  class  of  furnishing  stores.  They 
are  inexpensive,  and  the  supply'  of  charcoal 
needed  for  them  is  very  trifling  indeed ;  not 
sufficient  to  justify  their  disuse.  The  cylinder 
which  contains  the  coffee  should  be  only  half 
filled,  and  it  should  be  turned  rather  slowly 
over  the  fire,  which  should  never  be  very 
fierce,  until  a  strong  aromatic  smell  is  emit- 
ted ;  the  movement  should  then  be  quick- 
ened, as  the  bean  is  in  that  case  quite  heated 
and  it  will  scorch  before  it  is  roasted  through 
if  slowly  finished.  When  the  coffee  is  of  a 
light,  chestnut  brown  color,  which  can  be  as- 
certained by  sliding  back  the  door  of  the 
cylinder  and  looking  at  it  occasionally  towards 
the  end  of  the  process,  spread  it  quickly  over 
a  large  dish,  beat  up  the  white  of  an  egg  with 
a  tablespoonful  of  melted  butter,  and  stir  up 
well  with  it,  and  then  cover  it  over  with  a 
thickly  folded  cloth.  Let  it  remain  thus  until 
it  is  quite  cold ;  then  put  it  into  canisters  or 
bottles  where  the  air  cannot  get  at  it. 

For  grinding  coffee  there  are  two  kinds  of 
coffee  mills,  those  which  are  portable  and 
others  for  fixing  against  the  walls.  It  should 
be  ground  to  a  moderately  fine  powder ;  if  it 
is  too  coarse  the  essence  will  be  only  partially 
extracted  from  it  in  making,  while  if  it  is  too 
fine  the  water  will  not  percolate  through  it 
and  it  will  not  be  clear.  No  more  should  be 
ground  at  a  time  than  will  suffice  for  a  single 
making. 

Coffee  (boiled).  Allow  a  tablespoonful  of 
ground  coffee  to  each  person ;  and  for  each 
tablespoonful  a  coffeecupf ul  of  water.  Let  the 
water  boil,  and  while  it  is  boiling  stir  in 
the  coffee  ;  allow  it  to  boil  hard  five  minutes, 
then  set  it  where  it  will  simmer  for  ten  min- 
utes ;  pour  out  a  large  cupful,  hold  it  high 
over  the  coffeepot,  and  pour  it  in  again  ;  re- 
peat this,  and  then  set  it  on  the  stove  where 
it  will  keep  hot  without  simmering  for  five  or 
ten  minutes  longer.  Coffee  made  thus  will 
be  perfectly  clear  unless  it  is  mismanaged. 
Should  fining  be  necessary,  however,  use  a 
pinch  of  isinglass,  or  a  small  piece  of  the  skin 
of  salt  codfish,  or,  better  still,  the  shell  of  a 
raw  egg  with  a  little  of  the  white  adhering  to  it. 

Coffee  {filtered).     There  are  a  great  num- 


ber of  patent  coffeepots  designed  to  make 
coffee  after  the  Continental  method  without 
boiling,  and  as  minute  directions  for  vising  ac- 
company each  one  we  will  only  mention  that 
the  principle  involved  in  each  is  very  simple, 
and  consists  in  allowing  hot  water  to  percolate 
slowly  through  ground  coffee  into  a  receptacle 
below.  Some  of  them  are  good,  though  need- 
lessly expensive  ;  but  a  simple  filter  or  per- 
colator, as  it  is  called,  will  answer  perfectly  well, 
and  it  can  be  obtained  to  fit  any  coffeepot. 

In  making  coffee  by  this  method  allow  rather 
more  coffee  than  when  it  is  to  be  boiled ; 
spread  the  grounds  over  the  percolator ;  and 
pour  on  the  boiling  water,  slowly  till  the  coffee 
is  saturated  and  then  more  rapidly.  Should 
the  coffee  not  be  strong  enough,  run  it  through 
the  filters  again.  Coffee  made  thus  is  thought 
to  have  a  more  delicate  and  aromatic  flavor 
than  when  boiled  ;  but  on  the  other  hand,  Mr. 
Donovan,  a  prominent  English  chemist,  who 
has  made  a  special  study  of  the  matter,  thinks 
that  it  requires  boiling  for  a  little  time  to  ex- 
tract the  bitter  principle  in  which  much  of  the 
exhilarating  quality  of  coffee  resides. 

ALLSPICE. 

So  called  because  it  is  thought  to  combine 
the  flavor  of  "cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  cloves. 
It  is  the  berry  of  a  handsome  tree  that  grows 
to  the  height  of  twenty  feet  in  the  West  Indies 
and  South  America.  The  fruit  is  not  allowed 
to  ripen,  but  is  gathered  while  yet  green  ; 
when  dried  in  the  sun  it  becomes  black. 
It  is  less  expensive  than  the  Oriental  spices,  is 
agreeably  aromatic,  and  is  considered  the  most 
mild  and  harmless  of  the  common  spices ; 
hence  it  is  much  used  in  cookery.  The  best 
comes  from  Jamaica.  The  essential  oil  of  all- 
spice is  of  a  deep  reddish  brown  color,  and  ex- 
tremely pungent ;  and  a  few  drops  is  sufficient 
to  give  a  flavor  to  gravy  or  to  mulled  wine. 

TO  MAKE  TEA. 

Allow  two  teaspoonfuls  of  tea  to  one  large 
cupful  of  boiling  water.  Scald  the  teapot,  put 
in  the  tea,  pour  on  about  a  cupful  of  boiling 
water,  set  it  on  the  fire  in  a  warm  place  where 
it  will  not  boil,  but  keep  very  hot,  to  almost 
boiling ;  let  it  steep  or  "  draw  "  ten  or  twelve 
minutes.  Now  fill  up  with  as  much  boiling 
water  as  is  required.  Send  hot  to  the  table. 
It  is  better  to  use  a  china  or  porcelain  teapot, 
but  if  you  do  use  metal  let  it  be  tin,  new, 
bright,  and  clean  ;  never  use  it  when  the  tin  is 
worn  off  and  the  iron  exposed.  If  you  do  you 
are  drinking  tea-ate  of  iron. 

To  make  tea  to  perfection,  boiling  water 
must  be  poured  on  the  leaves  directly  it  boils. 
Water  which  has  been  boiling  more  than  five 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


417 


minutes,  or  which  has  previously  boiled,  should 
on  no  account  be  used.  If  the  water  does  not 
boil,  or  if  it  be  allowed  to  overboil,  the  leaves 
of  the  tea  will  be  only  half-opened  and  the  tea 
itself  will  be  quite  spoiled.  The  water  should 
be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  leaves  from  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes. 

A  Chinese  being  interviewed  for  the  Cook, 
says:  Drink  your  tea  plain.  Don't  add  milk 
or  sugar.  Tea  brokers  and  tea  tasters  never 
do  ;  epicures  never  do  ;  the  Chinese  never  do. 
Milk  contains  fibrin,  albumen,  or  some  other 
stuff,  and  the  tea  a  delicate  amount  of  tannin. 
Mixing  the  two  makes  the  liquid  turbid.  This 
turbidity,  if  I  remember  the  cyclopaedia  aright, 
is  tannate  of  fibrin,  or  leather.  People  who 
put  milk  in  tea  are  therefore  drinking  boots 
and  shoes  in  mild  disguise. 

TEA. 

As  sold  in  the  shops,  tea  is  the  leaf  of  the 
tea-tree,  dried  and  stored  for  use.  These  leaves 
are  gathered  at  three  or  four  different  seasons, 
by  which  in  some  measure  the  different  quali- 
ties of  tea  are  produced,  those  first  picked  be- 
ing the  most  valuable  and  the  last  coarse  and 
large.  The  young  leaves  are  narrow,  convo- 
luted, and  downy;  the  middle-aged  have  their 
edges  serrated  and  veined  with  more  or  less 
delicacy,  while  in  the  old  leaves  the  serration 
and  veining  are  more  marked,  and,  in  addition, 
some  peculiar  hoops  are  developed  along  the 
margins,  which  are  readily  seen  when  the 
leaves  are  closely  examined.  All  teas  are 
classed  as  black  and  green,  depending  partly 
on  the  age  of  the  leaves,  partly  upon  the  locality 
where  they  are  grown,  and  partly  upon  the 
method  of  drying.  Thus  the  black  tea  is  not 
only  roasted  in  a  shallow  iron  vessel,  called 
the  Kus,  but  it  is  also  again  submitted  to  the 
action  of  a  charcoal  fire,  in  sieves.  Green  tea, 
on  the  other  hand,  escapes  the  second  process. 
As  the  names  of  the  different  teas  relate  to 
the  time  of  their  being  gathered,  or  to  some 
peculiarity  in  their  manufacture,  consumers 
should  know  something  about  them. 

Black  Teas.  As  soon  as  the  leaf-bud  be- 
gins to  expand,  it  is  gathered  to  make  Pekoe. 
A  few  days'  later  growth  produces  what  here  is 
called  Black-leaved  Pekoe.  The  next  picking 
is  called  Souchong.  As  the  leaves  grow  larger 
and  more  mature  they  form  Congou  ;  and  the 
last  and  latest  picking  is  called  Bohea. 

Bohea  is  called  by  the  Chinese  Ta-che  (large 
tea),  on  account  of  the  maturity  and  size  of  the 
leaves.  It  contains  a  larger  proportion  of 
woody  fiber  than  other  teas,  and  its  infusion 
is  of  a  darker  color  and  coarser  flavor. 

Congou,  the  next  higher  kind,  is  named  from 
a  corruption   of   the  Chinese  Koongfoo  (great 


care,  or  assiduity).  This  forms  the  bulk  of 
the  black  imported,  and  is  most  valued  for  its 
strength. 

Souchong,  Seaon-chong  (small,  scarce  sort), 
is  the  finest  of  the  stronger  black  tea,  with  a 
leaf  that  is  generally  entire  and  curly.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  its  fragrance  and  fine  flavor. 

Pekoe  is  a  corruption  of  the  Canton  name 
Pak-ho  (white  down),  being  the  first  sprouts 
of  leaf-buds ;  they  are  covered  with  a  white 
silky  down.  It  is  a  delicate  tea,  rather  defi- 
cient in  strength,  and  it  is  principally  used  for 
flavoring  other  teas. 

Green  Teas.  The  following  are  the  prin- 
cipal kinds :  Twankay,  Hyson-Skin,  Hyson, 
Gunpowder,  and  Young  Hyson. 

Young  Hyson  (when  genuine)  is  a  delicate 
young  leaf,  called  in  the  original  language, 
Yu-tsien  (before  the  rains),  because  gathered 
in  the  early  spring. 

Hyson,  from  the  Chinese  word,  Hich'un, 
which  signifies  flourishing  spring.  This  fine 
sort  of  tea  is  gathered  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season.  There  is  extreme  care  and  labor  used 
in  the  preparation  of  this  tea  ;  each  leaf  is 
picked  separately,  and  nipped  off  above  the 
foot  stalk,  and  every  separate  leaf  is  twisted 
and  rolled  by  the  hand.  It  is  much  esteemed 
for  its  agreeable  flavor. 

Gunpowder,  as  it  is  called,  is  nothing  but 
Hyson  rolled  and  rounded  to  give  it  the  gran- 
ular appearance  whence  it  derives  its  name. 
The  Chinese  call  it  Choo-cha  (pearl-tea). 

Hyson-Skin  is  so  named  from  the  original 
Chinese  term  in  which  connection  the  skin 
means  the  refuse  or  inferior  portion.  In  pre- 
paring Hyson,  all  those  leaves  that  are  of  a 
coarse  yellow,  or  imperfectly  twisted  appear- 
ance, are  separated  and  sold  as  skin  tea,  at  an 
inferior  price. 

CHOCOLATE. 

A  substance  made  from  the  seeds  of  the 
cocoa  tree  which  grows  extensively  in  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America.  The  seeds 
are  about  the  size  of  an  almond,  and  when 
broken  into  small  pieces  are  subjected  to 
great  pressure  until  they  are  reduced  to  a 
rough  powder,  after  which  they  are  mixed 
with  sugar  and  rolled  into  a  very  thick  paste, 
or  into  a  very  fine  powder,  called  chocolate. 
Chocolate  is  less  exciting  to  the  nervous  sys- 
tem than  tea  or  coffee,  and  at  the  same  time 
it  contains  a  much  larger  proportion  of  nutri- 
tive matter.  Its  flavor,  moreover,  is  not  les- 
sened by  the  addition  of  milk,  so  that  it  may 
be  boiled  in  milk  only  and  thus  produce  a  most 
agreeable  and  nutritive  food.  "  There  are, 
therefore,"  says  Dr.  Edward  Smith,  "  many 
persons,  states  of  system,  and  circumstances, 


418 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  rACTS. 


iii  which  its  use  is  to  be  preferred  to  either  tea 
or  coffee." 

CHEESE. 

Cheese  is  obtained  exclusively  from  the  milk 
of  animals,  and  its  quality  varies  with  the 
class,  breed,  and  food  of  the  animal,  and  the 
process  of  manufacture.  The  most  ordinary 
source  of  cheese  is  the  milk  of  the  cow,  and 
there  are  certain  varieties  of  cows  which  pro- 
duce much  cheese  and  little  butter,  as  there  are 
others  which  produce  much  butter  and  little 
cheese.  The  kind  of  food  given  to  the  cows  is 
very  important,  for  just  in  proportion  to  the 
richness  of  the  milk  in  casein  and  cream  is  the 
richness  of  the  cheese.  The  value  of  cheese 
as  an  article  of  diet  has  not  been  entirely  es- 
tablished. If  we  consider  its  chemical  compo- 
sition, it  is  one  of  the  richest  of  foods  in  nutri- 
tive elements ;  but  Dr.  Smith  has  found  that 
the  popular  belief  that  it  is  not  easily  digested 
is  true.  This  objection,  however,  applies  only 
to  the  new  and  poor  cheese  ;  those  that  are  old 
and  rich  not  only  digest  easily,  but  promote 
the  digestion  of  other  food.  That  which  is 
old  and  dry  (but  not  decayed)  may  be  given  to 
children  to  relieve  constipation. 

VARIETIES    IX    MARKET. 

The  following  cheeses  can  generally  be 
found  in  American  markets.  It  is  best  to  take 
the  advice  of  a  reliable  dealer  regarding  the 
quantity  of  any  cheese  that  it  is  wise  to  lay  in 
at  a  time. 

Strong,  in  this  list,  means  of  a  high  flavor 
and  odor,  but  not  necessarily  sharp.  Most 
new  cheeses  are  relatively  mild,  and  develop 
their  characteristics,  especially  sharpness,  with 
age. 

American  and  Canadian  Cheeses. — 
Pineapple,  English  Dairy  (imitations  of),  Fac- 
tory, and  the  homemade  Cottage  cheese,  like  the 
Schmeer  Kiise  of  the  Germans.  None  of  these 
are  classed  among  strong  cheeses.  They  are 
good  all  the  year  around,  but  the  Cottage  is 
best  in  summer. 

English  Cheeses  (Of  variable  strength, 
sometimes  sharp). —  Stilton  comes  first  in  fame 
and  price.  It  is  so  named  from  the  place 
where  it  was  first  sold.  The  cheeses  are  mostly 
manufactured  in  Leicestershire.  It  takes  two 
years  to  properly  mature  the  cheese  for  use  ; 
then  it  becomes  decayed,  blue,  and  moist.  It 
is  a  common  trick  to  hasten  its  maturity  by 
putting  each  separate  cheese  in  a  bucket  and 
covering  it  with  horse  dung.  This  rapidly 
gives  the  required  appearance  of  maturity. 

In  a  district  of  Ross-shire  they  ripen  their 
cheeses  to  make  them  like  Stilton,  by  burying 
them  below  high  water  mark. 

Cottenham —  A  strong  kind  of  Stilton. 


Cheddar  (Mild). —  Made  from  new  milk,  re- 
taining its  natural  cream. 

English  Dairy  (Medium). 

Dutch  Cheese.  —  Dutchman's  Head  or 
Edam  (Medium).  —  Not  equal  to  the  best 
cheeses  of  England,  being  hard. 

French  Cheeses  are  generally  for  winter 
consumption,  and  come  to  us  only  from  Octo- 
ber to  May. 

Brie  Cheeses  (Mild). — Are  made  from  cream. 

Camemhert  (Strong). — A  little  like  the  Swiss. 

Mont  (V Or  (Mild). —  From  Central  France. 
Made  from  goats'  milk. 

Pont  de  Salu     (Very  strong). 

Pont  d'Eveque  (Mild).  A  very  pleasant 
cheese.     More  flavor  than  Brie. 

Roquefort  (Medium  and  sharp). —  Made  from 
the  milk  of  goats  and  sheep,  and  ripened  with 
great  care  in  caverns. 

Solferino  (Strong). 

German  Cheeses. — Limburger  (very 
strong).  Not  considered  ready  for  consump- 
tion until  partly  putrefied. 

Schabzieger  or  Sap  Sago.  —  Which  gets  its 
green  color  from  melilot  leaves. 

Italian  Cheeses. — Lirarno  (Strong),  Par- 
mesan (Medium — slightly  sharp).  From  the 
most  fertile  Milanese  territory  ;  they  are  so  full 
of  oil  that  it  has  been  erroneously  supposed  that 
oil  was  added  to  the  curd.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  to  be  made  from  goat's  milk,  but  it 
is  made  merely  of  skimmed  cow's  milk  manip- 
ulated in  a  peculiar  way.  The  best  Parmesan 
is  kept  three  or  four  years,  and  none  is  sent  to 
market  until  it  is  at  least  six  months  old. 

Scotch  Cheese. —  (Dunlop.) —  Which  gets 
its  flavor  from  lovage  leaves,  is  the  only  one 
known  here. 

Swiss  Cheeses.— Gruyere  is  the  best  of  the 
Swiss  cheeses,  many  Of  which  are  celebrated. 
It  is  made  in  the  canton  of  Fribourg.  Its  pecul- 
iar flavor  is  said  to  be  owing  to  the  herbage  of 
the  mountain  pastures  on  which  the  cows  feed. 

Neufckatel  (Variable). —  Is  sold  in  small 
rolls,  covered  with  tin  foil ;  it  is  simply  a 
cream  cheese  such  as  is  described  above. 

CARE  OF  THE    EYES.        • 

A  writer  on  the  care  of  the  eyes,  in  an  Eng- 
lish paper,  says  :  "  All  are  anxious  to  do  this, 
but  few  know  how  effectually  to  do  so,  and 
many  never  think  of  the  matter  till  failing 
eyesight  warns  them  that  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. By  the  latter,"  says  the  same  writer, 
"the  following  suggestions  will  be  read  with 
interest : — 

"  The  sight  in  most  persons  begins  to  fail 
from  forty  to  fifty  years  of  age,  as  is  evidenced 
by  an  instinctive  preference  for  large  print ;  a 
seat  near  the  window  for  reading  is  selected  t 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


419 


there  is  an  effort  to  place  the  paper  at  a  con- 
venient distance  from  the  eye,  or  to  turn  it  so 
as  to  get  a  particular  reflection  of  the  light  ; 
next  the  finger  begins  to  be  placed  under  the 
line  read,  and  there  is  a  winking  of  the  eye  .as 
if  to  clear  it,  or  a  looking  away  at  some  dis- 
tant object  to  rest  it ;  or  the  fingers  are  pressed 
over  the  closed  lids  in  the  direction  of  the 
nose,  to  remove  the  tears  caused  by  straining. 
"  Favor  the  failing  sight  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. Looking  into  a  bright  fire,  especially  a 
coal  fire,  is  very  injurious  to  the  eyes.  Look- 
ing at  molten  iron  will  soon  destroy  the  sight ; 
reading  in  the  twilight  is  injurious  to  the  eyes, 
as  they  are  obliged  to  make  great  exertion. 
Reading  or  sewing  with  a  side  light  injures 
the  eyes,  as  both  eyes  should  be  exposed  to  an 
equal  degree  of  light.  The  reason  is,  the 
sympathy  between  the  eyes  is  so  great  that  if 
the  pupil  of  one  is  dilated  by  being  kept  par- 
tially in  the  shade,  the  one  that  is  most  exposed 
cannot  contract  itself  sufficiently  for  protec- 
tion, and  will  ultimately  be  injured.  Those 
who  wish  to  preserve  their  sight  should  ob- 
serve the  following  rules,  and  preserve  their 
general  health  by  correct  habits  :  — 

"  1.  By  sitting  in  such  a  position  as  will 
allow  the  light  to  fall  obliquely  over  the  shoul- 
der upon  the  page  or  sewing. 

"2.  By  not  using  the  eyes  for  such  pur- 
poses by  any  artificial  light. 

'•;3.  By  avoiding  the  special  use  of  the 
ayes  in  the  morning  before  breakfast. 

"4.  By  resting  them  for  a  half  minute  or 
so  while  reading  or  sewing,  or  looking  at  small 
objects  ;  and  by  looking  at  things  at  a  distance 
or  up  to  the  sky  ;  relief  is  immediately  felt  by 
so  doing. 

"5.  Never  pick  any  collected  matter  from 
the  eyelashes  or  corners  of  the  eyes  with  the 
finger  nails  ;  rather  moisten  it  with  the  saliva 
and  rub  it  away  with  the  ball  of  the  finger. 

"6.  Frequently  pass  the  ball  of  the  finger 
over  the  closed  eyelids  toward  the  nose ;  this 
carries  off  an  excess  of  water  into  the  nose  it- 
self by  means  of  the  little  canal  which  leads 
into  the  nostril  from  each  inner  corner  of  the 
eye,  this  canal  having  a  tendency  to  close  up 
in  consequence  of  the  slight  inflammation 
which  attends  weakness  of  eyes. 

"  7.  Keep  the  feet  always  dry  and  warm, 
so  as  to  draw  any  excess  of  blood  from  the 
other  end  of  the  body. 

"  8.  Use  eyeglasses  at  first,  carried  in  the 
vest  pocket  attached  to  a  guard,  for  they  are 
instantly  adjusted  to  the  eye  wTith  very  little 
trouble,  whereas,  if  common  spectacles  are 
used,  such  a  process  is  required  to  get  them 
ready  that  to  save  trouble  the  eyes  are  often 
strained  to  answer  a  purpose. 


*"  9.  Wash  the  eyes  abundantly  every 
morning.  If  cold  water  is  used,  let  it  be 
flapped  against  the  closed  eyes  with  the  fingers, 
not  striking  hard  against  the  balls  of  the  eyes. 
"  10.  The  moment  the  eyes  feel  tired,  the 
very  moment  you  are  conscious  of  an  effort  to 
read  or  sew,  lay  aside  the  book  or  needle  and 
take  a  walk  for  an  hour,  or  employ  yourself  in 
some  active  exercise  not  requiring  the  close  use 
of  the  eyes." 

CARPETS. 

Before  describing  the  various  kinds  of  car- 
pets there  are  one  or  two  points  to  be  con- 
sidered. And  first  the  material,  colors,  and 
pattern  of  the  carpet  must  be  adapted  to 
the  room  into  which  it  is  to  be  put,  and  the 
I  other  furniture  of  the  room.  Large  patterns 
j  will  not  look  well  in  small  rooms,  nor  will  very 
J  small  patterns  look  well  in  large  ones  ;  an  ex- 
[  pensive  carpet  renders  it  necessary  to  have 
j  expensive  furniture  ;  and  every  bit  of  color  in 
the  room,  from  the  carpet  to  the  ceiling,  must 
i  have  some  harmony  with  every  other.  At  the 
same  time  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is 
|  harmony  in  contrasted  colors  as  well  as  in  those 
which  are  similar,  and  if  the  furniture  is  either 
very  dark  or  very  gay,  the  carpet  should  be 
either  gay  or  neutral,  in  order  to  relieve  the 
general  effect.  The  large  patterns  which  used 
to  prevail  have  been  discarded  of  late  years ; 
and  patterns  as  small  as  the  room  will  bear  are 
considered  most  desirable.  Medallion  carpets, 
or  those  with  figures  of  animals,  bouquets  of 
flowers,  baskets  of  roses,  or  stripes,  should 
never  be  chosen :  the  most  pleasing  figures 
are  simple  geometrical  designs,  a  tracery  of 
vines,  arabesques,  or  an  almost  solid  neutral 
groundwork  of  broken  lines.  A  carpet  with 
much  white  in  it  is  objectionable  anywhere 
unless  the  furniture  is  very  dark,  but  it  should 
never  be  laid  in  a  room  that  is  much  used  ;  on 
the  other  hand,  a  very  dark  carpet  is  almost  as 
hard  to  keep  clean.  Carpets  with  blue  or 
green,  or  any  "delicate"  color,  fade  on  ex- 
posure to  sunlight.  A  bordered  carpet  makes 
a  room  look  smaller  than  it  is ;  and  a  small 
room  will  look  larger  if  the  floor  is  covered 
with  a  carpet  of  neutral  tint  and  small  figures. 

AVxminster  Carpet  is  expensive,  but  wears 
almost  well  enough  to  make  up  for  it.  There  are 
French,  English,  and  American  Axminsters  in 
the  market ;  they  do  not  differ  much  from  each 
other  in  cost,  the  price  being  from  $2  to  $5  a 
yard. 

Brussels  Carpet,  on  account  of  its  dura- 
bility, is  probably  the  cheapest  for  general  use. 
The  basis  is  a  warp  and  woof  of  linen  thread  ; 
worsted  threads  are  also  interwoven,  which  are 
formed  into  loops  by  means  of  wires  and  form 


420 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  patterns,  the  linen  threads  not  being  visible 
on  the  surface.  When  well  made  they  are 
very  durable,  and,  being  at  the  same  time  ele- 
gant, are  among  the  most  desirable  of  all  car- 
pets. Good  English  Brussels  is  worth  about 
|1.25  to  fl.75  per  yard,  three  quarters  of  a 
yard  wide.  American  about  $1.00  to  $1.50. 
(See  Tapkstry  Carpet.) 

Dutch  Carpet. —  A  cheap  carpet  woven  in 
pieces  about  a  yard  wide.  The  warp  is  of  wool 
and  the  filling  of  wool,  hemp,  or  cotton;  and 
the  only  patterns  are  stripes  and  checks.  This 
is  very  good  for  stairs.     Price  75  cts.  to  $1.10. 

Ingrain  Carpet  is,  perhaps,  most  fre- 
quently used  in  bedrooms  and  the  like.  It  is 
made  of  two  threads  only,  and  the  colors  are 
reversed  on  either  side  ;  in  the  best  both  threads 
are  wool,  in  the  cheaper  kinds  the  warp  is  of 
cotton.  The  English  Ingrain  costs  about  $1 .25 
per  yard  ;  the  American  from  85  cts.  to  $1.10  ; 
yard  wide. 

Kidderminster  Carpet. —  This  is  made 
of  two  woolen  webs  which  intersect  each  other 
at  various  points  to  produce  the  pattern,  which 
is  the  same  on  both  sides  with  the  color  re- 
versed. They  are  woven  in  large  squares  to  fit 
the  room,  and  are  of  various  qualities.  A  good 
article  is  worth  about  $1.25  per  square  yard. 

Moquette  Carpet  is  a  very  rich  and 
beautiful  French  carpet  made  on  same  princi- 
ple as  Wilton.     Price  $1.25  to  $1.75. 

Persian  and  Turkish  Carpets. — 
These  are  unequaled  for  richness  of  fabric  and 
patterns  ;  they  are  woven  with  a  soft  pile  like 
that  of  velvet,  and  some  of  the  costliest  of  the 
Persian  have  floss  silk  mixed  with  the  wool. 
The  colors  are  indescribably  rich  and  brilliant, 
and  one  of  them  spread  upon  the  floor  bright- 
ens up  the  most  cheerless  room.  They  are 
woven  in  one  piece,  and  are  from  five  to  ten 
yards  long,  and  from  five  to  six  wide.  They 
are  very  expensive,  and  the  finer  qualities  are 
appropriate  only  in  elaborately  furnished 
rooms. 

Printed  Felt  is  made  of  coarse  wools 
brought  together  by  the  process  of  felting, 
and  the  patterns  are  imprinted  in  colors  by 
means  of  the  rollers  on  which  they  are  cut. 
It  is  bright  colored  but  rather  flimsy,  and  only 
appropriate  for  rugs,  druggets,  or  table  covers. 
It  is  of  various  widths.  Price  about  $1.00 
per  square  yard. 

Bag  Carpet  is  the  lowest  in  price  of  all, 
and  can  readily  be  made  at  home  on  a  hand 
loom.  Use  a  warp  of  strong  cotton  threads, 
and  weave  in  any  kind  of  rags  by  twisting 
them  up  into  small  rolls.  It  is  thick,  and  serv- 
iceable to  spread  over  kitchen  floors  in  winter. 
Price  in  the  shops  about  50  cents  a  yard  ; 
yard  wide. 


Tapestry  Carpet  is  an  imitation  of  Brus- 
sels, but  only  one  woolen  thread  is  used  instead 
of  four  or  five  different  colors.  The  warp  is 
of  coarse  linen  threads,  and  the  pattern  ap- 
pears only  on  one  side.  Tapestry  is  very 
pretty,  and  in  the  best  patterns  is  hard  to  dis- 
tinguish from  Brussels  ;  but  it  is  not  durable, 
and  is  liable  to  fade.  It  is  woven  in  pieces 
three  fourths  of  a  yard  wide,  and  costs  50 
cents  to  $1.25  per  yard.  Brussels  is  cheaper 
at  twice  the  price. 

Three-Ply  Carpets  are  the  same  as  in- 
grain, except  that  a  third  thread  is  added,  and 
this  makes  the  pattern  on  the  right  side.  II 
is  the  prettiest  of  the  cheaper  all-wool  carpets  ; 
but  as  the  single  layer  of  threads  on  the  sur- 
face is  liable  to  wear  off,  it  is  not  so  durable 
as  ingrain,  and  cannot  be  turned  like  the  lat- 
ter.    Price,  about  $1.00  per  yard  ;  yard  wide. 

Velvet  Carpet  is  an  English  material,  is 
which  the  weaving  is  the  same  as  tapestry : 
only  the  loops  are  cut,  thus  giving  it  a  high 
pile,  like  velvet.  It  has  a  rich  aud  soft  effect, 
and  wears  better  than  tapestry.  Price,  about 
$1.50  per  yard;    three  quarters  yard  wide. 

Wilton  Carpet  differs  from  Brussels  jusl 
as  velvet  differs  from  tapestry  ;  after  weaving, 
the  loops  are  cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  a 
pile  like  that  of  velvet  produced.  Wilton  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  beautiful  and  durable  of  all 
carpets.  Price,  about  $3.25  per  yard  ;  three 
quarters  wide.  In  Royal  Wilton  the  pile  is 
raised  higher  than  in  the  common  kind. 

Wood  Carpet. —  This  is  a  late  invention. 
It  is  made  of  well-seasoned  and  kiln-dried  hard 
woods,  cut  into  strips  one  and  one  eighth  to 
one  and  three  eighths  inches  wide,  and  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  j*lued  on  to 
heavy  cotton  drill.  The  wood  is  then  planed 
smooth  and  oiled.  It  rolls  up  like  an  oilcloth, 
can  be  sent  anywhere,  and  can  be  put  down  by 
any  good  carpenter.  It  can  be  laid  to  look 
like  ordinary  flooring  of  one  kind  of  wood,  or 
in  fancy  designs,  center  pieces,  etc.  That  of 
one  kind  of  wood,  or  of  alternate  strips  of  dif- 
ferent kinds,  is  a  yard  wide,  at  $1.25  to  $2.50 
a  yard.  The  fancy  styles  cost  from  35  cents 
to  $1.25  per  square  foot.  It  is  claimed  for 
this  carpeting  that  it  is  insect  proof,  that  dust 
cannot  penetrate  it,  that  it  is  so  thin  as  not  to 
interfere  with  door  sills,  etc.,  and  that  it  is 
very  durable  ;  but  it  needs  to  be  more  thor- 
oughly tested. 

CARE  OF  THE  TEETH.  DUTY 
OF  DENTISTS. 

There  is,  perhaps,  as  much  oversight  or  neg- 
lect by  the  average  dentist,  in  the  matter  of 
cleansing  the  teeth,  in  the  ordinary  cases  that 
come  to  his  care,  as   in  any  other  particular 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


421 


in  practice.  How  often  it  is  that  teeth  that 
have  been  recently  filled  will  exhibit  upon  their 
surfaces  more  or  less  of  foreign  matter,  usually 
salivary  calculus  !  This  is  sometimes  removed 
from  the  exposed  surfaces,  while  it  is  permitted 
to  remain  in  considerable  quantities  beneath 
the  margin  of  the  gums. 

When  the  care  of  a  set  of  teeth  and  the 
mouth  is  committed  to  the  dentist,  the  first 
step,  so  far  as  treatment  and  manipulation  is 
concerned,  is  to  render  all  the  teeth  thoroughly 
clean,  removing  every  particle  of  foreign  mat- 
ter, and  polishing  the  surfaces  as  perfectly  as 
possible ;  giving  particular  attention  to  all 
rough  and  abraded  places.  The  gums  should 
be  rendered  healthy  and  freed  from  all  irritants. 
In  proper  and  systematic  treatment  this  should 
precede  the  operation  of  filling.  Still,  in  some 
cases,  it  will  be  necess;iry  that  all  go  on  to- 
gether, but  the  rule  should  be  that  thorough 
cleansing  precede  the  operation  of  filling. 

Cleaning  the  teeth  and  making  the  mouth 
healthy  is  as  important  as,  and,  indeed,  more 
so  in  some  respects,  than  the  operation  of  filling 
decayed  teeth. 

If  the  profession  could  feel  the  full  impor- 
tance of  this,  better  success  would  attend  the 
operation  of  filling. 

He  who  neglects  the  condition  of  the  mouth 
in  respect  to  health  and  purity,  and  simply 
fills  teeth,  irrespective  of  these  conditions, 
does  both  himself  and  patient  great  injustice. 
Such  operations,  however  well  performed,  are 
far  less  efficient  than  they  would  be  if  the 
mouth  were  kept  clean  and  free  from  disease. 
Nor  is  it  enough  that  the  mouth  be  made 
healthy  and  pure,  but  it  must  be  kept  so,  if 
the  work  of  the  dentist  is  to  be  of  permanent 
service.  And  in  order  that  this  good  condi- 
tion of  the  mouth  be  maintained  the  patient 
should  have  a  clear  understanding  of  its  im- 
portance, and  of  the  means  by  which  it  is  ac- 
complished, and  be  made  to  feel  that  it  is 
mainly  dependent  upon  himself.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  dentist,  not  only  to  fully  impress 
this  fact  upon  the  mind  of  his  patient,  but  also 
to  give  him  all  needed  information  as  to  the 
means  to  be  used. 

In  order  that  the  mouth  be  kept  in  proper 
condition,  it  should  be  examined  thoroughly 
once  in  from  four  to  twelve  months;  with 
some  as  often  as  every  four  months  :  with  others 
once  in  twelve  months  will  suffice.  The  dentist 
who  has  the  best  interest  of  his  patients  at 
heart,  and  a  just  appreciation  of  his  own  repu- 
tation, cannot  afford  to  dismiss  them  indefi- 
nitely, or  until  the  patient  finds  something 
breaking  down,  or  is  admonished  by  the  pain 
of  some  active  disease. 

It   is  very  often  that  quite  faulty  filling  in 


mouths  kept  healthy  and  clean  seem  entirely 
to  arrest  decay  of  the  teeth  in  which  they  are  ; 
while  in  mouths  that  are  neglected,  impure, 
and  diseased,  the  most  perfect  fillings  utterly 
fail  to  save  the  teeth  for  any  considerable  time. 

Were  dentists  as  careful  in  this  matter  as 
they  ought  to  be,  there  would  be  far  less  of 
failure  in  operating  upon  the  natural  teeth  than 
is  at  present  realized  ;  and  the  appreciation  of 
the  service  of  the  dentist  \vould  be  much 
greater,  and  his  reputation  of  a  higher  order 
than  at  present,  a  result  to  be  greatly  desired. 

Toothpicks.  At  the  temperature  of  the 
mouth,  only  a  few  hours  is  sufficient  to  induce 
a  putrefactive  change  of  particles  of  food  left 
between  the  teeth.  They  should  be  removed 
with  the  quill  or  wooden  toothpick,  or  with 
floss  silk.  Silk  is  preferable,  as  it  can  be 
passed  between  teeth  that  stand  in  contact,  and 
effectually  cleanses  the  surface  that  cannot  be 
reached  by  the  pick  or  the  brush.  If  this  be 
too  expensive,  linen  threads,  such  as  are  used 
by  shoemakers,  may  be  substituted. 

Toothbrushes  should  be  used  with  great 
thoroughness  every  night  and  morning,  and,  if 
practicable,  after  every  meal.  Great  care 
should  be  taken,  however,  to  select  brushes 
not  too  harsh  and  stiff,  as  they  may  do  much 
harm  to  the  gums.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
brushes  are  too  soft,  the  teeth  will  not  be  well 
cleansed. 

Powders  should  always  be  used,  as  by 
their  help  the  sticky  mucus  is  more  thoroughly 
removed  and  the  surfaee  kept  smooth  and  pol- 
ished. The  chalk  of  which  they  are  mostly 
made,  has  also  an  affinity  for  the  acids,  thereby 
protecting  the  teeth.  Soap  is  very  cleansing, 
and  may  be  always  used  to  advantage.  Most 
of  the  powders  before  the  public  may  be  con- 
sidered reliable.  The  chalk  and  orris,  of 
which  they  are  chiefly  made,  are  so  cheap  that 
there  is  no  inducement  for  adulteration. 

Washes  for  the  teeth  and  gums  may  be 
used,  but  care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  those 
which  are  astringent.  Such  may  be  used  to 
advantage  in  case  of  diseased  gums,  but  in  a 
state  of  health  the  teeth  and  gums  need  to  be 
cleansed,  not  medicated. 

BALDNESS. 

In  an  article  recently  contributed  to  the 
Gesundheit  —  a  paper,  as  its  name  imports,  de- 
voted to  sanitary  subjects  —  Professor  Reclam, 
a  German  Gelehrter,  makes  some  timely  and 
useful  observations  on  the  subject  of  baldness. 
After  describing,  in  a  vein  of  pleasantry,  the 
vast  array  of  bare  polls  which  may  be  seen  any 
evening  in  the  pit  of  a  theater  or  the  body  of 
a  lecture  room,  he  discusses  the  causes  of  bald- 
ness.  He  does  not  think,  as  is  sometimes  said, 


422 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


that  loss  of  hair  is  the  result  either  of  impaired 
health  or  of  much  study.  The  strongest  men 
are  often  bareheaded,  and  German  professors, 
who  are  nothing  if  not  studious,  are  distin- 
guished above  all  men  by  the  profusion  of 
their  locks.  On  the  other  hand,  soldiers  and 
postilions,  who  wear  heavy  helmets  and  leather 
caps,  and  wear  them  a  good  deal,  are  fre- 
quently as  bald  as  billiard  balls.  From  these 
facts  Herr  Reclam  draws  the  conclusion  that 
baldness  is  chiefly  due  to  the  artificial  deter- 
mination of  blood  to  the  head,  and  to  the  heat 
and  perspiration  thence  arising.  The  result  is 
a  relaxed  condition  of  the  scalp  and  loss  of 
hair.  If  the  skin  of  the  head  be  kept  in  a 
healthy  state,  contends  the  professor,  the  hair 
will  not  fall  off.  To  keep  it  healthy,  the  head- 
covering  should  be  light  and  porous,  the  head 
kept  clean  by  washings  with  water,  and  the 
hair  cut  short.  The  nostrums  vended  as  hair 
restorers,  and  on  which  a  fabulous  amount  of 
money  is  wasted  by  the  ignorant  for  the  bene- 
fit of  quacks,  he  denounced  as  worse  than 
useless.  In  ninety-nine  cases  out  of  a  hundred 
they  are  worse  than  useless.  Cleanliness  and 
cold  water  are  the  sole  trustworthy  specifics ; 
but  when  once  the  hair  roots  are  destroyed, 
not  all  the  oil  of  Macassar,  the  bear's  grease 
of  Siberia,  nor  the  cantharides  of  Spain  will 
woo  back  the  vanished  locks. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  HAIR. 

How  to  preserve  the  hair  is  a  subject  which 
seems  to  interest  almost  everybody,  if  we  may 
judge  from  the  frequent  inquiries  from  every 
direction  which  come  to  our  attention.  One 
wishes  to  know  what  will  prevent  baldness, 
another  how  to  preserve  his  hair  from  turn- 
ing gray,  another  how  to  eradicate  dandruff, 
etc.  Now  it  is  a  delicate  matter  to  recommend 
any  special  treatment,  but  Professor  Wilson, 
of  England,  who  is  deemed  high  authority  on 
the  hair,  condemns  washing  it,  and  advises, 
instead,  thorough  brushing.  This  promotes 
circulation,  removes  scurf,  and  is  in  all  respects, 
he  says,  better  than  water. 

Cutting  the  hair  does  not,  as  commonly 
thought,  promote  its  growth.  Most  of  the 
specifics  recommended  for  baldness,  not  ex- 
cepting petroleum,  are  mere  stimulants,  and 
are  seldom  or  never  permanently  successful. 
Some  of  them  give  rise  to  congestion  of  the 
scalp.  When  a  stimulant  is  desirable,  ammo- 
nia is  the  best.     It  is  safe. 

For  falling  out  of  the  hair,  Dr.  Wilson  pre- 
scribes a  lotion  composed  of  water  of  ammonia, 
almond  oil,  and  chloroform,  one  part  each, 
diluted  with  five  parts  alcohol,  or  spirits  of 
rosemary,  the  whole  made  fragrant  with  a 
drachm  of  oil  of  lemon.     Dab  it  on  the  skin, 


after  thorough  friction  with  the  hair  brush. 
It  may  be  used  sparingly  or  abundantly,  daily 
or  otherwise. 

For  a  cooling  lotion,  one  made  of  two 
drachms  of  borax  and  glycerine  to  eight  ounces 
of  distilled  water  is  effective,  allaying  dryness, 
subduing  irritability,  and  removing  dandruir. 

Both  baldness  and  grayness  depend  on  de- 
fective powers  of  the  scalp  skin,  and  are  to  be 
treated  alike.  What  is  needed  is  moderate 
stimulation,  without  any  irritation.  The  fol- 
lowing is  good :  Rub  into  the  bare  places 
daily,  or  even  twice  a  day,  a  liniment  of  cam- 
phor, ammonia,  chloroform,  and  aconite,  equal 
parts  each.     The  friction  should  be  very  gentle. 

SPECTACLES(Hints  on  the  use  of). 

From  a  valuable  little  book,  "  Practical  Re- 
marks on  Impaired  Vision,"  by  Mr.  Cooper, 
the  well-known  London  optician,  we  extract 
the  following:  "It  cannot  be  too  strongly 
urged  upon  anyone  about  to  use  spectacles  for 
the  first  time  that  that  power  which  will  enable 
him  to  read  without  much  exertion  by  candle- 
light is  the  only  power  suitable  for  him.  It  is 
by  candlelight  only  that  he  should  use  glasses 
at  first,  and  as  soon  as  he  finds  that  he  stands 
in  need  of  glasses  by  day  as  well  as  by  candle- 
light, and  that  the  glasses  he  uses  no  longer 
afford  him  sufficient  assistance  by  candlelight, 
it  will  be  proper  to  use  the  next  power  for  the 
evening,  but  for  the  evening  only,  and  to  al- 
low himself  the  use  of  the  others  —  and  their 
use  only  —  during  the  day. 

14  The  greatest  caution  as  to  increasing  the 
power  of  glasses  should  be  observed  ;  for  per- 
sons who  change  their  glasses,  unnecessarily 
increasing  their  power  each  time,  are  exhausting 
the  resources  of  art,  instead  of  economizing 
them  as  much  as  possible.  Optical  aid  can 
only  be  extended  to  a  certain  point,  and  the 
steps  to  that  point  should  be  as  slow  and 
as  numerous  as  possible.  By  exercising  prudent 
precautions,  persons  may  often  attain  great  age, 
and  yet  never  require  the  aid  of  glasses  beyond 
a  very  moderate  power  ;  others,  on  the  contrary, 
who  from  ignorance  frequently  increase  the 
power  of  their  glasses,  may  run  through  the 
whole  assortment,  and  leave  themselves  only 
the  most  inconvenient  resources  to  fall  back 
upon — viz.,  the  very  highest  powers. " 

Common,  cheap  spectacles  sometimes  appear 
to  answer  as  well  as  those  which  cost  three  or 
four  times  as  much  ;  but  cheap  glasses  are  not 
to  be  depended  upon  ;  they  are  sometimes 
ground  irregularly  and  imperfectly,  and  then 
they  injure  the  eyes.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to 
have  spectacles  from  a  respectable  optician, 
who  has  a  character  to  maintain.  Spectacles 
having  lenses  called    pebbles,    which    is  rock 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,   HYGIENE    DIETETICS. 


423 


crystal,  are  not  liable  to  be  scratched  like  glass  ; 
but  they  are  not  in  any  degree  better  than  those 
of  glass  for  the  eyesight ;  and  if  care  be  taken 
of  the  latte-  they  do  just  as  well. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  spectacle  glasses, 
the  convex,  the  concave,  and  the  periscopic. 
The  first  are  to  correct  short  sight,  the  second 
to  correct  long  sight,  while  the  periscopic  are 
for  either.  This  last  description  of  lens  is 
both  concave  and  convex,  the  former  on  the 
side  nearest  the  eye,  the  latter  on  the  side 
furthest  from  it.  For  long  sight,  as  well  as 
short,  the  convexity  and  concavity  are  made  to 
differ  so  as  to  furnish  any  required  focus.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  in  glasses  of  this  form 
the  aberration  of  light  is  greater  than  in  any 
other  lenses,  and  that  periscopic  glasses  are 
liable  to  be  scratched.  They  have,  however, 
one  very  great  advantage,  which  is  this : 
With  common  glasses,  especially  concave,  the 
wearer  can  see  only  through  the  exact  middle 
of  the  lens ;  he  must,  therefore,  turn  his  head 
whenever  he  directs  his  view  to  any  lateral 
object.  With  periscopic  glasses  he  may  see 
through  any  part  of  them,  and  can  observe 
objects  by  his  side  without  turning  his  head. 
If,  however,  periscopic  glasses  be  defectively 
made,  they  are  injurious  to  the  eyes.  They 
should  be  gauged  and  examined  before  they 
are  purchased,  to  be  assured  of  their  accuracy. 

HAIR. 

The  proper  management  of  the  hair  is  very 
simple.  It  should  be  kept  as  clean  as  possible 
by  daily  brushing  with  a  stiff  brush,  by  re- 
moval of  the  scurf  that  forms  upon  the  skin 
(See  Dandiukf).  and  by  occasionally  washing 
it  with  pure  cold  water,  which  will  have  no 
injurious  effect  upon  the  health,  provided  the 
hair  is  not  so  long  as  to  make  its  drying  diffi- 
cult. To  assist  in  drying  it  thoroughly,  dip 
the  brush  into  a  very  little  hair  powder  or 
starch,  brush  it  into  the  hair,  and  then  brush 
it  out.  After  this  a  little  perfumed  pomatum 
may  be  brushed  in  —  too  much  not  only  makes 
the  hair  greasy,  but  injures  it.  There  is  a 
natural  oil  secreted  by  the  hair  which  ought 
to  be  sufficient  for  keeping  it  in  good  order, 
but  this  is  often  deficient,  and  the  hair  be- 
comes dry  and  harsh  ;  then  it  is  that  the  defi- 
ciency may  be  supplied  by  a  little  pomatum  or 
oil.  A  multitude  of  hair  oils  are  sold  by 
perfumers,  their  compositions  being  kejt 
secret,  and  each  being  represented  as  having 
extraordinary  qualities.  It  is  best  to  have 
nothing  to  do  with  any  of  them,  for  when  they 
are  not  injurious  they  are  no  better  than  prep- 
arations which  can  be  made  at  home  with 
little  trouble,  and  for  which  we  shall  give  a 
receipt  or  iwo  further  along.     When  hair  has 


become  too  greasy  from  too  free  use  of  oil  or 
pomatum,  it  is  proper  to  remove  the  unctuous 
\  matter  by  persistent  brushing.  Occasionally 
'<  soap  is  resorted  to  for  this  purpose,  but  soap 
j  will  change  the  color  of  the  hair,  and  should 
I  be  used  cautiously.  A  little  white  soap  dis- 
solved in  spirits  of  wine  is  most  effectual  and 
less  injurious  than  soap  alone.  After  using  it 
:  the  hair  must  be  well  washed  with  water. 

It  is  very  doubtful  whether  frequent  cutting 
|  of  the  hair  is  favorable  to  its  growth  and 
beauty,  as  is  generally  assumed.  It  always 
renders  the  hair  coarse  and  stubby,  and  it  is 
certain  that  the  common  practice  of  cropping  or 
.  shaving  the  head,  for  the  purpose  of  strength- 
ening the  growth  of  the  hair,  not  only  fails  of 
this  effect,  but  often  produces  total  baldness. 

The  loosening  and  falling  out  of  the  hair  is 
frequently  the  direct  result  of  fever  or  derange- 
ment of  the  system,  but  is  more  often  the  con- 
sequence of  weakness  of  the  nervous  power. 
It  may  be  checked  by  improvement  of  the 
general  health  and  the  use  of  proper  local  rem- 
edies. A  useful  practice,  when  the  hair  is 
sufficiently  short,  is  to  plunge  the  head  into 
cold  water  every  morning  and  nightr,  and, 
after  thoroughly  drying,  to  brush  it  briskly 
until  the  scalp  is  warmed  to  a  glow.  A  sim- 
ple lotion  composed  of  2  drachms  of  tincture 
of  cantharides,  6  drachms  of  essence  of  rose- 
mary, and  11  ounces  of  elder-flower  water  may 
be  effectually  employed  as  a  tonic.  In  cases 
of  baldness  the  scalp  may  be  advantageously 
shaved  and  the  secretion  of  the  hair  stimulated 
by  dry  friction,  tonic  lotions  (rum  for  exam- 
ple), and  by  a  stimulating  diet.  There  is  a 
premature  grayness  which  sometimes  occurs  in 
the  young,  chiefly  in  those  of  light  complexion 
and  light  colored  hair.  It  comes  from  the 
same  causes  as  the  loosening  or  falling  out  of 
the  hair. 

Dyeing  the  hair  is  the  most  absurd  of  all  at- 
tempts at  human  deceit,  since  it  never  is  suc- 
cessful, and  deceives  no  one  but  the  deceiver 
himself.  The  practice  is  generally  begun  with 
the  idea  that  a  single  application  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  all  time ;  but  the  dye  only  discolors 
that  portion  of  the  hair  above  the  surface  of 
the  scalp.  The  new  growth,  which  is  con- 
stantly taking  place  from  the  roots,  appears 
always  with  the  natural  tint.  Moreover,  there 
is  no  dye  which  does  not  injure  the  hair  itself  ; 
and  many  of  them — those  containing  lead  or 
arsenic  —  tend  to  paralyze  the  brain  and  ner- 
vous system. 

WINE, 

This  term  is  usually  applied  only  to  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  grape ;  when  other 
fruits,  as  currants,  blackberries,  gooseberries, 


424 


THE   CENTURY    BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Wine. 


Alcohol, 
per  cent. 

Roussillon 15.96 

Hermitage,  White....  16.14 

Lisbon 17.45 

Sherrv 17.03 

Constantia 18.29 

Madeira 20.31 

Port 21.75 


elderberries,  etc.,  are  used  instead  of  grapes 
in  making  it,  the  product  is  generally  distin- 
guished as  domestic  or  homemade  wine.  Di- 
rections for  making  all  the  different  kinds  of 
homemade  wines  are  given  under  the  special 
fruit  from  which  each  is  made  ;  and  informa- 
tion as  to  the  choice  and  serving  of  the  various 
wines  commonly  used  in  this  country  is  given 
under  the  name  of  each.  We  shall  confine 
ourselves  here,  therefore,  to  a  few  general  ob- 
servations which  will  apply  equally  to  all 
wines. 

The  quantity  of  alcohol  is  the  first  element 
which  determines  their  price.  A  duty  is  levied 
on  all  wines  coming  into  this  country,  and 
those  containing  less  than  a  certain  percentage 
of  alcohol  pay  less  than  those  containing  more. 
The  proportion  of  alcohol  in  the  stronger 
wines  has  been  determined  by  Brande  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Wine  Alcohol, 

wme-  percent. 

Tokay 9.15 

Hermitage,  Red.. 11.40 

Champagne 11.P5 

Vinde  Grave 11.84 

Burgundy 12.20 

Hock 13.31 

Bordeaux  Claret 13.53 

Marsala 15.14 

Wines,  however,  are  not  consumed  for  their 
alcohol  alone ;  they  contain  other  ingredients 
which  they  derive  from  the  grape  juice,  which 
give  them  taste  and  flavor.  Thus,  when  fer- 
mentation of  the  grape  juice  is  not  complete,  a 
certain  quantity  of  sugar  is  left,  and  according 
to  the  quantity  of  sugar  left  wines  are  said  to 
be  "sweet"  or  "  dry."  While  hocks,  clarets, 
and  other  light  wines  contain  little  or  no  sugar, 
port,  sherry,  and  champagne  always  contain  a 
large  amount.  In  the  case  of  port  and  sherry 
this  sugar  is  added  during  the  manufacture,  in 
order  to  enable  them  to  bear  exportation. 

There  are  three  other  qualities  in  wines 
which  demand  some  consideration.  The  first 
is  what  is  called  the  bouquet  and  the  flavor. 
These  things  are  sometimes  confounded,  but 
they  are  really  different.  The  vinous  flavor  is 
common  to  all  wines,  but  the  bouquet  is  pecul- 
iar to  certain  wines.  The  substance  which 
gives  flavor  to  all  wines  is  cenanthic  ether,  and 
it  is  formed  during  the  fermentation  of  the 
grape  juice.  The  bouquet  of  wines  is  formed  in 
the  same  way  by  some  of  the  acids  found  in  the 
grape  juice  after  fermentation  combining  with 
the  ethyl  of  the  alcohol,  and  forming  ethers. 
These  are  the  things  which  make  one  wine  more 
pleasant  to  drink  than  another,  and  which 
give  their  high  prices  to  the  best  wines.  They 
are  not  detectable  by  any  chemical  agency  ; 
but  it  is  the  taste  of  these  bouquets,  and  noth- 
ing else,  which  gives  to  one  wine  the  value  of 
five  dollars  a  bottle,  and  to  another  fifty  cents, 


when  all  other  qualities  are  precisely  the  same. 
The  second  point  in  the  nature  of  wines  is 
their  color.  Some  wines  are  what  is  called 
"red "and  others  are  "white."  Ports,  clar- 
ets, burgundies,  are  all  red;  also  many,  other 
wines.  The  red  colors  of  these  wines  have 
been  analyzed  with  some  care,  but  they  do  not 
seem  to  exert  any  influence  upon  the  system. 
The  most  important  agent  in  them  is  tannic 
acid,  or  tannin,  which  exists  in  some  wines  to 
a  very  large  extent,  and  which  is  produced  by 
the  skins  of  the  grapes  used  in  making  the 
wine.  It  gives  an  astringency  to  red  wines 
which  is  not  found  in  white.  The  other  color- 
ing matters  described  by  chemists  are  blue  and 
brown.  These  also  come  from  the  skins  of  the 
grapes,  and  the  latter  is  found  in  dark  white 
wines  as  well  as  in  red. 

The  other  matters  which  give  a  character  to 
wines  are  the  saline  compounds.  These  sub- 
stances, which  constitute  the  ashes  of  all  vege- 
table tissues,  exist  in  a  varying  quantity  in  all 
fruits,  and  are  found  dissolved  in  the  juices  of 
fruit;  hence  we  find  them  remaining  in  wine 
after  fermentation  of  the  juice.  The  most 
abundant  of  these  salts  is  bitartrate  of  potash 
(cream  of  tartar).  Besides  this,  wines  contain 
tartrate  of  lime,  tartrate  of  alumina,  tartrate  of 
iron,  chloride  of  sodium,  chloride  of  potassium, 
sulphate  of  potash,  and  phosphate  of  alumina. 
These  salts  occur  in  the  proportion  of  from 
one  to  four  parts  in  the  one  thousand  of  wine. 
They  do  not  make  much  difference  in  the 
flavor  or  action  of  wines ;  but  their  presence 
or  absence  is  one  of  the  surest  indications  of 
the  genuineness  of  a  wine.  Those  who  manu- 
facture wines  with  alcohol  and  water  and  add 
a  certain  quantity  of  good  wine  to  give  a  flavor, 
do  not  usually  add  these  mineral  constituents, 
which  are  always  the  best  test  of  a  pure  wine. 

Champagne. —  The  most  celebrated  of 
the  French  wines,  chiefly  produced  in  the  prov- 
ince of  that  name.  It  is  generally  understood 
in  this  country  to  be  a  brisk,  effervescing, 
sparkling  white  wine  of  a  peculiar  flavor  :  but 
this  is  only  one  of  several  varieties.  There 
are  both  red  and  white  champagnes,  and  both 
of  them  may  be  either  sparkling  or  still ;  the 
sparkling  wines  are  called  mousst  ux,  and  the 
still  non-mouneux.  The  sparkling  are  most 
highly  esteemed,  on  account  of  their  delicate 
flavor,  and  the  agreeable  pungency  which  is 
given  them  by  the  carbonic  acid  they  contain. 
There  is  a  great  difference  in  the  quality  of 
champagne  wines,  according  to  the  particular 
vineyards  at  which  they  have  been  made.  The 
finest  are  produced  in  the  sloping  grounds  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  river  Maine  :  and  they 
are  mostly  white  wines.  Dry  champagnes 
(?'.  e.t  not  sweet)  are  growing  in  favor,  espe- 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


425 


cially  among  those  with  whom  sugar  disagrees. 
There  is  no  wine,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  sherry,  that  is  more  extensively  adulterated 
and  imitated  by  artificial  combinations  than 
sparkling  champagne.  The  sparkling  of  cham- 
pagne is  properly  caused  by  the  fermentation 
of  rock  candy  introduced  into  still  wine.  In- 
ferior wines  have  carbonic  acid  pumped  in  ;  in 
either  case  the  sparkle  cannot  be  depended 
upon  for  more  than  two  years.  The  red  cham- 
pagnes are  uot  used  much  in  this  country  ; 
they  seldom  equal  Burgundy,  which  they 
much  resemble.  That  of  Clos  de  St.  Thierry 
is  considered  the  best. 

In  selecting  champagne,  many  consider  the 
briskness  and  effervescence  as  a  test  of  their 
excellence  ;  but  a  good  judge  will  prefer  a 
liquor  of  moderate  briskness,  as  much  of  the 
aroma  evaporates  with  the  froth.  Champagne 
must  be  kept  in  an  equable  temperature,  and 
cooled  by  ice,  outside  of  the  bottle,  never  in 
the  wine.  It  intoxicates  quickly  and  the  ex- 
citement it  produces  is  of  a  more  vivacious 
and  agreeable  character  than  that  which  comes 
from  any  other  wine,  but  its  duration  is 
shorter,  and  the  reaction  less.  For  this  rea- 
son it  is  an  admirable  tonic  for  invalids  and 
for  all  who  are  suffering  from  a  low  state  of 
the  system.  The  best  brands  are  :  Pommery 
and  Greno,  Roederer,  Mumm,  Due  de  Monte- 
bello,  Krug,  Geisler,  and  Heidsieck.  Veuve 
Clicquot  is  highly  prized  as  one  of  the  best  of 
the  sweet  wines. 

Claret. — -Those  wines  which  are  known 
to  us  as  claret  are  the  product  of  the  country 
around  Bordeaux ;  but  in  France  there  is  no 
wine  known  as  claret,  which  is  simply  a  cor- 
ruption of  clurir-t,  a  term  applied  there  to  any 
red  or  rose-colored  wine.  The  genuine  wines 
of  Bordeaux  are  of  great  variety,  that  being  one 
of  the  most  famous  wine  districts  of  France, 
and  a  number  of  them  are  of  the  first  quality. 
The  principal  vineyards  are  those  of  Medoc. 
Palus,  Graves,  and  Blanche,  the  produce  of 
each  being  different  in  character.  The  red 
Medoc  wines  are  the  best,  and  are  known  as 
Latour,  Lafitte,  Chateau  Margaux,  etc.  When 
in  perfection,  they  are  of  a  rich  red  color, 
have  a  most  agreeable  bouquet,  and  are  strong 
without  being  intoxicating.  The  Lafitte  is 
considered  to  have  the  finest  flavor  ;  the  Chateau 
Margaux  is  next  in  rank  ;  the  Latour  is  the 
strongest,  and  has  the  fullest  body,  but  lacks 
the  softness  of  the  others.  Besides  these  there 
are  vast  quantities  of  second  and  third  rate 
Medoc  wines,  which  seldom  find  their  way  out 
of  France  in  a  pure  state.  All  the  Medoc 
wines  are  improved  by  a  sea  voyage. 

The  wines  of  Graves  are  so  called  from  the 
gravelly  soil  on  which  they  are  produced  ;  they 


are  both  red  and  white,  but  the  latter  is  most 
celebrated.  Some  of  the  red  resemble  Bur- 
gundy in  flavor,  but  are  inferior  to  good  Me- 
doc wines. 

Another  class  of  white  Bordeaux  wines  well 
known  in  this  country  are  BantaC)  Sautcrne, 
and  Beaume,  which  have  the  advantage  of 
keeping  long  and  having  considerable  dryness. 

The  Palus  wines  are  inferior  to  the  Medoc 
and  Graves.  They  are  strong  and  rough  when 
new,  and  are  often  used  to  mix  witli  Medoc 
wines  to  give  them  additional  strength  and 
body ;  when  old,  some  of  them  have  a  fine 
bouquet. 

The  Bordeaux  wines,  when  genuine,  are 
among  the  best  that  France  produces;  but 
they  seldom  reach  us  in  a  pure  state.  The  in- 
ferior are  mixed  with  the  better  kind  for  ex- 
portation ;  and  very  often  they  are  adulterated 
with  the  cheap  Spanish  wines  of  Alicant,  or 
with  brandy. 

Claret  should  usually  be  drunk  a  little 
warmer  than  the  temperature  of  the  room,  but 
in  warm  weather  it  is  good  iced.  The  highest 
grades  of  claret  will  keep  for  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  years,  constantly  improving  in  deli- 
cacy. After  that  time  they  rapidly  deteriorate. 

Madeira. —  A  white  wine  made  in  the 
island  of  Madeira,  which,  when  genuine,  is 
one  of  the  richest  wines  in  the  world,  hav- 
ing great  strength,  dryness,  and  delicacy  of 
flavor.  It  is  extremely  durable  in  all  cli- 
mates, and  improves  with  age.  Madeira,  be- 
ing a  strong  wine  naturally,  has,  least  of 
all,  occasion  for  the  addition  of  brandy  ; 
yet  it  is  the  constant  practice  to  add 
some  of  this  spirit  previous  to  exportation, 
which  is  incorporated  in  time.  The  inferior 
kinds  are  made  up  with  almonds  and  various 
additions  ;  and,  in  fact,  the  adulterations  are 
so  numerous  that  the  wine  has  lately  fallen 
into  comparative  disrepute.  The  prejudice 
against  Madeira  has  been  considerably  in- 
creased by  the  supposed  discovery  that  it  con- 
tains a  little  more  acid  than  sherry,  but  this 
opinion  has  been  disputed,  and  seems  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  inferior  Madeiras. 

Several  years  ago,  the  vines  failed  in  the 
island  of  Madeira,  and  the  best  Madeira  is 
now  very  old.  The  new  wine  made  from  vines 
planted  in  the  island  within  a  few  years  is 
excellent  for  its  age,  and  is  of  great  promise. 

Madeira  keeps  best  in  demijohns  in  a  mod- 
erately warm  place,  though  it  keeps  quite  well 
in  bottles.  Warmth  seems  to  ripen  it  and  bring 
out  its  best  qualities.  It  should  be  drunk 
about  the  temperature  of  the  room. 

Burgundy. —  The  choicest  wines  of  the 
ancient  province  of  Burgundy  in  France  are 
among   the  richest,  most  aromatic,  and  deli- 


426 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


cately  flavored  in  the  world.  They  are  im- 
perfectly known  in  this  country,  but  if  properly 
bottled  they  can  be  brought  over  in  good  con- 
dition, and  it  is  to  be  hoped  they  will  become 
better  known,  especially  in  our  sick  rooms. 
The  Burgundy  wines  are  of  two  kinds,  white 
and  red.  The  red  is  much  the  finer  of  the 
two,  but  the  best  of  these  rarely  leave  France. 
The  first  in  quality  of  the  red  wines  is  the 
Romane'e  Conti,  but  this  is  not  easy  to  get  even 
in  France  ;  the  next  in  order  of  excellence  are 
Clos  Voufjeot,  Chambertin,  Pommard,  Nuits,  Vol- 
nay,  and  Beaune.  The  Macon  wines  are  lighter 
and  of  a  lower  grade.  The  higher  grades  of 
Burgundy  should  be  drunk  at  the  temperature 
of  the  room,  never  iced.  High  grade  Burgun- 
dies will  keep  for  from  twenty  to  thirty  years, or 
even  longer,  while  the  lower  grades  are  best  at 
the  age  of  from  five  to  ten  years.  Burgundies 
are  often  served  in  a  cradle. 

The  white  Burgundies  are  smaller  in  num- 
ber and  inferior  in  quality  to  the  red ;  but 
some  of  them  rank  very  high  for  their  fine 
flavor,  as  the  C habits,  Mont  Racket,  La  Goutte 
d'Or,  and  Les  Chorines. 

Burgundy  is  recommended  to  invalids  as  a 
light,  mildly  stimulating,  but  highly  tonic 
drink.  It  should  always  be  drunk  a  trifle 
warmer  than  the  temperature  of  the  room  ;  and 
should  be  served  in  a  cradle. 

Catawba  Wine. —  One  of  the  best  and 
most  popular  of  the  native  -American  wines, 
considered  by  many  to  be  superior  to  most  of 
the  French  and  German  wines,  at  least  such 
of  them  as  are  to  be  had  in  our  markets.  It 
is  made  from  the  Catawba  grapes,  which 
grow  abundantly  in  the  valley  of  the  Ohio  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  country.  It  is  a  sweet 
wine,  containing  in  its  pure  state  from  ten  to 
twelve  per  cent,  of  alcohol,  and  is  made  either 
into  still  or  sparkling  wine  ;  the  latter,  which 
is  most  in  demand,  contains  an  addition  of  al- 
cohol and  consequently  is  stronger.  Catawba 
wine  is  mostly  white,  though  some  red  wine  is 
made.  It  is  fit  for  use  two  years  from  the 
time  the  grapes  are  pressed,  but  reaches  per- 
fection, according  to  Mr.  Longworth,  when 
about  seven  years  old. 

DANDRUFF. 

There  is  no  permanent  remedy  for  dandruff 
except  frequent  and  regular  brushing  of  the 
hair  and  keeping  the  head  as  clean  as  possible. 
The  use  of  pomades  or  grease  of  any  kind  must 
be  abandoned  or  kept  within  the  most  rigid 
limits  ;  and  about  once  a  week  the  head  should 
be  washed  with  clean  cold  water  with  a  few 
drops  of  ammonia  in  it.  rubbing  the  scalp  vig- 
orously with  the  fingers,  and  brushing  the 
hair   out   dry.     The    hair   washes   and   other 


preparations  sold  for  this  purpose  are  generally 
worthless,  and,  even  when  they  afford  tempo- 
rary relief,  they  always  aggravate  the  evil 
in  the  end.  The  cause  of  dandruff  is  the 
failure  of  the  skin  on  the  scalp  to  perform  its 
functions  properly,  usually  on  account  of  the 
pores  being  stopped  up  with  grease  ;  and  the 
only  remedy  is  to  bring  the  skin  back  to  its 
normal  condition,  which  can  be  done  only  by 
cleanliness,  local  friction,  and  attention  to  the 
general  health. 

PROPER  TEMPERATURE  IN 
WHICH  WINES  SHOULD  BE 
SERVED. 

Sherry  should  be  served  thoroughly  chilled. 

Madeira  should  be  neither  warm  nor  cold, 
but  of  about  the  same  temperature  as  the 
room 

Claret  should  be  served  at  the  same  temper- 
ature as  madeira,  never  with  ice  ;  it  should 
remain  about  forty-eight  hours  standing,  then 
decanted,  care  being  observed  that  no  sedi- 
ment enter  the  decanter. 

Champagne  should  either  be  kept  on  ice  for 
several  hours  previous  to  serving,  or  it  should 
be  half  frozen  ;  it  is  then  called  champagne 
frappe\  It  is  frozen  with  some  difficulty. 
The  ice  should  be  pounded  quite  fine,  then  an 
equal  amount  of  salt  mixed  with  it.  A  quart 
bottle  of  champagne  well  surrounded  by  this 
mixture  should  be  frozen  in  two  hours,  or, 
rather,  frozen  to  the  degree  when  it  may  be 
poured  from  the  bottle. 

Treatment  of  WineB. — Connoisseurs 
on  the  subject  of  wine  say  much  depends  upon 
its  treatment  before  it  is  served  ;  that  it  is  in- 
variably much  impaired  in  .  flavor  through 
ignorance  of  proper  treatment  in  the  cellar, 
and  that  a  wine  of  ordinary  grade  will  be  more 
palatable  than  one  of  better  quality  less  care- 
fully managed.  They  say  wine  should  never 
be  allowed  to  remain  in  case,  but  be  unpacked 
and  laid  on  its  side.  Above  all,  wine  should 
be  stored  where  it  is  least  exposed  to  the 
changes  of  temperature. 

All  red  wines  should  be  kept  dry  and  warm, 
especially  clarets,  which  are  more  easily  in- 
jured by  cold  than  by  heat.  Consequently,  on 
account  of  the  rigor  of  our  winters,  clarets  are 
better  stored  in  a  closet  on  the  second  floor 
(not  too  near  a  register)  than  in  a  cellar. 
Champagne  and  Rhine  wines  stand  cold  bet- 
ter than  heat,  which  frequently  causes  fermen- 
tation. The  warmer  sherry,  madeira,  and  all 
spirits  are  kept,  the  better. 

Choiee  of  Brands. — Champagne.  Per- 
haps the  choicest  brands  of  champagne  are 
Pommery  (dry,  supposed  to  mean  less  sweet), 
Geisler    (sweet),  Veuve  Clicquot  (sweet),  and 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


427 


Roederer  (sweet).  The  best  of  the  cheaper 
champagnes  are  Charles  Roederer,  Heidsick, 
Montebello,  and  Krug. 

Claret.  Choicest  brands  :  Chateau  La  Rose, 
Chateau  La  Tour,  Chateau  Lafitte,  or  Chateau 
Margaux.     Best  cheaper  brand,  St.  Julien. 

Sauterne.  Best :  Chateau  Yquem,  La  Tour 
Blanche.     Beet  cheaper,  Haut-Sauterne. 

Burgundy.  Best  brands :  Clos  Vougeot, 
Chambertin,  Chablis,  and  Red  Hermitage. 

Sherry.     Best  brand,  Amontillado. 

Hock.  Best  brands  :  Steinberg  Cabinet  and 
Marcobrunner.  Best  sparkling  wine,  Hoch- 
heinier. 

The  American  dry  wines  are  most  excellent, 
and  might  be  more  patronized  by  those  who 
know  no  other  wine  than  that  of  foreign  man- 
ufacture. The  Missouri  Catawba  and  Concord 
wines  are  especially  good  ;  so  are  some  of  the 
California  wines.  The  Ohio  Catawba  is  quite 
noted. 

ANTIDOTES  FOR  POISONS. 

The  following  list  gives  some  of  the  more 
common  poisons  and  the  remedies  most  likely 
to  be  on  hand  in  case  of  need  : — 

Acids — •  These  cause  great  heat  and  sensa- 
tion of  burning  pain  from  the  mouth  down  to 
the  stomach.  The  remedies  are  :  Magnesia, 
soda,  pearl  ash,  or  soap  dissolved  in  water, 
every  two  minutes ;  then  use  the  stomach 
pump  or  an  emetic. 

Alkali. — Drink  freely  of  water  with  vinegar 
or  lemon  juice  in  it,  made  very  strong  of  the 
sour. 

Ammonia. —  Remedy  is  lemon  juice  or  vin- 
egar. 

Arsenic  Remedies. —  Give  prompt  emetic  of 
mustard  and  salt,  a  tablespoonful  of  each,  in 
a  coffoecup  of  warm  water  ;  then  follow  with 
sweet  oil,  butter  made  warm,  or  milk.  Also 
may  use  the  white  of  an  egg  in  half  a  cupful 
of  milk  or  lime  water.  Chalk  and  water  is 
good,  and  the  preparation  of  iron,  ten  drops 
in  water  every  half  hour  ;   hydrated  magnesia. 

Alcohol.  — First  cleanse  out  the  stomach  by 
an  emetic,  then  dash  cold  water  on  the  head, 
and  give  ammonia  (spirits  of  hartshorn). 

Laudanum,  Morphine,  Opium.  — First  give  a 
strong  emetic  of  mustard  and  water,  then  very 
strong  coffee  and  acid  drinks  ;  dash  cold  water 
on  the  head,  then  keep  in  motion. 

Belladona. —  Give  an  emetic  of  mustard,  salt 
and  water  ;  then  drink  plenty  of  vinegar  and 
water  or  lemonade. 

Charcoal. —  In  poisons,  by  carbonic  gas,  re- 
move the  patient  to  the  open  air,  dash  cold 
water  on  the  head  and  body,  and  stimulate  the 
nostrils  and  lungs  with  hartshorn,  at  the  same 
time  rubbing  the  chest  briskly. 


Corrosive  Sublimate,  Saltpetre,  Blue  Vitriol, 
Bedbug  Poison. —  Give  white  of  egg,  freshly 
mixed  with  water,  in  large  quantities  ;  or  give 
wheat  flour  and  water,  or  soap  and  water  freely, 
or  salt  and  water,  or  large  draughts  of  milk. 

Lead. — White  lead  and  sugar  of  lead.  Give 
an  emetic,  then  follow  with  cathartics,  such 
as  castor  oil,  and  Epsom  salts  especially. 

Nux  Vomica. —  First  emetics,  and  then 
brandy. 

Oxalic  Acid  (frequently  taken  for  Epsom 
salts) . —  First  give  soap  and  water,  or  chalk  or 
magnesia  and  water.  Give  every  two  min- 
utes. 

White  Vitriol. —  Give  plenty  of  milk  and 
water. 

Tartar  Emetic—  Take  large  doses  of  tea 
made  of  white  oak  bark,  or  peruvian  bark. 
Drink  plenty  of  warm  water  to  encourage  vom- 
iting ;  then,  if  the  vomiting  should  not  stop, 
give  a  grain  of  opium  in  water. 

Nitrate  of  Silver  (lunar  caustic). —  Give  a 
strong  solution  of  common  salt  and  water,  and 
then  an  emetic. 

Verdi grit. — Give  plenty  of  white  of  egg  and 
water. 

Tobacco. —  Emetics,  frequent  draughts  of 
cold  water  ;  camphor  and  brandy. 

COSMETICS. 

This  term  is  usually  applied  to  substances 
used  for  the  purpose  of  beautifying  the  skin. 
They  may  be  divided  into  two  kinds :  those 
which  are  injurious  and  even  dangerous  by  rea- 
son of  some  of  the  ingredients  of  which  they 
are  really  composed  ;  and  those  which,  though 
harmless  in  themselves,  are  highly  injurious 
when  applied  to  the  skin,  because  they  arrest 
that  insensible  perspiration  through  the  pores 
by  which  the  temperature  of  the  body  is  pre- 
served and  a  large  part  of  its  refuse  matter 
thrown  off.  Under  the  first  class  fall  nearly 
all  those  French  preparations,  so  often  used  in 
the  toilet,  such  as  pearl-white,  beruse,  rouge, 
and  the  like  ;  these  are  never  composed  of  the 
harmless  materials  which  are  claimed  to  be 
employed,  and  in  rouge  arsenic  has  repeatedly 
been  detected.  The  least  objectionable  article 
used  as  a  cosmetic  is  the  mixture  of  hydrated 
oxide  of  bismuth  with  the  subnitrate  of  the 
same  metal,  known  as  the  magister  of  bismuth. 
Applied  to  the  skin,  its  only  injurious  effects 
appear  to  be  the  interruption  of  the  insensible 
perspiration  referred  to  above,  which  after  % 
long-continued  use  produces  a  tendency  to 
clamminess  ;  a  slight  nausea,  too,  is  sometimes 
experienced  in  consequence  of  its  use,  accom- 
panied with  spasms  and  flatulence.  It  has  the 
disagreeable  quality,  however,  of  turning  black 
on  the  face  when  exposed  to  sulphureted  hy- 


428 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


drogen,  a  gas  frequently  met  with  in  badly- 
ventilated  rooms,  and,  indeed,  everywhere  that 
gas  or  sewers  exist.  The  perfume  of  onion 
also  has  a  tendency  to  turn  it  black.  There  is 
nothing,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  can 
really  beautify  the  skin  except  bathing,  exer- 
cise, and  a  regular  compliance  with  the  laws 
of  health. 

EARTHENWARE. 

The  various  wares  known  as  earthenware, 
china,  or  porcelain,  are  all  compounds  of  clay, 
with  bone  earth,  flint,  and  other  similar  ma- 
terials, ground  together  and  baked.  Accord- 
ing to  the  proportion  of  clay  will  be  the 
toughness  of  the  china,  and  the  capability  of 
being  molded,  while  the  flint  and  bone  earth 
give  hardness,  whiteness,  and  transparency. 

There  are  two  main  divisions  of  table- 
ware—  glazed  earthenware  and  china  or  porce- 
lain. Nearly  all  are  originally  white,  and 
sorted  after  baking.  The  finer  only  are  then 
decorated  and  re-baked.  When  glazed  earth- 
enware chips,  the  exposed  surface  becomes 
dark  ;  in  porcelain  it  remains  white. 

The  finer  Oriental  china,  and  that  of  Sevres 
and  Dresden,  cost  from  $300  up,  for  a  set  for 
twelve  persons.  The  sets  generally  are  for 
eighteen.  The  ordinary  decorated  French 
china  costs  from  $45  to  $500  per  set.  The 
white  French  china  costs  from  $35  to  $300, 
depending  on  quality.  The  decorated  English 
china  costs  from  $150  up.  Broken  pieces  can- 
not be  duplicated  here,  as  the  decoration  is 
printed  on,  from  designs  more  elaborate  than 
the  handwork  of  the  average  French  sets.  The 
French  can  be  duplicated  here  at  a  few  weeks' 
notice.  The  English  is  heavier  and  much 
more  durable.  Both  the  French  and  the  Eng- 
lish make  a  decorated  glazed  earthenware  that 
is  very  durable  —  more  so  than  French  china, 
and  possibly  than  English  china.  It  costs 
from  $30  to  $125  per  set;  the  various  pieces 
can  generally  be  bought  separately,  which  is 
not  the  case  with  decorated  china.  For  econ- 
omy, plates  and  cups  of  this  ware,  with  tureen, 
vegetable  dishes,  etc.,  of  plated  silver,  is  prob- 
ably the  best  possible  arrangement.  Still  fur- 
ther variety  in  this  or  any  service  is  desirable, 
and  may  be  had  through  pickle  dishes,  compo- 
tiers,  etc.,  of  other  kinds  of  ware. 

The  so-called  Ironstone  and  Stone  China  are 
merely  glazed  earthenware  undecorated.  Sets 
cost  from  $20  to  $40.  As  regards  the  finer 
porcelain,  the  following  remarks  may  be  of 
service  :  — 

Oriental  China  is  remarkable  for  its  close 
texture,  its  flinty  hardness,  fine  surface,  and 
capacity  for  bearing  heat.  It  is  supposed  to 
take  from  ten  to  twenty  years  to  get  some  of 


these  wares  into  a  state  fit  for  baking.  They 
are  generally  very  expensive,  but  extremely 
durable. 

Dresden  China  is  finer  in  outline  than  the 
Oriental,  and  the  best  kinds  are  fully  as  dura- 
ble. 

Sevres  China  is  of  French  manufacture  and 
is  not  so  close  or  fine  in  the  ^ain  as  those 
above  alluded  to  ;  but  it  has  a  superior  glaze, 
and  is  generally  of  elegant  shape,  with  beauti- 
ful colors  and  magnificent  gilding. 

The  common  Med  Earthenware  is  that  used 
most  extensively  for  cooking,  dairy,  and  other 
purposes.  It  does  not  stand  the  heat  well, 
and  is  very  easily  broken.  Acids  should  never 
be  put  into  any  vessels  made  of  this  ware,  as 
there  is  a  poisonous  ingredient  in  the  glazing 
which  the  acid  takes  off.  The  common  stone- 
ware is  stronger  and  cleaner  and  better  every 
way  than  any  other  kind. 

CATHARTICS. 

A  class  of  medicines  that  act  strongly  on  the 
bowels  as  purgatives.  Their  number  is  very 
large,  and  they  may  be  divided  into  several 
classes:  mechanical,  including  unbolted  meal 
of  various  kinds,  fruits,  and  mustard  seed  ; 
oily,  as  castor  and  croton  oil ;  saline,  as  mag- 
nesia and  its  carbonate,  sulphate,  and  citrate, 
sulphate,  and  phosphate  of  soda,  etc.  ;  acid  or 
bitter,  as  rhubarb,  senna,  colocynth,  and  aloes  ; 
resinous,  as  jalap,  gamboge,  scammony;  and 
mercurial,  as  calomel  and  blue  pill.  Their 
action  varies  greatly,  from  the  mild  and  almost 
natural  effect  of  magnesia  and  aloes,  to  the 
violent  purging  of  jalap  and  gamboge.  Cathar- 
tics are  very  commonly  used  in  domestic  medi- 
cine, and  probably  no  class  of  drugs  is  so  fre- 
quently abused  ;  a  resort  to  them  being  so  easy 
as  to  lead  in  many  instances  to  the  neglect  of 
highly  important  hygienic  rules.  A  due  atten- 
tion to  diet,  exercise,  and  bathing  would  be  a 
far  more  effective  remedy  than  any  cathartics 
for  a  majority  of  the  difficulties  for  which  the 
latter  are  used.  In  many  cases,  however, 
their  use  is  necessary,  and  directions  for  them 
are  given  under  the  various  diseases.  Castor 
oil,  Epsom  salts,  magnesia,  aloes,  rhubarb,  and 
senna  are  the  only  cathartics  that  should  be 
used  without  medical  advice  ;  the  most  violent 
ones  may  produce  serious  results.  No  cathar- 
tics, however,  either  should  or  can  be  relied 
upon  to  cure  constipation,  to  "work  off  a 
cold, "  or  to  relieve  dyspepsia  ;  in  all  such  cases 
a  cure  can  be  looked  for  only  in  a  due  ob- 
servance of  hygienic  laws. 

CRABS. 

Though  not  so  popular  as  lobsters,  crabs  are 
among   the    most   pleasantly   flavored   fish  of 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


429 


their  class.  They  are  in  season  from  June  to 
January,  but  are  considered  to  be  more  whole- 
some in  the  cold  months.  The  middling  sized, 
when  heavv."  lively,  and  possessed  of  large 
claws,  are  the  best  and  sweetest ;  if  light,  they 
are  poor  and  watery.  When  crabs  are  stale, 
the  eyes  look  dead,  the  claws  hang  down,  and 
there  is  ho  muscular  activity  ;  in  this  condi- 
tion they  are  not  fit  to  eat.  The  female  is 
considered  inferior  to  the  male,  and  may  be 
distinguished  by  the  claws  being  smaller,  and 
the  apron,  which  appears  on  the  white  or  un- 
der side,  larger.  Soft  shell  crabs  are  deemed 
a  great  luxury ;  but  they  must  not  be  kept 
over  night,  as  the  shells  harden  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

CANCER. 

(1)  The  following  is  said  to  be  a  sure  cure 
for  cancer :  A  piece  of  sticking  plaster  is  put 
over  the  cancer,  w  ith  a  circular  piece  cut  out 
of  the  center,  a  little  larger  than  the  cancer, 
so  that  the  cancer  and  a  small  circular  rim  of 
healthy  skin  next  to  it  is  exposed.  Then  a 
plaster,  made  of  chloride  of  zinc,  bloodroot, 
and  wheat  flour,  is  spread  on  a  piece  of  muslin, 
the  size  of  this  circular  opening,  and  applied 
to  the  cancer  for  twenty-four  hours.  On  re- 
moving it,  the  cancer  will  be  found  burned 
into,  and  appear  of  the  color  and  hardness  of 
an  old  shoe  sole,  and  the  circular  rim  outside 
of  it  will  appear  white  and  parboiled,  as  if 
scalded  by  hot  steam.  The  wound  is  now 
dressed,  and  the  outside  rim  soon  separates, 
and  the  cancer  comes  out  in  a  hard  lump,  and 
the  place  heals  up.  The  plaster  kills  the  can- 
cer, so  that  it  sloughs  like  dead  flesh,  aud 
never  grows  again.  The  remedy  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  King,  of  London,  and  has  been 
used  by  him  for  several  years  with  unfailing 
success,  and  not  a  case  has  been  known  of  the 
reappearance  of  the  cancer  when  this  remedy 
has  been  applied. 

(2)  An  old  Indian  cancer  doctor  in  Oregon 
pronounces  this  a  sure  cure  :  Take  common 
wood  sorrel,  bruise  it  on  brass,  spread  it  in  the 
form  of  a  poultice,  and  apply  as  long  as  the 
patient  can  bear ;  then  apply  bread  and  milk 
poultice  until  the  patient  can  bear  the  wood 
sorrel  again.  Continue  this  until  the  cancer 
is  drawn  out  by  the  roots. 

(3)  Take  the  blossoms  of  red  clover  and 
make  tea  of  them,  and  drink  freely.  It  will 
cure  cancer  in  the  stomach  as  well  as  on  the 
surface. 

EMBROCATIONS. 

Applications  intended  to  relieve  local  pains, 
either  by  counter-irritation,  or  by  the  anodyne 
effects  of  their  ingredients,  or  by  aiding  the 


friction,which  cannot  long  be  maintained  with- 
out some  such  application. 

(a)  Liquor  of  ammonia,  tincture  of  opium, 
spirits  of  turpentine,  and  olive  oil,  of  each 
equal  parts.  Useful  for  rheumatism  or  any 
local  pains. 

(b)  Flour  of  mustard,  one  half  ounce  ;  vin- 
egar, boiling,  three  ounces.  Mix,  and  rub 
into  the  parts  to  produce  counter-irritation. 

(c)  Laudanum,  chloroform,  and  soap  lini- 
ment, in  equal  proportions,  will  often  relieve 
local  pains. 

(d)  Chloroform  alone  may  be  applied, 
sprinkled  on  a  piece  of  spongiopiline  (to  be 
had  at  the  drug  stores),  and  applied  to  the 
parts  affected  with  neuralgia.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  inhale  the  vapor  too  long. 

(e)  All  embrocations  may  be  applied  with 
good  effect  by  wetting  with  them  the  inner 
surface  of  spongiopiline,  and  keeping  it  to  the 
part.  In  this  way,  as  the  ammonia  cannot 
evaporate,  embrocations  made  with  it  arc  much 
more  active. 

WHISKY. 

An  ardent  spirit  distilled  from  barley,  rye, 
Indian  corn,  wheat,  etc.  It  is  the  cheapest 
and  the  most  common  form  of  intoxicating 
liquor  made  in  the  United  States,  where  its 
production  is  very  large.  The  whisky  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Kentucky,  and  the  better  quali- 
ties of  that  manufactured  in  New  York,  are 
distilled  chiefly  from  rye  ;  most  of  that  pro- 
duced in  the  Western  states  is  from  Indian 
corn,  which  contains  a  large  quantity  of  fusel 
oil.  The  peach  whisky,  the  Monongahela  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  Bourbon  from  Kentucky 
are  accounted  the  best.  The  peculiar  and 
much  liked  flavor  of  Scotch  and  Irish  whisky 
is  said  to  be  due  to  the  peaty  water  which  is 
obtained  in  the  mountains  for  the  use  of  the 
stills,  or  to  the  smoke  of  the  fuel  which  is 
used.  New  whisky  is  rough  and  fiery,  quickly 
intoxicates,  and  produces  disease  of  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  stomach,  of  the  liver, 
spleen,  and  kidneys.  It  is  desirable,  there- 
fore, that  it  should  be  kept  some  years,  that 
it  may  generate  volatile  oils,  and  obtain  mel- 
lowness. The  most  approved  course  is  to  fill 
a  sherry  cask  with  it  and  leave  it  quiet ;  it 
will  thus  acquire  color  and  flavor. 

AMMOXIA    (Spirits  of  Hartshorn). 

An  alkali  which  is  the  result  of  decomposi- 
tion in  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  It 
exists  almost  universally  in  the  air,  and  can  be 
obtained  in  many  ways:  but  the  article  of 
commerce  usually  comes  from  the  distillation 
of  coal  in  making  gas.  Ammonia  has  proper- 
ties which  are  very  injurious  as  food,  but  it  is 


430 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


probably  for  household  purposes  the  most  use- 
ful of  drugs.  It  isvery  powerful,  and  dissolves 
grease  and  dirt  with  the  greatest  ease.  For 
washing  paint,  put  a  tablespoonful  in  a  quart 
of  moderately  hot  water,  dip  in  a  flannel  cloth, 
and  then  wipe  the  woodwork  ;  no  scrubbing 
will  be  necessary.  For  taking  grease  spots 
from  any  fabric,  apply  ammonia  nearly  pure, 
then  lay  white  blotting  paper  over  them,  and 
iron  lightly.  In  washing  lace,  put  about 
twelve  drops  in  a  pint  of  warm  suds.  To 
clean  silver,  mix  two  teaspoonfuls  of  ammonia 
in  a  quart  of  hot  suds ;  put  in  the  silverware 
and  wash,  using  an  old  nail  brush  or  tooth 
brush  for  the  purpose.  For  cleaning  hair 
brushes,  etc.,  simply  shake  the  brushes  up  and 
down  in  a  mixture  of  one  tablespoonful  of 
ammonia  to  one  pint  of  hot  water  ;  when  they 
are  cleansed,  rinse  them  in  cold  water  and 
stand  them  in  the  wind  or  in  a  hot  place  to 
dry.  For  washing  finger  marks  from  looking 
glasses  or  windows,  put  a  few  drops  on  a  moist 
rag  and  make  quick  work  of  it.  House  plants 
will  flourish  surprisingly  if  a  few  d$ops  of  am- 
monia are  added  to  each  pint  of  water  used  in 
watering.  A  teaspoonful  will  add  much  to  the 
refreshing  effect  of  a  bath.  Nothing  is  better 
than  ammonia  water  for  cleaning  the  hair  ;  in 
every  case  rinse  off  the  ammonia  with  clear 
water.  For  removing  grease  spots  from  cloth- 
ing, a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  ammonia  and 
alcohol  is  better  than  alcohol  alone  ;  and  for 
taking  out  the  red  stain  produced  by  acids  in 
blue  and  black  cloth,  nothing  is  so  effective  as 
ammonia. 

OYSTERS. 

When  spawning,  oysters  are  milky,  watery, 
and  poor;  and  are  unwholesome  food.  The 
months  of  spawning  are  May,  June,  and  July  ; 
but  they  require  a  month  longer  to  fatten, 
and  are  seldom  in  good  condition  before  Sep- 
tember. 

Wholesale  dealers  usually  have  four  quali- 
ties or  sizes  of  oysters  for  sale.  The  best  are 
known  as  extras,  the  second  best  as  box,  and 
then  follow  cullingsand  bushels.  Retail  deal- 
ers usually  open  them  and  sell  them  by  the 
hundred,  gallon,  or  quart,  in  any  quantity  de- 
sired. Other  dealers  make  a  large  business 
of  pickling  them  for  home  and  foreign  con- 
sumption, and  packing  them  for  inland  places. 

The  largest  oysters  are  not  always  the  best, 
especially  for  eating  raw  and  for  stewing ; 
those  of  medium  size  are  genevally  preferred 
by  epicures.  Nor  are  those  found  in  clusters 
as  good  as  the  single  oysters.  Oysters  are 
not  good  when  dead.  To  ascertain  whether 
they  are  or  not,  as  soon  as  opened  and  when 
one  of  tho  shells  is  removed,  touch   the  edge 


of  the  oyster  gently,  and,  if  alive,  it  will  con- 
tract. 

COCOA. 

Cocoa  is  generally  purer  than  chocolate, 
which  is  a  preparation  of  the  same  bean,  and 
is  also  more  nutritious.  The  best  comes  from 
Trinidad,  and  may  be  had  in  the  original  seed 
or  nibs,  flaked,  or  ground  and  prepared  like 
chocolate  in  small,  square  packets.  The  latter 
is  a  mixture  of  cocoa  and  arrowroot.  The 
surest  way  of  getting  cocoa  pure  is  to  buy  the 
beans  and  roast  them,  afterwards  grinding 
them  like  coffee,  or  simply  bi-uising  them.  It 
deteriorates  by  keeping,  and  it  is  best  to  buy 
it  in  small  quantities  at  a  time. 

BEDROOMS. 

Rooms  devoted  to  sleeping  purposes  should 
above  all  things  be  light,  cheerful,  and  thor- 
oughly ventilated.  A  third  of  our  lives  is  nec- 
essarily spent  in  these  rooms,  and  where  the 
current  practice  of  reserving  the  parlor  for 
"  company  "  obtains,  a  great  deal  more.  An 
ample  supply  of  fresh  air  should  be  secured  at 
all  times  and  everywhere,  but  its  necessity  is 
peculiarly  urgent  in  the  case  of  bedrooms.  We 
are  much  more  susceptible  to  injurious  influ- 
ences when  asleep  than  when  awake,  and  these 
accumulate  with  startling  rapidity  in  an  un- 
ventilated  chamber  in  which  two  or  more  per- 
sons spend  the  night.  An  excellent  plan  is  to 
open  the  window  above  and  below  ;  lowering 
the  upper  sash,  with  an  opening  over  the  door, 
is  also  very  effective.  But  if  the  bedroom  have 
no  fireplace,  it  should  be  connected  by  tubes 
with  the  chimney- flue.  At  the  same  time  the 
prevalent  notion  that  a  bedroom  to  be  health- 
ful must  be  cold,  is  altogether  mistaken.  No 
room  should  be  slept  in  in  winter  that  has  not 
had  a  fire  in  it  at  least  three  times  a  week,  and  it 
is  all  the  more  wholesome  if  it  have  one  every 
day.  Warmth  is  in  itself  necessary  to  any 
thorough  ventilation  ;  and  the  temperature  of 
a  bedroom  should  not  be  suffered  to  fall  below 
40°. 

SUBSTITUTE  FOR  CARPETS. 

The  carpets  of  a  house  claim  a  special  men- 
tion from  us.  The  plan  of  carpeting  floors  to 
which  we  are  accustomed  is  a  decidedly  un- 
healthful  one.  When  the  carpets  are  nailed  to 
the  floor  in  such  a  way  that  every  portion  is 
covered,  the  dust  which  settles  upon  them  can 
be  only  partially  removed  by  sweeping,  and 
accumulates  in  increasing  quantity  upon  the 
planking  below,  as  well  as  in  tne  meshes  of 
the  carpet  itself.  This  dust,  continually  raised 
by  every  footstep,  inevitably  Tenders  the  aii 
unhealthful ;  and  the  evil  is  increased  by  the 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


431 


layers  of  thick  paper  and  cotton  wadding 
usually  interposed  between  the  floor  and  the 
carpet  by  way  of  lining. 

The  floor  should  be  inlaid,  or  at  any  rate 
laid  in  hard  woods,  and  should  be  frequently 
polished  with  wax.  One  large  carpet  is  used 
to  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  room,  or  per- 
haps rugs  are  spread  in  different  places,  be- 
neath tables,  and  before  sofas,  pianos,  book- 
oases,  and  other  articles  of  furniture,  much 
as  we  are  accustomed  to  lay  them  upon  our 
carpets.  This  insures  much  greater  cleanli- 
ness and  a  remarkable  absence  of  dust. 

BENZINE. 

A  colorless  liquid,  lighter  than  petroleum, 
and  obtained  from  that  oil  in  process  of  re- 
finement. It  is  sometimes  used  as  a  burning 
fluid,  but  is  extremely  dangerous ;  also  as  a 
substitute  for  turpentine  in  mixing  paints,  but 
its  chief  value  in  the  household  comes  from  its 
power  of  dissolving  fats,  wax,  and  paraffine  ; 
every  kind  of  grease  spot  on  clothes  may  be 
removed  by  it.  In  using,  saturate  a  woolen  rag 
and  rub  over  the  spot,  renewing  several  times. 
Benzine  must  never  be  used  near  afire  or  light 
of  any  kind  ;  for  it  is  so  inflammable  as  to  take 
fire  at  a  considerable  distance.  Keep  it  in  a 
dark,  cool  place. 

OLIVES. 

The  fruit  of  the  olive  tree,  which  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  South 
of  France,  partly  for  the  green  fruit,  and  partly 
for  the  oil  which  it  yields  when  mature. 
Olives  are  oval  in  shape,  with  a  smooth  rind, 
and  closely  resemble  a  small  half  ripe  plum. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  table  they  are  gathered 
when  immature,  and  are  then  pickled  in  salt 
and  water,  and  barreled  for  exportation.  The 
Italian  olives  are  the  best,  then  the  French, 
and  lastly  the  Spanish,  which,  though  large, 
are  not  so  well  flavored.  In  choosing,  select 
the  light  colored  and  bright  looking  ones; 
those  which  have  a  blackish  cast  are  unfit  to 
eat. 

Pickled  olives  are  supposed  to  have  pecul- 
iarly appetizing  properties,  but  they  are  eaten 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  remove  the  taste  of  food 
from  the  mouth,  previously  to  enjoying  the 
flavor  of  wine.  They  should  be  passed  round 
after  the  soup. 

OLIVE  OIL. 

This  oil,  sometimes  called  salad  oil,  is  ex- 
pressed from  ripe  olives.  It  is  largely  used  in 
the  mora  delicate  kinds  of  cookery,  instead  of 
butter,  and  is  a  useful  addition  to  salads,  pre- 
venting them  from  fermenting  and  from  caus- 
ing flatulency.      When  it  is  fresh  and  pure  it 


has  only  a  very  slight  yellowish-green  color, 
and  but  little  smell  or  flavor,  so  that  it  may 
even  be  drunk  by  those  who  like  oil ;  and  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
easily  digested  fats  in  food.  Its  use  in  cook- 
ery might  properly  be  extended  in  thiscountry, 
notwithstanding  our  excellent  animal  fats. 

The  best  quality  of  oil  is  that  produced  by 
the  first  gentle  pressure  of  the  olives,  and  this 
is  at  once  bottled  in  the  flasks  peculiar  to  the 
article.  Stronger  pressure  on  the  fruit  breaks 
the  kernels  and  produces  an  inferior  grade  of 
oil,  which  is  exported  in  jars  and  barrels. 
Italian  oil  is  superior  to  either  French  or  Span- 
ish, and  is  distinguished  as  Florence,  Lucca, 
and  Gallipoli  oil.     The  first  is  most  desirable. 

CURTAINS. 

Window  curtains  should  be  selected  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  general  principles  of  taste 
laid  down  in  the  article  on  Decoration.  Ac- 
cording to  their  several  purposes,  and  the  na- 
ture of  the  apartments,  the  quality  of  the 
materials  and  the  manner  of  hanging  them 
must  be  determined.  In  this  country  partic- 
ularly, window  curtains  are  necessary  to  ex- 
clude the  cold  air  which  presses  in  from  the 
windows  in  winter  when  the  fires  are  burning, 
however  closely  the  sashes  may  be  fitted.  Bat 
there  is  another  cause  for  this  which  is  not 
generally  thought  of.  The  warm  air  in  a  room, 
which  always  occupies  the  upper  part  near  the 
ceiling,  coming  into  contact  with  the  glass,  is 
cooled  by  it,  and,  descending  immediately  in 
consequence,  diffuses  itself  through  the  lower 
part  of  the  room  and  is  felt  as  a  cold  current 
coming  from  the  windows,  though  no  outside 
air  may  actually  have  entered  them.  Curtains 
check  this  partly  by  preventing  the  warm  air 
from  reaching  the  glass,  and  partly  by  turning 
the  current  sideways. 

But  though  curtains  help  to  keep  air  out, 
heavy  ones  may  exclude  it  too  much  and  also 
keep  bad  air  in.  They  should  therefore  be 
hung  on  rings  sliding  on  rods  so  that  they  can 
be  drawn  entirely  away  from  the  window.  For 
the  same  reason  lambrequins  are  very  objec- 
tionable, more  so  even  than  curtains,  as  they 
have  no  opening  in  the  center,  and  are  fixed 
obstacles  to  ventilating  the  upper  part  of  the 
room  where  the  air  is  most  heated.  As  to 
taste,  too,  this  arrangement  is  certainly  inferio- 
to  others.  The  rod  and  rings  are  more  "  con- 
structive "  than  the  cornice,  and  the  general 
effect  conforms  to  the  purpose  in  view.  It  is 
well  that  curtains  are  now  so  seldom  used  for 
shutting  ventilation  away  from  beds.  In  low- 
priced  materials  curtains  are  apt  to  be  cheaper 
than  lambrequins  because  the  latter  require 
more  fringe. 


432 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


ORANGE. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  this  most  deli- 
cious, wholesome,  and  refreshing  fruit.  The 
largest  and  best  are  from  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia, and  sell  at  the  highest  prices.  The 
Havana  oranges  are  equal  in  flavor,  but  have 
a  thick  and  rough  rind  ;  the  pulp  of  either  is 
very  juicy  and  delicious.  The  Maltese  oranges 
have  also  a  very  thick  and  spongy  rind,  and 
are  sometimes  almost  juiceless.  The  Sicilian 
fruit,  commonly  called  Messina  oranges,  have 
a  thin  rind  and  a  sour  taste,  but  are  usually 
most  abundant  and  cheap.  The  Florida  and 
West  India  oranges  are  in  market  from  October 
till  April,  and  those  from  the  Mediterranean 
from  January  until  May.  California  oranges 
possess  a  delicious  flavor. 

The  Seville  or  bitter  orange  is  of  the  same 
variety  as  the  sweet,  but  it  cannot  be  eaten 
raw,  and  is  used  only  in  marmalades,  candy, 
etc.,  and  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  lemon. 
It  is  not  brought  to  this  country  to  any  con- 
siderable extent. 

FURNISHING. 

The  reader,  if  impecunious,  need  not  be  dis- 
couraged by  the  discussion  here  of  points  in- 
volving considerable  outlay,  for,  in  addition  to 
these,  the  article  contains  much  for  his  special 
benefit. 

The  Hall  determines  the  first  impression  on 
entering  the  house,  and  it  is  well  worth  while 
to  economize  elsewhere  for  the  sake  of  effect 
here.  Probably  the  worst  possible  step  is  to 
buy  the  stereotyped  hat  and  umbrella  rack. 
No  matter  how  elaborate,  they  are  always  the 
same  thing  over  again,  and  generally  very  ugly. 
If,  however,  one  is  needed,  some  simple  ar- 
rangement honestly  made  of  good  wood,  with 
"dead"  finish,  will  probably  give  more  sat- 
isfaction, in  the  long  run,  than  the  more 
elaborate  designs  in  which  the  cabinetmakers 
delight.  A  mirror,  large  or  small,  of  some 
original  shape,  framed  in  some  durable  way, 
with  pegs  for  the  hats  and  coats,  can  be  made 
very  effective.  Under  it,  may  stand  a  chair 
or  table,  either  having  a  drawer ;  or  a  table 
alone  will  do,  for  hats  and  coats  can  be  kept 
on  plain  hooks  back  under  the  stairs.  Sticks 
or  umbrellas  can  be  disposed  of  in  a  cheap 
stand  behind  the  door.  If  the  hall  be  rather 
dark,  a  white  cast  or  bust  at  the  end  will  lie 
very  effective.  A  pair  of  horns,  or  several 
pair,  can  never  be  amiss,  nor  can  any  other 
decoration  suggesting  out  of  doors  and  the 
storied  halls  of  the  olden  time. 

Where  there  is  room  for  them,  one  should 
try  to  have  the  broad  table,  the  clock,  and  the 
little  cupboard  for  brushes,  gloves,  and  other 
things  that  one  needs  on  going  out  and  com- 


ing in.  A  hall  should  look  as  large  as  it  can 
be  made  to  look . 

Stair  rods  seem  a  ridiculous  superfluity  for 
poor  folks.  Let  the  stair  carpet  be  long 
enough  to  shift  as  often  as  it  wears  out  on  the 
edges  of  the  steps. 

The  Parlor  is  usually  the  most  Philistine 
of  all  Philistine  American  institutions.  Where 
there  is  the  usual  iil-spent  wealth,  the  room  is 
filled  with  gorgeous  upholstery  in  the  cabinet- 
maker's style  of  art,  has  the  horrible  "cabinet 
rich  and  stylish,"  which  usually  figures  on  the 
furniture  man's  bills  for  enough  to  buy  two 
respectable  paintings,  is  either  utterly  inno- 
cent of  all  works  of  art  but  a  few  china  or 
parian  dolls  and  a  French  clock  of  a  pattern 
turned  out  by  the  dozen,  or  has  the  walls  cov- 
ered with  paintings  which  are  simply  good 
canvas  spoiled.  If  such  parlors  were  fur- 
nished in  honest  pine,  and  one  tenth  of  the 
saving  devoted  to  a  few  good  engravings  on 
the  walls,  their  refinement  would  be  vastly  in- 
creased. There  is  no  need  of  extremes,  how- 
ever, for  the  money  usually  spent  would  give 
honest  hard  wood  furniture,  luxuriously  fash- 
ioned and  cushioned,  covered  with  good  worsted 
reps  or  satines,  and  good  photographs,  en- 
gravings, or  even,  in  many  cases,  paintings  by 
deserving  artists. 

In  the  few  well-furnished  parlors  that  we 
have,  the  most  frequent  lack  is  the  suggestion 
of  ease.  There  is  generally  too  much  wood 
shown  in  chairs  and  sofas,  and  too  little 
cushion.  Ladies  are  always  complaining  that 
sofa  seats  are  too  broad.  Heuce  the  advantage 
of  cushions  that  can  be  piled  against  each  other, 
or  laid  against  the  back  of  a  deep  easy  chair. 

A  good  table  is  desirable,  and  a  fitly  colored 
jar,  contrasted  with  the  wood,  in  graceful  posi- 
tion, is  always  very  agreeable.  There  seems, 
in  most  parlors,  too  much  reluctance  to  have 
anything  around  to  indicate  that  the  room  is 
used.  The  parlor  should  suggest  festivity 
rather  than  meditation.  If  colors  be  well 
chosen,  Brussels  carpet  and  worsted  reps  will 
produce  really  as  good  effects  as  richer  mate- 
rial ;  though  on  account  of  the  danger  from 
moths,  woolen  upholstery  and  Brussels  carpets 
are  less  economical  for  people  upon  whom  the 
first  outlay  does  not  bear  too  heavily  than 
silk  fabrics,  and  the  higher  grades  of  carpet. 

Most  parlors  are  oblong,  with  two  windows 
at  one  end.  The  spot  between  them  is  the 
point  in  the  whole  room  for  effect  ;  all  living 
things  turn  toward  the  light.  People  of  taste, 
if  they  have  plenty  of  money  for  more  impor- 
tant things,  sometimes  put  minors  in  this 
spot ;  Philistines  always  do.  Something  bright 
and  effective  should  go  there  always.  There 
a»e  worse  things  for  the  purpose  than  a  light 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


433 


cabinet  (if  it  is  tasteful,  which  not  one  in  a 
hundred  is),  laden  with  good  bric-a-brac.  What- 
ever is  done,  don't  let  the  piano  stand  in  front 
of  this  spot  and  obliterate  it. 

The    Library. —  The     main     economical 
question  is,  doors  or  no  doors  to  the  bookcases.  ' 
-Doors  nearly  double  the  cost,  and  the  books | 
will  do  very  well  without  them,  especially  if 
a  strip  of  leather  depend  over  their  tops  from 
the    shelf   above.     "  Pinked  "    edges  on    this 
strip  will  curl  up,  but  gilt  lines  have  a  pleasant 
effect.     Library  furniture  is   best  covered  in 
leather — green    or    dark  brown.     Here    one 
comes   to  read,  and    the   eye   should    not  .be 
wooed  from  its  work  by  any  dashes  of  impor-  I 
tun  ate  color. 

The  Dining  Room. —  Probably  there  is 
no  better   test  of  the  refinement  of  a  family 
than  the  relation  of  its  dining  room  to  the  rest 
of  the  house.     If  the  family  meal  is  regarded 
as  a  mere  feeding,  the  place  where  it  is  taken 
will  plainly  show  the  fact.     If  the  meal  be  a 
cheerful  household  ceremony,  where  the   best 
qualities  of  head    and    heart  engage,  and   to 
which  the  most  honored  friends  are  gathered,  | 
these  facts,  too,  will  be  indicated  by  the  room.. 
The  piece  of  furniture  that  makes  or  mars  the 
dining  room  is  the  sideboard,  or  buffet,  as  we 
seem   to  be  in   the   way   of   calling   it   now. 
With  a  good  substantial  table  and  chairs  (the  ! 
latter  cushioned  if  it  can  possibly  be  afforded),  | 
any  amount  of  effect  can  be  added  to  the  buffet  i 
without  its  appearing  to  overshadow  the  rest,  ! 
and  every  feature  will  tell.   If  you  cannot  have 
an  elaborate  one,  3011  will  not  be  in  bad  taste 
with  one  of  simple  outline.     When  people  are  | 
at  table,  they  see  neither  the   table   nor  the  ', 
chairs,  but  they  do    see   the    buffet.     If  you 
can  cover  it  with  ancestral  plate,  very  good  : 
but  if  you  cannot,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  made  to 
look  as  well  with  bright  china,  glass,  Japanese 
lacquer-work,     and    flowers    (never    artificial 
ones).     Don't    have    a    marble    top,    it    will 
•'chip"  glass  articles  with  angular  bottoms. 
Many    a  fine  piece  has   been    thus  gradually 
spoiled,  and  the  cause  not  realized. 

Bedrooms. — As  far  as  decorative  effect 
goes,  the  thing  of  least  importance  in  a  bed- 
room is  the  bed.  Generally,  the  more  the 
cabinetmaker  does  to  it,  the  uglier  he  gets  it, 
and,  even  if  he  gets  it  pretty,  those  who  lie 
upon  it  do  not  see  it,  and  when  not  lying  upon 
it.  their  attention  is  more  apt  to  be  directed  to 
another  article,  which  is  the  real  center  of  bed- 
room effect,  namely,  the  dressing  bureau.  This 
generally  stands  in  the  same  important  spot  — 
between  the  windows  —  that  has  been  enlarged 
upon  in  treating  of  the  parlor.  Hence,  if  you 
are  not  rich,  get  a  plain  bedstead  and  spend 
your  spare  money  on  the  bureau.     Don't  over- 


look brass  bedsteads.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
they  will  soon  be  cheaper  than  at  this  writing. 
Nothing  need  be  better. 

Wardrobes  are  not  generally  included  in 
bedroom  suites  ;  but  if  they  cannot  be  found 
to  match,  may  be  made  to  order. 

Nursery. — Don 't  have  a  carpet.  It  always 
will  smell.  Lay  the  floor  in  hard  wood  if  you 
can  possibly  afford  it ;  the  cheaper  wood  car- 
peting can  be  made  to  do.  In  the  middle  of 
the  room  have  a  woolen  drugget,  fastened  at 
the  corners  by  movable  nails,  so  it  can  be 
taken  up  and  shaken  daily,  and  washed  often. 

Don't  have  curtains  to  the  windows.  The 
children  while  awake  need  every  ray  of  light 
they  can  get.  Have  thick,  dark-green  shades, 
though,  to  shut  out  all  light  while  they  are 
napping,  A  low  table,  six  or  eight  feet  long 
by  two  wide,  is  a  grand  thing  for  a  nursery. 
The  children  will  handle  many  toys  on  it 
instead  of  cultivating  round  shoulders  on  the 
floor.  Let  its  legs  fold  against  it  so  that  it 
can  be  laid  against  the  wall  when  room  for 
romping  is  needed.  The  height  of  your  chair 
seats  regulates  the  distance  your  children  shall 
tumble  from. 

Servants'  Rooms. —  Iron  bedsteads  are 
the  thing.  They  are  durable  and  do  not 
make  good  nests  for  bugs.  Bureau  washstands 
economize  space.  The  room  is  not  to  be  oc- 
cupied much ;  it  ought  to  be  comfortable 
though,  and  decent  enough  to  attract  servants 
who  are  decent.  Bright,  broad  coloring  in 
the  carpet  will  do  much  to  obviate  a  cheerless 
look. 

Gas  Fixtures  do  more  to  make  or  mar  a 
room  than  almost  anything  else.  We  do  not 
mean  that  the  chandelier  should  be  so  gaudy 
as  to  be  the  only  thing  visible  in  the  room, 
but  that  it  should  cost  enough  to  be  good. 
This  is  too  often  lost  sight  of,  and  some  people 
even  economize  on  the  gas  fixtures  which 
never  wear  out,  rather  than  on  the  carpets  and 
upholstery,  which  do.  Most  people  do  worse, 
however,  by  buying  abominable  angular  cast 
metal  concerns,  or  those  with  curved  glass 
t iil>os  which  threaten  breakage  if  you  look  at 
them.  The  basis  of  most  good  metal  chande- 
liers is  wrought  tubing,  and  of  most  good  glass 
or  earthenware  ones,  vases,  or  plates  around 
or  through  which  the  gas  is  conveyed  in 
metal  tubes.  A  room  in  Brussels  and  worsted 
reps  with  a  good  chandelier  will  have  treble 
the  effect  of  a  room  in  moquette  and  brocatelle 
with  a  poor  chandelier. 

Common  gas  fixtures  can  be  refinished  for 
about  one  third  of  their  cost,  and  changed 
from  gilt  to  bronze  or  steel  or  oxidized  silver, 
if  desirable.  The  better  ones  of  honest  brass 
are  generally  covered  with  lacquer,  and  need 


434 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


relacquering  not  oftener  than  once  in  ten  or 
twelve  years. 

DECORATION. 

With  special  reference  to  walls,  floors,  and 
furniture. 

It  is  always  best  to  begin  by  first  consider- 
ing those  things  in  which  we  have  least  room 
for  choice.  On  account  of  the  change  and 
want  of  aim  of  "  fashion,"  the  least  variety  is 
to  be  found  in  floor  covering,  and  the  greatest 
in  wall  covering  --  supposing  we  use  wall  paper, 
which  is  almost  always  the  best  where  econ- 
omy is  a  motive. 

The  first  step,  it  is  true,  that  time  dictates 
in  preparing  the  house,  is  to  color  the  wood- 
work and  the  walls.  But  this  being  done  to 
suit  the  taste  as  far  as  it  alone  is  concerned, 
trouble  is  apt  to  come  in  finding  carpets  to  cor- 
respond. As  the  accessible  variety  of  wall 
paper  and  tints  for  painting  is  so  much  greater 
than  that  of  upholstery  and  carpets,  it  is  best  to 
select  the  carpets  at  the  very  outset.  Then  it 
will  be  comparatively  easy  to  find  appropriate 
furniture  and,  that  being  selected,  to  find  ap- 
propriate wall  paper  and  to  paint  appropri- 
ately, if  the  woodwork  is  to  be  painted. 

One  strong  argument  in  favor  of  unpainted 
woodwork,  especially  as  compared  with  that 
painted  white,  is  that  it  will  tone  in  with  a 
variably  greater  variety  of  carpets  and  wall 
decorations.  White  woodwork  is  constantly 
bringing  to  grief  the  best  laid  plans  of  wall 
and  floor  decoration.  Pretty  papers  and  car- 
pets have  more  than  once  been  sent  home, 
and  even  put  in  place,  before  it  has  been  real- 
ized that  the  uncompromising  woodwork  must 
kill  them. 

For  the  floor  of  the  entrance  or  hall,  encaus- 
tic tiles  are  best  in  durability  as  well  as  in  ap- 
pearance. Combinations  of  these  may  be 
made  good  and  harmonious  in  color  if  we  will 
but  be  simple  and  not  attempt  display.  Mar- 
ble tiling,  to  be  satisfactory,  must  be  expen- 
sive, and  demands  the  exercise  of  great  taste 
and  judgment.  Next  to  tiling,  hard  wood, 
paint,  or  even  oilcloth,  if  it  can  be  had  of 
moderately  fair  design  and  color,  should  be 
preferred  to  carpet. 

For  other  floors  in  the  house  a  large  rug, 
reaching  to  within  iiliout  a  foot  and  a  half  or 
two  feet  of  the  walls,  is,  for  many  reasons,  to 
be  preferred  to  a  nailed-down  carpet  covering 
the  entire  floor.  This  maybe  made  up  of  car- 
peting sold  by  the  yard,  with  a  border  ;  or  may 
be  an  Eastern  carpet  in  one  piece,  which  of 
course  is  very  greatly  to  be  preferred.  For  J 
the  floor  itself  hard  wood  is  best.  If  it  have 
a  border,  one  of  simple  design  should  be  chosen, 
avoiding    conspicuous    sputs    or    zigzags,     or 


sharply  contrasted  stripes.  If  it  is  to  be 
painted,  the  carpet,  furniture,  and  wall  paper 
should  first  be  chosen,  then  the  floor  color 
agreeably  to  all  of  these,  contrasting  not  too 
strongly  with  the  carpet,  or  the  effect  of 
breadth  over  the  whole  floor  maybe  destroyed. 

In  the  carpet  the  contrasts  and  colors  should 
generally  be  not  too  striking,  because  it  is  the 
thing  most  under  our  eyes  when  they  often 
need  rest.  If  the  texture  be  a  deep  velvety 
pile,  the  contrasts  of  lights  and  darks  and 
separate  colors  may  be  greater.  Generally,  it 
had  better  be  inclined  to  the  dark  and  warm 
in  tone.  Aggravating  lessons  in  geometry,  as 
well  as  roses,  scroll,  and  pictures,  as  subjects 
of  design  in  carpet,  are  things  to  be  tabooed. 
There  are  to  be  found  carpets  of  fair  design 
copied  from  Eastern  patterns,  but  their  over 
preciseness  and  painfully  small  accuracies,  and 
their  inferiority  of  color,  leave  them  far  be- 
hind a  genuine  Oriental  carpet,  with  its  slight 
pleasing  waywardness. 

In  choosing  furniture,  consider  the  colors  of 
the  woods.  Against  a  wall  of  dull  red,  black 
or  dark  oak  will  generally  look  well.  And 
with  a  wall  of  sage  or  olive  green,  greenish 
blue  or  dull  gray  blue ;  mahogany,  oak,  wal- 
nut, or  rosewood.  Yellow  with  black  and 
some  kinds  of  gray  always  looks  well.  Rarely 
choose  any  wood  lighter  than  oak.  If  the 
articles  be  of  somewhat  light  construction, 
they  may  contrast  rather  strongly  with  the 
floor  and  walls  ;  if  large  enough  to  make  im- 
portant masses  in  the  room,  the  contrast 
should  not  be  of  a  sudden  and  violent  kind. 
The  introduction  of  black  in  furniture  is  often 
of  great  value.  Generally  take  the  plainest 
and  most  reasonably  constructed  furniture 
that  you  can  find.  Avoid  in  it  extravagance 
of  shape  ;  curving  fronts  to  drawers,  things 
made  to  imitate  drawers,  and  doors,  and 
lumps  of  carving  glued  on.  Do  not  lightly, 
and  without  consideration,  choose  adjustable 
chairs,  extension  tables,  and  shutting  beds. 
Avoid  having  a  piece  of  furniture  which  is  not 
quite  sufficient  for  its  uses,  and  so  has  to  be 
eked  out  by  other  insufficient  things  ;  such  as 
two  or  three  inconvenient  makeshifts  for  book- 
cases, cabinets,  etc. 

Upholstery  of  chairs  and  sofas  may  con- 
trast with  floors  or  walls ;  there  can  be  no 
rule;  sometimes  one  plan  will  be  found  the 
best  and  sometimes  the  other ;  or  a  partial 
adoption  of  both.  The  larger  the  pattern  in 
furniture,  coverings,  and  curtains,  the  less 
conspicuous  should  be  their  colors. 

Curtains  may  generally  harmonize  pretty 
closely  with  the  furniture  upholstery.  They 
may  often  be  somewhat  more  lively,  as,  in  the 
daytime  the  light  doet;  not  faU  on  the  surface 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,   HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


435 


the  most  in  view,  and  at  night  they  should  not 
break  too  suddenly  the  general  effect  of  pic- 
tures and  furniture  against  the  walls.  They 
should  always  be  suspended  from  rings  on  rods. 
Lace  curtains,  except  where  mere  screens 
against  the  inside  of  the  window  sash,  are  not 
to  be  commended  on  any  account,  to  say  the 
least. 

The  carpets  being  selected  little  difficulty 
need  be  experienced  in  properly  coloring  the 
walls  and  woodwork. 

If  the  doors  and  casings  in  a  room  be  of  hard 
wood,  their  color  is  of  importance  in  connec- 
tion with  floor  and  walls.  If  they  be  painted, 
the  colors  may  well  be  of  such  tones  as  will 
more  strongly  contrast  with  the  walls  than 
with  the  carpet,  the  doors  themselves  being 
more  nearly  like  the  wall  than  the  casings 
around  them  are.     - 

Ceilings  cannot  be  left  plain,  unbroken 
surfaces  of  white  plaster  without  sacrificing  the 
harmony  of  the  room,  if  the  least  degree  of 
fullness  of  coloring  be  attempted  in  other  parts. 
They  may  generally  be  made  lighter  than  the 
side  walls,  and  slightly  contrasting  with  them. 
With  the  walls  very  light,  they  may  be  darker. 
In  any  case  they  should  have  as  much  gentle 
variation  of  light  and  dark  and  color  as  may 
ne.  A  fashion  of  showing  the  construction  of 
the  floors  and  roofs  above,  is  a  thing  to  be 
wished  by  all  decorators.  It  would  add  more 
to  the  effect  of  the  rooms  we  live  in  than  one 
half  of  what  we  now  take  pains  to  do  to  them. 

Papers.  —  In  choosing  wall  papers  avoid 
over-brightness,  display,  sharpness,  or  angu- 
larity of  pattern.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they 
should  be  precisely  and  accurately ' '  made  out. " 
It  is  as  well  that  something  should  be  left  to 
the  imagination.  Prefer  those  of  a  general 
tone  of  warm  gray,  and  but  few  detached 
broken  colors  ;  or  creamy  ocherish  yellows  ;  ! 
or  sage,  citron,  olive,  and  tea  greens  ;  or  dusky 
reds.  Blues  are  the  hardest  to  choose  ;  they 
should  generally  incline  to  green  or  greenish- 
gray,  or  to  the  quality  of  blue  of  some  kinds 
of  old  china.  Rarely  or  never  choose  stripes, 
whatever  your  friends  may  say  about  their  mak- 
ing your  rooms  look  higher.  Sometimes  they  do 
BO,  and  sometimes  they  do  exactly  the  reverse 
by  calling  attention  to  the  shortness  of  the 
space  they  have  to  run.  They  more  often 
than  not  produce  a  bad  effect  on  a  wall. 

Dado. —  It  will  often  be  of  advantage  to  | 
have  a  plinth  or  dado  around  the  room  varying 
in  height  from  one  and  a  half  to  four  feet,  of  j 
a  color  of  about  the  same  degree  of  force  as 
the  color  of  the  floor.  It  should  be  plainer  in 
design  than  the  wall  above ;  and  may  often 
with  advantage  be  absolutely  plain.  The  line 
is  invaluable  where  there  are  pictures.     Dadoes 


to  passages  and  staircases,  where  there  is  no 
wainscot,  are  good  on  account  of  their  use- 
fulness as  well  as  appearance.  They  had 
best  be  made  of  paper  of  such  a  pattern  that, 
where  a  piece  is  rubbed  off,  another  may  be 
substituted.  It  is  not  always  the  case,  as  is 
constantly  said,  that  a  wainscot  or  dado  makes 
a  low  room  look  lower ;  for  it  is  interrupted 
by  doors  and  windows  and  large  pieces  of  fur- 
niture. Entire  blankn'ess  and  absence  of  de- 
tail never  make  a  space  look  larger.  Detail  is 
always  good  when  sufficiently  subordinated, 
and  always  bad  when  obtrusive.  Simple  treat- 
ment is  what  is  required,  that  the  space  shall 
not  be  so  cut  up  as  to  leave  no  leading  feature. 
Border. — -A  border  or  frieze  does  often 
make  a  room  look  lower.  It  arrests  the  eye  at 
;  a  lower  point  than  the  top  of  the  wall,  and  by 
its  uninterrupted  line  carries  it  around*  the 
room  at  that  level. 

Pietures. — The  walls  may  properly  be  al- 
lowed to  furnish  the  key  for  the  whole  scheme 
of  color  ;  a  not  necessarily  namable  color,  as 
red,  green,  or  blue  ;  but  hue,  tone,  what  might 
be  called  atmosphere.  In  proportion  to  the 
absence  of  pictures  walls  require  a  strong  and 
elaborated  treatment.  If  slight  water-color 
drawings  or  prints  are  to  be  hung  on  them, 
walls  should  be  light  and  delicate.  If  oil 
paintings  are  to  be  hung,  the  particular  pic- 
tures should  be  consulted,  as  far  as  possible 
beforehand.  It  is  often  said  that  wrater-color 
and  oil-color  pictures,  or  either  of  them  with 
photographs  and  prints,  should  never  be  hung 
together  on  the  same  wall.  But  it  is  as  well  not 
to  make  quite  so  broad  a  rule.  We  have  seen 
a  water-color  drawing  which  erred  by  having 
too  much  of  one  particular  color  hung  with 
good  effect  by  a  cool  brown  Liber  Studiorum 
print,  and  a  photograph  of  a  painting  made  to 
glow  with  a  warm  hue  by  a  neighboring  blue. 
Remarks  on  the  Various  Rooms. — 
The  Hall  it  is  well  to  have  rather  darker  than 
the  rooms  opening  from  it,  on  account  of  the 
agreeable  contrast.  It  is  also  wrell  to  have  the 
coloring  quiet  and  grave,  without  strong  con- 
trasts and  never  rising  to  positive  color.  The 
ornamental  details  should  be  very  restrained, 
it  being  rather  out  of  order  in  a  place  which 
is  principally  a  passage,  and  more  telling  if 
kept  for  other  parts  of  the  house.  Largo, 
comparatively  blank  spaces  are  in  place  here, 
the  incidents  of  light  and  shade  often  giving 
enough  variation. 

Dining  Room.  Probably  the  fashion  of  hav- 
ing a  dining  room  sober  and  rather  dark  in  its 
coloring  came  about  because  of  the  table  and 
those  around  it  being  the  chief  point  of  inter- 
est, and  also  of  the  pleasant  contrast  of  the 
drawing  room. 


436 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


When  the  sideboard  is  simple  in  its  lines 
and  dark  and  subdued  in  color,  whatever  is 
put  on  it  will  show  to  better  advantage. 

The  Drairiiu/  Room  of  course  should  be  some- 
what light  and  gay ;  fitted  to  be  bright  at 
night,  and  should  not  have  any  point  of  con- 
centration, or  be  too  decided  in  any  way. 

The  Library,  where  it  is  a  library,  should 
contain  nothing  to  distract  the  attention  ;  the 
ornament  and  coloring  should  be  of  the  most 
quiet  kind.  Instead  of  things  being  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  appeal  to  the  eye,  the  eye  should 
have  to  search  for  things. 

* Bedrooms  ought  to  be  airy  and  rather  light ; 
but  curtains  hung  so  as  to  be  easily  drawn  to 
shut  off  draughts  and  light  are  desirable.  If 
the  furniture  is  to  be  bought  in  the  shops,  the 
plainer  it  is,  the  better. 

General  Advice. —  Advice  in  these  things 
can  only  be  of  value  so  long  as  we  remember 
that  it  is  but  advice ;  but  the  occasion  would 
probably  be  rare  when  we  could  not  let  the 
following  have  the  force  of  rules  :  — 

North  rooms,  south  rooms,  poorly  or  fully 
lighted  rooms,  whatever  their  uses  may  be, 
should  have  some  attention  given  to  making 
their  coloring  suit  their  respective  quantities 
and  qualities  of  light.  In  doing  this,  that 
kind  of  contrast  between  different  rooms  in  a 
house  which  is  always  pleasant,  is  secured. 

Adhere  as  much  as  possible  to  simplicity  of 
general  arrangement.  Avoid  on  the  one  hand 
meagerness,  and  on  the  other  hand  what  is 
perhaps  worse,  overcrowding. 

Beware  of  "  hard  finish  "  and  white  paint, 
and  all  large  spaces  of  plain  white  in  carpet, 
curtains,  walls,  or  ceilings  ;  of  brilliant  things, 
large  mirrors,  displays  of  gilding  and  marble, 
and  elaborate  cast  metal  gas  fixtures,  long  lace 
curtains,  sentimental  statuettes  and  bronzes, 
and  an  undue  abundance  of  small  "  artistic  " 
things. 

It  is  better  not  to  indulge  a  fondness  for 
that  useless  order  of  things  which  includes 
"  tidies,"  "mats,"  worsted  emb.oideries,  etc. 
As  we  usually  see  them,  they  are  harsh  spots 
of  white  or  inharmonious  vivid  color,  and  not 
untrying  to  the  nerves  of  those  who  do  not  feel 
at  liberty  to  treat  them  with  disrespect,  and 
who  do  not  like  "fancy  things,"  although 
they  may  care  for  art. 

Finally,  do  not  be  disturbed  if  your  house 
be  simple,  inexpensive,  and  unpretending ; 
but  do  be  disturbed  if  it  be  "  cheap  "  ;  that 
is,  if  it  be  evidently  not  a  fine  tiling,  while  it 
makes  a  shallow  pretense  by  being  dressed  up 
in  the  fashion  of  a  fine  thing.  Extreme  sim- 
plicity and  great  dignity  may  go  together  — 
dignity  and  cheapness,  never.  Remember  that 
a  quiet  harmony  of  colors,  and  the  simplest 


mode  of  arranging  simple  things,  are  always 
good,  and  that  brilliance,  abundance,  and  ex- 
travagance are  always  at  least  near  the  perilous 
borders  of  no-land. 

Woods. —  An  account  of  the  qualities  of 
the  different  woods  may  be  of  use  to  the  pur- 
chaser. 

Ash  is  rather  lighter  colored  than  oak,  but 
is  sometimes  used  in  connection  with  it.  It  is 
less  likely  to  split. 

Beech,  a  very  close  and  tough  wood,  is  chiefly 
used  for  the  framework  of  chairs,  tables,  and 
bedsteads.  It  is  nearly  of  the  color  of  birch, 
but  rather  paler,  and  it  may  be  known  by  the 
presence  of  those  peculiar  little  specks  of  darker 
brown,  which  are  easily  seen  in  a  carpenter's 
plane. 

Birch  is  very  close-grained,  strong,  and 
easily  worked.  It  is  of  a  pale  yellowish  brown. 
If  polished  or  varnished,  it  somewhat  "resem- 
bles satinwood,  but  is  darker,  and  by  staining 
is  capable  of  being  made  to  closely  resemble 
Honduras  mahogany.  It  is  used  in  the  better 
kinds  of  low-priced  furniture. 

Cedar  somewhat  resembles  mahogany, 
though  more  purplish.  It  has  no  "curl," 
and  is  free  from  tendency  to  warp  or  "  cast." 
The  best  varieties  have  a  peculiarly  pleasant 
aroma,  which  is  offensive  to  moths  ;  hence  it  is 
highly  valued  for  making  drawers  and  chests 
for  clothing. 

Chestnut  is  coarse-grained,  strong,  elastic, 
light,  and  very  durable.  Some  of  the  best  of 
the  cheaper  furniture  is  made  of  it.  It  looks 
so  much  like  white  oak  as  to  be  frequently  used 
in  combination  with  it. 

Ebony  is  of  a  deep  black  color,  and  highly 
prized  for  several  purposes,  particularly  inlay- 
ing. It  is  exceedingly  hard,  heavy,  and  dura- 
ble, but  expensive.  Pear  and  other  woods 
dyed  black  are  often  substituted  for  it ;  but  are 
not  so  susceptible  of  good  polish  and  luster, 
or  so  permanent  in  color.  The  best  conies 
from  Africa  ;  a  kind  variegated  with  brown  is 
brought  from  Mauritius  and  Ceylon. 

Mahogany  is  imported  of  two  kinds  —  Hon- 
duras and  Spanish.  The  former  has  a  coarse, 
loose,  and  straight  grain,  without  much  curl  or 
wave.  The  latter  is  darker,  with  curl,  by  which 
in  great  measure  its  price  is  regulated,  and 
with  a  very  fine,  close  texture.  Spanish  ma- 
hogany will  bear  great  violence  ;  it  is  also  free 
from  any  tendency  to  warp.  When,  how- 
ever, it  is  very  much  curled,  it  is  not  nearly 
so  strong  or  so  free  from  twist ;  but  this  is  of 
little  consequence,  as  its  value  is  so  great  that 
it  is  generally  veneered  on  to  some  less  valu- 
able wood,  as  Honduras  or  cedar.  The  heavi- 
est mahogany  is  generally  the  best. 

Maple  is  of   several  qualities,  the  bird's-eye 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


437 


maple  being  most  highly  valued.  It  somewhat 
resembles  satinwood,  but  is  more  buff  than 
yellow,  has  more  curl,  and  more  «<  bird's- 
eye."  Maple  is  light  and  not  very  durable,  and 
is  used  only  in  the  cheaper  kinds  of  furni- 
ture. 

Oak.  There  are  several  varieties,  of  which 
the  white  oak,  the  red  oak,  and  the  live  oak 
are  the  most  important.  The  first  is  most  used. 
Oak  takes  long  to  season,  and  is  worse  than 
most  woods  if  used  green.  It  is  very  hard  to 
work.  Its  appearance  improves  with  age.  On 
account  of  its  tendency  to  warp,  a  great  deal 
of  so-called  oak  work  is  paneled  with  chest- 
nut. 

Pearwood  is  of  a  light  yellow  color,  and,  on 
account  of  its  even  grain,  a  favorite  wood  for 
carving.     It  is  often  stained  to  imitate  ebony. 

Pine  is  used  in  two  varieties,  the  white  and 
the  yellow.  When  thoroughly  dry,  these 
woods  are  very  free  from  all  tendency  to  warp 
or  shrink  ;  but  in  a  half-seasoned  state  articles 
made  of  them  fall  to  pieces.  They  are  readily 
distinguished  from  one  another  by  the  differ- 
ence of  color,  and  from  deals  by  the  absence 
of  turpentine  veins.  When  oiled  and  varnished, 
both  kinds  of  pine  look  very  well.  It  seems  a 
sin  to  stain  it. 

Rattan,  from  strips  of  which  the  seats  of 
cane  chairs  are  made,  is  a  small  sort  of  cane, 
brought  from  China,  Japan,  and  Sumatra.  A 
very  pretty  and  durable  style  of  summer-chairs, 
lounges,  tables,  baskets,  etc.,  is  now  made 
wholly  of  rattan. 

Rosewood  is  hard  and  dark,  with  some  little 
curl,  intermediate  in  this  respect  between 
Spanish  and  Honduras  mahogany,  and  of  a 
very  open  grain.  Most  articles  of  rosewood 
furniture  are  veneered,  but  the  best  are  of  solid 
wood.  The  color,  which  consists  of  large  elon- 
gated dark  zones  on  a  reddish-brown  ground, 
is  permanent,  unless  it  be  much  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun  ;  and  it  takes  a  fine  pol- 
ish, which  is  improved  by  slight  waxing,  or, 
better,  by  the  French  polish,  which  brings  out 
the  color  of  the  wood  admirably. 

Satinwood  is  now  used  chiefly  for  inlaying, 
lining,  and  veneers.  It  is  of  a  full  yellowish 
color,  with  a  fine  grain,  little  curl,  and  a  silky 
luster.     Its  toughness  fits  it  well  for  furniture. 

Walnut  is  a  native  wood,  but  is  used  in  such 
prodigious  quantity  that  it  is  also  imported. 
Well  seasoned  it  is  exceedingly  tough  and  lit- 
tle inclined  to  warp. 

MEDICAL  DICTIONARY 

Abatement.    Decrease  of  fever. 
Abdomen.    The  belly. 
Abnormal.    Unnatural,  irregular. 
Abscess.    A  collection  of  purulent  matter. 
Absorption,  absorptive.    Taking  up  or  soaking  up. 


Acephalous.    Without  a  head. 

Acid.    Sour  ;  a  substance  which  neutralizes  alkalies. 

Adhesive  strips,  adhesive  plaster.  Cloth  or  other 
material  coated  on  one  side  with  sticking  composi- 
tion. 

Afterbirth.  A  body  attached  to  the  womb  and  bv  a 
cord  to  the  child,  supplying  blood  and  nourishment 
before  birth. 

Albumen,  albuminous.  One  of  the  elements  of  the 
body  that  hardens  with  heat.    The  white  of  an  egg. 

Aliment,  alimentary.  Food.  The  alimentary  canal 
begins  with  the  mouth  and  ends  with  the  rectum. 

Alkali.    Caustic ;  a  substance  which  neutralizes  acids. 

Alterative.    Altering  or  purifying  the  blood. 

Alternating.  One  medicine  following  another  after 
an  interval. 

Altruism.    Regard  for  another. 

Alveoli.    The  bony  sockets  to  the  teeth. 

Alvine.    Pertaining  to  the  intestines. 

Anaemia.  Deficiency  in  blood.  The  want  of  red  cor- 
puscles gives  the  pallid  appearance  to  the  skin. 

Anaesthesia.    Deprived  of  sensation. 

Anaphrodisiac.    An  agent  to  blunt  sexual  appetite. 

Anastomosis.  Communication  between  blood  ves- 
sels. 

Anatomy.    A  description  of  the  organs  of  the  body. 

Anodyne.    Relieving  pain. 

Antacid.    Neutralizing  acid. 

Antibilious.    A  term  applied  to  active  cathartics. 

Antidote.  Medicines  counteracting  poisons  and  ren- 
dering them  inert. 

Anti-malarial.    Preventing  an  attack  of  malaria. 

Antiperiodic.  Breaking  up  periodicity  or  appearance 
at  regular  intervals.. 

Antiperistaltic.  Forcing  the  contents  of  the  bowels 
backward  into  the  stomach. 

Antiseptic.    Destroying  poison. 

Antispasmodic.    Stopping  spasms. 

Antrum.  A  cavity  in  the  superior  maxillary  bone,  con 
nected  with  the"  nose. 

Anus.    The  lower  opening  of  the  bowel. 

Aorta.    A  large  artery  arising  from  the  heart. 

Aperient.    A  gentle  laxative  or  purge. 

Aphonia.    Loss  of  voice. 

Aphthous.  Affected  with  aphtha? ;  a  curd-like  covered 
sore. 

Areola,  areolar.  The  connecting  tissue  between  fibers 
and  vessels.    Pertaining  to  areolae. 

Artery.  A  blood  vessel  which  (with  one  exception) 
carries  the  red  blood. 

Asphyxia.    Suspended  animation. 

Aspirator.  A  pumping  apparatus  with  a  long,  fine, 
sharp-pointed  tube  for  removing  fluids  from  inter- 
nal parts. 

Assimilation.  The  act  of  transforming  the  food  into 
various  parts  of  the  body. 

Asthenic.    Debilitated. 

Atrophy,  atrophied.    Wasting  away.    Withered. 

Auscultation.   Discovering  chest  diseases  by  listening. 

Axillary.  Arising  from  a  depression  between  the  stem 
and  leaf -stock. 

Bandage.  A  long  piece  of  cloth,  of  variable  width, 
used  for  binding. 

Benumb.    To  deprive  of  sensibility. 

Bicuspid  teeth.  The  fourth  and  fifth  teeth  from  the 
center  of  the  lips. 

Bile,  bilious.  A  fluid  secreted  by  the  liver.  Pertain- 
ing to  bile ;  a  peculiar  temperament. 

Blastema.    A  germ. 

Bloodletting.  Opening  a  vein  in  the  arm  to  let  out 
blood. 

Bolus.    A  large  pill  or  anything  of  its  size. 

Bougie.    A  flexible  instrument  for  dilating  the  urethra. 

Bronchial  tubes.  Vessels  carrying  air  to  the  lungs. 
Bronchi. 

Bronchus,  bronchi.    The  lower  air-passage. 

Buccal  walls.    Inner  surface  of  the  cheeks. 

Cacoplasm.    Bad  or  low  form  of  organization. 
Caecum.    A  part  of  the  intestines  emptying  into  the 

colon ;  the  blind  gut. 
Calcareous.    Of  the  nature  of  lime. 
Calculus,  calculous.    A  stony  formation.    Pertaining 

to  calculus. 
Capillary.    Blood  vessels,  hair-like  in  size. 
Capsule.    A  covering  or  case.  . 

Carbon.    One  of  the  elementary  bodies  or  metalloids. 
Cardiac.    Pertaining  to  the  heart. 


438 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Carnivora.    Flesh-eating  animals. 

Cartilage,  cartilaginous.    A  white,  elastic  solid  part 

of  the  body.    Gristle.    Gristly. 
Caseous.    Like  cheese. 
Castration.    Removing  the  testicles. 
Cataraenial.    Relating  to  the  monthly  flow. 
Cathartics.    Agents  that    produce  evacuation  of   the 

bowels. 
Catheter.    A  tube  with  an  eyelet  near  its  end,  used 

for  conveying  fluids. 
Caustics.    Corrosive  or  burning  substances. 
Celibate.    A  bachelor. 
Cell.    The   smallest  particle    of    living    matter.    The 

body  and  all  of  its  parts  are  made  up  of  cells. 
Cellular  tissue.    The  tissue  uniting  all  parts  of  the 

body. 
Cerebellum.    The  small  or  lower  brain. 
Cerebrum.    The  great  or  upper  brain. 
Cerumen,  ceruminous.    Ear-wax.    Waxy. 
Cho.esterine.    A  crystallizable  substance   formed    in 

the  bile. 
Chronic.    Long  standing,  seated. 
Chyle.    The  milky  fluid  formed  from  digested  food, 

'and  which  is  emptied  directly  into  the  blood  vessels. 
Chyme.    Digested  food. 

Cicatrix,  cicatrices.    The  scar  from  a  wound.    Scars. 
Circulation.    The  flow  of  blood  from  the  heart  to  the 

extremities  and  back  again. 
Circumcision.    The  act  of  cutting  off  the  foreskin  or 

prepuce  of  males. 
Clonic.    Rigid,  with  occasional  relaxation  of  the  mus- 
cles. 
Coagulate.    To  harden,  as  the  white  of  an  egg,  by 

boiling. 
Coitus.    Sexual  connection. 
Colin  pse.    Complete  prostration  or  inaction. 
Colliquative.    Exhaustive. 
Coma.     Comatose,  profound  sleep. 
Conception.    Being  with  child  in  the  womb. 
Congenital.    Dating  from  birth. 
Congestion.    The  flow  of  blood  to  a  part.    Stagnant 

circulation. 
Conjunctiva.    The  membrane  covering  the  ball  of  the 

eye  and  inner  surface  of  the  eyelids. 
Contagion.    Communication  of  disease  from  one  to 

another  by  touch,  food,  drink,  or  the  atmosphere. 
Continence.    Abstinence  from  sexual  congress. 
Convalesce,  convalescence.    To  recover  health  and 

strength.    Period  of  recovery. 
Convulsions.    Spasms. 
Cornea.    The  tough  transparent  membrane  in  the  front 

of  the  eyeball. 
Corpuscle.    A  minute  body.    A  particle. 
Corroborant.    A  remedy  which  gives  strength  ;  tonic 
Corrosive.    Burning. 
Cortical.    The  bark' or  external  portion. 
Costiveness.     Irregular  and  delayed  motion   of    the 

bowels.    Constipation. 
Counter-irritation.     Irritating   one  part   to    relieve 

irritation  in  another. 
Cramps.    Sudden  and  painful  contractions  of  muscles. 
Cranial.    Belonging  to  the  skull. 
Crisis.    The  period  of  change  ;  it  may  be  to  worse  or 

to  better. 
Cul-de-sac.    A  pouch. 

Cupping.    Drawing  blood  by  lancing,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  a  heated  cup. 

Decussate.    To  cross  each  other. 

Defecation.    Evacuation  of  the  bowels. 

Dejections.    Matter  voided  from  the  bowel. 

Delirium.    Mental  aberration. 

Deltoid  muscle.    A  muscle  passing  over  the  shoulder 

and  terminating  at  the  center  and  outer  part  of  the 

upper  arm. 
Depurative.    Purifying.    Removing  impurities. 
Dextrine.    A  substance  obtained  from  starch. 
Diagnosis.    Discovery  of  a  disease  by  its  symptoms; 

discriminating  between  a  disease  and  others  with 

which  it  may  be  confounded. 
Diaphoretic.    Inducing  perspiration;  sweating. 
Diaphragm.    The  muscle  separating  the  chest  and  its 

contents  from  the  abdomen  and  its  contents. 
Diastaltic.     Reflex  action    induced    by     the    spinal 

marrow. 
Diathesis.  Tendency  of  the  constitution  to  a  particular 

disease. 
Diathetic.    Relating  to  predisposition  to  disease. 
Dietic, dietetic.    Relating  to  the  food  and  drink. 


Digestion.  Conversion  of  the  food  into  form  suitable 
for  nourishment  and  into  refuse  or  excrement. 

Disinfectant.    Purifying  or  cleansing  from  infection. 

Diuretic.  Increasing  by  secretion  the  quantity  of 
urine. 

Dram.  One-eighth  of  an  ounce,  or  a  teaspoonful  of 
fluid. 

Drastic.    Very  powerful  cathartic  action. 

Due.    Canal. 

Duodenum.    The  first  part  of  the  intestines. 

Dysmenorrhoea.    Painful  menstruation. 

Dyspnoea.    Difficult  breathing. 

Economy.  The  parts  constituting  the  body  or  the 
laws  governing  them. 

Effete.    Worn  out ;  useless. 

Effusion.    Escape  of  a  fluid. 

Elimination.  Ejection  by  stimulating  the  secreting 
organs. 

Eliminatives.  Agents  which  expel  substances  from 
the  body,  as  by  the  skin,  kidneys,  etc. 

Emaciation.    Loss  of  flesh. 

Embryo.  The  animal  in  its  earliest  existence  in  the 
uterus. 

Emesis.    Vomiting. 

Emission.    A  discharge. 

Emulsion.    A  pharmacal  compound  of  oil  and  water. 

Emunctory.  Any  organ  of  the  body  acting  as  the 
outlet  of  effete  and  worn-out  matter. 

Enciente.    Pregnant. 

Encephalon.    The  head  ;  all  within  the  head. 

Encysted.    Covered  with  a  membrane  or  sac. 

Endosmosis.  Fluids  passing  through  membranes  into 
structures. 

Enema.    Liquid  injections  into  the  bowel. 

Enervation.    Weakness. 

Enteric.     Intestinal. 

Entozoa.    Worms. 

Epidemic.  A  disease  attacking  many  individuals  in 
a  locality  at  the  same  time. 

Epithelial.  Relating  to  the  thin  covering  to  the  eyes, 
lips,  mouth,  intestines,  and  the  like. 

Erosion.    Corrosion  ;  eating  away. 

Erosis.    Amatory  passion. 

Eructations.  Wind  or  gases  raised  from  the  stomaoh 
with  some  noise. 

Essence,  essential.  The  active  principle  of  plants.  A 
diluted  oil. 

Eustachian  tube.  A  canal  about  two  inches  in  length 
connecting  the  ear  and  back  of  the  mouth  (pharynx). 

Exacerbation.    Increase  in  fever. 

Exanthematous.  Attended  with  fever  and  skin  erup- 
tions. 

Excito-motory.    Reflex  nervous  action. 

Excito-nutrient.  Affecting  nutrition  by  reflex  ner- 
vous action. 

Excito-secretory.  Affecting  secretion  by  reflex  ner- 
vous action. 

Excrement,  excrementitious.  Matter  ejected  from 
the  bowel. 

Excretion,  excretive.  The  faculty  of  selecting  and 
discharging  from  the  system  fluids,  ;is  in  sweating 
and  in  urine,  useless  matter  as  in  feces,  and  im- 
purities bv  either. 

Exhaling.    Breathing  out ;  throwing  off  vapor. 

Expectorant.  Remedies  which  loosen  phlegm  in  the 
air-passages,  and  hence  facilitate  its  discharge  and 
relieve  oppressed  breathing. 

Expectorate.  To  discharge  mucosities  by  coughing 
and  spitting. 

Expiration.    Exhaling  air  by  the  lungs. 

Extravasate.  To  escape  from  the  containing  vessel 
and  permeate  the  surrounding  textures. 

Exudation.    Escaping  or  discharging  through  pores. 

Farinaceous.    Containing  farina  or  flour. 

Fascicles.    Little  bundles  of  libers. 

Fauces.    The  back  of  the  mouth  and  upper  part  of  the 

throat. 
Feces,  fecal.    That  part  of  the  food  remaining  after 

digestion  and  which  is  ejected  at  intervals  from  the 

bowels. 
Feculent.    Foul. 
Fermentation.    Chemical  action  and  combination  by 

which  new  substances  are  formed. 
Fiber,   fibrous.     The  hard,  elastic,    organic  particle 

which,  aggregated,  forms  muscle  and  other  tissues. 
Fibrine.      An  organic    substance,    fluid,   coagulable, 

found  in  the  blood,  lymph,  etc. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,    DIETETICS. 


439 


Filaments.    A  thready  fiber. 

Flagellation.  Flapping  the  body  with  the  corner  of 
a  wet  towel  or  the  snap  of  a  whip. 

Flatulence.    Wind  in  the  stomach  and  bowels. 

Foetus,  foetal.  The  young  of  any  animal  during  ute- 
rine existence.    Pertaining  to  the  unborn. 

Follicle.  A  little  depression  throwing  off  moisture  to 
keep  the  contiguous  part  soft  and  supple. 

Foreskin.  The  prolonged  skin  of  the  penis,  which 
covers  the  glans  or  head. 

Fumigation.    Disinfection  by  pas,  smoke,  or  vapor. 

Functiop.    The  normal  or  healthy  action  of  an  organ. 

Fundament.    The  seat;  anus. 

Fungus.    Parasitical  plant. 

Ganglion.    Masses  of  nerves  resembling  brain. 

Ganglionic.    Composed  of  ganglia. 

Gangrene.    Mortification  ;  local  death. 

Ga6tric  juice.  The  digestive  fluid  secreted  by  the 
stomach. 

Generative.    Productive. 

Genetic.    Pertaining  to  the  genital  organs. 

Genitals.    The  generative  organs. 

Germ  theory.  The  theory  of  the  propagation  of  disease 
by  germs  floating  in  the  atmosphere. 

Gestation.  The  period  of  carrying  the  young  in  the 
womb. 

Glands,  Glandular.  Organs  of  the  body,  each  pos- 
sessing vital  properties  peculiar  to  itself,  as  secre- 
tion of  tears,  milk,  saliva,  urine,  excretion,  etc. 

Glans.  The  conical  end  of  the  penis,  covered  by  the 
foreskin. 

Gluten.  The  ingredient  in  flour  (farinae)  which  gives  it 
adhesiveness. 

Grain.    One  sixtieth  of  a  drachin. 

Graminivora.    Grain-eating  animals. 

Granular.    Consisting  of  little  grains. 

Granules.    Little  grains. 

Griping.    The  pains  of  colic. 

Gullet.  The  canal  for  food  leading  from  the  throat  to 
the  stomach. 

Gynaecology.  That  part  of  the  science  of  medicine 
devoted  to  the  diseases  of  women. 

Hectic.    Debilitated :  exhausted. 

Hereditary.    Transmitted  from  parent  to  child. 

Hibernate,  hibernation.  A  partial  suspension  of  ani- 
mation. Animals  that  sleep  through  the  winter 
hibernate. 

Histogenetic.    Tissue-forming. 

Hydragogues.  Medicines  producing  copious,  watery, 
alvine  discharges. 

Hydrocarbons.    Starch,  sugar,  and  oils. 

Hydrogen.  A  light,  inflammable  gas,  forming,  by 
chemical  combination,  water  and  animal  and  vege- 
table matter. 

H  vgiene,  hygienic.  The  science  of  the  preservation  of 
"  health. 

Hymen.  A  fold  of  membrane  at  the  outer  orifice  of 
the  vagina,  found  sometimes,  but  not  always,  in 
virgins. 

Hypertrophy.  Increased  nutrition  and  consequent 
growth. 

Hypnotic.    Producing  sleep. 

Hypochondriasis.  Helief  in  the  possession  of  an 
imaginary  disease. 

Hypodermic.    Under  the  skin. 

Hypodermic  syringe.  An  instrument  for  injecting 
liquid  remedies  under  the  skin. 

Ileum.    The  convoluted  portion  of  the  intestines. 
Impotence.      Loss     of    sexual    power;    inability    to 

copulate. 
Indications.    The  symptoms    or   conditions    needing 

medication. 
Infection,  infecting.    The  communication  of  disease 

by  touch,  food,  drink,  or  the  breath. 
Infecundity.     Unfruitfulness. 
Infiltrate.    To  penetrate  the  pores  of  a  part. 
Inflammation.    A  condition  attended  with  heat,  pain, 

redness,  and  swelling. 
Injection.    Passing  a  liquid  into  a  cavity  of  the  body, 

through  and  by  means  of  a  syringe. 
Innocuous.    Harmless. 
Inoculation.     Taking  a  disease  by  contact  with    an 

abraded  surface. 
Insolation.    Sunstroke. 
Insomnia.    Inability  to  sleep. 
Inspiration.    Inhaling  air  by  the  lungs. 
Inspissated.    Thickened  by  evaporation.  i 


Instinct.    An  inborn  principle  directing  to  health  and 

self-preservation. 
Intercostal.    Between  the  ribs. 
Intestine,  intestinal.    The  canal  from  the  stomach  to 

the  anus ;  the  bowels.    Relating  to  the  intestines. 
Invermination.    Infested  with  worms. 
Iris.    The  colored  membrane  seen  in  the  eyeball;  it  is 

blue  in  blue  eyes,  gray  in  gray  eyes,  etc. 
Irritation.    Local  excitement,  or  excess  of  vital  action. 

Kidneys.  Two  organs,  one  on  each  side  of  the  spine, 
internallv  and  above  the  small  of  the  back,  which 
secrete  the  urine  from  the  blood. 

Lachrymal  gland.    Organ  for  forming  tears. 

Lachrymation.    Weeping. 

Lacteal.    Milkv.    Vessels  containing  chyle. 

Larynx.  The  Adam's  apple  of  the  neck ;  the  upper  part 
of  the  windpipe  which  contains  the  organs  of  voice. 

Lancinating.  A  deep  and  sudden  pain,  compared  to 
the  stab  of  a  lance. 

Leeching.  Removing  blood  by  the  application  of  a 
leech. 

Lesion.    A  diseased  change. 

Leucocytes.    White  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 

Leucorrhcea.    Whites. 

Liquor  sanguinis.  The  fluid  part  of  the  blood,  hold- 
ing in  solution  fibrine,  albumen,  etc. 

Liver.  The  great  assimilating  gland  of  the  body.  It  is 
situated  below  the  diaphragm  or  midriff,  and  above 
the  stomach,  bowels,  and  kidney,  and  extends  from 
the  base  of  the  chest  to  the  spine,  and  from  side  to 
side. 

Lobe.    A  rounded,  projecting  part. 

Loins.  The  small  of  the  back,  between  the  ribs  and 
pelvis. 

Lungs.  Two  organs  situated  in  the  chest,  one  on  each 
side,  with  the  heart  between ;  the  organs  of  respi- 
ration. 

Lymph,  lymphatic.  The  fluid  secretion  of  the  lym- 
phatic glands,  which  is  emptied  into  the  circulation. 

Mackintosh.    Cloth  covered  with  waterproof  material. 
Malaria.    Poisoning  emanations  in  the  air,  producing 

disease. 
Mammary  gland.    The  female  breast. 
Mastication.    Chewing  the  food. 
Masterbation.      Personal  excitement    of    the  sexual 

organs. 
Median  line.     An  imaginary  line  dividing  the  body 

into  the  right  and  ten  side. 
Medulla  oblongata.    An  organ,  marrow-like,  lying  at 

the  base  of  the  skull. 
Medullary.    Pertaining  to  the  marrow. 
Membrane,    membranous.    A  thin,  web-like  struc- 
ture covering  parts  and  organs,  and  lining  cavities. 
Meninges.    Coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 
Men  sis,  menses.    The  monthly  uterine  flow  during  the 

middle  age  of  women. 
Menstrual.    Pertaining  to  the  monthly  flow. 
Mesentery.    The  folds  of  the  peritoneum  which  hold 

the  intestines  in  place. 
Metamorphosis.    Transformation. 
Metastasis.    Change  in  the  seat  of  a  disease. 
Miasm,  miasmatic.    The  germs  of  disease  floating  in 

the  air,  which  produce  infection. 
Microscope.    An  instrument  for  magnifying  minute 

objects. 
Micturate.    To  evacuate  the  bladder. 
Molar  teeth.    The  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  teeth 

from  the  center  of  the  lips. 
Molecule.    A  little  portion  of  any  body. 
Morbid.    Diseased. 
Motor.    Moving. 

Mucilages.    The  gummy  principle  of  plants. 
Mucoid.    Like  mucus. 
Mucus,  mucous.    A  viscid  fluid,  which  in  health  keeps 

the  membranes  in  their  proper  condition. 
Myopic.    Near-sighted. 

Narcotic.  A  stupefying  remedy;  in  large  doses  de- 
stroying life. 

Nausea.  Sickness  at  the  stomach;  ineffectual  effort 
to  vomit. 

Navel.  The  round  scar  at  the  center  of  the  abdomen, 
marking  the  place  of  attachment  of  the  cord  pre 
vious  to  and  at  birth. 

Neuralgia.    Nerve-pain.  . 

Neurine.  The  substance  of  which  the  brain  is  com- 
posed. 


440 


THE    CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Nitrogen,  nitrogenous.  The  gas  constituting  four 
fifths  of  the  volume  of  the  atmosphere. 

Noxious.    Poisonous ;  harmful. 

Nucleus,  nuclei.    The  germinal  point  in  a  cell ;  kernel. 

Nutrition.  Increasing  in  growth,  or  supplying  the 
materials  for  growth. 

Obcordate.    Half  egg-shape  and  half  heart-shape. 

Obesity.    Excessively  fat. 

(Esophagus.    The  food-passage  from  the  throat  to  the 

stomach. 
CEstruation.    Periodical  sexual  desire ;  heat. 
Oleaginous.    Oily. 
Ophthalmoscope.    An  instrument  for  examining  the 

interior  of  the  eye  by  concentrated  and  reflected 

light. 
Optic  nerve.    The  nerve  conveying  visual  impressions 

from  the  eye  to  the  brain. 
Osmosis.    Attraction  of  fluids  for  each  other  through 

moist  membranes  and  their  motion. 
Occicles.    Little  bones. 
Ounce.    One  sixteenth  of  a  pound;    in   fluids,    eight 

drachms  or  teaspoonf  uls. 
Oxygen.    The  gas  constituting  one  ttfth  the  volume  of 

the  atmosphere.    It  supports  combustion. 

Pad.    A  folded  cloth  used  as  a  support. 

Palate.    Roof  of  the  mouth. 

Palatine  arch.    The  arch  in  the  rear  of  the  mouth, 

formed  by  the  palate  bone. 
Palsy.    Loss  of  sensation  or  motion,  or  both ;  paralysis. 
Pancreas,  pancreatic  juice.    A  large  gland   in  the 

abdomen,  beneath  and  behind   the   stomach.     Its 

secretion. 
Papillae.    Little  raised  points  upon  the  surface ;  they 

can  be  seen  upon  the  tongue. 
Papulose,  papular.    With  dry  pimples. 
Paralysis.    To  lose  the  power  of  motion  in  a  part,  or 

sensation,  or  both. 
Parasites.    Animals  or  plants  that  subsist  upon  others. 
Parenchyma.    The  texture  of  organs  like  the   liver, 

kidneys,  etc. 
Parotid  gland.    A  gland  at  the  angle  of  the  lower 

jaw  which  secretes  saliva  and   discharges  it  by  a 

shert  tube  upon  the  cheek  near   an  upper  molar 

(back)  tooth. 
Paroxysm.    The  period  of  more  aggravated  symptoms, 

following  an  interval  of  comparative  freedom. 
Parturition.    Childbirth. 
Pathology.     That    department    of    medical    science 

whose  object  is  the  knowledge  of  disease. 
Pelvis.    The  bony  structure  at  the  termination  of  the 

spine,  enveloping  and  protecting  the  lower  intes- 
tines, bladder,  genitals,  etc. 
Pentandria  Monogynia.    A  name  given  to  a  class  of 

plants  having  five  stamens  and  one  style. 
Percussion.    Striking  with  the  flnger-tips  to  discover 

by  the  resonance  the  condition  of  internal  parts. 
Perineum.    The  part  between  the   genitals   and  the 

anus  or  tip  of  the  spine. 
Periodicity.    Occurring  at  regular  periods,  as  a  chill 

every  other  day,  etc. 
Periosteum.    The  tough  membrane  covering  all  bones. 
Peristaltic.     The   peculiar  motion  of  the   intestines 

which  propels  its  contents  forward,  somewhat  like 

the  crawling  of  a  worm. 
Peritoneum.     The   membrane  lining  the   abdominal 

walls  and  covering  the  intestines. 
Petaloid.    Resembling  a  leaf-stock. 
Petals.    The  colored  leaves  of  a  flower. 
Pharmacist,  pharmaceutist.    One  who  manufactures 

drugs. 
Pharmacy.    The  manufacture  of  drugs.    ' 
Pharynx.    The  posterior  portion  of  the  cavity  of  the 

mouth,  behind  the  palate,  above  the  windpipe  and 

gullet.    The  breath  and  food  pass  through  it. 
Phosphorus,  phosphates.    A  substance  familiar  to 

us  in  matches.    It  is  a  constituent  of  the  brain  and 

nerves. 
Phrenic  nerve.    The  respiratory  nerve.    It  arises  in 

the  neck,  passes  through  it  and  the  chest,  and  is 

mainly  distributed  to  the  diaphragm. 
Physiology.    The  functions  of  the  organs  of  the  body ; 

the  phenomena  of  life. 
Pile-compressor.    An  instrument  supporting  the  rec- 
tum and  anus. 
Placenta.    A  fleshy  body  attached  to  the  womb  and  by 

a  cord  to  the  child, Supplying  blood  and.  nourish- 
ment before  birth. 


Plasma.    The  fluid  portion  of   the   blood   holding  in 

solution  flbrine,  albumen,  etc. 
Plastic.    Formative. 

Plethora.    Abounding  in  blood :  full-blooded. 
Pleura.    A  wetted  membrane  lining  the  walls  of  the 

chest  and  covering  the  outer  surface  of  the  lung. 

There  are  two. 
Plexus.    A  network  of  blood-vessels  or  nerves. 
Pneumogastric  nerve.    The  great  nerve  distributed 

to  the  chest  and  stomach. 
Polypus.    A  kind  of  tumor. 
Post-mortem.    After  death. 
Prepuce.    The    prolonged   skin   of   the    penis    which 

covers  the  glans  or  head. 
Probang.    A  whalebone  rod  with  a  sponge  on  one  end. 
Probe.    A  wire  for  examining  wounds,  canals,  etc. 
Prophylactic.    Preventive. 
Prostate  gland.    A  gland  at  the  upper  portion-of  the 

urethra  surrounding  it  and  touching  the  bladder. 
Psoas  muscle.     The  great  muscle  which    draws  the 

thigh  up  to  the  abdomen. 
Puberty.    That  period    of  life,  about  the  age  of  13, 

when  the  procreative  organs  most  rapidly  develop; 

hair  grows  about  them  and  upon  the  face  of  the 

male,  the  breasts  of  the  female  enlarge,  and,  in  fact, 

the  period  of  youth  has  passed  and  that  of  manhood 

or  womanhood 'arrived. 
Pubic  bone.    A  bone  in  the  lower  abdomen  immedi- 
ately under  that  part  of  the  surface  covered  with 

hair. 
Pulse.    The  beating  or  throbbing  of  arteries  produced 

by  afflux  of  blood  from  heart. 
Pupil.    The  circular  opening  in  the  colored  part  of  the 

eye  (iris). 
Purgative.    A  medicine  causing  free  alvine  discharges. 
Pus.    Matter  discharged  from  inflamed  tissue. 
Pustules.    Mattery  pimples. 

Receptaculum   chyli.     A  hollow  organ  for  holding 

chyle. 
Rectum,  rectal.    That  portion  of  the  bowels  nearest 

the  outlet. 
Recuperate.    To  regain  health  and  strength. 
Regurgitate.    To  flow  backward. 
Remission.    Decrease  in  fever. 
Renal.    Pertaining  to  the  kidney. 
Respiration.    Breathing. 
Retching.    Ineffectual  effort  to  vomit. 
Retina.    The  lining  of  the  eye. 
Revulsive.    Agents  which  create  diseased  action  on 

the  surface  to  relieve  internal  disorder. 
Roborant.    Strengthening ;  tonic. 
R,  recipe.    Take  the  articles  following. 

Saccharine.    Of  the  nature  of  sugar. 

Saliva.  One  of  the  digestive  fluids  which  is  mixed 
with  the  food  during  mastication. 

Sanitarium.    A  remedial  institute. 

Scbneiderian  membrane.  The  lining  of  the  nasal 
cavity. 

Scrofulous.    Of  the  nature  of  scrofula. 

Scrotum.    The  skin  covering  the  testicles. 

Sebaceous.  A  name  givan  to  the  oil-glands  of  the 
skin. 

Secernent.    Secreting. 

Secrete,  secretion.  Drawing  out  fluids  from  the 
blood;  each  gland  absorbs  material  peculiar  to  it- 
self. 

Sedatives.  Remedies  which  control  or  depress  exces- 
sive vital  action. 

Self-pollution.  Personal  excitement  of  the  sexual 
organs. 

Semen.  The  fecundating  fluid  of  the  male  which  is 
secreted  by  the  testicles. 

Seminal.     Pertaining  to  semen  or  sperm. 

Sensorium.    The  center  of  sensations. 

Sepals.    The  leaves  of  the  envelope  of  a  flower. 

Serum,  serous.    The  watery  ponton  of  animal  fluids. 

Sigmoid  flexure.  A  bend  in  the  intestines  just  above 
the  rectum. 

Sinapism.    An  irritating  plaster. 

Sound.    A  solid  rod,  catheter  shape. 

Spasms.  Violent  and  involuntary  muscular  move- 
ments. 

Specific  disease.    Syphilitic  diseases ;  private  diseases. 

Speculum.  An  instrument  for  dilating  the  orifice  to 
internal  canals  or  cavities. 

Spermatic.  Pertaining  to  sperm  or  the  organs  of  gen- 
eration. 


DOMESTIC  ECONOMY,  HYGIENE,  DIETETICS. 


441 


Spermatic  cord.  A  cord  consisting  of  blood-vessels, 
nerves,  and  the  canal  of  the  sperm,  which  supports 
the  testicle. 

Spermatozoa.  The  formative  agents  in  generation 
found  ia  the  semen  of  the  male. 

Sphincter.    A  round  muscle  closing  an  outlet. 

Spicula.    A  splinter  of  bone. 

Spleen.  A  spongy  organ  situated  deep  in  the  upper 
abdomen,  between  the  kidney  and  stomach. 

Sputa.    Expectorated  matter. 

Squamous.    Scaly. 

Stercoraceous.    Excrementitious. 

Sternutatives.    Remedies  which  provoke  sneezing. 

Stethoscope.    An  instrument  for  exploring  the  chest. 

Sthenic.    Possessing  excessive  strength. 

Stun.    Unconsciousness  produced  by  a  blow  or  fall. 

Stupor.  Diminished  sensibility  or  exercise  of  the  in- 
tellectual faculties. 

Styptic.    Arresting  hemorrhage ;  astringent. 

Sublingual  gland.  A  salivary  gland  under  the  tongue. 

Sudoriferous.  A  name  given  to  the  sweat  glands  of 
the  skin. 

Suppository.  A  semi-solid  medicine  deposited  in  the 
rectum. 

Suppurate.    To  discharge  matter  or  pus. 

Suspensory  bandage.  A  bandage  for  supporting  the 
scrotum. 

Sympathetic  nerves.  The  nervous  system  of  the  auto- 
matic functions. 

Symptom.    A  sign  of  disease. 

Syncope.    Fainting. 

Tampon.    A  plug  made  of  lint  or  cotton. 

Tapping.    Drawingoff  fluids  in  cavities  by  puncturing 

the  surface. 
Tenesmus.    Violent  contractions. 
Testes.    The  male  organs  contained  in  the  scrotum. 
Testicles.    Testes. 

Tetanus.    Permanent  contraction  of  muscles. 
Therapeutics.     The  department  of   medical  science 

concerned  in  the  treatment  of  disease. 
Thoracic.    Pertaining  to  the  chest. 
Thyroid  glands.    Throat  glands. 
Tissues.    The  anatomical  elements  cf  organs. 
Tonics.     Remedies    which    improve  the   health   and 

strength. 
Tonsil.    A  gland  at  the  side  of  the  throat  near  the  soft 

palate. 
Toxic.    Poisonous. 
Trachea.  That  part  of  the  windpipe  between  the  larynx 

or  vocal  organs  and  the  bronchial  tubes. 
Traumatic.    Pertaining  to  a  wound. 
Tubercle.    Concretions  of  degenerated  matter. 
Tubule.    A  little  tube  or  canal. 
Tympanitic.      Having  a  drum-like    sound  from  the 

accumulation  of  air. 
Tympanum.    The  drum  of  the  ear. 

Ulcer,  ulceration.    A  chronic  sore  situated  in  the  soft 

parts.    A  diseased  action  resulting  in  ulcer. 
Umbilicus.    The  navel. 
I'ru'mic.    Pertaining  to  urine. 
Urea.    A  constituent  of  urine. 
Ureters.    The  canals,  two   in  number,    carrying   the 

urine  from  the  kidneys  to  the  bladder. 
Urethra.    The  can?l  or  pipe  leading  from  the  bladder 

for  the  conveyance  of  urine  from  the  body. 
Uric  acid.    A  constituent  of  urine;   in  excess  it  forms 

combinations,  producing  calculus  or  stone. 
Urine.    The  secretion  of  the  kidneys  which  collects  in 

the  bladder  and  is  discharged  through  the  urethra. 
Uterus.    An  organ  situated  between  the  bladder  and 

rectum  and  above  the  vagina,  which  holds  the  foetus 

during  gestation. 
Uvula.    A  fleshy  organ  hanging  from  the  center  of  the 

soft  palate. 

Vaccine.    Pertaining  to  smallpox. 

Vagina.  The  canal,  five  or  six  inches  in  length,  lead- 
ing to  the  uterus  or  womb. 

Varicose.    Pertaining  to  a  dilated  vein. 

Vascular.    Full  of  blood-vessels. 

Vaso-motor.  Affecting  vessels  by  reflex  nervous 
action. 

Vein.  A  blood-vessel  which,  with  one  exception,  car- 
ries the  blue  or  venous  blood. 

Ventricle.    A  chamber  in  the  heart. 

Vertigo.    Dizziness. 

Vesicle.    A  bladder-like  sac. 

Vesicular.    Full  of  little  vessels. 


Vicarious.    In  place  of  another;  a  function  performed 

through  other  than  the  natural  channels. 
Virus.    The  poison  transmitting  infectious  disease. 
Viscus,  viscera.    An  organ  of  the  body.    Organs. 
Vitality.    The  vital  principle. 
Void.    To  evacuate. 
Vomiting.    Emptying  the  stomach  upward. 

Water-brash.    A  profuse  flow  of  saliva. 

Womb.    An  organ  situated  between  the  bladder  and 

rectum  and  above  the  vagina,  which  holds  the  foetus 

during  gestation. 

/ooii.  Zoa.    Animal.    Animals. 
Zymotic.    Epidemic  and  contagious. 

SICK  ROOM. 

In  preparing  a  meal  for  anyone  whose  appe- 
tite is  delicate,  it  should  be  made  to  look  as 
tempting  as  possible.  The  tray  should  be 
covered  with  the  whitest  napkin,  and  the  sil- 
ver, glass,  and  china  should  shine  with  clean- 
liness. There  should  not  be  too  great  a 
variety  of  viands,  and  but  a  very  small  portion 
of  each  one.  Nothing  more  quickly  disgusts 
a  feeble  appetite  than  a  quantity  of  food  pre- 
sented at  one  time. 

The  patient  should  never  be  consulted  be- 
forehand as  to  what  he  will  eat  or  what  he 
will  drink.  If  he  asks  for  anything,  give  it  to 
him,  with  the  doctor's  permission  ;  otherwise 
prepare  something  he  is  known  to  like,  and 
offer  it  without  previous  comment.  One  of 
the  chief  offices  of  a  good  nurse  is  to  think  for 
her  patient.  His  slightest  want  should  be  an- 
ticipated and  gratified  before  he  has  had  time 
to  express  it.  Quick  observation  will  enable 
her  to  detect  the  first  symptom  of  worry  or 
excitement,  and  to  remove  the  cause.  An  in- 
valid should  never  be  teased  with  the  exertion 
of  making  a  decision.  Whether  the  room  is 
too  hot  or  too  cold  ;  whether  chicken  broth,  or 
beef  tea,  or  gruel  is  best  for  his  luncheon,  and 
all  similar  matters,  are  questions  which  should 
be  decided  without  appealing  to  him. 

Household  troubles  should  be  kept  as  far  as 
possible  from  the  sick  room.  Squabbles  of 
children  or  servants  should  never  find  an  echo 
there.  In  the  event  of  some  calamity  occur- 
ring, for  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  the 
sufferer  should  be  informed,  the  ill  news 
should  be  broken  as  gently  as  possible,  and 
every  soothing  device  employed  to  help  him 
to  bear  the  shock. 

Above  all,  an  invalid,  or  even  a  person 
apparently  convalescent,  should  be  saved  from 
his  friends.  One  garrulous  acquaintance  ad- 
mitted for  half  an  hour  will  undo  the  good 
done  by  a  week  of  tender  nursing.  Whoever 
is  the  responsible  person  should  know  how 
much  her  patient  can  bear ;  she  should  keep 
a  careful  watch  on  visitors  of  whose  discretion 
she  is  uncertain,  and  the  moment  she  preceives 
it  to  be  necessary,  politely  but  firmly  dismiss 
them. 


442 


THE   CENTURY    BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


She  must  carry  out  implicitly  the  doctor's 
directions,  particularly  those  regarding  medi- 
cine and  diet.  Strict  obedience  to  his  orders, 
a  faithful,  diligent,  painstaking  following  of 
his  instructions,  will  insure  to  the  sufferer  the 
best  results  from  his  skill,  and  bring  order, 
method,  and  regularity  into  domestic  nursing. 

Temperature. —  Excessive  heat,  long  con- 
tinued, is  detrimental  to  health.  It  causes  in 
man,  enlargement  of  the  liver,  jaundice,  indi- 
gestion, diarrhoea,  dysentery,  dropsy,  etc., 
and  hastens  the  fatal  termination  of  a  majority 
of  human  maladies.  In  geese  it  causes  the 
enlarged  liver,  employed  in  making  the  cele- 
brated pate  defoie  gras. 

Excessive  cold,  long  continued,  is  less  prej- 
udicial than  excessive  heat,  except  to  the  old 
and  feeble. 

Exposure  of  a  limited  portion  of  the  body  to 
cold  disturbs  the  equilibrium  of  both  the  nerv- 
ous and  vascular  systems,  causing  local  con- 
gestions, or  "colds." 

"  If  the  wind  strikes  you  through  a  hole, 
Go  count  your  beads  and  mind  your  soul." 

— Old  Proverb. 

Do  not  stand  long  upon  the  cold  ground  on 
a  warm  spring  day.  It  is  equally  dangerous 
to  sit  upon  anything  cold  on  a  warm  day. 

Keep  the  head  cool  and  the  feet  warm. 

Sudden  changes  of  extreme  temperature  are 
not  necessarily  injurious.  If  the  heat  or  the 
cold  is  applied  only  for  a  few  minutes,  as  in 
certain  baths,  etc.,  it  often  proves  invigorating. 

The  most  perfect  examples  of  physical  and 
mental  development  are  not  usually  found  in 
regions  having  the  most  uniform  temperature, 
but  in  those  which  have  a  considerable  range 
of  temperature. 

Exercise  in  the  cold  air  contracts  and 
strengthens  the  muscles  and  toughens  the 
sinews. 


In  general,  the  best  temperature  for  health 
is  that  in  which  one  cannot  be  comfortable  for 
any  length  of  time  without  exercise.  With 
most  persons  this  is  a  temperature  of  from  58° 
to  63°  Fahrenheit. 

Radiated  heat  is  better  than  heated  columns 
of  air.  The  sun,  and  an  open  fireplace  or 
grate  furnish  radiated  heat. 

Hot  air  furnaces,  with  registers  opening 
directly  into  the  rooms,  supply  only  heated 
columns  of  air ;  which  are  generally  dry  and 
impure.  Rooms  thus  warmed  are  first  and 
most  heated  near  the  ceiling. 

Air  heated  by  red  hot,  or  very  hot  iron,  is 
rendered  in  a  great  measure  unfit  for  respira- 
tion. 

Light. —  Light  is  essential  to  the  perfect 
life  of  most  vegetables  and  of  most  animals. 

To  render  a  plant  brittle  and  watery,  the 
gardener  excludes  from  it  completely  the  rays 
of  the  sun.  Etiolation  has  the  same  effect 
upon  man  and  other  animals. 

Without  light,  man  becomes  scrofulous, 
rickety,  goitrous,  consumptive,  and  dies  in  a 
state  of  premature  decrepitude. 

Children  reared  without  light  and  air  are 
in  the  animal  kingdom  what  good  celery  is  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom,  white  and  succulent ; 
but  they  wilt  under  the  slightest  touch  of  frost, 
and  are  broken  under  the  slightest  pressure. 

Children  should  not  be  sent  iuto  parks  with 
their  faces  veiled.  Patients  on  the  sunny  side 
of  a  hospital  ward  recover  the  soonest. 

Light  gives  a  bronzed,  or  "tan  "  color  to 
the  skin ;  but  where  it  uproots  the  lily,  it 
plants  the  rose. 

Light  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  disin- 
fectants. 

Air  and  light,  are  among  the  best  medi- 
cines known  to  man. 


y 


Book  VI 

Finance,  Industry,  Trans- 
portation. 


Finance,  Industry,   Transportation. 


EARLY  FORMS  OF  CURRENCY. 

Skins  of  wild  animals  cured  constitute  one 
of  the  earliest  forms  of  currency  known,  and 
while  employed  in  the  most  ancient  times,  are 
not  yet  disused  in  some  portions  of  the  world. 
Such  a  medium  seems  appropriate  among  those 
who  subsist  by  the  chase,  as  all  primeval  peo- 
ples must  in  some  degree,  and  it  is  not,  there- 
fore, surprising  to  find  that  in  the  transactions 
of  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company  with  the 
Indians,  the  unit  of  value  by  which  the  price 
of  other  articles  was  reckoned  was  the  beaver 
skin. 

Pastoral  people  employ  similarly  the  skins 
of  tame  animals,  originally  delivering  the  en- 
tire skin,  a  cumbrous  process  deficient  in  con- 
venience and  economy,  but  finally  employing  a 
small  disc  cut  from  the  leather  as  a  represent- 
ative of  its  value.  Live  stock  is  also  widely 
employed,  as  it  has  been  from  the  days  of 
Abraham,  and  though  a  rude,  it  is  still  a  sub- 
stantially uniform,  denominator  of  value.  The 
Greeks  stamped  the  image  of  an  ox  on  a  piece 
of  leather,  and  the  image  had  thence  the  cur- 
rent value  of  the  animal  represented.  In  the 
East,  the  camel,  the  ass,  and  the  sheep  have 
been,  ever  since  they  were  subdued  to  the  uses 
of  mankind,  employed  to  reckon  possessions 
or  determine  the  amount  of  tribute  or  marriage 
portions.  In  Lapland  and  some  portions  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  the  amount  of  wealth 
possessed  by  a  person  is  denominated  in  rein- 
deer. Among  the  Tartars  the  number  of  mares 
similarly  determines  the  opulence  of  their  pos- 
sessors. Among  the  Esquimaux  it  is  custom- 
ary to  speak  of  one  another  as  worth  so  many 
dogs. 

Slaves  have  been  employed  to  determine 
ratios  of  value  since  the  state  of  bondage  was 
first  established  among  men.  In  New  Guinea 
the  slave  is  still  the  unit  by  which  the  value  of 
other  possessions  is  recorded,  as  he  used  to  be 
among  the  Portuguese  traders  of  the  Gold 
Coast.  The  Portuguese  also  found  small  mats 
called  libongoes,  valued  at  about  one  and  one 
halfpence  each,  employed  as  currency  on  the 
African  coast,  and  bunches  of  red  feathers 
serve  by  their  comparative  stability  to  mark 
the  fluctuations  of  yams  and  breech-clouts  in 
some  of  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific. 
Some  tribes  of  North  American  Indians  found 
wampum  as  useful  in  their  rather  limited  mer- 
cantile transactions  as  the  merchant  of  South 
street  or  Burling  slip  finds  greenbacks  or  bills 
of  exchange. 

Cowry   shells   are  still  extensively  used  in 


East  India,  Siam,  and  among  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Among 
the  Fijians  whales'  teeth  pass  readily  from 
hand  to  hand,  effecting  all  necessary  inter- 
changes, the  red  teeth  being  taken  at  about 
twenty  times  the  value  of  the  white  ones. 

Ornaments  of  all  kinds  have  in  all  times 
constituted  measures  of  value.  In  Egypt, 
Phoenicia,  Etruria,  and  many  other  ancient 
countries,  as  well  as  in  Ireland  and  Northum- 
bria,  rings  have  been  found  which  were  de- 
signed to  serve  the  double  purpose  of  orna- 
ment and  currency,  and  the  same  dual  function 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  anklets,  armlets,  and 
earrings  which  are  worn  throughout  British 
India,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Abyssinia.  The 
Goths  and  Celts  fashioned  their  rings  of  thick 
golden  wire  wound  in  spirals,  from  which  va- 
rious lengths  could  be  broken  to  accommodate 
the  varying  needs  of  traffic.  Gold  chains  have 
been  similarly  employed.  In  many  countries 
golden  beads  are  yet  hoarded,  worn,  and  circu- 
lated, fulfilling  thus  the  triple  functions  of 
money,  inasmuch  as  they  constitute  at  once 
a  store  of  value,  a  standard  of  value,  and 
an  instrument  of  exchange.  Amber  was 
used  as  currency  by  the  savage  races  of 
the  Baltic  in  the  period  of  the  Roman  do- 
minion, as  it  still  is  in  some  of  the  regions 
of  the  East.  The  Egyptian  scarabee  carved 
on  sard  or  nephrite  or  other  precious  stones, 
circulated  freely  throughout  the  Mediterranean 
coasts  and  islands  probably  before  the  first 
Phoenician  coin  was  impressed  ;  and  engraved 
gems  and  precious  stones  were  employed  to 
transfer  wealth  as  well  from  one  country  to 
another  as  from  hand  to  hand  until  a  compar- 
atively recent  period.  In  Africa  ivory  tusks 
pass  to  and  fro  in  the  processes  of  trade,  rudely 
defining  the  ratio  of  value  of  other  articles. 
Among  the  Tartars,  bricks  of  tea,  or  cubes  of 
that  herb  pressed  into  a  solid  form,  pass  from 
hand  to  hand  as  freely  as  beaver  skins  do  at 
the  trading  posts  of  Hudson  Bay  or  the  Sas- 
katchewan. Among  the  Malayans  the  only 
currency  entirely  equal  to  the  requirements  of 
trade  consists  of  rough  hardware,  such  as  hoes, 
shovels,  and  the  like.  Pieces  of  cotton  cloth 
of  a  fixed  length,  called  Guinea  cloth,  for  a 
long  period  constituted  the  unit  of  value  in 
Senegal,  Abyssinia,  Mexico,  Peru,  Siberia,  and 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In 
Sumatra,  cubes  of  beeswax  of  a  fixed  weight ; 
in  Scotland  handmade  nails  ;  in  Switzerland, 
eggs;  in  Newfoundland,  dried  codfish};  da  Vir- 
ginia,   tobacco;    in  Yucatan,  cacao   nuts;  in 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


445 


the  Greek  Islands  and  the  Levant,  olive  oil ; 
in  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Nile,  salt,  have  all, 
at  one  time  or  another,  served  the  purposes  of 
commercial  interchange.  In  agricultural  coun- 
tries it  is  not  strange  that  corn  should  have 
early  been  adopted  as  a  measure  of  value.  The 
leases  of  the  great  school  foundations  of  Britain, 
Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  Eton,  with  probably 
many  others,  were  "corn  leases,"  that  is, 
specifying  that  the  rental  should  consist  of  so 
many  cpiarters  of  corn.  In  Norway,  corn  is 
deposited  in  banks  and  lent  and  borrowed  on 
time  or  call  loans,  as  money  is  with  us.  In 
Central  America  and  Mexico,  maize  was  long 
employed  to  serve  the  uses  of  currency. 

In  New  England,  in  the  early  colonial  days, 
leaden  bullets  were  employed  to  indicate  value, 
and  that  metal  is  still  coined  and  circulated  in 
Burmah.  Pewter  has  often  been  coined,  and 
in  many  countries,  though  not  to  the  same  ex- 
tent as  tin.  In  fact,  tin  coins  are  not  only  of 
immense  antiquity,  but  their  impress  has  been 
sanctioned  by  government  authority  down  to 
a  recent  period.  The  Phoenician  mariners 
freighted  their  galleys  with  the  tin  of  Britain 
before  Carthage  was  founded,  and  coins  of  the 
same  oiled  the  wheels  of  commerce  in  the  marts 
of  Tyre  and  Sidon  before  Solomon  built  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  In  England,  as  late  as 
the  period  of  William  and  Mary,  tin  half-pence 
and  farthings  were  struck,  though  they  failed 
to  become  a  permanent  part  of  the  circulation. 
In  numismatical  collections,  series  of  tin  coins 
stamped  with  the  effigy  and  legend  of  sev- 
eral of  the  Roman  emperors  are  abundant. 
In  Java  as  well  as  Mexico,  tin  coins  were  once 
current,  and  the  metal,  measured  by  weight,  is 
still  a  sort  of  legal  tender  in  the  Straits  of 
Malacca. 

METALLIC  COINS. 

In  all  civilized  countries,  gold,  silver,  and 
copper  have  always  constituted  the  main  ele- 
ments of  coinage  and  the  most  familiar  forms 
of  currency.  The  ratio  of  value  between  the 
first  two  has  probably  varied  less  during  the  last 
2,500  years  than  that  between  any  other  known 
substances.  Copper  has  fluctuated  more,  but 
its  function  has  always  been  subsidiary  and 
limited  to  small  transactions.  In  the  hierarchy 
of  the  metals  used  as  coins,  gold  may  repre- 
sent the  king,  silver  the  lord,  and  copper  the 
slave.  The  latter  is  now  practically  emanci- 
pated, bronze  and  nickel  taking  its  place.  In- 
dium, osmium,  and  palladium  have  been  pro- 
posed as  substitutes  for  gold,  and  aluminum  and 
manganese  for  silver,  but  without  any  practi- 
cal result  thus  far.  Platinum,  which  is  mainly 
found  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  has  been  coined 
to  some   extent   by  the  Russian   government ; 


but,  although  a  beautiful  and  valuable  metal, 
possessing  many  of  the  qualities-  to  render  it 
acceptable  as  coin,  its  employment  as  money 
has  been  found  to  be  impracticable. 

Great  numbers  of  alloys  have  been  employed 
in  coinage,  and  indeed  it  may  be  said  that  al- 
most the  entire  system  of  metallic  currency 
throughout  the  world  is  composed  of  alloys. 
The  Tuscan  sequin,  the  purest  coin  known  in 
history,  contained  999  parts  of  gold  in  1 ,000. 
The  six  ducat  piece  of  Naples  was  next  in  pu- 
rity, having  only  an  alloy  of  4,  while  old  By- 
zantine coins  called  bezants  contained  an  alloy 
of  14  parts  in  1000.  Pure  gold  and  silver, 
however,  are  soft  metals,  and  untempered  by 
others  are  subject  to  serious  loss  by  abrasion. 
They  are,  therefore,  rendered  more  useful  by 
the  admixture  of  a  small  portion  of  copper 
which,  in  the  English  system,  in  the  case  of 
gold,  may  be  expressed  decimally  by  916.60, 
and  of  silver  925  parts  iii  1,000.  Nickel  is 
usually  alloyed  with  three  parts  of  copper,  and 
it  is  noteworthy  that  its  adoption  as  a  subsid- 
iary coinage  in  Germany,  coincident  with  the 
demonetization  of  silver,  caused  it  to  advance 
rapidly  in  price,  while  the  latter  was  as  rapidly 
declining.  The  old  Roman  as  was  made  of  the 
mixed  metal  called  ces,  a  compound  of  copper 
and  tin,  and  in  quality  and  value  not  unlike 
bronze.  Brass  was  also  extensively  used  from 
the  time  of  Hiram  of  Tyre  to  that  of  the  Em- 
peror Otho.  The  old  Kings  of  Northumbria 
coined  a  small  money  called  stvcas  out  of  s 
natural  alloy,  composed  of  copper,  zinc,  gold, 
silver,  lead,  and  tin,  which  the  metallurgists 
of  that  rude  northern  coast  had  not  enough 
chemical  skill  to  separate. 

Lycurgus  established  an  iron  coinage  for 
Lacedaemon,  not  only  making  the  coins  of  such 
weight  and  bulk  as  to  forbid  their  export,  but 
depriving  them  of  their  metallic  value  by  caus- 
ing them  while  heated  to  be  plunged  into  vin- 
egar, thereby  destroying  their  malleability. 

While  these  coins  were  the  largest  of  which 
historic  mention  is  made,  the  Portuguese  rei, 
too  small  to  be  actually  coined,  is  doubtless  the 
smallest  unit  of  value  in  the  money  systems  of 
the  world.  It  is  only  about  the  nineteenth 
part  of  an  English  penny,  and  is  considerably 
smaller  than  the  Chinese  cash,  which,  of  actual 
coins,  is  perhaps  of  the  lowest  value  known. 
In  Sweden,  during  the  last  century,  huge 
squares  of  copper,  weighing  between  three  and 
four  pounds,  with  a  stamp  in  each  corner  and 
one  in  the  center,  were  issued  as  coin,  and  curi- 
ous specimens  of  them  may  still  be  seen  iu 
numismatical  collections.  These,  with  the 
Maundy  money,  a  small  portion  of  which  is 
still  annually  struck  at  the  British  Mint,  and 
distributed  by  Her  Majesty  in  alms,  probably 


446 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


represent  the  extremest  variation  of  dimen- 
sions known  among  modern  systems  of  coin- 
age, the  smallest  piece  of  the  Maundy  money 
being  a  silver  penny. 

The  Chinese  probably  illustrate  in  the  most 
extreme  manner  the  length  to  which  loose 
views  concerning  currency  can  be  carried.  The 
history  of  their  currency  presents  that  mingling 
of  the  grotesque  with  the  tragic  which  most  of 
their  actions  have  when  viewed  through  West- 
ern eyes.  Coined  money  was  known  among 
them  as  early  as  the  eleventh  century  before 
Christ,  but  their  inability  to  comprehend  the 
principles  upon  which  a  currency  should  be 
based  has  led  them  into  all  sorts  of  extrava- 
gances, which  have  been  attended  by  dis- 
order, famine,  and  bloodshed.  Coins  came  at 
last  to  be  made  so  thin  that  one  thousand  of 
them  piled  together  were  only  three  inches 
high  ;  then  gold  and  silver  were  abandoned,  and 
copper,  tin,  shells,  skins,  stones,  and  paper  were 
given  a  fixed  value  and  used  until,  by  abuse, 
all  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use 
of  money  were  lost,  and  there  was  nothing  left 
for  the  people  to  do  but  to  go  back  to  barter, 
and  this  they  did  more  than  once.  They  can- 
not be  said  now  to  have  a  coinage ;  2900 
years  ago  they  made  round  coins  with  a 
square  hole  in  the  middle,  and  they  have  since 
made  no  advance  beyond  that.  The  well- 
known  cash  is  a  cast  brass  coin  of  that  descrip- 
tion, and  although  it  is  valued  at  about  one 
mill  and  a  half  of  United  States  money,  and 
has  to  be  strung  in  lots  of  one  thousand  to 
be  computed  with  any  ease,  it  is  the  sole  meas- 
ure of  value  and  legal  tender  of  the  country. 
Spanish,  Mexican,  and  the  new  trade  dollars 
of  the  United  States  are  employed  in  China ; 
they  pass  because  they  are  necessary  for  larger 
operations,  and  because  faith  in  their  standard 
value  has  become  established ;  but  they  are 
current  simply  as  stamped  ingots,  with  their 
weight  and  fineness  indicated. 

The  coined  money  of  Great  Britain  is  the 
most  elegantly  executed,  and  among  the  purest 
in  the  world.  The  greater  part  of  the  conti- 
nental coinage  is  poorly  executed  and  basely 
alloyed.  In  Holland,  and  most  of  the  German 
states,  the  coins  legally  current  as  silver  money 
are  apparently  one  third  brass,  and  resemble 
the  counterfeit  shillings  and  sixpences  of  a 
former  period  in  England.  In  France  and 
Belgium,  the  new  gold  and  silver  coins  are 
handsome,  and  so  likewise  are  the  large  gold 
and  silver  pieces  of  Prussia.  The  coins  and 
medals  executed  by  direction  of  Napoleon  in 
France  are  in  a  high  style  of  art. 

The  Latin  Monetary  Union  was  established 
in  December,  1865,  for  the  purpose  of  main- 
taining the  double  standard  of  metallic  cur- 


rency, or  keeping  silver  at  a  constant  ratio 
with  gold.  The  combination  was  formed  by 
a  union  of  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and  Swit- 
zerland. 

The  possible  depreciation  of  silver  was  fore- 
seen, and  some  of  its  fluctuations  had  been 
experienced,  but  it  was  thought  that,  by  a 
close  union  of  silver-using  powers  rating  silver 
at  a  common  value,  its  price  could  be  made 
permanent.  At  first  the  combination  proceeded 
boldly.  It  threw  open  the  mints  of  the  Union 
to  bullion  owners,  declaring' that  it  would  coin 
silver  at  the  ratio  to  gold  that  it  had  estab- 
lished of  fifteen  and  one  half  to  one,  and  pro- 
claimed that  the  coins  thus  issued  should  have 
in  the  markets  both  a  legal  tender  efficiency 
and  an  intrinsic  efficiency  in  exchange  exactly 
represented  by  that  proportion. 

The  plan  worked  well  until  the  year  1873, 
when  Germany  demonetized  silver.  But  in  the 
meantime  it  was  sought  to  give  the  double 
standard  a  broader  foundation  by  bringing 
other  nations  into  the  combination.  For 
this  purpose,  at  the  invitation  of  the  French 
government,  forty-five  representatives  of  twen- 
ty-three countries  met  at  Paris,  in  1867. 
The  proposed  double  standard  was  examined 
and  discussed  from  every  point  of  view  by 
men  skilled  in  financial  science,  and  was  at 
last  rejected  by  a  vote  of  forty-three  to 
two.  In  1870,  there  was  a  second  gathering 
of  the  same  kind,  which,  by  a  smaller  majority, 
arrived  at  the  same  conclusion.  Meantime 
silver  had  begun  to  accumulate,  and  deprecia- 
tion to  foreshadow  itself  more  clearly.  The 
demonetization  of  the  metal  by  Germany  gave 
the  first  sharp  alarm.  The  Union  was  imme- 
diately forced  to  limit  the  coinage  for  1874  to 
124,000.000.  This  was  increased  to  $30,000,- 
000  in  1875,  but  again  reduced  in  1876  to 
$24,000,000,  and  in  1877,  to  $11,600,000.  In 
the  meantime,  also,  France,  Belgium,  and 
Switzerland  stopped  the  coinage  of  five-franc 
pieces,  thus  reducing  what  silver  they  had  to  a 
large  subsidiary  currency.  Later  signs  of  the 
dissolution  of  the  Union  with  the  defeat  of  its 
objects  were  supplied  by  the  failure  of  the 
monetary  conference  at  Paris,  and  by  the  with- 
drawal of  Switzerland  from  the  Union. 

GREAT  BRITAIN,  COINED  MONEY 
OF. 

In  Great  Britain,  money  of  the  current  and 
standard  coinage  is  frequently  signified  by  the 
term  sterling,  as  "one  pound  sterling,"  etc. 
With  respect  to  the  origin  of  the  word  ster- 
ling there  are  three  opinions.  The  first  is  that  it 
is  derived  from  Stirling  Castle,  and  that  Ed- 
ward I.,  having  penetrated  so  far  into  Scotland, 
caused  a  coin   to   be   struck  there,  which  he 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


447 


called  Stirling.      The  second  opinion    derives  I  AMERICAN  COINAGE,  EARLY. 

it  from  the  figure  of  a  bird  called  starling,  I  The  earliest  coinage  that  can  be  called  Amer- 
which  appears  about  the  cross  in  the  ancient  ican,  in  the  sense  of  Anglo-American,  was 
arms  of  England.  The  third  most  probably  ordered  by  the  original  Virginia  Company  only 
assigns  its  true  origin,  by  deducing  it  from  five  years  after  the  founding  of  Jamestown. 
Esterling ;  for  in  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  it  is  The  coin  was  minted  at  Somers  Island,  now 
called  Moneta  Esterlingorum,  the  money  of  known  as  the  Bermudas.  For  a  long  while 
the  Esterlings  or  people  of  the  East,  who  came  the  standard  currency  of  Virginia  was  tobacco, 
hither  to  refine  the  silver  of  which  it  was  made,  :  as  in  many  of  the  early  settlements  of  the 
and  hence  it  was  valued  more  than  any  other  ;  Northwest  it  was  beaver  skins,  and  other  pelts 
coin,  on  account  of  the  purity  of  its  substance.  I  reckoned  as  worth  such  a  fraction  of  a  beaver 
The  denomination  of  the  weights  and  their  \  skin  or  so  many  beaver  skins.  Iu  1645  the 
parts  is  of  the  Saxon  or  Esterling  tongue,  as  Assembly  of  the  Virginia  Colony,  after  a  pre- 
pound,  shilling,  penny,  and  farthing,  which  amble  reciting  that  "  It  had  maturely  weighed 
are  so  called  in  their  language  to  the  present  i  and  considered  how  advantageous  a  quoine 
day.  The  term  sterling  is  now  disused  in  Eng-  ;  would  be  to  this  colony,  and  the  great  wants 
land  in  all  ordinary  transactions,  but  is  still  !  and  miseries  which  do  daily  happen  unto  it  by 
used  in  Scotland  to  distinguish  sums  from  the  the  sole  dependency  upon  tobacco,"  provided 
ancient  money  of  the  country,  as  referred  to  for  the  issue  of  copper  coins  of  the  denomina- 
in  old  deeds  and  notices  of  pecuniary  transac-  tion  of  twopence,  threepence,  sixpence,  and 
tions.  The  old  Scots'  money,  previous  to  the  ninepence ;  but  this  law  wras  never  carried 
Union  of  1707,  was  in  pounds,  shillings,  and  into  effect,  so  that  the  first  colonial  coinage  of 
pence,  but  these  were  only  a  twelfth  of  the  America  was  that  struck  off  by  Massachusetts 
value  of  sterling  money  of  the  same  denomina-  '  under  the  order  of  the  General  Court  of  that 
tion;  thus  a  pound  Scots  was  only  twenty  colony,  passed  May  27, 1652,  creating  a  "  mint 
pence  sterling.  The  word  sterling  is  also  in  house  "  at  Boston,  and  providing  for  the  mint- 
use  in  the  colonies,  to  distinguish  the  legal  age  of  "  twelvepence,  sixpence,  and  threepence 
standard  of  Great  Britain  from  the  currency  |  pieces,  which  shall  be  for  forme  flatt,  and 
money  in  these  places.  stamped  on  the  one  side  with  N.  E.,  and  on 

It  is  customary  to  estimate  the  purity  of  the  other  side  with  xiid.,  vid.,  and  iiid.,  ac- 
gold  by  an  imaginary  standard  of  24  carats,  cording  to  the  value  of  each  pence."  In  1662 
If  in  a  piece  of  gold  weighing  24  carats  there  from  this  same  mint  appeared  the  famous 
be  l-24th  of  alloy,  then  the  piece  is  one  be-  !  "pine  tree  shillings,"  which  were  twopenny 
low  the  standard.  What  is  called  jewelers'  pieces,  having  a  pine  tree  on  one  side.  This 
gold  is  seldom  purer  than  20  fine  to  4  of  alloy  mint  was  maintained  for  thirty-four  years.  In 
—  the  alloy  being  usually  silver,  but  some-  i  the  reign  of  William  and  Mary  copper  coins 
times  copper,  which  gives  a  deeper  red  tinge  were  struck  in  England  for  New  England  and 
to  the  metal.  Perfectly  pure  gold  is  never  Carolina.  Lord  Baltimore  had  silver  shillings, 
seen  either  in  trinkets  or  coins,  for  it  is  too  sixpences,  and  fourpences  made  in  England  to 
ductile,  and  for  that  and  other  reasons  requires  supply  the  demand  of  his  province  in  Mary- 
a  certain  quantity  of  alloy.  Sovereigns,  and  land.  Vermont  and  Connecticut  established 
other  modern  English  gold  coins,  contain  one  mints  in  1785  for  the  issue  of  copper  coin. 
twelfth  of  alloy,  but  this  twelfth  is  not  reck-  New  Jersey  followed  a  year  later.  But  Con- 
oned  as  gold  in  point  of  value.  At  present  gress  had  the  establishment  of  a  mint  for  the 
the  gold  coin  of  Great  Britain  is  issued  at  very  confederated  States  under  advisement,  and  in 
nearly  its  precise  market  value  as  bullion.  A  '  this  same  year  agreed  upon  apian  submitted  by 
pound  weight  of  gold  of  22  carats  fineness  '  Thomas  Jefferson,  and  the  act  went  into  opera- 
prodnces  coins  to  the  amount  of  46  pounds,  14  tion  on  a  small  scale  in  1787.  After  the  adop- 
shillings,  and  6  pence,  which  is  about  the  price  tion  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  in 
at  which  bullion  sells  for  in  the  market.  Thus  1789  all  the  state  mints  were  closed,  as  the 
the  gold  of  that  country  is  coined  free  of  ex-  Constitution  specifically  places  the  sole  power 
pense.  In  coining  silver,  the  government  is  of  coining  money  in  the  Federal  Government, 
allowed  by  the  Act  of  56,  George  III.,  a  profit        The  gold  pieces  are  :  — 

or  seigniorage  of  about  6  per  cent.  ;  the  pound  |  1.  The  double  eagle,  or  $20  piece.  Coin- 
weight  of  silver,  which  should  produce  62  age  of  the  double  eagle  was  authorized  by  the 
shillings,  being  coined  into  66  shillings.  The  I  Act  of  March  3,  1849.  Its  weight  is  516 
silver  coins  being  therefore  of  a  little  less  real  grains.  Its  fineness  is  900.  (This  technical 
value  than  the  sums  they  represent,  they  are  form  of  expression  means  that  900  parts  in 
not  liable  to  be  melted  down  by  silversmiths  ,  1,000  are  pure  metal,  the  other  100  parts  are 
for  the  manufacture  of  articles  in  their  trade,      j  alloy.)     The  amount  of  coinage  of  the  double 


446 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


eagle  is  far  greater  than  that  of  all  the  other 
gold  pieces  of  the  country. 

2.  The  eagle,  or  $10  piece.  Its  coinage 
was  authorized  by  the  Act  of  April  2,  1792. 
The  weight  was  first  established  by  law  at 
270  grains,  but  was  changed  forty-two  years 
afterward,  by  the  Act  of  June  28,  1834,  to  258 
grains,  where  it  has  remained  ever  since.  Its 
fineness  was  in  the  beginning  made  916|, 
but  was  changed  by  the  Act  of  June  28, 
1834,  the  same  act  that  lowered  its  weight,  to 
899.225.  Two  years  and  a  half  subsequently 
its  fineness  was  increased  —  less  than  one  part 
in  a  thousand —  to  900.  Its  weight  and  fine- 
ness have  remained  thus  fixed  to  the  present 
day. 

3.  The  half  eagle,  or  $5  piece.  This  ele- 
gant coin  has  undergone  the  same  vicissitudes 
as  the  eagle.  Its  coinage  was  authorized  by 
the  same  Act  of  April  2,  1792.  Its  weight 
was  135  grains,  and  its  fineness  916£.  By  the 
Act  of  June  28,  1834,  its  weight  was  reduced 
to  129  grains,  and  its  fineness  to  899.225.  By 
the  Act  of  January  16,  1857,  its  fineness  was 
slightly  raised  to  the  uniform  standard  of  900. 
Its  weight  and  fineness  have  thus  remained  to 
our  time. 

4.  The  quarter  eagle,  or  $2.50  piece.  This 
fine  coin  belongs  to  the  same  family  with  the 
eagle  and  half  eagle.  Its  coinage  was  author- 
ized, its  weight  and  fineness  correspondingly 
altered,  by  the  same  acts.  The  statute  of  1792 
made  its  weight  67.5  grains  and  its  fineness 
91 6 J.  Its  weight  was  reduced  to  64.5  grains 
and  its  fineness  to  800.225  by  the  Act  of  1834. 
The  Act  of  1837  raised  its  fineness  to  900. 

5.  The  dollar.  This  pretty  little  gold  piece 
was  created  by  the  Act  of  March  3,  1849,  the 
same  act  that  authorized  the  coinage  of  the 
double  eagle.  It  has  remained  unchanged. 
Its  weight  is  25.8  grains  and  its  fineness  900. 

6.  Three-dollar  piece.  An  Act  of  February 
21,  1853,  established  this  irregular  coin.  Its 
weight,  77.4  grains,  and  its  fineness  900,  are 
of  the  normal  standard,  and  have  not  been 
changed  by  subsequent  acts. 

In  gold  coin  the  alloy  was  at  first  a  com- 
pound of  silver  and  copper.  It  was  forbidden 
by  statute  that  the  alloy  should  be  more  than 
half  silver.  It  is  now  nearly  all  copper,  owing 
to  advances  in  the  art  of  assaying  and  im- 
proved methods  in  coinage. 

There  are  four  coining  mints,  located  at 
Philadelphia,  Pa.  ;  San  Francisco,  Cal.  ;  Car- 
son City,  Nev.  ;  and  New  Orleans,  La.,  the 
last  one  being  put  in  operation  on  January  20, 
1879.  The  largest  proportion  of  assaying  and 
refining  is  done  at  New  York  city ;  Helena, 
Montana :  Boise  City,  Idaho ;  and  Denver, 
Colorado. 


The  Philadelphia  Mint  is  capable  of  turning 
out  about  $1,500, 000  in  coined  money  a  month  ; 
the  San  Francisco  Mint,  81,000,000  ;  the  Car- 
son City  Mint,  $500,000  ;  and  the  New  Or- 
leans Mint  about  500,000  pieces  of  various 
denominations.  Under  the  law  of  February  28, 
1878,  which  required  that  between  2,000,000 
and  4,000,000  of  the  new  ("  Bland")  dollars 
should  be  turned  out  by  the  mints  every 
month,  the  coining  facilities  of  the  govern- 
ment were  severely  tested  to  produce  this  par- 
ticular silver  coin,  and  maintain  the  usual 
supply  of  gold  and  subsidiary  coins.  Silver  is 
sent  from  the  assay  offices  to  the  mints  pure, 
or  999  fine,  which  is  about  as  pure  as  silver 
can  be.  It  is  sent  in  large  bars,  and,  when 
received  at  the  mint,  is  melted  and  alloyed 
with  copper.     Coin  silver  is  900  fine. 

The  first  silver  coins  were  struck  in  1794 
(authorized  in  1792),  at  the  Philadelphia  Mint, 
and  consisted  of  1,758  dollars,  and  10,600  half 
dollars,  and  a  few  half  dimes  (5  cents),  more 
for  curiosities  than  use.  In  the  succeeding 
year  the  issue  was  203,033  dollars,  323,038 
half  dollars,  no  quarters,  no  dimes,  and  86,416 
half  dimes.  In  1796  the  mint  coined  only 
72,920  dollars,  and  3,918  half  dollars,  with 
2,948  quarters.  In  1797  the  number  of  dol- 
lars issued  was  2,776,  and  the  mint  records 
state  that  there  were  no  half  dollars  and  only 
252  quarters.  Dollars  only  were  coined  in 
1798.  In  1796  the  head  of  Liberty  was 
changed,  and  a  new  head,  inferior  in  point  of 
comeliness,  substituted.  This  also  had  flow- 
ing locks,  but  these  were  bound  by  a  broad 
fillet,  and  hence  the  name  "  fillet  dollars." 
In  1798  there  were  no  halves  nor  quarters, 
and  there  were  none  in  1799,  nor  again  in 
1800.  But  in  the  following  year  the  half 
dollars  were  commenced  again,  being  of  the 
fillet  series,  with  the  heraldic  eagle  on  the 
reverse. 

1804  is  the  annus  mirabilit  of  the  American 
silver  coins.  According  to  the  records,  19,570 
dollars  were  issued,  156,519  halves,  and  6,738 
quarters.  There  are  but  two  dollars  of  1804 
known  to  exist,  and  these  are  said  to  have  been 
struck  surreptitiously  from  the  original  die  at 
the  Philadelphia  mint  in  1827.  The  value  of 
these  two  to  numismaticians  is  enormous ;  as 
high  as  $1,000  has  been  refused  for  one  of 
them. 

The  first  dollar  pieces  (1792)  contained  416 
grains  of  silver  of  892.7  fineness,  and  this  pro- 
portion was  maintained  until  1873,  when  the 
quantity  of  silver  was  reduced  to  412.5  grains, 
and  the  fineness  increased  to  900.  The  fifty- 
cent  pieces,  from  1792  to  1837,  contained  208 
grains,  892.7  fineness,  and  the  twenty-five  cent 
pieces  a  proportionate  amount ;  and  both  were 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


44G 


subjected  to  a  reduction  in  number  of  grains 
and  increase  in  fineness  in  1873.  The  ten- 
cent  pieces  contained  41.6  grains,  of  standard 
fineness,  and  now  bear  38.58  grains  under  the 
new  standard  of  fineness.  From  1851  to  1853, 
the  five-cent  pieces  were  composed  of  12.375 
grains,  750  fine,  and  from  1853  to  1873,  when 
their  coinage  was  abolished,  11.52  grains,  900 
fine.  The  old  copper  cents,  authorized  in 
1792,  contained  261  grains  ;  the  next  year  the 
amount  was  reduced  to  208,  and  three  years 
later  to  168.  As  a  purely  copper  token  this 
coin  was  abolished  shortly  after  the  last  reduc- 
tion in  the  number  of  grains.  The  two-cent 
piece  of  April,  1864,  contained  96  grains  of 
copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  and  was  discontinued  in 
1873.  The  half-cent  pieces  were  established 
in  1792,  containing  132  grains ;  this  amount 
was  reduced  in  1793  to  104,  and  in  1796  to  84. 
None  are  coined  now.  An  act  of  March,  1875, 
authorized  the  coinage  of  a  silver  twenty-cent 
piece,  containing  77.16  grains,  900  fine.  This 
coin  being  but  a  trifle  smaller  than  the  twenty- 
five  cent  piece,  led  to  such  a  general  confusion 
of  the  two,  that  in  1878  its  coinage  was 
stopped.  But  few  are  now  found  in  circula- 
tion. The  one-cent  piece  of  present  use  was 
authorized  in  1857,  and  consisted  of  72  grains 
of  copper  and  nickel,  and  in  1864  this  compo- 
sition was  changed  to  48  grains  of  copper, 
zinc,  and  tin.  Finally,  the  five  and  three  cent 
nickel  pieces  were  authorized  in  1866  and  1865 
respectively;  the  latter  has  a  comparatively 
small  circulation. 

The  amount  of  standard  silver  dollars  coined 
from  February  28,  1878,  to  October  31,  1882, 
was  *128,329,880,  of  which  $93, 006,382  re- 
mained in  the  Treasury,  and  §35,323,498  was 
placed  in  circulation.  Of  the  $30,007,175 
coined  in  the  thirteen  months  preceding  Octo- 
ber 31,  1882,  $2,950,072  went  into  circulation, 
and  $27,057,103  remained  in  the  Treasury. 

The  total  value  of  the  minor  coin  in  the 
Treasury  on  September  1,  1882,  was  $504,- 
515.29.  The  supply  of  five-cent  nickel  coins 
in  the  Treasury,  which  three  years  previous 
reached  the  sum  of  81,184,252.95,  had  been 
exhausted,  and  their  coinage  was  resumed  by 
the  mint.  None  of  these  coins  are  supplied 
by  the  Treasury,  but  the  one-cent  and  five-cent 
pieces  are  furnished  in  multiples  of  $20  by  the 
mint,  which  bears  the  expense  of  their  trans- 
portation . 

BANKS. 

The  term  bank,  in  reference  to  commerce, 
signifies  a  place  of  deposit  of  money,  and  is 
derived  from  the  Italian  banco,  a  seat  or  bench, 
because  the  early  custodians  and  dealers  in 
money   in    Italy   were  accustomed   to   sit   on 


benches  in  the  market  places  of  the  principal 
towns.  During  the  middle  ages,  in  which 
commerce  was  but  little  developed,  there  could 
be  no  field  open  for  banking  as  a  business ; 
but  on  the  revival  of  business  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  when  the  cities  of  Italy  engrossed 
nearly  all  the  trade  of  Europe,  the  necessity 
arose  again  for  the  employment  of  bankers. 
The  successful  manufacturing  efforts  of  the 
Florentines  brought  them  into  commercial 
dealings  with  different  countries  in  Europe, 
and  thence  arose  the  establishment  of  banks  as 
private  concerns.  The  earliest  public  bank 
established  in  modern  Europe  was  that  of 
Venice,  which  was  founded  in  1157.  About 
the  year  1350,  the  cloth  merchants  of  Barce- 
lona, then  a  wealthy  body,  added  the  business 
of  banking  to  their  other  commercial  pursuits  ; 
being  authorized  so  to  do  by  an  ordinance  of 
the  King  of  Aragon,  which  contained  the  im- 
portant stipulation  that  they  should  be  re- 
stricted from  acting  as  bankers  until  they 
should  have  given  sufficient  security  for  the 
liquidation  of  their  engagements.  In  1401  a 
bank  was  opened  by  the  functionaries  of  the 
city,  which  was  both  a  bank  of  deposit  and  of 
circulation,  the  first  of  the  kind  ever  estab- 
lished in  Europe. 

The  Bank  of  Genoa  was  planned  and  par- 
tially organized  in  1345,  but  was  not  brought 
into  operation  until  1407,  when  the  numerous 
loans  which  the  Republic  had  contracted  with 
its  citizens  were  consolidated,  and  formed  the 
nominal  capital  stock  of  the  bank.  As  secu- 
rity for  its  capital  in  the  hands  of  the  Republic, 
this  bank,  which  was  given  the  name  of  the 
Chamber  of  St.  George,  received  in  pledge  the 
Island  of  Corsica,  and  several  other  depend- 
encies of  Genoa.  Since  1800,  when  the  French, 
besieged  in  Genoa,  appropriated  its  treasure  to 
the  payment  of  their  troops,  the  bank  has  had 
little  other  than  a  nominal  existence. 

The  banks  of  note  next  established,  of  which 
records  remain,  were  opened  in  Holland  and 
in  Hamburg.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
was  the  Bank  of  Amsterdam,  established  in 
1609,  simply  as  a  bank  of  deposit,  under  the 
guaranty  of  the  city.  The  credit  given  in 
the  bank  for  foreign  coin  and  the  worn  coin  of 
the  country  was  called  bank  money,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  current  money  of  the  place  ; 
and  as  the  regulations  directed  that  all  bills 
drawn  upon  or  negotiated  at  Amsterdam,  of 
the  value  of  600  guilders  and  upwards,  must 
be  paid  in  bank-money,  every  merchant  was 
obliged  to  keep  an  account  with  the  bank,  in 
order  to  make  his  ordinary  payments.  The 
Bank  of  Hamburg  was  established  in  1619,  on 
the  model  of  that  of  Amsterdam  originally. 
Deposits  are  received  only  in  bullion,   and  a 


450 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


charge  is  made  for  their  safe  keeping.  It  ad- 
vances money  on  jewels  up  to  three  fourths  of 
their  value.  The  city  is  responsible  for  all 
deposits,  which  may  be  sold  at  auction  if  they 
remain  eighteen  months  without  payment  of 
charges.  If  the  value  is  not  claimed  within 
three  years,  the  property  in  the  deposits  is  lost, 
and  passes  to  the  poor  fund  of  the  city. 

Next  in  point  of  date  among  these  establish- 
ments is  the  Bank  of  England,  which  was 
opened  in  1694.  It  was  originally  chartered 
for  ten  years,  and  the  charter  has  since  been 
prolonged,  by  various  renewals,  till  August  1, 
1879,  and,  from  that  date,  subject  to  a  year's 
notice.  The  Bank  of  England  is,  and  always 
has  been,  the  government  bank,  transacting 
for  it  all  the  banking  business  of  the  nation, 
receiving  the  produce  of  the  taxes,  loans,  etc., 
and  paying  the  interest  of  the  public  debt,  the 
drafts  of  the  Treasury,  and  other  public  de- 
partments, transferring  stock,  etc.  For  this 
service  the  bank  receives,  exclusive  of  the -use 
of  the  balances  of  the  public  money  in  its 
hands,  about  £95,000  a  year. 

Down  to  1797  the  bank  always  had  paid  its 
notes  on  demand.  But  in  1796  and  the  early 
part  of  1797,  owing  to  rumors  of  a  French  in- 
vasion, there  was  a  run  made  on  the  bank, 
and  it  was  feared  that  a  suspension  was  inevi- 
table. In  February,  1797,  Mr.  Pitt,  appre- 
hensive that  he  might  not  be  able  to  obtain 
sufficient  specie  for  foreign  payments,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  low  state  of  the  bank  reserve, 
procured  the  issue  of  an  order  in  council,  re- 
quiring the  bank  to  suspend  specie  payments. 
The  suspension  lasted  till  1819,  and  is  known 
to  writers  on  finance  as  "the  period  of  the 
bank  restriction."  The  bank's  notes,  how- 
ever, continued  to  circulate,  and  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  reported  soon  after 
the  suspension  that  the  bank  was  not  merely 
possessed  of  the  most  ample  funds  to  meet  all 
its  engagements,  but  that  it  had  a  surplus 
stock,  after  the  deduction  of  all  demands,  of 
no  less  than  £15,513,000. 

The  Bank  of  England  is  the  custodian  of  the 
reserves  of  the  several  London  banks  and  pri- 
vate bankers.  These  deposited  reserves  are, 
for  the  most  part,  loaned  out  by  the  bank. 
Then,  again,  the  reserves  of  the  country  banks, 
and  of  the  Scotch  and  Irish  bankers  as  well, 
are  deposited  with  the  great  English  banks, 
which,  in  their  turn,  keep  their  reserves  at  the 
Bank  of  England.  Therefore  the  reserve  in 
the  banking  department  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land is  the  banking  reserve  not  only  of  the 
Bank  of  England  but  of  all  London,  and  not 
only  of  all  London,  but  of  all  England,  Ire- 
land, and  Scotland.  The  credit  system  of  Great 
Britain  depends  upon  the  security  of  the  Bank 
of  England. 


The  Bank  of  Vienna,  established  in  1703 
as  a  bank  of  deposit  and  circulation,  became  a 
bank  of  issue  in  1793.  This  institution  now 
does  comparatively  little  commercial  business; 
being  recognized  as  a  means  of  the  govern- 
ment for  managing  the  public  debt  and  fi- 
nances. 

The  Banks  of  Berlin  and  Breslau  were 
founded  in  1765  under  the  direct  authority  of 
the  government.  They  are  banks  of  deposit 
and  issue,  and  also  discount  bills  of  exchange. 
In  some  important  particulars  the  banking 
system  of  Germany  resembles  that  of  the 
United  States,  the  Imperial  Bank  and  its 
branches  in  nearly  every  town  corresponding 
to  the  American  chain  of  National  Banks. 
The  Imperial  Bank  enjoys  an  enormous  monop- 
oly of  immunities  and  powers. 

Russian  Banks.  During  the  reign  of  the 
Empress  Catharine,  three  different  banks  were 
established  in  St.  Petersburg :  the  Loan  Bank, 
the  Assignation  Bank,  and  the  Loan  Bank 
for  the  nobility  and  towns.  The  first,  opened 
in  1772,  made  advances  upon  deposits  of  bul- 
lion and  jewels,  and  allowed  interest  upon  all 
sums  remaining  for  one  year  and  over.  At 
present  the  operations  of  this  bank  are  carried 
on  for  the  benefit  of  the  Foundling  Hospital  in 
St.  Petersburg.  The  Assignation  Bank  was 
opened  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1768,  and  in  Mos- 
cow in  1770.  It  issues  paper  money,  and  is 
really  an  imperial  institution.  The  Loan  Bank, 
for  the  nobility  and  towns,  advances  money  on 
real  security,  discounts  commercial  paper,  and 
carries  on  an  insurance  business.  In  1797  the 
Aid  Bank  wTas  established  for  the  purpose  of 
advancing  money  to  relieve  estates  from  mort- 
gages, and  to  provide  for  their  improvement. 
There  is  also  the  Commercial  Bank  of  Russia, 
whose  capital  is  declared  to  be  sacred  by  the 
government,  and  free  from  all  taxes,  attach- 
ments, and  calls  from  the  State.  It  has 
numerous  branches  throughout  the  empire,  re- 
ceives deposits  of  coin  and  bullion,  discounts 
paper,  and  makes  advances  upon  merchandise 
of  domestic  production. 

The  Bank  of  Stockholm  was  founded  in 
1688,  when  its  direction  was  assumed  by  the 
Assembly  of  the  States  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Sweden,  and  it  became  a  bank  of  deposit,  dis- 
count, and  circulation.  Since  1766,  when  the 
affairs  of  the  bank  fell  to  a  very  low  state,  and 
the  Assembly  assisted  it  with  a  large  loan,  a 
committee,  composed  of  members  of  each  of 
the  three  States,  nobles,  clergy,  and  burghers, 
is  appointed  triennially  to  inspect  its  condition, 
securities,  and  prospects. 

The  Bank  of  France,  originally  formed 
in  1800,  was  placed  on  a  solid  basis  in  1806, 
when   its  capital    was   raised  to    90,000,000 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


451 


francs.  The  bank  is  now  the  only  authorized 
source  of  paper  money  in  France.  Its  charter 
and  exclusive  privileges  have  been  conferred, 
varied,  or  continued  by  different  governments 
and  under  various  laws;  the  year  1897  was 
the  time  fixed  at  which  the  terms  made 
with  the  bank  by  the  public  might  be  ended. 
The  bank  has  branches  scattered  throughout 
all  the  departments.  Besides  discounting, 
the  Bank  of  France  advances-upon  deposits  of 
stock  and  pledges  of  a  miscellaneous  kind.  It 
also  undertakes  the  safe  custody  of  valuables. 
A  council  of  twenty-one  members  conducts  the 
direction  of  affairs,  viz.  :  a  governor  and  two 
sub-governors,  who  are  to  be  nominees  of  the 
head  of  the  government ;  fifteen  directors  and 
three  censors,  nominated  by  the  shareholders. 

UNITED  STATES  BANKS. 

The  first  United  States  bank  was  established 
by  Act  of  Congress,  approved  July  25,  1791. 
It  was  organized  at  Philadelphia,  with  a  capi- 
tal of  $10,000,000,  divided  into  25,000  shares 
of  $400  each.  The  act  prescribed  that  any 
person,  copartnership,  or  body  politic  might 
subscribe  for  any  number  of  shares  not  exceed- 
ing 1,000 — only  the  United  States  could  sub- 
scribe for  more  than  this  number  of  shares ; 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  United  States 
the  subscriptions  should  be  payable  one  fourth 
in  gold  and  silver,  and  the  remaining  three 
fourths  in  certain  six  per  cent,  bonds  of  the 
United  States  ;  that  the  subscribers  should  be 
incorporated  under  the  name  of  "  The  Presi- 
dent, Directors,  and  Company  of  the  Bank  of 
the  United  States, "  and  the  organization  should 
continue  until  March  4,  1811  ;  that  the  bank 
could  hold  property  of  all  kinds,  inclusive  of 
its  capital,  to  the  amount  of  $15,000,000 ; 
that  twenty-five  directors  should  be  chosen, 
who  in  turn  should  choose  from  their  number 
a  President ;  that  as  soon  as  $400,000  in  gold 
and  silver  was  received  on  subscription,  the 
bank  could  organize,  after  giving  a  notice  of 
its  intention.  The  general  effect  of  this  insti- 
tution was  Aery  salutary.  The  credit  of  the 
United  States  became  firmly  established.  The 
bank  notes  stood  at  par  with  gold  and  silver. 
The  large  deposits  made  the  money  available 
for  the  use  of  the  Treasury,  and  the  State  bank 
currency,  which  had  flooded  the  country  with 
no  prospects  of  redemption,  was  greatly  re- 
duced. But  with  all  its  recognized  advantages, 
the  act  to  recharter  was  defeated  in  1811  by 
the  casting  vote  of  the  Vice-President,  George 
Clinton.  Its  loss,  however,  was  immediately 
felt  in  the  sudden  and  rapid  increase  of  the 
currency  of  the  State  banks.  To  ward  off  an 
impending  crisis,  a  second  bank  was  estab- 
lished by  an  act  approved  by  President  Madi- 


son, April  10,  .1816,  at  Philadelphia.  A 
capital  of  $35,000,000  was  required,  which 
was  to  be  equally  divided  into  350,000  shares, 
of  which  the  United  States  took  70,000.  The 
charter  extended  to  March  3, 1836.  The  bank 
was  prohibited  from  lending,  on  account  of  the 
United  States,  more  than  $500,000,  or  to  any 
prince  or  foreign  power  any  sum  whatever, 
without  the  sanction  of  law  first  obtained  ;  and 
it  was  also  prohibited  from  issuing  bills  of  less 
denomination  than  $5.  In  time,  to  facilitate 
business,  branch  offices  were  established  in 
every  state.  In  December,  1829,  however,  the 
bank  met  strenuous  opposition  in  the  message 
of  President  Jackson,  who  argued,  as  did  Jeffer- 
son when  the  first  bank  was  started,  against 
the  constitutionality  of  its  charter  ;  and  when 
Congress,  in  1832,  passed  a  bill  to  recharter  the 
institution  he  imposed  his  veto,  and  soon  after 
removed  from  the  bank  the  United  States  depos- 
its. The  bank  corporation,  however,  continued 
to  exist  until  1836,  when  the  charter  terminated. 

The  National  Banking  System  was 
created  by  Congress  in  the  belief  that  it  was 
the  best  permanent  method  of  securing  paper 
money  absolutely  safe  from  loss  to  the  holder 
and  readily  convertible  into  coin.  Under  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  any  number  of  per- 
sons not  less  than  five  may  form  an  association 
and  obtain  a  charter  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing on  the  business  of  a  national  bank.  The 
capital  stock  of  a  national  banking  association 
is  divided  into  shares  of  $100  each,  and  in  cit- 
ies of  50,000  population,  or  over,  no  associa- 
tion can  be  organized  with  a  less  capital  than 
$200,000  ;  in  cities  of  less  than  50,000,  $100,- 
000  capital  is  required,  but,  with  the  approval 
of  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  national 
banks  may  be  organized  in  places  of  less  thaD 
6,000  inhabitants  with  e  capital  of  $50,000. 

National  banks  are  authorized  to  discount 
and  negotiate  notes,  drafts,  etc.  ;  to  receive 
deposits;  to  buy  and  sell  exchange,  coin,  and 
bullion ;  to  loan  money  on  personal  security, 
and  to  issue  circulating  notes.  They  are  pro- 
hibited from  making  loans  on  real  estate,  or 
on  security  of  their  own  shares  of  capital,  ex- 
cept to  secure  debts  previously  contracted,  and 
real  estate  purchased  or  mortgaged  to  secure 
a  pre-existing  debt  cannot  be  held  for  a  longer 
period  than  five  years 

Every  national  bank,  before  it  is  authorized 
to  commance  business,  must  transfer  to  the 
Treasurer  of  the  United  States  registered  bonds, 
bearing  interest,  to  an  amount  not  less  than 
one  fourth  of  the  capital  stock  paid  in,  as 
security  for  its  circulating  notes.  Banks  hav- 
ing a  capital  of  more  than  $150,000  shall  be 
required  to  deposit  bonds  to  the  amount  of 
one  third  of  their  capital  stock. 


452 


THE  CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Upon  a  deposit  of  registered  bonds,  the  as- 
sociation making  the  same  will  receive  from 
the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency  circulating 
notes  of  different  denominations,  in  blank, 
equal  in  amount  to  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  cur- 
rent market  value,  not  exceeding  par,  of  the 
bonds  so  deposited. 

The  national  banks  pay  to  the  United  States 
a  tax  of  one  per  cent,  annually  upon  the  average 
amount  of  their  notes  in  circulation,  one  half 
per  cent,  annually  upon  the  average  amount  of 
their  deposits,  and  one  half  per  cent,  annually 
upon  the  average  amount  of  capital  not  in- 
vested in  United  States  bonds.  Banks  other 
than  national  pay  taxes  to  the  United  States  on 
account  of  their  circulation,  deposits,  and  capi- 
tal at  the  same  rates  as  are  paid  by  the  na- 
tional banks. 

Savings  Ranks. — These  are  banks  for 
receiving  and  taking  charge  of  small  sums,  the 
savings  of  industry,  and  were  instituted  for 
the  benefit  of  workmen  and  others,  who  were 
able  to  spare  a  little  from  their  earnings.  It 
is  believed  that  Quaker  thrift  in  Philadelphia, 
Pa. ,  led  to  the  inception  of  the  idea,  and  that 
the  first  savings  bank  in  the  world  was  founded 
in  that  city  in  1816.  As  the  scheme  grew  in 
popularity  throughout  the  United  States, 
guardians  of  minor  children,  administrators 
of  estates  of  deceased  persons,  and  other  hold- 
ers of  trust  funds,  found  the  savings  banks 
very  serviceable  as  places  of  deposit  for  money 
that  had  to  be  laid  away  for  a  specified  period  of 
time.  Hence,  the  exigencies  of  business  transac- 
tions forced  an  innovation  upon  the  original 
plan.  In  the  United  States  this  use  of  savings 
banks  is  still  maintained  ;  but  during  the  past 
fifteen  years  Safe  Deposit  and  Trust  Companies 
have  been  numerously  established  for  the  special 
purpose  of  holding  funds,  both  in  trust  and  in 
legal  dispute,  besides  securities  of  all  kinds, 
jewelry,  diamonds,  and  articles  of  like  value. 
Thus  a  guardian,  an  administrator,  or  a  society 
will  invest  money  in  Government,  State,  or 
City  bonds,  or,  if  permitted  by  the  terms  of 
trust,  in  real  estate,  or  stock  of  various  corpo- 
rations, and  place  the  bond,  certificate  of  stock, 
or  other  acknowledgment  of  the  indebtedness, 
with  a  Safe  Deposit  or  Trust  Company,  for 
safe-keeping.  The  savings  banks  are  allowed 
by  law  to  invest  their  money  in  first-class  se- 
curities only,  so  as  to  prevent  their  officers 
from  using  the  fund  in  the  irregular  pursuit  of 
"  wild-cat "  speculation. 

The  average  rate  of  interest  allowed  by  sav- 
ings banks  in  the  United  States  on  deposits  is 
four  per  cent.  ;  it  is  frequently  below  that  rate. 
Some  of  the  larger  banks  will  not  permit  indi- 
vidual deposits  beyond  a  special  amount  at  one 
time,  while  others  decrease  the  rate  of  interest 


as  the  amount  of  deposits  increases,  claiming 
that  their  vast  aggregates  of  deposits  cannot  be 
invested,  under  the  law,  in  a  manner  that  will 
warrant  the  maximum  rate  of  interest  after 
paying  current  expenses. 

From  Philadelphia  the  original  conceptio* 
or  plan  of  the  savings  bank  extended  all  over 
the  United  States,  throughout  the  United 
Kingdom,  France,  and  other  countries.  Sev- 
eral Acts  of  Parliament  were  successively 
passed  between  1817  and  1828  for  the  regula- 
lation  of  savings  banks  in  England  ;  and  in 
the  year  last  mentioned  the  whole  of  these 
were  consolidated  in  one  statute  (9  Geo.  IV., 
chap.  92).  This  Act,  together  with  another 
passed  in  1833,  conferring  additional  and  im- 
portant privileges  on  savings  banks  (3  Will. 
IV.,  chap.  14),  constitutes  the  existing  law 
relative  to  these  establishments.  In  1835  the 
Act  was  extended  to  Scotland. 

SEIGNIORAGE. 

This  term,  as  used  in  the  United  States, 
means  the  profit  arising  from  the  coinage  of 
bullion.  The  government  does  not  purchase 
gold  bullion,  but  coins  it  on  private  account. 
There  is  no  profit  from  the  coinage  of  gold 
bullion,  the  face  value  of  gold  coins  being  the 
same  as  their  bullion  value  ;  but  at  the  present 
ratio  of  16  to  1,  the  face  value  of  the  silver 
dollar  is  greater  than  its  bullion  value  ;  there- 
fore, when  silver  bullion  is  purchased  and 
coined  into  dollars  there  is  a  profit  arising 
from  such  coinage,  the  amount  of  which  de- 
pends upon  the  price  paid  for  the  bullion.  For 
example,  there  are  371  1-4  grains  of  pure  sil- 
ver in  a  dollar,  and  there  are  480  grains  of  pure 
silver  in  a  fine  ounce.  The  coinage  value  of  a 
fine  ounce  is  therefore  $1.2929  — .  If  the  fine 
ounce  can  be  purchased  for  seventy  cents,  the 
profit  of  its  coinage  (the  seigniorage)  is 
$0.5929—,  and  the  profit  on  the  371  1-4 
grains  of  pure  silver  in  the  single  dollar  is 
$0.4586 — ,  which  is  the  difference  between 
the  actual  cost  of  the  bullion  in  the  dollar  and 
the  nominal  value  of  the  coin. 

MONEY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


I860 
1870 
1880 
1890 
1894 
1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 


a  S& 


722 
1,205 
2,144 
2,420 
2,398 
2,347 
2,497 
2,637 


,102,477 
,868,461 
,929,197 
226,159 
,434,781 
,607,420 
,306,006 
,465.572 
,433,375 


* 


a  s  5 
5 


Sju.2  5»$ 


§435,407,252 
675,212,794 
973,382,22s 
1,429,251,270 
1,660,808.708 
1,601,968,473 
1,506,434,966 
1,640,209,519 
1,837,859,895 


31,443 

38,558 

50,155 

62,622 

68,39 

69,878 

71,390 

72,937 

74,522 


321  §14.06  §13.85 

371  18.73  17.50 

783  24.04!  19.41 

250  34.241  22.82 

,000  35.39  j  24.28 

000  34.33:  22.93 

000  32.88  21.10 

000(  34.24  22.49 

OOOi  35.391  24.66 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,   TRANSPORTATION. 


453 


VALUE  FOREIGN  COINS  IN  UNITED  STATES  MONEY. 

(Proclaimed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  October  1,  1898.) 


Cocxtry. 

1 
Standard.       Monetary  Unit. 

Value  in 

U.  S.  Gold 

Dollar. 

Coins. 

Argentine  Rep . . . 
Austria-Hungary 

Gold&Sil.  Peso 

$0.96,5 
.20,3 

.19,3 
.43,6 
.54,6 

1.00 
.43,6 
.36,5 

.64,5 
.71,8 
.68,4 
.67.5 
.43,6 

.46,5 

.92,6 
.26,8 
.43,6 

4.94,3 

.19,3 
.19,3 
.23,8 
4.86.6% 
.19,3 

.96,5 
.20.7 
.19,3 
.49,8 

1.00 
.47?4 

.40,2 
1.01,4 

.26,8 

.43.6 
1.08 

.51,5 

.19,3 
.26.8 
.19.3 
.04,4 
1.03.4 
.19.3 

Gold :  argentine  (84.82,4)  and  %  argentine.   Silver : 

peso  and  divisions. 
Gold  :  former  system — 4  florins  ($1.92,9),  8  florins 

($3.85.8),  ducat  ($2.28,7),  and  4  ducats  ($9.14,9). 

Silver :  1  and  2  florins.    Gold :  present  system  — 

20  crowns  ($4.05,2)  and  10  crowns  ($2.02,6). 
Gold :  10  and  20  francs.    Silver :  5  francs. 

1 

Gold&  811.  Franc 

Bolivia 

Silver:  boliviano  and  divisions. 

Gold:  5,  10,  and  20  milreis.     Silver:  y2,  1,  and  2 
milreis. 

Silver :  peso  and  divisions. 

Central  America. 

Chile 

Gold :  escudo  ($1.82,5),  doubloon  ($3.65),  and  condor 
($7.30).    Silver :  peso  and  divisions. 

Gold :  condor  ($9.64,7)  and  double-condor.  Silver : 
peso. 

Gold :  2,  5, 10,  and  20  colons  ($9.30,7).  Silver :  5, 10, 
25,  and  50  centimos. 

Gold:  doubloon  ($5.01,7).    Silver:  peso. 

Gold :  10  and  20  crowns. 

Gold :  condor  (f  u.64,7)  and  double-condor.  Silver : 
Sucre  and  divisions. 

Gold:  pound  (100  piasters),  5,  10,  20,  and  50  pias- 
ters.   Silver :  1,  2, 5, 10,  and  20  piasters. 

Gold :  20  marks  ($3.85.9),  10  marks  ($1.93). 

Gold :  5, 10,  20, 50,  and  100  francs.   Silver :  5  francs. 

Gold :  5, 10,  and  20  marks. 

f  Shanghai.. 
Silver           Tael       J  Haikwan . . 
hllver i lael"  • '  1  Tientsin. . . 

[Chefoo  .... 

Costa  Rica 

Gold Colon 

Gold  &  Sil .  Peso 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Gold Pound  (100  piasters). 

Gold Mark 

Gold  &  Sil.  Franc 

Germany 

Gold Mark 

Great  Britain 

Gold Pound  sterling 

Gold&Sil.  Drachma 

Gold:  sovereign  (pound  sterling)  and  y2  sovereign. 
Gold :  5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  drachmas.     Silver  •  5 

Havti 

Gold&Sil.  Gourde 

drachmas. 
Silver:  gourde. 

Gold :  mohur  ($7.10,5).  Silver :  rupee  and  divisions. 
Gold :  5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  lire.    Silver :  5  lire. 

Italv 

Gold&  Sil.  Lira 

Gold 1  Yen 

Gold :  1, 2, 5, 10,  and  20  yen.    Silver :  10,  20,  and  50 
sen. 

Gold Dollar 

Gold :  dollar  ($0.98,3),  2V2, 5, 10,  and  20  dollars.    Sil- 
ver :  dollar  (or  peso)  and  divisions. 
Gold :  10  florins.    Silver:  %,  1,  and  2%  florins. 
Gold :  2  dollars  ($2.02,7). 

Gold&Sil.  Florin 

Newfoundland . . . 

Gold Dollar 

Norway 

Gold Crown 

Silver Sol 

Russia 

Gold Ruble 

Gold:    imperial  ($7.71,8)  and  y2  imperial  ($3.86). 
Crown  and  y2  crown.    Silver :  14,  y2,  and  1  ruble. 
Gold :  25  pesetas.    Silver :  5  pesetas. 
Gold :  10  and  20  crowns. 

Gold&  Sil.  Peseta 

Switzerland 

Gold  &  Sil.  Franc 

Gold :  5, 10. 20,  50,  and  100  francs.    Silver :  5  francs. 

Turkey 

Gold Piaster 

Gold  :  25,  50,  100,  250,  and  500  piasters. 

Gold:  peso.    Silver:  peso  and  divisions. 

Gold :  5, 10,  20,  50,  and  100  bolivars.    Silver :  5  boli- 

Gold &  Sil.  Bolivar 

vars. 

*  Not  including  Costa  Rica.       t  Value  of  the  rupee  to  be  determined  by  consular  certificate. 


Coinage  at  United  States  Mints. 

Total  coinage  of  the  mints  since  their  organization,  1792  (Philadelphia),  to  December  31, 1897,  is  as  follows : — 


Gold  Coins. 


Silver  Coins.* 


Nickel,  Copper,  and  Bronze. 


Double  Eagles $l,356,868,80/).00  Dollars $463,849,360.00  5  cent  pieces,  nickel $15,516,307.45 

Eagles 281,050,560.00, Trade  Dollars 35,965.924.00  3  cent  pieces,  nickel 941 ,349.48 

Half  Eagles 227.393.085.00  Half  Dollars 135,643.821.00  2  cent  pieces,  bronze  ....  912,020.00 

3  dollar  pieces l,619.376.f"0  Quarter  Dollars 54,339.704  00  1  cent  pieces,  copper 1,562.887.44 

Quarter  Eagles 28,819,067.50  20  cent  pieces 271.000.00  1  cent  pieces,  nickel 2,007.720.00 

Dollars 19,499,337.00  Dimes 30.441.651.90  1  cent  pieces,  bronze    ...  8,742,570.85 

JHalf  Dimes 4.88  t.219.40  %  cent  pieces,  copper  . ..  39,926.11 

3  cent  pieces 1,282,087.20 

Total $1,915,250,225.50         Total $726,673,767.50 1        Total $29,722,781.33 


•Not  including  $2,501,052.50  Columbian  souvenir  half  dollars  and  $10,005.75  Columbian  souvenir  quarter 
dollars  issued  in  1893. 


454 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


MONETARY  STATISTICS. 

(Compiled  from  the  Report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint.) 
APPROXIMATE  AMOUNT  OF  MONEY  IN  THE  WORLD,  1897. 


United  States*... 
United  Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Belgium 

Italy 

Switzerland 

Greece 

Spain 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Servia 

Austria-Hungary. 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Sweden 

Denmark 

Russia 

Turkey 

Australasia 

Egypt 

Mexico . 


Cent.  Am.  States. 
South  Am.  States 

Japan  

India 

China 

Straits  Settlem'ts 

Canada 

Cuba 

Hayti 

Bulgaria 

Siam ; 

Hawaii 


Total. 


Monetary 
System. 


Gold&Sil 

Gold 

Gold  &  Sil. 

Gold 

Gold&Sil 
Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 

Gold 

Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 

Gold 

Gold&Sil. 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold 

Gold&Sil. 

Gold 

Gold 

Silver 

Silver 

Silver 

Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 

Silver 

Silver 

Gold 

Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 
Gold&Sil. 

Silver 

Gold&Sil. 


Ratio  Be- 
tween Gold 

and  Full 
Legal  Ten- 
der Sliver. 


1  to  15  1-2 


1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  151-2 
1  to  15  1-2 


1  to  15  5-8 


1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  15  7-8 


1  to  16  1-2 


1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  16.18 
1  to  15 


1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  15  1-2 
1  to  15  1-2 

1  to  15.98 


Ratio  Be- 
tween Gold 
and  Limit- 
ed Tender 
Silver. 


1  to  14.95 
1  to  14.28 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  13.957 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.08 


1  to  13.69 
1  to  15 
1  to  14.88 
1  to  14.88 
1  to  14.88 
1  to  12.90 
1  to  15  7-8 
1  to  14.28 
1  to  15.68 


1  to  14.28 

1  to  14.38 
1  to  14.95 


Uncovered 
Taper. 


§696.300.000 

584,000,000 

772,000,000 

654,500,000 

35,000,000 

96,900,000 

24,000,000 

500,000 

45,000,000 

5,500,000 

38,600,000 

2,700,000 

178,500,000 

21,900,000 

7,500,000 

10,600,000 

15,400,000 

586,900,000 

50,000,000 

132.100,000 

129,300,000 

8,600,000 

1,000,000 

65,000,000 

80,100,000 


16,000,000 
5,000,000 
4,000,000 
1,000,000 

20,000,000 
5,000,000 


8634,500,000 

121,700.000 

443,900.000 

212,800.000 

57,000.000 

45,400,000 

10,700,000 

1,500,000 

49,000.000 

9,500,000 

10,600.000 

1,700,000 

63,700,000 

56,100.000 

2,000,000 

4,900,000 

5,400,000 

74,200,000 

40,000,000 

7,000,000 

6,400,000 

106,000,000 

18,900,000 

35,000.00(1 

94,000,000 

950,000,000 

750,000,000 

242,000,000 

5,000,000 

1,500,000 

4,500,000 

6,800,000 

193,400,000 

1,000,000 


Per  Capita. 


Gold.  Silver.  Paper.  Total. 


§397.000.000 

112,100.000 

119,200,000 

123,800.000 

72,500.000 

161,000.000 

14,300,000 

26,000,000 

103,000.000 

49,800.000, 

11,800,000 

2,400,000 

177,600,000 

37,900.000 

3,800,000 

19,000,000 

6,400,000 

467,200,000 


22,500,000 

'  4,060,600 

8,400.000 
550,000,000 


37,000,000 

35,000,600 
'  4,l6b',600 


$9.55 

14.75 

20.05 

12.51 

5.47 

3.10 

8.00 

.23 

2.50 

1.08 

7.15 

1.18 

3.97 

4.47 

3.75 

2.12 

6.70 

4.08 

2.27 

26.42 

16.58 

•  67 

.30 

1.73 

1-78 


3.01 
2.78 
4.00 
.30 
4.00 
50.00 


$8 .  70 

3.07 

11.53 

4.07 

8.91 

1.45 

■  3.  r,t; 

.68 

2.72 

1.86 

1.96 

2.04 

1.41 

11.45 

1.00 

.98 

2.35 

.59 

1.82 

1.40 

.82 

8.15 

5.73 

.93 

2.09 

3.21 

2  08 

63.68 

.95 

.83 

4.50 

2.06 

38.68 

10.00 


85.45 
2.83 
3.10 
2.37 

11.32 
5.14 
4.77 

11.81 
5.72 
9.76 
2.19 
1.04 
3.95 
7.73 
1.90 
3.80 
2.78 
3.70 

i!50 

'3.07 
2.54 
14.67 

"!i2 


4.10 


$23.70 

20.65 

34.68 

18.95 

25.70 

9.69 

16.33 

12.72 

10.94 

12.70 

11.30 

4.26 

9.33 

23.65 

6.65 

6.90 

11.83 

8.95 

4.09 

32.32 

17.49 

11.89 

8.57 

17.33 

3.87 

3.33 

2.08 

63.68 

10.56 

3.61 

12.60 

2.36 

42.68 

60.00 


$4,292,300,000  $4,206,100,000  $2,565,800,000 


*  July  1, 1897 ;  all  other  countries  January  1, 1897. 

World's  Production  of   Gold  and  Silver  in  1897. 


Countries. 


United  States 

Australasia 

Mexico   

Russia 

Germany. 

Austria-Hungary 

Sweden 

Norway 

Italy 

Spain 

Greece 

Turkey 

France 

Great  Britain 

Canada 

Argentine  Republic 

Colombia 

Bolivia 

Ecuador 

Chile 

Brazil 

Venezuela 

Guiana  (British) 

Guiana(Dutch) 

Guiana  (French) 

Peru.... 

Uruguay 

Central  American  States 

Japan  

China 

Africa 

British  India 

Korea 

Borneo 

Total 


Gold. 


Oz.,  fine. 

2,774,935 

2,693,723 

456,481 

1,124.511 

66,424 

108,147 

4,083 

"6,404 


353 

'  1,688 

291,561 
6,656 

145,125 
36,281 
6,429 
44,921 
58,253 
45,882 

111.001 
23,810 
74,376 
30,380 
1,862 
22,760 
84,606 

106,865 

2.N-_'0..-,SL< 

350,598 
35.464 
2,220 


11,489,291 


Dollars. 

57,363,000 

55,684.200 
9,436,300 

23,245,700 

1,373,100 

2,235,600 

84,400 

194,400 


7,300 

'35,100 
6,027,100 

137,600 
3,000,000 

750.000 

132  ,'900 

928,600 
1,204,200 

948,500 
2,294,600 

492,200 
1,537.500 

628,000 
38,500 

470,500 

71:;.  300 

2,209,100 

58,306,600 

7,247,500 

733,100 
45,900 


237,504,800 


Silver. 


Oz.,fine. 

53,860,000 

15,951,546 

53,903,180 

284,625 

5,498,135 

1,970.332 

20,728 

162,198 

737,163 

5,779,357 

1,028,609 

225,225 

525,628 

232,108 

5,558,446 

383,470 

1,687,950 

15,000,000 

7,734 

6,440,569 


9,784,680 

1,546,875 
2,507,532 


ia3,096,090 


Dollars. 
69,637,200 
20,624,200 
60,693,000 

368.000 

7.108,700 

2,547,500 

26,800 

2011.700 

953,100 

7,472,300 

1,329,900 

291,200 

679,600 

300,100 

7,186,700 

496,800 

2,182,400 

19,393,900 

10,000 

8,327,200 


12,650,900 


2,000,000 
3,242,100 


236,730,300 


Fine  oz.  of  gold,  $20.671834  + :  of  silver,  $1.2929294-,  coining  rate  in  U.  S.  silver  dollars. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


455 


STATISTICS    OF    SAVINGS    BANKS. 

NUMBER  OF  DEPOSITORS,  AMOUNT  OF  DEPOSITS,  AND  AVERAGE  TO  EACH  DEPOSITOR,  1897-1898. 


ST  LTE8 
AND 

Territories. 

Number  of 
Depositors. 

Amount  of 
Deposits. 

Average 

to  Each 

Depositor. 

States 

and 

Territories. 

Number  of 
Depositors. 

Amount  of 
Deposits. 

Average 

to  Each 

Depositor. 

170,134 
122,590 
108,511 
1,384,329 
132,042 
366,661 
1,805,880 
170,100 
307,309 

3,050 
168,830 

2,220 

5,631 
a  18,968 

7,125 

$60,398,760 

48,155,076 

34,071,722 

473,919,094 

67,910,921 

155,969,798 

766,684,916 

46,596,668 

82,245,532 

848,126 

54,769,195 

426,289 

296,974 

916,367 

2,214,508 

$355.01 
392.81 
313.99 
342.35 
514.31 
425.37 
424.69 
273.94 
267.63 
278.07 
324.40 
192.02 
52.74 
48.31 
310.80 

Louisiana 

9,179 

1,700 

17,893 

84,643 

18,579 

a  b  146,865 

1,914 

47,328 

101,189 

230 

176,241 

7,205 

$2,425,818 

374,525 

2,144,136 

37,404,341 

4,455,129 

38,393,455 

277.394 

10,463,399 

36,655,063 

67,457 

136,119,226 

1,447,409 

$264.28 

New  Hampshire  . . 

119  83 

Ohio 

441  91 

239  79 

261 .42 

Wisconsin 

144.93 

221  08 

362  05 

293.29 

772.35 

Utah 

200  89 

North  Carolina — 
South  Carolina  — 

Total 

5,385,746 

$2  065  631  298       *383  R-i 

No  returns  for  1897-98  from  the  following  States,  and  returns  for  previous  years  are  given :  Alabama,  1893-94, 
depositors,  2,500;  amount  of  deposits,  $102,347.  Florida,  1894-95,  depositors,  1,148;  amount  of  deposits,  $205,710. 
New  Mexico,  1894-95,  depositors,  217;  amount  of  deposits,  $37,951.  Washington,  1894-95,  depositors,  5,512;  amount 
of  deposits,  $1,148,104.  Oregon,  1895-96,  depositors,  1,631;  amount  of  deposits,  $972,298.  Georgia,  1896-97,  deposi- 
tors, 5,384 ;  amount  of  deposits,  $288,010. 

a  Estimated,    b  Savings  deposits  in  State  institutions  having  savings  departments. 

Approximate  Value  of  the  Product  of   Gold  and  Silver  in  the  United 

States  in  1897. 


States 

AND 

Territories. 

Gold, 
Value. 

Silver, 
Coining 
Value. 

Total 
Value. 

States 

AND 

Territories. 

Gold, 
Value. 

Silver, 
Coining 
Value. 

Total 
Value. 

$7,400 

1,778,000 

2,895,900 

14,618,300 

19,104,200 

149,300 

1,701,700 

100 

100 

62,700 

3,000 

4,373,400 

2,976,400 

366,500 

$129 

150,497 

2,896,032 

613,366 

27,974,335 

776 

6,336,905 

77,964 

20,257,487 
1,588,881 

6L>7,535 

$7,529 

$34,600 

1,353, 100 

84,700 

5,694,900 

100 

7,400 

1,726,100 

100 

3,900 

419,900 

11,200 

$388 

89,212 

259 

190,836 

523,249 
8,100,978 

138,214 
129 

$34,988 

1,442,312 

84,959 

5,885,736 

100 

1,928,497? 
5,791,932 

15,231,666    Sou  tli  Dakota 

47,078,535 

150,076 

8,038,605 

100 

100 

530,649 

9,827,078 
100 

Utah 

3,900 

140,664 

3,000 

24,030,887, 

4,565,281 

Washington 

658,114 
11,329 

Total 

$57,363,000 

$69,637,172 

$127,000,172- 

1,054,0351 

Wild-cat  Banks. —  The  fraudulent  in- 
stitutions known  as  wild-cat  banks  were  started 
principally  in  the  West  and  South  after  the 
closing  up  of  the  United  States  Bank  and  the 
transfer  of  its  deposits  to  State  banks  in  1832. 
The  scarcity  of  capital  in  these  regions  made 
it  comparatively  easy  to  put  in  circulation  any- 
thing that  purported  to  be  money.  Hence,  any- 
one with  a  very  limited  capital — or,  in  fact, 
without  any  capital  at  all  —  could  open  a  bank, 
issue  $10,000  or  more  in  small  notes,  and  pass 
them  over  in  easy  loans  to  land  speculators, 
who,  in  their  turn,  paid  them  out  in  country 
villages  and  among  farmers,  where  the  stand- 
ing of  the  bank  of  issue  would  necessarily  be 
unknown.  Hundreds  of  these  banks  were 
started,  and  immense  amounts  of  so-called 
money  were  loaned  to  build  cities  in  the  wil- 
derness, and  to  contractors  anxious  to  build  rail- 
roads without  material,  tools,  or  means  of  pay- 
ing wages."  In  some  cases  the  real  place  of 
issue  was,  for  instance,  New  Orleans  or  Buffalo, 
while  the  bills  purported  to  be  issued  and  pay- 


able in,  say,  Georgia  or  Illinois.  This  method 
of  doing  business  lasted  four  years,  when  the 
panic  of  1837,  one  of  the  most  painful  and  pro- 
longed crises  in  the  financial  history  of  the 
United  States,  overtook  the  country.  Fortu- 
nately this  led  to  the  adoption  in  nearly  all  the 
States  of  such  banking  laws  as  rendered  similar 
schemes  impossible  in  the  future.  These  in- 
stitutions were  called  wild-cat  banks,  owing  to 
their  utter  lawlessness  and  because  their  vic- 
tims were  "  most  awfully  clawed." 

Trade  Dollars. —  Previous  to  the  coin- 
age of  this  dollar,  which  was  brought  into  ex- 
istence through  the  demand  on  the  Pacific 
coast  for  a  coin  to  be  used  in  commercial  rela- 
tions, particularly  with  China  and  Japan,  the 
old  silver  dollar  of  371  £  grains  was  the  only 
one  known.  The  new  dollar  contained  420 
grains,  and  eventually  was  extensively  circu- 
lated all  over  the  Union,  but  was  retired  after 
the  Forty-fourth  Congress  enacted  that  it  was 
not  a  legal  tender. 

Clearing"  House. —  The  clearing  house  is 


456 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK    OF  FACTS. 


an  institution  founded  not  merely  upon  tha 
idea  of  saving  time  and  trouble  in  the  use  of 
the  precious  metals,  but  also  of  circulating 
notes.  The  Clearing  House  of  London,  which 
was  the  first  of  the  kind,  originated  among  the 
bankers  of  that  city,  whose  transactions  in  the 
checks,  bills,  and  drafts  drawn  upon  each 
other  became  so  large  as  to  call  for  the  daily, 
and  even  hourly,  use  of  vast  sums  in  bank- 
notes by  all  of  them.  Appreciating  how  readily 
the  debts  and  credits  respectively  due  or  held 
by  them  might  be  set  off,  one  against  the  other, 
they  formed  the  clearing  house,  where,  up  to 
four  o'clock  each  day,  all  drafts,  bills,  etc., 
upon  each  individual  member  were  taken. 
This  system  of  the  London  Clearing  House 
has,  however,  been  much  extended  and  im- 
proved. Clearing  houses  exist  in  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  Chicago,  and  other  cities 
in  the  United  States.  A  description  of  the 
system  in  use  in  Philadelphia  will,  in  the  main, 
answer  for  all.  The  clearings  are  made  each 
morning  at  8.30,  just  before  which  hour  a 
messenger  and  a  clerk  from  each  bank  are  at 
the  clearing  house.  The  clerks  take  their  seats 
at  a  series  of  desks  arranged  in  the  form  of  a 
half  oval.  The  messenger  brings  with  him 
from  his  bank  a  sealed  package  for  each  other 
bank,  containing  all  checks  or  drafts  on  such 
banks.  The  name  of  the  bank  sending,  and 
that  of  the  bank  to  which  it  is  sent,  is  printed 
on  each  package,  and  the  amount  sent  is  writ- 
ten thereon.  The  messengers  take  their  places 
near  the  desks  of  their  respective  banks,  and 
they  have  with  them  tabular  statements  of  the 
amount  sent  to  each  bank,  and  the  aggregate. 
These  are  exhibited  to  the  respective  clerks 
and  noted  by  them  on  the  blank  forms.  At 
8.30  o'clock  precisely,  the  manager  calls  to 
order  and  gives  the  word,  when  all  the  messen- 
gers move  forward  from  left  to  right  of  the 
clerks,  handing  in  to  those  clerks  the  packages 
addressed  to  their  respective  banks,  and  tak- 
ing receipts  for  them  on  their  statements. 
The  several  clerks  then  pass  around  a  memo- 
randum of  the  debts",  credits,  and  balances, 
each  of  his  respective  bank.  When  these 
memoranda  have  made  the  circuit,  each  clerk 
has  on  his  statement  the  debts,  credits,  and 
balances,  whether  debtor  or  creditor,  of  each 
bank.  If  these  debits  and  credits,  or  debtor 
or  creditor  balances,  are  found  to  balance,  the 
clerks  now  leave  the  clearing  house.  If  not,  they 
remain  until  the  error  or  errors  are  discovered. 
The  balances  due  by  the  several  banks  are  paid 
into  the  clearing  house  that  day  by  11.30 
o'clock  A.  M.,  and  are  receivable  by  the  cred- 
itor bank  by  12.30  P.  M.  Each  bank  is 
obliged  daily  to  furnish  to  the  clearing  house 
a  statement  of  its  condition  at  the  end  of  the 


business  on  that  day,  and  tables  are  daily  fur- 
nished to  the  several  banks  of  all  the  banks  in 
the  clearing  house. 

Freedman's  Bank  was  established  in 
March,  1865,  as  a  charitable  enterprise,  to 
encourage  frugality  and  thrift  among  the 
newly-liberated  slaves.  The  institution  was 
started  at  first  in  "Washington,  but  afterward 
branch  banks  to  the  number  of  thirty-four 
were  located  in  different  parts  of  the  Union. 
The  bank  was  not  intended  to  be  a  money-mak- 
ing concern,  either  for  bankers  or  for  deposi- 
tors, but  as  a  place  of  deposit  for  the  savings 
of  negroes,  which  savings  were  to  be  invested 
in  the  stocks,  bonds,  Treasury  notes,  and  other 
securities  of  the  United  States.  During  the 
existence  of  the  bank,  nine  years,  it  handled 
no  less  than  $56,000,000  of  deposits,  the  ne- 
groes being  led  to  believe  that  the  safety  of  the 
institution  was  guaranteed  by  the  Government, 
which  was  untrue.  The  institution  was  man- 
aged by  a  number  of  trustees  of  unsavory  finan- 
cial reputation,  and,  as  a  consequence,  at  the 
expiration  of  nine  years  it  suspended  payment. 
At  the  investigation  which  was  made  by  a  com- 
mittee appointed  by  Congress  a  most  scandal- 
ous condition  of  affairs  was  discovered.  The 
regulations  of  the  charter  had  been  completely 
ignored,  and  the  funds  had  been  dissipated  by 
loans  made  upon  inadequate  securities.  By 
law  the  investments  of  the  bank  were  confined 
to  Government  securities  alone.  Unimproved 
real  estate,  unsalable  stocks  and  personal  notes, 
were  among  the  assets  of  the  bank.  Deficits 
and  embezzlements  at  the  branch  banks  also 
produced  many  losses.  The  unsecui'ed  debts 
owed  to  the  depositors  amounted  to  $2,900,000, 
and  the  assets  yielded  about  $1,700,000.  For 
some  years  three  bank  commissioners  were 
employed,  at  a  salary  of  $3,000  each,  to  wind 
up  the  affairs  of  the  institution.  After  $475,- 
000  had  been  expended  in  this  "  winding-up" 
process  the  affairs  of  the  bank  were  all  turned 
over  to  the  Comptroller  of  the  Currency.  Div- 
idends have  been  paid  at  various  times ;  but 
many  small  depositors,  through  ignorance  and 
despair,  forfeited  their  dividends  by  not  calling 
for  them.  In  all,  77,000  dividends,  amount- 
ing to  $112,000,  were  thus  forfeited. 

Revenues  of  the  Government,  year 
ending  June  30,  1898  : — 

From  internal  revenue,  $170,900,641.49 

From  customs,  149,575,062.35 

From  profits  on  coinage,  bullion  de- 
posits, etc.,  4,756,469.71 

From  District  of  Columbia,  3,693,282.98 

From  fees— consular,letters  patent,  and 

land.                                                          .  2,639.750.54 

From  tax  on  national  banks,  1,975,849.28 

From  sales  of  public  lands,  1,243,129.42 

From  navy  pension  and  navy  hospital 

funds,"  1,146,590.41 

From  miscellaneous,  1,007,352.96 

From  sinking  fund  for  Pacific  railways,  781,986.83 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


457 


$576,687.41 
576,487.50 

526.286.13 
306.992.86 
224,331.32 

113,049.08 
107,612.49 
102,894.87 
99,273.15 
94,638.59 

93,086.98 

29.154.30 

6,303,000.00 

58.448,223.75 

89,012.618.55 

S494,333,953.75 


From  sales  of  Indian  lands, 

From  customs  fees, fines,  penalties,  etc., 

From  payment  of  interest   by  Pacific 

railway?, 
From  immigrant  fund, 
From  sales  of  Government  property. 
From   deposits    for   surveying  public 

lands, 
From  Soldiers'  Home,  permanent  fund, 
From  donations, 

From  sales  of  lands  and  buildings, 
From  sales  of  ordnance  material, 
From  reimbursement  for  cost  of  water 

supply,  District  of  Columbia, 
From  depredations  on  public  lands, 
From  sale  of  Kansas  Pacific  Railroad, 
From  sale  of  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
From  Postal  Service, 

Total  receipts, 

Expenditures  for  the  same  period  : — 

For  the  civil  establishment,  including 
foreign  intercourse,  public  build- 
ings, collecting  the  revenues,  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  and  other  miscel- 
laneous expenses,  $86,016,464.75 
For  the  military  establishment,  includ- 
ing    rivers"  and     harbors,     forts, 
arsenals,    seacoast    defenses,   and 
expenses  of  the  Spanish  war.  91,992,000.29 
For  the  naval  establishment,  including 
construction    of   new  vessels,  ma- 
chinery, armament,  equipment  im- 
provement at  navv  vards  and  ex- 
penses of  the  Spanish"  war,                          58.823,984.80 
For  Indian  Service,  10,994,667.70 
For  pensions,                                                        147,452,368.61  I 
For  interest  on  the  public  debt,                        37,585,056.23  j 
For  deficiency  in  postal  revenues,                     10.504,040.42  | 
For  Postal  Se'rvice,                                                89,012,618.55 
Total  expenditures,                      $532,381,2005  i 
Showing  a  deficit  of,                     $38,047,247.60  i 

Trades  Unions. — In  one  form  or  another,  ; 
combinations  have  always  existed  since  the 
employed  and  employing  classes  became  dis- 
tinguishable from  each  other.  Trades  unions, 
organized  for  purposes  such  as  those  which 
contemporary  unions  contend  for,  have  existed 
for  more  than  three  centuries.  So  early  as 
1548  a  statute  of  Edward  VI.  is  directed, 
among  other  culprits,  against  certain  "  artific- 
ers, handicraftsmen,  and  laborers,'"  who  had 
••sworn  mutual  oaths"  to  do  only  certain 
kinds  of  work,  to  regulate  how  much  work 
should  be  done  in  a  day,  and  what  hours  and 
times  they  should  work.  The  usual  penalties 
of  fines,  pillory,  and  loss  of  ears  were  to  follow 
a  breach  of  its  enactments.  Add  the  regula-  I 
tion  of  wages  and  the  employment  of  union  or 
non-union  men  to  the  objects  enumerated  in 
this  statute,  and  we  have  in  effect  the  trades 
unions  of  the  present  day.  Many  fruitless 
acts  were  afterward  passed  to  prevent  combi- 
nations for  raising  wages  ;  but  since  that  time 
the  trades  unions  have  increased  in  numbers, 
and  membership,  until  they  include  nearly  all 
the  laboring  classes  of  England  and  America. 
The  advocates  of  the  unions  insist  that  they 
are  the  only  means  by  which  workmen  can  de-  I 
fend  themselves  against  the  aggressions  of  em- 
ployers. It  is  argued  that  the  individual 
laborer  has  no  chance  of  resisting  the  capital- 


ist on  equal  terms  ;  that  starvation  treads  too 
closely  on  his  heels  to  permit  his  successfully 
opposing  a  reduction  of  his  wages,  no  matter 
how  arbitrary  or  unjust.  It  is  urged  that 
associations  of  employers  are  practically  uni- 
versal, and  that  their  object  is  mainly  to  secure 
for  themselves  the  largest  possible  share  of  the 
profits  which  are  the  product  of  capital  and 
labor  united.  Yet  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
against  these  uses  may  be  set  many  serious  evils. 
Strikes  are  often  determined  upon  by  unions 
at  times  when  the  condition  of  the  market 
renders  success  impossible,  resulting  in  severe 
and  prolonged  suffering.  Unions  undoubtedly 
foster  an  unfortunate  spirit  of  antagonism. 
Being  constantly  and  consciously  on  the  defen- 
sive, they  come  at  last  to  suspect  evil  in  every 
movement  and  to  put  a  sinister  interpretation 
on  every  action  of  employers,  and  in  some 
trades  the  practice  of  coercion  has  grown  into 
systematic  terrorism  and  crime. 

Mississippi  Scheme.  —  The  gigantic 
commercial  scheme  commonly  known  by  this 
name  was  projected  in  France  by  the  celebrated 
financier  John  Law  of  Edinburgh  in  1717, 
and  collapsed  in  1720.  Its  primary  object  was 
to  develop  the  resources  of  the  Province  of 
Louisiana  and  the  country  bordering  on  the 
Mississippi,  a  tract  at  that  time  believed  to 
abound  in  the  precious  metals.  The  company 
was  incorporated  in  August,  1717,  under  the 
title  of  the  "Company  of  the  West,"  and 
started  with  a  capital  of  200,000  shares  of  500 
livres  each.  They  obtained  the  exclusive  privi- 
lege of  trading  to  the  Mississippi,  farmiug 
the  taxes  and  coining  money.  The  prospectus 
was  so  inviting  that  shares  were  eagerly 
bought;  and  when,  in  1719,  the  company 
obtained  the  monopoly  of  trading  to  the  East 
Indies,  China,  and  the  South  Seas,  and  all  the 
possessions  of  the  French  East  India  Company, 
the  brilliant  vision  opened  up  to  the  public 
gaze  was  irresistible.  The  "Company of  the 
Indies,"  as  it  was  now  called,  created  50,000 
additional  shares ;  but  a  rage  for  speculation 
had  seized  all  classes,  and  there  were  at  least 
300,000  applicants  for  the  new  shares,  which 
consequently  rose  to  an  enormous  premium. 
Law,  as  director  general,  promised  an  annual 
dividend  of  200  livres  per  share,  which,  as  the 
shares  were  paid  for  in  the  depreciated  billets 
d'etat,  amounted  to  an  annual  return  of  120 
per  cent.  The  public  enthusiasm  now  rose  to 
absolute  frenzy,  and  Law's  house  and  the 
street  in  front  of  it  were  daily  crowded  by  ap- 
plicants of  both  sexes  and  of  all  ranks,  who 
were  content  to  wait  for  hours  —  nay,  for  days 
together  —  in  order  to  obtain  an  interview  with 
the  modern  Plutus.  While  confidence  lasted 
a  factitious   impulse   was   given    to   trade   in 


458 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Paris,  the  value  of  manufactures  was  increased 
fourfold,  and  the  demand  far  exceeded  the 
supply.  The  population  is  said  to  have  been 
increased  by  hundreds  of  thousands,  many  of 
whom  were  glad  to  take  shelter  in  garrets, 
kitchens,  and  stables.  But  the  Regent  had 
meanwhile  caused  the  paper  circulation  of  the 
National  Bank  to  be  increased  as  the  Missis- 
sippi scheme  stock  rose  in  value,  and  many 
wary  speculators,  foreseeing  a  crisis,  had  se- 
cretly converted  their  paper  and  shares  into  gold, 
which  they  transmitted  to  England  or  Belgium 
for  safety.  The  increasing  scarcity  of  gold 
and  silver  becoming  felt,  a  general  run  was 
made  on  the  bank.  The  Mississippi  stock  now 
fell  considerably,  and  despite  all  efforts  it  con- 
tinued to  fall  steadily  and  rapidly.  In  1720 
the  National  Bank  and  the  Company  of  the 
Indies  were  amalgamated ;  but,  though  this 
gave  an  upward  turn  to  the  share  market,  it 
failed  to  put  the  public  credit  on  a  sound  basis. 
The  crisis  came  at  last.  In  July,  1720,  the  bank 
stopped  payment,  and  Law  was  compelled  to  flee 
the  country.  The  French  Government  was 
nearly  overthrown,  and  widespread  financial 
distress  and  bankruptcy  were  occasioned. 

Credit  Mobilier. —  The  Credit  Mobilier 
of  America  was  a  joint  stock  company  organ- 
ized in  1863  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the 
construction  of  public  works.  In  1867  another 
company,  which  had  undertaken  to  build  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  purchased  the  charter 
of  the  Credit  Mobilier,  and  the  capital  was  in- 
creased to  $3,750,000.  In  1872  a  lawsuit  in 
Pennsylvania  developed  the  startling  fact  that 
much  of  the  Credit  Mobilier  wTas  owned  by 
members  of  Congress.  A  suspicion  that  those 
members  had  voted  corruptly  in  the  legislation 
affecting  the  Pacific  Railway  at  once  seized 
the  public  mind,  and  led  to  a  Congressional 
investigation,  in  the  course  of  which  many 
scandalous  transactions  were  brought  to  light, 
and  the  reputation  of  many  public  servants 
suffered  greatly.  The  investigation  showed 
that  some  of  the  members  of  Congress  who 
had  this  stock  in  their  possession  had  never 
paid  for  it ;  in  other  words,  that  their  votes 
had  probably  been  obtained  by  giving  them 
stock.  In  other  cases  it  vis  shown  that  per- 
sons whose  integrity  could  not  be  questioned 
had  been  reported  as  stockholders,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  influencing  others  to  subscribe  or  to 
regard  the  project  favorably.  The  report  of 
the  committee  exonerated  many  whose  names 
had  been  used  without  authority  in  connection 
with  the  scheme.  Owing  to  the  profitableness 
of  tli3  work  in  which  the  company  was  en- 
gaged, the  stock  rose  rapidly  in  value  previous 
to  the  investigation,  and  enormous  dividends 
were  paid  to  the  shareholders. 


Boycott  and  Boycotting. —  The  origin 
of  the  term  "  Boycotting  "  was  as  follows :  A 
Captain  Boycott  was  the  agent  of  a  landowner 
in  Ireland.  His  policy  proved  to  be  distasteful 
and  offensive  to  the  tenants,  and  such  was 
their  feeling  in  the  matter  that  they  asked  the 
landlord  to  remove  him.  This  was  refused,  j 
and  in  retaliation  the  tenants  and  their  friends' 
refused  to  work  for  or  under  Boycott.  They 
would  not  harvest  his  crops,  and  they  made 
an  agreement  among  themselves  that  none  oi 
them  or  theirs  should  assist  or  work  for  him 
in  the  harvest.  His  crops  were  endangered, 
when  relief  arrived  in  the  person  of  certain 
Ulster  men,  who,  under  the  protection  of 
troops,  harvested  the  crops  of  Boycott.  The 
defensive  league  of  the  tenantry  was  much 
more  powerful  and  effective  than  might  be 
supposed  from  the  single  instance  of  the  com- 
bination referred  to  above.  The  ramifications 
of  their  compact  were  very  numerous  and  ex- 
tensive. For  example,  if  anyone  had  dealings 
with  Boycott  or  those  who  represented  him, 
then  no  one  was  to  have  any  dealings  with  that 
person.  If  a  man  worked  for  Boycott  he  was 
looked  upon  by  his  old  friends  and  neighbors  as 
a  stranger  —  no  one  would  sell  to  or  buy  of  him, 
no  one  was  to  know  him.  The  effect  of  this 
agreement  when  carried  to  this  extent  was  just 
what  its  authors  proposed,  and  "Boycotting" 
has  become  a  very  forcible  phrase. 

Debt,  Imprisonment  for. — During  late 
years  the  laws  of  most  countries  bearing  upon 
imprisonment  for  debt  have  been  greatly  modi- 
fied. In  England  the  old  harsh  laws  concern- 
ing debtors,  which  made  the  issuance  of  101 ,000 
writs  for  debt  in  one  year,  1825, possible,  were 
abolished  in  1838  ;  and  in  1869,  by  the  passage 
of  the  "  Debtors' Act,"  still  more  lenient  regu- 
lations were  adopted.  Imprisonment  is  still 
possible  there,  in  certain  cases,  as  when  it  is 
believed  a  debtor  intends  leaving  the  country, 
or  when  a  debtor  refuses,  when  he  is  able,  to 
settle  a  claim  decided  against  him  bythe  courts, 
or  when  there  is  palpable  evidence  of  premedi- 
tated fraud.  The  imprisonment  cannot  con- 
tinue, however,  longer  than  a  specified  time  — 
usually  one  year.  Imprisonment  for  debt  was 
abolished  in  France  by  a  decree  of  March  0, 
1793,  was  re-enacted  several  years  later,  was 
again  abolished  in  1848,  and  was  again  re- 
established the  same  year.  Since  that  time, 
however,  the  law  has  been  greatly  modified, 
and  now  imprisonment  is  permitted  for  a  lim- 
ited period  only,  and  certain  classes  are  ex- 
empted from  the  law:  as,  for  instance,  those 
under  twenty  years  or  over  seventy  years  of 
age,  ecclesiastics,  and  women  not  engaged  in 
commerce.  In  France,  as  in  most  all  conti- 
nental countries,  the  entire  cession  of  the  prop- 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


459 


erty  of  the  debtor  to  his  creditors  will  procure 
immunity  from  personal  process,  even  though 
it  may  not  cover  the  amount  owed.  New  York 
was  the  first  state  in  the  United  States  to  abol- 
ish imprisonment  for  debt.  This  was  done 
in  1831,  and  the  example  was  shortly  followed 
by  the  other  states  ;  and  though  there  is  great 
difference  in  the  insolvent  laws  of  the  several 
states,  they  all  permit  debtors  their  freedom, 
except  in  cases  wherein  dishonesty  or  pecula- 
tion render  the  debtor  also  amenable  to  the 
Penal  Code.  Both  in  Greece  and  in  Rome,  in 
ancient  times,  the  creditor  had  a  claim  to  the 
person  of  the  debtor.  In  Rome,  thirty  days 
after  judgment  was  pronounced  against  the 
debtor,  he  was  given  into  the  hands  of  his 
creditor,  who  kept  him  sixty  days  in  chains, 
exposing  him  on  three  market-days,  and  pro- 
claiming his  debt.  If  no  one  stepped  in  to  re- 
lease him,  the  debtor,  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
might  be  sold  for  a  slave  or  put  to  death.  If 
there  were  several  creditors,  the  letter  of  the 
law  permitted  them  to  cut  their  debtor  in 
pieces,  sharing  him  in  proportion  to  their 
claims.  The  common  practice*,  however,  was 
to  treat  him  as  a  slave,  and  make  him  work  out 
the  debt.  The  children  in  his  power,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  constitution  of  society  at 
Rome,  followed  his  condition. 

Wealth  of  Principal  Nations  (1899). 


Argen.  Rep  ...$2,515,000,000 

Australia 6,836,000,000 

Austria 19,275,000.000 

Belgium 5,035  000,000 

Canada 4,900  000,009 

Denmark 2.020.000.0  W 

France 12,990,000,000 

Germany :'2.l8r>,o00,0O0 

United  km... 47.000.000,000 
G  reece 1 .500,000,000 


Holland $4,900,000,000 

Italy 14,815,000,000 

Mexico 3,190.000.000 

Norway 1 ,215,000,000 

Portugal 2,040,000.000 

Russia 25,445,000,000 

Spain 12,580.000,000 

Sweden 3.1*5,000,000 

Switzerland...  .2.470,000,000 
U.  States 64,120,0:0,000 


American  Mine,  Oldest. —  The  first  re- 
corded account  of  the  discovery  of  coal  in  the 
United  States  is  contained  in  Hennepin's  nar- 
rative of  his  explorations  in  the  West,  between 
1<I73  and  1680,  when  he  saw  the  coal  outcrop 
in  the  bluffs  of  the  Illinois  river,  not  far  from 
Ottawa  and  La  Salle.  In  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona,  there  are  silver  mines  which  were 
operated  by  the  Toltecs  and  Aztecs  years  be- 
fore the  Spanish  invasion.  So  there  are  cop- 
per mines  in  the  Lake  Superior  region  in  which 
the  tools  and  mining  marks  of  ancient  miners 
of  prehistoric  times  were  found  by  the  pioneers 
of  the  present  American  mining  companies. 
Where  the  first  colonists  of  Virginia  got  the 
shipload  of  "  fool's  gold  "  which  they  sent 
back  to  England,  to  the  great'  disgust  of  the 
London  Company,  is  not  certainly  lmciVi.  , 
but  it  is  known  thatat  the  same  time,  in  1GQS, 
they  shipped  a  quantity  of  iron  from  James- 
town, which  yielded  seventeen  tons  of  metal 
—  the  first  pig-iron  ever   made  from  Ameri- 


can ore.  In  North  and  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia,  there  are  diggings,  now  overgrown 
with  forests,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
excavated  by  the  followers  of  De  Soto  and  his 
immediate  successors  between  1539  and  1G00. 
The  oldest  mining  enterprise  of  the  United 
States,  still  active,  is  generally  conceded  to  be 
the  mine  La  Motte,  in  the  lead  district  of 
Eastern  Missouri,  which  was  opened  about 
1720  under  Renault,  of  Law's  notorious  Missis- 
sippi Company.  It  was  named  after  La  Motte, 
the  mineralogist  of  the  expedition,  and  has 
been  worked  at  intervals  ever  since  it  was 
opened. 

Liverpool  Docks. —  The  docks,  at  Liv- 
erpool, England,  extend  on  the  city  side  of  the 
river  Mersey  6£  miles,  and  have  a  water  area 
of  333£  acres,  and  a  lineal  quayage  of  22  miles. 
The  great  landing  stage  at  Liverpool  is  the  fin- 
est structure  of  the  kind  in  the  world.  It  was 
originally  built  in  1857,  and  was  greatly  en- 
larged in  1874,  but  shortly  after  its  completion, 
July  28,  1874,  it  .accidentally  caught  fire  and 
was  entirely  consumed.  It  was  again  built  in 
the  most  substantial  manner.  Its  length  is 
2,063  feet,  and  its  breadth  is  80  feet.  It  is 
supported  on  floating  pontoons,  which  rise  and 
fall  with  the  tide,  and  is  connected  with  the 
quay  by  seven  bridges,  beside  n  floating  bridge 
550  feet  in  length  for  heavy  traffic.  The  great 
system  of  docks  at  Liverpool  was  commenced 
by  the  corporation  in  1709,  and  was  for  a  cen- 
tury under  the  control  of  the  City  Council,  but 
since  1856  their  management  has  been  in  the 
hands  of  a  board.  The  amount  of  capital  in- 
vested in  these  docks  is  £10,000,000,  of  which 
£7,000,000  is  in  Liverpool  proper,  and  the  rev- 
enue derived  from  them  is  over  £1,250,000  an- 
nually. They  are  constructed  as  water-tight 
inclosures,  with  flood  gates,  which  are  opened 
during  the  flowing  and  closed  during  the  ebb- 
ing of  the  tide,  so  that  vessels  within  can  be 
kept  afloat  and  at  the  same  level  while  being 
loaded  and  unloaded 

Communism  and  Socialism. — Commu- 
nism is  the  doctrine  that  society  should  be  re- 
organized on  the  basis  of  abolishing  individual 
ownership  of  property  and  control  of  wages, 
and  most  of  the  now  generally  admitted  rights 
of  individuals  in  their  private  and  domestic  re- 
lations, and  substituting  therefor  community 
ownership  and  control  of  every  person  and 
everything.  Attempts  to  realize  Communism 
have  been  made  in  both  England  and  France, 
but  in  all  cases  resulted  in  disaster  to  the  com- 
lin unties.  The  communistic  leader  in  Eng- 
land was  Robert  Owen,  who  made  two  attempts 
to  carry  out  his  views  in  that  country.  Fou- 
rier and  St.  Simon,  French  Communists,  made 
similar  efforts  in  France,  but  the.  results  were 


460 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


not  more  fortunate.  A  community  of  St. 
Simonians  established  a  college  or  corporation 
at  Menilmontant,  with  a  "supreme  father" 
at  their  head.  The  leaders  were  brought  to 
trial  by  Louis  Philippe  on  a  charge  of  under- 
mining morality  and  religion.  They  were 
subjected  to  imprisonment,  and  not  having 
public  feeling  with  them,  they  were  unable  to 
bear  up  against  contumely  thus  thrown  on 
them.  Socialism  is  a  sort  of  limited  Commu- 
nism. It  would  not  entirely  abolish  individ- 
ual rights  of  all,  but  would  make  such  rights 
subordinate  to  the  common  good,  and  in  a 
manner  limit  them  to  it. 

Locomotives,  Weight  and  Cost. — 
The  average  weight  of  the  locomotive  engines 
now  on  the  standard  gauge  roads  is  from 
twenty-five  to  thirty-five  tons.  As  locomotives 
are  now  built,  anything  above  thirty-five  tons 
would  be  considered'  heavy,  although  there 
have  been  locomotives  built  weighing  seventy 
tons.  The  cost  of  a  locomotive  for  the  stand- 
ard gauge  roads  is  about  $  10,500.  It  is  usu- 
ally computed  by  railroad  men  that  in  weight 
and  cost  the  locomotives  on  the  narrow  gauge 
roads  are  from  one  third  to  one  half  less  than 
those  of  the  standard  gauge  lines. 

Fur  Trade,  American. —  The  North- 
west Fur  Company,  a  British  organization, 
practically  controlled  the  fur  industry  along 
the  great  lakes  and  westward  at  the  beginning 
of  this  century.  A  rival  company,  composed 
of  American  and  French,  and  called  the  Mack- 
inaw Fur  Company,  was  formed  about  that 
time  ;  but  the  importance  of  the  American  fur 
trade  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  commercial 
genius  of  John  Jacob  Astor.  In  1783  Mr. 
Astor  landed  in  America  with  a  few  hundred 
dollars' worth  of  musical  instruments,  which 
he  immediately  exchanged  for  furs.  This 
action  was  brought  about  through  a  conversa- 
tion with  a  furrier  during  the  voyage,  who  im- 
pressed upon  the  young  emigrant  the  great 
profit  to  be  gained  in  the  fur  traffic.  From 
that  time  until  1809  he  made  repeated  visits 
to  the  scattered  settlements  of  western  New 
York  and  Canada  for  the  purchase  of  furs,  and 
did  much  business  with  the  Northwest  Fur 
Company.  All  direct  trade  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  was  then  forbidden  by  laws 
of  the  British  Government ;  hence  furs  pur- 
chased in  the  latter  had  first  to  be  taken  to 
London  before  they  could  be  brought  to  New 
York.  These  restrictions  on  trade  with  Can- 
ada were  removed  by  treaty  in  1794.  In  1809 
the  American  Fur  Company,  an  organization 
with  $1,000,000  capital,  was  granted  a  charter 
by  the  New  York  Legislature,  and  it  was  gen- 
erally understood  that  the  capital  for  this 
enterprise  wai   furnished  by  Mr.   Astor  —  in 


fact  that  he  was  the  company.  In  1811  Mr. 
Astor,  in  connection  with  certain  parties  for- 
merly connected  with  the  Northwest  Fur  Com- 
pany, purchased  the  Mackinaw  Fur  Company 
and  merged  it,  with  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany, in  another  organization  known  as  the 
Southwest  Fur  Company.  Four  years  later, 
1815,  Mr.  Astor  bought  all  the  shares  of  tbis 
company  and  pushed  the  American  Fur  Com- 
pany to  the  front  again,  and  in  the  same  year 
succeeded  in  having  a  bill  passed  through  Con- 
gress excluding  all  foreigners  from  taking  any 
part  in  the  fur  trade  of  the  United  States  — 
thus  securing  at  one  stroke  a  monopoly  of  the 
business.  From  that  time  he  accumulated 
enormous  wealth. 

Gold  Exports. —  When  this  country  buys 
abroad  more  than  it  sells  abroad  it  must  pay 
the  difference,  which  is  called  the  balance  of 
trade,  in  sterling  exchange.  The  par  value 
of  sterling  exchange  is  $4,867,  that  is,  a 
pound  sterling  is  worth  $4,867  in  United 
States  gold.  The  price  or  demand  of  sterling 
exchange  varies  according  to  the  supply  and 
demand  of  bills  drawn  against  London.  If  we 
have  made  heavy  shipments  to  London,  or  if 
Europe  has  been  a  heavy  buyer  of  our  securi- 
ties, there  is  plenty  of  sterling  exchange  in  the 
market,  and  it  can  be  bought  below  its  par 
value.  When  we  have  made  heavy  imports 
from  Europe,  or  when  Europe  has  been  a 
heavy  seller  of  our  securities,  or  when  Ameri- 
can travelers  have  spent  a  large  amount  of 
money  in  P^urope,  the  supply  of  sterling  ex- 
change is  limited  and  its  price  rises.  If  the 
price  of  sterling  bills  is  as  high  as  $4.88 1  it  is 
just  as  cheap  to  ship  gold  bars  to  London  and 
pay  the  expenses  of  the  shipment  as  it  is  to 
buy  the  exchange.  If  sterling  exchange  is 
$4.89^  gold  coin  can  be  shipped  without  loss. 
If  rates  go  higher,  as,  for  instance,  to  $4.90, 
gold  coin  or  bars  can  be  shipped  at  a  good 
profit  and  exchange  sold  against  them.  When 
the  rate  of  sterling  exchange  falls  to  $4.83£ 
gold  can  be  imported  from  London  without 
loss,  and  if  it  goes  lower  it  can  be  imported 
with  a  profit. 

The  South  Sea  Bubble The  "  South 

Sea  Bubble,"  as  it  is  generally  called,  was  a 
financial  scheme  which  occupied  the  attention 
of  prominent  politicians,  communities,  and 
even  nations  in  the  early  part  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  Briefly,  the  facts  are  :  In  1711, 
Robert  Hartley,.  Earl  of  Oxford,  then  Lord 
Treasurer,  proposed  to  fund  a  floating  debt  of 
about  £10,000,000,  sterling,  the  interest,  about 
$600,000,  to  be  secured  by  rendering  perma- 
nent the  duties  upon  wines,  tobacco,  wrought 
silks,  etc.  Purchasers  of  this  fund  were  to 
become  also  shareholders  in  the  "  South  Sea 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


4-61 


Company,"  a  corporation  to  have  the  monop- 
oly of  the  trade  with  Spanish  South  America, 
a  part  of  the  capital  stock  of  which  was  to  be 
the  new  fund.  But  Spain,  after  the  treaty  of 
Utrecht,  refused  to  open  her  commerce  to 
England,  and  the  privileges  of  the  "  South 
Sea  Company  "  became  worthless.  There  were 
many  men  of  wealth  who  were  stockholders, 
and  the  company  continued  to  flourish,  while 
the  ill  success  of  its  trading  operations  was 
concealed.  Even  the  Spanish  war  of  1718  did 
not  shake  the  popular  confidence.  Then  in 
April,  1720,  Parliament,  by  large  majorities 
in  both  houses,  accepted  the  company's  plan 
for  paying  the  national  debt,  and  after  that  a 
frenzy  of  speculation  seized  the  nation,  and  the 
stock  rose  to  £300  a  share,  and  by  August  had 
reached  £1,000  a  share.  Then  Sir  John  Blunt, 
one  of  the  leaders,  sold  out,  others  followed, 
and  the  stock  began  to  fall.  By  the  close  of 
September  the  company  stopped  payment,  and 
thousands  were  beggared.  An  investigation 
ordered  by  Parliament  disclosed  much  fraud 
and  corruption,  and  many  prominent  persons 
were  implicated,  some  of  the  directors  were 
imprisoned,  and  all  of  them  were  fined  to  an 
aggregate  amount  of  £2,000,000  for  the  bene- 
fit of  the  stockholders.  A  great  part  of  the 
valid  assets  was  distributed  among  them,  yield- 
ing a  dividend  of  about  33  per  cent. 

Trusts.  —  A  "  Trust,"  in  its  broad  sense, 
is  a  combination  of  individuals  or  corpora- 
tions for  controlling  the  price  of  a  commodity. 
It  seeks  to  do  this  by  restricting  production  or 
by  "cornering"  the  market,  and  strives  to 
accomplish  its  end  without  incurring  the  pen- 
alties of  the  law.  This  endeavor  to  keep  within 
the  law  has  given  rise  to  many  forms  of 
"trust  "  agreements.  The  simplest  is  a  mere 
naked  contract  between  manufacturers  or  deal- 
ers that  each  shall  carry  on  his  business  in  his 
own  way,  but  that  none  shall  sell  below  an 
agreed  minimum  price.  Examples  of  this  are 
agreements  between  the  coal  producers  of 
Pennsylvania  and  the  trades  union  agreements. 
Another  simple  form  of  combination  is  an 
agreement  that  all  shall  carry  on  their  business 
independently,  but  that  profits  shall  all  be 
turned  into  a  common  fund  and  divided  in  a 
definitely  agreed  on  ratio,  no  matter  what  the 
profits  of  each  individual  may  actually  have 
been.  Of  such  a  nature  are  railroad  pools. 
Another  kind  occurs  when  a  corporation  leases 
the  works,  or  contracts  to  take  all  the  products 
of  other  corporations,  or  enters  into  partner- 
ship with  them.  In  all  of  these  cases,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  danger  of  overstepping  the 
bounds  of  legality.  Courts  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  have  repeatedly  refused  to  enforce  such 
contracts  if  deemed  to  be  injurious  to  the  pub- 


lic ,  and  seme  authorities  have  declared  them 
criminal,  if  dangerous  to  the  common  good. 
This  has  led  to  the  invention  of  a  subtile  and 
elusive  form  which  we  may  call  the  "  Trust  " 
proper.  In  this,  the  stock  of  all  the  stock- 
holders of  all  the  corporations  comprising  it  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  few  men  as  trustees, 
i  thus  securing  to  a  dozen  or  so  persons  the 
absolute  control  of  stock  representing  many 
millions  of  dollars  and  possibly  thousands  of 
owners.  The  Standard  Oil  Trust  and  the 
Sugar  Trust  illustrate  this  form,  the  Standard 
Oil  being  probably  the  pioneer  in  this  line, 
and  now  one  of  the  most  powerful  moneyed 
institutions  in  the  world.  Whether  this 
1 '  Trust ' '  will  stand  the  attacks  of  its  enemies 
or,  in  its  turn,  will  be  decided  to  be  illegal,  it 
is  too  soon  to  judge.  In  a  recent  case  the  New 
York  Supreme  Court  has  declared  it  illegal 
and  the  charters  of  its  constituent  corporations 
liable  to  forfeiture.  As  has  been  said,  a 
"  Trust  "  is  not  a  corporation,  nor  subject  to 
the  restrictions  placed  by  law  on  incorporated 
companies. 

Strikes,  Statistics. —  The  plan  of  settling 
labor  difficulties  by  strikes  is  a  very  old  one. 
The  first  strike  in  the  United  States  occurred 
iu  New  York  city  in  1803,  when  a  number  of 
sailors  struck  for  an  advance  of  wages.  Ac- 
cording to  "  Bradstreet's  Commercial  Reports  " 
there  were  697  strikes  in  1888,  involving  211,- 
811  employees  —  a  decline  from  1887  of  23 
per  cent,  in  the  number  of  strikes  and  of  38 
per  cent,  in  strikers.  Against  1886  the  de- 
crease in  number  of  strikers  is  52  per  cent. 
Higher  wages  or  fewer  hours  were  the  cause  of 
strikes  by  68  per  cent,  of  the  strikers  in  1888, 
against  62  per  cent,  in  1887.  Trades  union 
questions  were  behind  the  strike  of  17  per 
cent,  of  the  men  involved  in  1888,  against  22 
per  cent,  of  the  year  before.  About  45  per 
cent,  of  striking  was  in  Pennsylvania  in  1888, 
against  32  per  cent,  in  1887.  Only  38  per 
cent,  of  the  strikers  of  1888,  involving  50  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  number  who  went  out,  re- 
sulted in  favor  of  the  employees,  against  42 
per  cent,  of  the  strikes  and  38  per  cent,  of 
those  involved  in  1887.  In  1888  there  were 
74,837  employees  locked  out,  against  46,000 
in  1887.  The  number  of  days'  labor  lost  by 
striking  and  locked  out  employees  in  1888  was 
7,562,480,  against  10,250,921  in  1887.  If  the 
labor  be  placed  at  81 -50  per  man,  the  estimated 
loss  of  wages  to  striking  and  locked  out  em- 
ployees in  1888  would  be  §11,343,720,  against 
$15,880,881  in  1887  —  a  decline  of  25  per 
cent. 

Watering  Stock. —  The  credit  of  having 
originated  the  process  of  watering  the  stock  of 
railroad  companies  belongs  unquestionably  to 


ite 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  late  Commodore  Vanderbilt.  The  plan  of 
operation  is  simple,  and  consists  only  in  esti- 
mating the  stock  of  the  road  at  a  "figure  greatly 
above  its  real  value.  For  instance,  when  Com- 
modore Vanderbilt  secured  control  of  the  New 
York  Central  as  well  as  the  Hudson  River  Rail- 
road in  1868,  the  combined  stock  of  the  two 
roads  was  only  about  $36,000,000.  Early  in 
the  following  year  he  declared  a  tremendous 
dividend  of  new  stock  to  the  stockholders,  and 
raised  the  estimated  value  of  the  two  roads  to 
$90,000,000.  This  action  of  Vanderbilt  was  for 
the  purpose  of  evading  a  law  of  the  State  of 
New  York  which  provided  that  when  the  divi- 
dends of  any  railroad  corporation  should  reach 
10  per  cent,  the  state  could  declare  how  the 
surplus  above  the  10  per  cent,  should  be  ap- 
plied. This  provision,  it  is  plain,  was  ren- 
dered nugatory  by  Vanderbilt's  scheme,  as,  if  a 
railroad  can  at  any  time  declare  stock  divi- 
dends with  no  reference  whatever  to  the  costs  of 
construction  and  repair,  a  dividend  of  10  per 
cent,  may  never  be  declared,  though  the  road 
may  be  actually  earning  30  or  40  per  cent, 
upon  its  actual  cost. 

India  Rubber. —  This  is  mostly  obtained 
from  the  Seringueros  of  the  Amazon,  who 
sell  it  for  about  12  cents  a  pound  to  the  mer- 
chants of  Para,  but  its  value  on  reaching 
England  or  the  United  States  is  over  50  cents 
a  pound.  The  number  of  tons  imported  into 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  has  been 
as  follows : — 

I860.        1870.        1880.        1887. 

United  States 1,610       4,316       7,529      12,900 

Great,  Britain 2,150       7,606       8,479      11,800 

The  best  rubber  forests  in  Brazil  will  ulti- 
mately be  exhausted,  owing  to  the  reckless 
mode  followed  by  the  Seringueros  or  tappers. 
The  ordinary  product  of  a  tapper's  work  is 
from  10  to  16  pounds  daily.  There  are  120 
india  rubber  manufacturers  in  the  United 
States,  employing  15,000  operatives,  who  pro- 
duce 280,000  tons  of  goods,  valued  at  $260,- 
000,000,  per  annum. 

How  the  Price  of  Southern  Con- 
federate Money  Dropped When  the 

first  issue  of  the  Confederate  money  was  scat- 
tered among  the  people,  it  commanded  a  slight 
premium.  It  then  scaled  down  as  follows  : 
June,  1861,  90c;  December  1,  1861,  80c; 
December  15,  1801,  75c;  February  1,  1862, 
60c;  February  1,  1863,  20c;  .June,  1863, 
8c  ;  January,  1864,  2c  ;  November,  1864, 
4£c  ;  January,  1865,24c  ;  April  1,  1865,  l£c 
After  that  date,  it  took  from  $800  to  $l,000"in 
Confederate  money  to  buy  a  one-dollar  green- 
back. 

Facts  About    Gold  and   Silver A 

ton  of  gold  or  silver  contains  29,166.66  ounces. 


A  ton  of  gold  is  worth  $602,875  ;  silver, 
$37,704.84. 

The  United  States  money  standard  for  gold 
and  silver  is  900  parts  pure  metal  and  100  parts 
of  alloy  in  1,000  parts  of  coin. 

The  value  of  an  ounce  of  pure  gold  is 
$20.67  ;  23.22  grains  of  pure  gold  equals  $1. 

The  term  carat  when  used  to  distinguish 
fineness  of  gold  means  one  twenty-fourth ; 
pure  gold  is  24-carat  gold. 

A  cubic  foot  of  gold  weighs  1,203  pounds, 
and  is  worth  about  $300,000. 

In  round  numbers  the  weight  of  $1,000,- 
000  in  standard  gold  coin  is  If  tons  (3,685 
lbs.)  ;  standard  coin,  26?  tons ;  subsidiary 
silver  coin,  25  tons  ;  minor  coin,  5-cent  nickel, 
100  tons. 

Glossary   of  Mining  and  Milling 
Terms. 

Battery — Generally  applied  to  a  set  of  five  stamps. 
Bullion — Ingots  of  gold  or  silver  ready  for  the  mint. 
Bumping-table — A  concentrating  table  with  a  jolting 
motion.  Cage —  A  mine  elevator.  Chute  —  A  body  of 
ore,  usuallv  elongated,  extending  downward  within  a 
vein ;  a  slide  for  ore  or  waste  rock.  Cobbing  —  Breaking 
ore  for  sorting.  Concentrator — Machine  for  removing 
waste  matter  from  mineral.  Copper  plates —  Plates  of 
copper  coated  with  quicksilver,  upon  which  the  gold  is 
caught  as  the  ore  flows  from  the  stamps.  Cord — A  cord 
weighs  about  eight  tons.  Country-rock—  The  rock  on 
each  side  of  a  vein.  Crevice — A  fissure,  split,  or  crack ; 
the  vein  is  called  "  the  crevice."  Cribbing  —  The  tim- 
bers used  to  confine  wall  rock.  Cross-cut — Alevel  driven 
across  the  course  of  a  vein.  Deposit — Ore  bodies  not 
confined  to  a  lode.  Drift — A  tunnel;  a  horizontal  pas- 
sage underground.  Dump  —  A  place  of  deposit  for  ore 
or  refuse.  Feeder— A.  small  vein  joining  a  larger  one. 
Fissure-vein — A  crack  or  cleft  in  the  earth's  crust  filled 
with  mineral  matter.  Float  —  Loose  ore  or  rock  de- 
tached from  the  original  formation.  Flume — A  pipe  01 
trough  to  convey  water.  Foot-wall  —  Layer  of  rock  be- 
neath the  vein.  Free  milling — Ores  containing  min- 
eral that  will  separate  from  the  gangue  by  simple  meth- 
ods. Haii'iiiuj-iraU — The  layer,  or  rock,  or  wall,  over  a 
lode.  Jju'hU  ririnj — That  part  of  mine  shaft  containing 
the  ladders.  Lagging — Timbers  over  and  upon  the 
sides  of  a  drift.  Ledge  or  Lead,  —  M  i  neral  ores  or  gangue 
within  fissure  veins.  Mill-run  —  A  test  of  the  value  of  a 
given  quantity  of  ore.  Ores —  Compound  of  metals  with 
oxygen,  sulphur,  arsenic,  etc.  Paystreak —  The  richest 
streak  in  the  vein.  Pocket —  A  rich  spot  in  the  vein  or 
deposit.  Refractory  —  Resisting  the  action  of  heat  and 
chemical  re-agents.  Shaft  —  A  well-like  passage  into  a 
mine.  Sluices — Troughs  in  which  ore  is  washed.  Smelt- 
ing—  Reduction  of  ores  in  furnaces.  Spur  —  A  branch 
of  a  vein.    Stamps  —  Weights  for  crushing  ores.     Stupe 

—  The  part  of  a  vein  above  or  below  the  drift  from 
which  the  ore  has  been  removed.  Sloping  —  Excavat- 
ing the  ore  from  the  roof  or  floor  of  a  drift.    SI  rut  ion. 

—  A  bed  or  layer.  Stidls — A  framework  to  support  the 
rubbish  when  stoping.  Sump — A  well  at  the  bottom 
of  a  shaft  to  collect  water.  Tailings  —  The  refuse  left 
after  washing  ores  containing  metals  not  saved  in  the 
first  treatment.  Tunnel— •  A  level  driven  across  a  vein. 
Whim — A  machine  used  for  raising  ore  or  refuse. 
Winze  —  An  interior  shaft  sunk  from  one  level  to  an- 
other. 

Harvest    Months   of    the    World. — 

January. —  The  greater  part  of  Chile,  por- 
tions of  the  Argentine  Republic,  Australia, 
and  N"ew  Guinea. 

FEiiKiARYto  March. —  The  East  Indies. 

April Mexico,  Egypt,  Persia,  and  Syria. 

May. — Japan,  China,  Northern  Asia  Minor, 
Tunis,  Algiers,  Morocco,  and  Texas. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


463 


June. —  California,  Spain,  Portugal,  Italy, 
Sicily,  Greece,  and  some  of  the  southern  de- 
partments of  France. 

July.  —  The  larger  part  of  France,  Austria, 
Southern  Russia,  and  the  larger  part  of  the 
United  States  of  America. 

August. —  Germany,  England,  Belgium, 
Netherlands,  part  of  Russia,  Denmark,  part  of 
Canada,  and  the  Northeastern  States  of 
America. 

September. —  Scotland,  the  larger  part  of 
Canada,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  the  north  mid- 
lands of  Russia. 

October. —  The  northern  parts  of  Russia 
and  the  northern  parts  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula. 

Wine  Production  of  the  World. — 
The  average  production  of  wine  in  the  princi- 


pal vine-growing  countries  of  the  world  is  as 
follows:  France,  705,175,072  imperial  gal- 
lons; Algeria,  722,000,000  imperial  gallons; 
Italy,  605,000,000  imperial  gallons;  Spain, 
484,000,000  imperial  gallons ;  Austria-IIun- 
gary,  187,000,000  imperial  gallons;  Portugal 
88,000,000  imperial  gallons;  Germany,  81,- 
290,000  imperial  gallons;  Russia,  77,000,000 
imperial  gallons  ;  Cyprus,  35,200,000  imperial 
gallons  ;  Switzerland,  28,600,000  imperial  gal- 
lons ;  Greece,  28,600,000  imperial  gallons ; 
United  States,  18,000,000  imperial  gallons; 
Turkey,  22,000,000  imperial  gallons  ;  Cape  of 
Good  Hope, 15,  400,000  imperial  gallons  ;  Rou- 
mania,  15,400,000  imperial  gallons ;  Servia, 
11,000,000  imperial  gallons  ;  Australia, 1,933, - 
800  imperial  gallons;  total,  2,485,599,772 
imperial  gallons. 


CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  TRADE. 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS. 


Countries. 


Argentine  Republic. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia 

Costa  Rica 

Ecuador 

Guatemala 

Hayti , 


Year. 


1897 
1894 
1893 
18S0 
1895 
1890 
1893 
1897 
1S95 


Imports.       Exports 


§98,288,948 
3,000,000 
146,468,936 
74,082,805 
11,528,365 
4,748,812 
6,400,104 
6,868,858 
6,232,335 


$101, 169,299 
9,600,000 
124,572,907; 
74,359,414 ! 
15,088,405 
5,597,727 
8,785,215: 
19.775,860; 
13,788,562 


Countries. 


Honduras 

Mexico 

Nicaragua 

Paraguay 

Peru 

Salvador 

Santo  Domingo  , 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 


Year. 


1896 
1897 
1895 
1897 
1896 
1895 
1897 
1896 
1896  | 


Imports. 


$676,716 

42,204,095 

4,116,855 

2,203,359 

12,000,000 

1,650,424 

1,824,375 

25,530,185 

13,989,342 


Exports. 


§1,253,151 

111,346,494 

4,994,519 

1,955,803 

12,736,830 
3,690,294 
2,709,805 

30,403,084 

21,433,682 


Population  According  to  Latest  Estimates. 


Argentine  Republic  (official) 4,000,000 

Bolivia  (estimate) 2,500,000 

Brazil"  (official) 18,000,000 

Chile  ("official) 3,500,000 

Colombia  (estimate) 4,600,000 

Costa  Rica  (official) 285,003 

Ecuador  (estimate) 1,300,000 

Guatemala  (official,  1890) 1,470,000 


Honduras  (estimate) 420,000 

Mexico  (official) 12,570,195 

Nicaragua  (estimate) 420,000 

Paraguay  (estimate) 500,000 

Peru  (estimate) 3,000,000 

•Salvador  (official) 800,500 

Santo  Domingo  (estimate)  600,005 

Uruguay  (official) 818,843 

2,444,816 


Hayti  (estimate) 1,211,625  I  Venezuela  (official) 

TELEGRAPH  RATES  TO  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

These  rates  are  from  New  York  city.  The  address  and  signature  are  included  in  the  chargeable  matter,  and 
the  length  of  words  is  limited  to  fifteen  letters.  When  a  word  is  composed  of  more  than  fifteen  letters,  every 
additional  fifteen  or  the  fraction  of  fifteen  letters  will  be  counted  as  a  word. 


Per  Word. 


Algeria $0.32 

Alexandria  (Egypt) 56 

Antigua ." 86 

Argentine  Republic 1.00 

Austria 34 

Barbadoes 96 

Belgium 30 

Bermuda 42 

Bolivia 1.25 

Brazil 1.35 

Bulgaria 38 

Burmah 1.27 

Callao  (Peru) 1.25 

Cairo  (Egypt) 01 

Cape  Colony  (S.  Africa)  1.52 

Cevlon 1.25 

Chile 1.25 

China 1.60 

Cochin  China 1.35 

Colon 97 

Cypress 56 


Per  Word. 


Demerara $1.49 

Denmark 35 

Ecuador 1.25 

England 25 

France 25 

Germany 25 

Gibraltar 43 

Greece 38 

Guatemala 55 

Havana 40 

Hayti 1 .55 

HuYigarv 34 

India 1.23 

Ireland 25 

Italy 32 

Jamaica 48 

Japan 1.76 

Java 1.47 

Korea  (Seoul) 1.96 

Malta 36 

Martinique 1.32 


Per  Word. 


Matanzas $0.44 

Melbourne,  Vic 1.43 

Mexico  City. .  $1.75.  io  words 

Nassau,  Bahamas 35 

Natal  (South  Africa) . . .  1.52 

Netherlands 32 

New  South  Wales 1.45 

New  Zealand 1.52 

Norway 35 

Orange  Free  State 1 .52 

Panama 97 

Paraguay 1.00 

Penang 1.35 

Peru 1.25 

Porto  Rico 1.17 

Portugal 39 

Queensland 1.50 

Roumania 36 

Russia  (Europe) 43 

Russia  (Asia,  West) 50 

Russia  (Asia,  East) 56 


Fer  Word. 


Santo  Domingo $1.32 

Scotland 25 

Servia 36 

Sicily 32 

Siam 1.19 

Singapore 1.35 

Spain 40 

St.  Thomas 1.01 

Sweden 39 

Switzerland 30 

Sydney,  N.  S.  W 1.45 

Tangier 45 

Tasmania 1.58 

Transvaal 1.52 

Trinidad 1.03 

Turkey  (Europe) 37 

Turkey  (Asia) 47 

Uruguay 1.00 

Venezuela 1.70 

Vera  Cruz.. .  .$1.75, 10  words 
Victoria  ( Aus.) 1.43 


464 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


FOREIGN   TRADE   OF   THE  UNITED    STATE*. 
Exports. 

DOMESTIC  MERCHANDISE  AND  SPECIE  EXPORTED  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  DURING  THE 

FISCAL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1898. 


Articles. 

Merchandise. 

Agricultural  Implements... 

Animals 

Books,  Maps,  Engravings, 
and  other  printed  matter.. 

Breadstuffs :    Corn bbls. 

"  Wheat.. bush. 

"       Wheat  Flour.,  bbls. 

Carriages,  Horse  and  Rail- 
road Cars 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and 
Medicines 

Clocks  and  Watches 

Coal:    Anthracite tons 

"        Bituminous tons 

Copper  Ore tons 

"       Manufactures  of 

Cotton,Unmanuf  actured .  lbs 
' '      Manufactures  of . .  lbs 

Cycles,  and  parts  of 

Fibers,  Vegetable,  and  Tex- 
tile Grasses 

Fish 

Fruits,  Apples,  Green  or 
Ripe bbls. 

Fruits  and  Nuts,  all  other. . . 

Furs  and  Fur  Skins 

Hops lbs. 

Instruments  for  Scientific 
Purposes 

Ironand  Steel, Manufactures 
of 

Leather,  and  Manufactures 
of 

Musical  Instruments 


Quantities. 

.  Values. 

$7,609,732 
46,243,406 

208,744,939 

148,231,261 

15,349,943 

2.434,325 

74,196,850 

146,684,659 

69,263,718 

3,424,419 

1,326,582 

2,682,414 

8,395 

3,850,264,295 

9,441,703 

1,727,469 

5,906,171 

5,717,578 

824,165 

32,180,872 

230,442.215 

17,024.092 

6,846,529 

2,557,465 
4,674,659 

605,390 
17,161,669 

1,684,717 
7,328,593 
2,986,970 
2,642,779 

2,770,803 

70,406,885 

21,113,640 
1,383,867 


Articles. 

Merchandise. 

Naval  Stores 

Oil  Cake,  Oil  Cake  Meal.. lbs. 

Oils:    Animal galls. 

"       Mineral,  Crude.,  galls. 
"        Mineral,    Refined     or 

Manufactured 

"       Vegetable 

Paper,  and  Manufactures  of. 
Paraftine,  Parafnne  Wax  .lbs. 
Provisions: 

Beef  Products lbs. 

Hog  Products lbs. 

Oleomargarine  lbs. 

Other  Meat  Products 

Dairy  Products 

Seeds :    Clover lbs. 

"         All  other lbs. 

Spirits, Distilled,  proof  galls. 
Sugar,  Molasses,  and 

Syrup galls. 

"        Refined lbs. 

Tobacco,  Unmanufactured  " 
"         Manufactures  of. . 

Vegetables 

Wood,  and  Manufactures  of 
All  other  articles 

Total      Exports,     Domestic 
Merchandise 

Specie:    Gold 

"  Silver 

Total  Domestic  Exports. . . 


Quantities.         Values. 


1,355,934.022 

1,568,040 

113,207,397 


154,628,460 

439,525,984 

1,659.990.202 

136,907,813 


31,155,381 

2,978,651 

11,391,370 

6,047,608 

263,020,214 


$9,155,144 

12,581,534 

502,332 

4,343,262 

51,782,316 
12,019,069 
5,494,564 
6,030,292 

31,906,384 
110,801,151 
8,290,710 
7,246,956 
9,095,759 
1.892,101 
1,062,622 
1,850,353 

1,061,929 

301,511 

22,171,580 

4,818,493 

2,381,788 

37,513,252 

98,256,999 


$1,210,291,913 


$15,400,391 
55,105,239 


$1,280,803,543 


Imports. 

MERCHANDISE  AND   SPECIE  IMPORTED  INTO   THE  UNITED   STATES   DURING   THE    FISCAL 

YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,   1898. 


Articles. 


Merchandise. 

Animals 

Artworks 

Books,  Maps,  etc 

Bristles lbs. 

Breadstuffs 

Chemicals,  Drugs,  Dyes,  and 
Medicines 

Clocks  and  Watches 

Coal,  Bituminous tons 

Coffee lbs. 

Cotton,  and  Manufactures  of 

Earthenware  and  China 

Fibers,  Vegetable,  and  Man- 
ufactures of 

Fish 

Fruits  and  Nuts 

Furs,  and  Manufactures  of. . 

Glass  and  Glassware 

Hats  and  Bonnets,  Materials 
for 

Hides  and  Skins 

Hops lbs. 

India  Rubber  and  Gutta- 
percha, and  Manufactures 
of : 

Iron  and  Steel,  and  Manu- 
tures  of  

Jewelry  and  Precious  Stones, 
and  Manufactures'  of  Gold 
and  Silver 

Lead,  and  Manufactures  of 


Quantities. 


$1,535,090 


1,273,311 
870,514,455 


Values. 


2,375,922 


Articles. 


$4,674,125 
2,263,427 
2,883,992 
1,249,119 
3,152,067 

41,471,291 
966,422 

3,401 ,301 j 
65,067,63l| 
37,873,708 

6,687,360 

35,345,980 
6,076,690: 

14,566.950 
7,881,172 
3,782,617 

2,244,349 

37,068,932 

648,155 


20,011,635 
12,626,431 


10,388,880| 
2,600,779 


Merchandise. 
Leather,  and  Manufactures 

of 

Liquors,      .Spirituous      and 

Malt 

Molasses jialls 

Musical  Instruments 

Paints  and  Colors 

Paper,  and  Manufactures  of 

Paper  Stock 

Salt lbs. 

Seeds 

Silk,  Manufactures  of 

'•      Unmanufactured 

Spices 

Sugar lbs. 

Tea ! lbs. 

Tin,  in  Bars,  Blocks,  Pigs,  or 

Grain,  etc lbs. 

Tobacco,  and  Manufactures 

of 

Toys 

Wines 

Wood,  and  Manufactures  of. 
Wool,  and  Manufactures  of . 
All  other  articles 

Total  Merchandise 

Specie:    Gold 

Silver 

Total  Imports 


Quantities.        Values. 


!?11,414,125 

3,336,324 

'3,603,547 

564,016 

920,094 

1,065,08k 

2,838,738 

2,870,323 

342,254,106 

524,601 

1,231,76*; 

23,523,005 

82,110,066 

2.4(4. 029 

2,689,920.851 

60,472,7-19 

70,957,715 

10,054,283 

63,938,889 

8,776,151 

9,092.114 

2,214,482 

5,969,180 

13,861,923 

31,607,463 

62,264,801 

$616,049,654 

$120,391,674 

30,927,781 

$767,365,909 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


465 


VALUE  OF  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  MERCHANDISE,  1873-98. 


Year  Ending 

JINE30. 


Exports. 


Domestic.    !     Foreign. 


1873 S5n5.033.439 

,421 
1M 
247 
224 


609,433 
199,284 

525,582 
589,670 
680.709 
698,340 
823,946 
B63,925 
733,239, 
804,223 
724,964 
726.682 


1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1n>2 
1883 
1884 
1»>5 

1886 665,964 

1887 703,022 

1888 683,862 

1889 730,282 

1890 845,293 

1891 872,270 

1892 1,015,732 

1893 831,030 

1894 869,204 

1895 793,392 

1896 863,200 

1897 1,032,007 

1898 1.210,291 


147,440,483 

16,849,619 
14,158,611 
14,802,424 
12,804,996 
14,156,498 
12,098,651 
11,692,305 
18,451,399 
17,302,525 
19,615,770 
15,548,757 
15,506,809 
13,560,301 
13,160,288 
12,092,403 
12,118,766 
12,534.856 
12.210,527 
14.546.137 
16,631,409 
22,935,635 
14,145,566 
19,406,451 
18,985.953 
21,190.417 


Imports. 


Tetal  Exports 
and  Imports. 


§1,104 
1,153. 
1,046, 
1,001, 
1,053 
1,131. 
1,156, 
1,503, 
1,545, 
1,475, 
1,547, 
1,408, 
1,319, 
1,314, 
1,408, 
1,419, 
1,487 
1,647, 
1.729 
1,857, 
1,714 
1,547 
1,539 
1,662 
1,815, 


,616.132 
.:*:'. o>2 
448,147 
125,861 
798.346 
917,298 
217,216 
593,404 
041,974 
181,831 
020,316 
211,302 
717,084 
960,966 
502,979 
911,621 
533,027 
139.093 
397,006 
680,610 
066.116 
135194 
508,130 
331,612 
723,968 


Excess  of        Excess  of 
Exports.  Imports. 


§18,875,698 


§119,656,000 


79, 
151 
257 
264. 
167 
259. 

25, 
100. 

72 
164. 

44; 

23, 


643,481 
152,094 
814,234 
661,666 
683,912 
712,718 
902,683 
65*.4»S 
815.916 
662,426 
088,694 
863,443 


19,562,725 


68. 
39, 
202, 


518.275 
564.614 
875,686 


2S.01 12.61.7 
2,730,277 


102 

615 


145,950 
568.200 
882.264 
263,141 
431,676 


18,7^5,728 


The  imports  and  exports  of  specie  are  not  included  in  the  above  table. 

VALUE  OF  IMPORTS  INTO  AND  EXPORTS  FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  MERCHANDISE, 

YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  1898. 


Exports. 


COUNTRIES. 


Austria-Hungary 

Azores  &  Madeira  Isles. 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Gibraltar 

Greece 

Greenland.  Iceland,  etc. 

Italy 

Malta.  Gozo,  etc 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Roumania 

Russia,  Baltic,  etc 

Russia,  Black  Sea 

Servia 

Spain 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Switzerland 

Turkey  in  Europe 

Gt.  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Bermuda 

British  Honduras 

British  North  America : 

Nova  Scotia, N.  Bruns- 
wick, etc 

Quebec,  Ontario,  etc.. 

British  Columbia 

Newfoundland  &  Lab- 
rador   

Cent'l  American  States: 

Costa  Rica 

Guatemala 

Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Salvador 

Mexico 

Miquelon,  Langley.  etc 
West  Indies: 

British 

Danish 

Dutch 

French 

Hayti 

Santo  Domingo 

Cuba 


Domestic.    Foreign. 


Imports. 


$5,469,853 

364,529 

47,466,600 

12,680,619 

93.790,717 

153.171.100 

304,332 

127,559 

225 

23,067,997 

64,352 

63,417,547 

3,532,057 

111,164 

6,234.128 

1,084,880 


1228,069 

299 

152,601 

16,802' 

1,668,573 

1,868,872 

497 


222,861! 
'856,977 


§4,716 

23 

8,741 

211 

52,730 

69,697 

32 

910 

144 

20,332 

13 

12,525 

2,605 


10,202,389 
6,311.393 
263,970 
139,075 
534.398,302 
962.200 
563,399 


4,269,437 
09.074*339 

4,106,689 

i 

1,170,900 

1,259,268 
1,162.572 
706,793 
910,200 
780,634 
20,405.952 
195,764 

8,236,678 
704.034 
541,295 
1,605,044 
2,691,550 
1,087,179 
9,233,894 


17,074  2,825, 
....  I  1,714 
....     I  12 

3.575 
2,675 
11,380 
2,119 
108,945 
459, 
171 


26,156 
2,393 ! 


6,542,303 
24.715 
12.712 


269.531 

5,843,455 

150,635 

4,833 

260,893 
39,142 
45.410 

139.305 
15.941 

800,987 
9,241 

150.562 

3.588 

3,168 

12,086 

277,029 

64,079 

327,762 


4,095 
23.143 
4,631 


Countries. 


372,115 


2,732 
1,854, 

784 
1,095, 

799. 
19,004, 

161, 

10,632 
327, 
174 
30, 
876, 
2,382 
15.232 


West  Indies—  Con'd  : 

Porto  Rico 

Argentine  Republic. 

Bolivia 

Brazil 

Chile 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Guianas : 

British 

Dutch 

French  

Paraguay 

Peru 

Uruguay 

Venezuela 

Aden 

China 

East  Indies : 

British 

Dutch 

French 

Hong  Kong 

Japan 

Korea 

Russia,  Asiatic 

Turkey  in  Asia 

All  other  Asia 

British  Australasia . 
French  Oceanica  — 
Hawaiian  Islands... 
Tonga,  Samoa,  etc... 
Philippine  Islands.. 

British  Africa 

Canary  Islands 

French  Africa 

Liberia 

Madagascar 

Portuguese  Africa.. 

Spanish  Africa 

Egypt 

Tripoli 

All  other  Africa 

All  other  Islands  and 

Ports 


Exports. 


Domestic.  !    Foreign. 


Imports. 


§1,481,629 
5,948.846 
20,451 
13,262,951 
2,349,955 
3,204.440 
853,772 

1,703,071 

406,030 

149,023 

699 

1,298,570 

1,130,239 

2,704,908 

593.345 

9,992,070 

4,694,663 

1,201,405 

152,265 

6,233.607 

20,354,689 

125,936 

618,015 

242,992 

433,626 

15.520,987 

289,285 

5,773,672 

39,982 

127,787 

12,013.037 

272,289 

664.800 

12,553 

226,738 

2,897,657 

29,674 

816,605 

559,188 

50,537 


§24,317 

480,224 

224 

54,085 

1,772 

72,817 

1,421 

44,304 
2,384 
1,018 


§2,414,356 
5,915,879 


4,125 
84,009 
41,353 


824 


1,350 
11 


31.593 
30,852 


Total §1,210,291,913 


198 

350 

88,876 

11,399 

133,483 


17 

14,105 

2,538 

3,386 

130 


61,750,369 

3,736,307 

5,183,604 

765,590 

3,060,968 

1,457,135 

12,551 


714,247 

1,772.480 

7,722.564 

2,017,756 

20,326,436 

27,238,459 
14,529,335 


746,517 
25,223,610 


401 1 
310 


111,050 

2,325,078 

76,352 

5,578,898 

185,121 

17,187,380 

68,605 

3,830,415 

876,338 

26,283 

476,836 

6,670 

16,772 

15,343 

33 

5,017,707 

65,810 

692,847 


§21,190,417  $616,050,654 


466 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


THE  WHEAT  CROP  OF   THE  WORLD,  IN  BUSHELS,  1898. 


Countries. 


United  States 

Canada 

Argentina 

Chile 

Austria 

Hungary* 

Roumania 

Turkey  in  Europe . 


Bushels. 


Countries. 


Bushels. 


597,2!>4,ooo  Bulgaria 

58,10i»,()(M)  Italv 

63,844,000   Spain 

18,444,000  France 

41,144,000    (lennany 

130,525,000   Belgium 

69,519,000  KGreat  Britain 
102,150,000!  Russiat 


Countries. 


45,978,000  British  India. 

116,337.000  Egypt 

97,042.000  Algeria 

350,431,000  Australasia. 


111,798.000 
51,281,000 
63,844,000 

374,550,000 


Other  countries. 


Bushels. 


242,890,000 
17,026,000 

24,118,000 
36,887,000 
57,551,000 


The  World ■2,070,822,000 


*  With  Croatia  and  Slavonia.        t  With  Siberia  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  above  estimate  of  production  of  wheat  in  1898  was  made  by  the  Hungarian  Minister  of  Agriculture  in  his 
annual  report,  August,  1898. 

The  rye  crop  of  principal  countries  in  1890-91  was:  Austria,  63,000,000  bushels;  Hungary,  32,760,000  bushels; 
United  States,  33,000,000  bushels;  Russia,  539,000,000  bushels. 


ANIMAL,    VEGETABLE,  AND 
MINERAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

With  the  Names  of  the  Countries  Producing  Them. 

Agates — Africa  and  several  parts  of  Europe,  but 
chiefly  Iceland,  Saxony,  and  Tuscany. 

Alabastei — Spain,  Italy,  England,  America. 

Alcanet  (root) — Imported  from  the  Levant,  or  the 
neighborhood  of  Montpellier  in  France. 

Alligator — North  America,  South  America,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Africa. 

Almonds— Spain,  France,  Italy,  the  Levant,  Arabia, 
Isia,  Africa.    Indigenous  to  Greece. 

Aloes— America,  the  West  Indies.  The  medicinal 
Aloes  are  indigenous  to  India,  Africa,  and  Italy. 

Amber — Ih  mines  in  Prussia,  near  the  seacoast;  on 
the  shores  of  Sicily  and  the  Adriatic;  on  the  south- 
ern shores  of  the  Baltic  and  eastern  shores  of  England  ; 
Mexico. 

Amethyst— Sweden,    Bohemia,    Saxony,    and   other 

Sarts  of  Europe;  Siberia,  India  (  Ceylon),  Mexico, 
razil. 

Anchovy — The  Mediterranean  (chiefly  off  Gorgona), 
off  the  coast  of  Spain,  France,  and  Italy ;  and  occasion- 
ally off  those  of  England. 

Anise  Seeds — Egypt,  to  which  they  are  indigenous ; 
Syria  and  other  Eastern  countries;  Spain,  Malta, 
America. 

Ant-Bear— South  America  (Brazil,  Guiana),  East 
Indies,  and  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Antelope — Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Arabia. 

Apes — Asia  (the  East  Indies),  and  Africa. 

Armadillo— Mexico,  South  America. 

Arnotto — South  America,  East  Indies,  West  Indies. 

Arrack  (a  spirituous  liquor) — Batavia,  from  rice; 
Goa,  from  the  juice  of  the  cocoa  tree. 

Arrowroot  —  East  Indies,  South  America,  West 
Indies. 

Arsenic — Great  Britain,  Saxony,  Bohemia,  Hungary. 
Mexico. 

Asafcetida  (a  kind  of  gum) — Persia. 

Asbestos  (an  incombustible  kind  of  earth) — The 
Ural  and  some  other  European  mountains ;  Swedish 
Lapland,  Candia,  China,  North  America. 

Asphaltum  (a  friable  kind  of  bitumen)— The  Dead 
Sea,  many  parts  of  Europe  and  America,  the  Island  of 
Trinidad. 

Baboons — Asia  (Borneo  and  the  Philippine  Islands), 
and  the  hot  parts  of  Africa. 

Bamboo  Cane — The  East  Indies,  China,  West  Indies 
and  America. 

Banana — Egypt  and  the  West  Indies,  and  other 
tropical  countries. 

Barilla  (an  alkaline  salt,  used  in  making  glass) — 
Spain  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  South  America,  West 
Indies. 

Bear— The  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  Arabia. 
Egypt,  Barbary,  Japan,  Ceylon,  North  America,  Peru. 

Beaver — The  north  part  of  Europe,  Asia, and  America. 

Bergamot  (a  perfume) — Bergamo,  in  Italy. 

Beryl(a  gem)  —  Siberia,  Dauria,  mi  the  frontiers  of 
China,  Saxony,  south  of  France,  North  America,  Brazil. 

Betel  (a  shrub,  whose  leaf  is  chewed)— The  East  In- 
dies. 

Bird  of  l'aradise— The  islands  of  Papua  and  Droo. 


Bison — Poland,  Lithuania  and  North  America. 

Black  Bear  —  India,  Africa,  America,  Kamchatka. 

Black  Eagle — Abyssinia. 

Black  Fox  —  The  north  of  Europe,  Siberia,  North 
America. 

Black  Swan  —  Botany  Bay. 

Boa  Constrictor — Africa,  South  America,  India. 

Box  Wood  —  Spain,  Turkey,  America. 

Brandy  —  France,  (chiefly  in  Cognac  and  Nantes); 
also  in  England,  Spain,  and  the  United  States,  but  of  in- 
ferior quality. 

Brazil-Wood  —  Brazil  (Pernambuco)  and  other  parts 
of  America ;  the  East  Indies. 

Bread-Fruit —  Otaheite  and  other  South  Sea  Islands. 

Buffalo  — Asia,  Africa,  America. 

Burgundy  Wine  —  France. 

Calabash  Tree  —  The  East  Indies,  America,  West 
Indies. 

Camel — Tartary,  Siberia,  Thibet,  China. 

Camelopard — Africa,  Senaar,  Abyssinia,  Ethiopia, 
and  the  neighborhood  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Camphor  (a  vegetable  product)— China,  Japan,  and 
the  East  India  Islands,  Borneo,  and  Ceylon. 

Canary  Birds  —  Africa,  the  Canary  Islands,  Italy,  and 
Greece. 

Cantharides  (a  kind  of  beetle  used  in  making  blis- 
ters)—  Spain,  Italy, and  south  of  France. 

Cape  Madeira  Wine  —  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Capers  (the  buds  of  a  plant) — The  south  of  France, 
Italy,  and  the  Levant. 

Capsicum  (a  pepper  plant)  —  East  Indies,  Mexico, 
South  America,  West  Indies. 

Caraway  Seeds— England,  America. 

Cardamom  Seeds  — Fust  Indies  (Malabar). 

Carmine  (a  color  prepared  from  cochineal)— East 
Indies,  Mexico,  South  America. 

Cassada  (an  edible  root)  — South  America  and  the 
West  Indies. 

Cassia  (an  aromatic  bark)  — China,  East  Indies,  South 
America,  West  Indies. 

Castor  Oil  (from  the  seeds  of  a  species  of  palm)— 
The  East  Indies,  South  America,  West  Indies. 

Cat's-Eye(akindof  gem)— Ceylon,  Siberia,  America. 

Catechu  (a  vegetable  extract)—  Fast  Indies,  Bombay, 
Bengal. 

Caviare  (a  food  made  from  the  roes  of  sturgeon)  — 
Russia. 

Cedar— Syria,  chiefly  about  Mt.  Libanue;  America. 

Cayenne  Pepper  — Fast  Indies,  South  America,  West 
Indies. 

Chameleon  —  Egypt  and  Barbary,  India,  Mexico, 
Guiana. 

Chamois  Goat  — The  Alps  and  Pyrenees. 

Champagne  Wine  — France,  United  States. 

Chestnut  — Italy,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  America. 

Chigger  (a  species  of  flea  that  breeds  under  the  skin) 
—  South  America, 

Chinchilla  (fur)— Chile. 

Chocolate  (Cacao)  — Mexico,  South  America,  West 
Indies. 

Ciunabar  (a  red  paint)  — The  palatinate  of  Germany, 
Bohemia,  Almadeu  in  Spain,  and  India. 

Cinnamon —The  Kiist  Indies,  chiefly  Ceylon;  South 
America  (Guiana). 

Citron  —Europe  (Italy),  Asia,  West  Indies. 

Civet  (an  animal  perfume)  —Africa  (coast  of  Guinea),  ' 
India,  Brazil. 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


467 


Claret  Wine  —  The  neighborhood  of  Garonne  on  the 
western  coast  of  France ;  Doited  States. 

Cloves  — The  Molucca  Islands  (chiefly  Amboyna) ;  the 
isles  of  France  and  Bourbon ;  South  America  (Cayenne). 

Cochineal  (an  insect  used  in  dyeing  and  painting] — 
The  East  Indies.  Mexico.  South  America. 

Cockatoo  — Fast  Indies,  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian 
Ocean;  Banda,  Ceram,  the  Philippines,  and  Sunda 
Isles. 

Cocoamit  —  The  East  Indies,  Arabia,  Africa,  South 
America,  West  Indies. 

Cockroach  (a  kind  of  beetle) —  Asia,  America,  West 
Indies. 

Coffee— Arabia  (Mocha),  East  Indies,  West  Indies, 
South  America. 

Condor  (a  bird  of  prey)  —  South  America. 

Constantia  Wine  —  Constantia  Farm,  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

Copal  (a  kind  of  resin)  —  Africa  (Guinea),  and 
America. 

Copper  —  Anglesea  and  Cornwall,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  and  various  parts  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  "China,  and  Japan ;  Southern  Africa, 
United  States,  Peru,  and  Chili. 

Coral  (a  marine  animal  production)— The  Mediter- 
ranean (about  Sicily,  Majorca,  and  Minorca),  the  Red 
Sea  ;  off  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  America ;  in  the  South 
Seas. 

Coriander  Seed  —  South  of  Europe;  England  and 
America. 

Cork  —  Portugal,  Spain,  and  other  parts  in  the  south 
of  Europe;  Sicily  (on  Mt.  Etna),  the  shores  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, South  America. 

Cornelian  —  The  East  Indies,  Arabia,  Egypt,  various 
parts  of  Europe,  several  of  the  British  shores,  America. 

Cotton  — The  Levant,  Egypt,  the  East  Indies,  South 
America.  United  States,  West  Indies.  The  finest  now 
produced  is  the  Sea  Island  Cotton  of  Georgia,  South 
Carolina,  and  Florida. 

Crocodile  —  Africa  (the  rivers  Nile  and  Senegal,  and 
all  the  rivers  of  Guinea);  India  (the  Ganges). 

Crystal  (a  kind  of  gem)—  Madagascar,  South  Amer- 
ica (Brazil,  Guiana),  North  America,  Norway,  the  Alps, 
Scotland. 

Currants  —  The  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago, 
England,  and  the  United  States. 

Cypress  —  The  east  of  Europe,  the  Levant,  Asia, 
America. 

Dates  —  Egypt,  the  African  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean, Arabia,  the  East  Indies,  Persia,  Spain,  and   Italy. 

Diamonds — The  East  Indies  (Golconda,  Raolconda, 
Borneo),  Mexico,  Brazil,  South  Africa. 

Dolphin  —The  Atlantic  and  Pacific  seas. 

Dragon's*Blood(a  kind  of  resin)  —  Japan,  Cochin- 
China,  Java,  and  other  parts  of  the  East. 

Dromedary —  The  deserts  of  Arabia  and  other  parts  of 
Asia,  and  of  Africa. 

Ebony  —  The  East  Indies  (chiefly  Ceylon),  and  West 
Indies. 

Kider  Down  (from  the  Eider  Duck)— The  north  of 
Europe  (chiefly  Iceland),  Asia,  America. 

Elephant  — Africa  and  the  East  Indies.  The  most 
esteemed  are  those  of  Ceylon. 

Elk  or  Moose  Deer —  North  America,  some  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  as  far  south  as  Japan. 

Emerald — Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  Russia,  the  confines 
of  Persia,  Mexico,  Peru. 

Emery  (mineral  used  in  polishing  steel)  —  The  Le- 
vant, Naxos,  and  other  Grecian  Islands,  Germany,  Guern- 
sey, Spain,  Italy,  United  States. 

Ermine  (a  species  of  ferret)  —  Norway,  Lapland,  Fin- 
land, North  America,  Siberia,  China. 

Fan  Palm  — The  south  of  Europe,  the  East  Indies 
(Malabar  and  Ceylon),  Japan,  Cochin  China. 

Figs  — Italy,  the  Levant,  Turkey,  the  Grecian  Islands, 
Portugal,  Spain,  and  south  of  France. 

Fire-fly — America,  India.  Japan. 

Fitchet  (a  species  of  weasel)— India, NewSouth  Wales. 

Flamingo  —  Africa,  South  America,  West  Indies. 

Flax  —  Every  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Flying-fish  —  Inhabits  the  European,  Red,  and  Amer- 
ican seas,  but  is  found  chiefly  between  the  tropics. 

Flying  squirrel — North  America. 

Frankincense  (a  kind  of  gum)  —  Arabia. 

French  Plums  —  Chiefly  from  Bordeaux, 

Frontignac  wine  —  Languedoc,  France. 

Fuller's  Earth— Sweden,  Saxony,  Portugal,  Eng- 


land; the  finest  and  most  plentiful  found  at  Warden, 
near  Woburn. 

Galls  (a  vegetable  excrescence) — Asia  Minor,  and 
Syria,  the  best  from  Aleppo. 

Gamboge  (a  resinous  gum)  — Tonquin,  the  East  In- 
dies. 

Garnet  — Bohemia,  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  Mada- 
gascar, Ethiopia,  India,  Syria. 

Gazelle  —India,  Persia*,  Egypt.  Ethiopia. 

Gentian  (a  kind  of  bitter  root) —  The  Alps,  and  other 
mountainous  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Gin — Originally  Schiedam,  a  village  near  Rotterdam 
in  Holland,  and  hence  sometimes  called  Holland  Gin. 
Common  gin,  a  deleterious  mixture,  made  in  great  quan- 
tities in  England  and  the  United  States. 

Ginger  (an  aromatic  root)  — The  East  Indies,  West 
Indies,  Abyssinia, coasts  of  Guinea. 

Gold  —  Asia  (Arania),  India,  Java.  Sumatra,  Peru, 
China,  Japan,  Siberia,  Africa,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Chile, 
United  States. 

Golden  Eagle  —  Europe,  Siberia,  Abyssinia. 

Golden  Pheasant —  China. 

Gourd  —  America,  south  of  Europe. 

Grapes  —  France,  Portugal,  America,  in  great  per- 
fection ;  not  so  in  England  and  other  less  genial  cli- 
mates. 

Guava  (a  fruit)—  The  West  Indies. 

Guaiacum  (the  resin  of  the  Lignum  Vita?  tree) — South 
America  and  West  Indies. 

Guinea  Fowl  —  Africa. 

Gum  Arabic  —  Egypt,  Barbary,  Turkey,  Persian 
Gulf. 

Gypsum  (or  Plaster  of  Paris) — America,  Spain,  Italy, 
England. 

Heliotrope  (or  blood-stone)  —  Siberia,  Persia,  Buk- 
haria. 

Hemp  —  Russia  and  other  parts  of  Europe  (the  best 
from  Riga),  America,  the  East  Indies,  and  some  parts  of 
England. 

Hickory  Nut —  North  America. 

Hippopotamus —All  the  lakes  and  a  number  of 
rivers  of  Africa. 

Hock  Wine  —  Hockstedt  in  Suabia. 

Humming  Bird  — South  America  (Guiana),  West 
Indies,  and  United  States. 

Hyelfa  (a  species  of  wild  dog) — India,  Persia,  Africa. 

Ichneumon  (a  species  of  weasel) — Egypt,  Barbary, 
the  south  of  Asia,  and  the  Indian  Islands. 

Incense  (a  resinous  perfume)  — America. 

India  Rubber  (the  inspissated  resinous  juice  of  a 
tree) —  Guiana,  and  other  parts  of  South  America. 

Indigo  (a  deep  blue  vegetable  dye)— East  Indies, 
Africa,  America,  West  Indies. 

Ipecacuanha  (a  kind  of  root  used  chiefly  as  an 
emetic) — South  America  (Brazil),  and  the  West  Indies. 

Iron  — Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  England,  Scotland, 
North  America,  Africa. 

Isinglass  (fish  glue)— Russia. 

Ivory  —  Asia  (Achem  and  Ceylon),  Africa  (Guinea 
and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope). 

Jackal  (a  species  of  wild  dog)  —  Africa  and  the  warm 
parts  of  Asia. 

Jalap  (a  purgative  root)  —  Chiefly  from  Xalapa  in 
Mexico.  . 

Jasper  — Egypt,  Siberia,  Spain,  Sicily,  Hungary, 
Bohemia,  Saxony,  Silesia,  Mexico. 

Jet  — Great  Britain,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain. 

Juniper  Berries  (from  which  Holland  gin  is  dis- 
tilled)—  Sweden,  Holland,  Germany,  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope, Asia,  America. 

Kangaroo —  Australasia. 

Lac  (a  vegetable  substance  prepared  by  an  insect)  — 
The  East  Indies,  Bengal. 

Llama  (a  species  of  camel) — Peru  and  Chile. 

Lantern  Fly —  Surinam,  and  other  parts  of  South 
America. 

Lapis  Lazuli  (a  kind  of  siliceous  earth)  — Siberia, 
China.  Tartary.  America,  and  various  parts  of  Europe. 

Lemons  — Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Italy,  the  Levant, 
Arabia,  Jamaica,  Mexico,  and  Florida. 

Leopard  —  Senegal,  Guinea,  and  other  parts  of 
Africa. 

Lignum  Vitae  —  West  Indies,  chiefly  Jamaica. 

Limes  — America,  West  Indies. 


468 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Lion  — Africa,  India,  Persia,  Japan. 

Lodestone  —Denmark,    Sweden,   Norway,  Lapland. 

Locust  —  Inhabits  Tartary,  and  migrates  in  great 
swarms  into  various  parts  of  Europe,  Africa,  and 
America. 

Logwood — Honduras  and  the  West  Indies. 

Lory  (a  beautiful  species  of  parrot)  —  The  Molucca 
Islands,  Java,  and  New  Guinea. 

Lotus  (a  species  of  water  lily)  — The  hot  parts  of 
Africa,  East  Indies,  America. 

Lynx  (a.  species  of  cat)— The  north  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America. 

Macaroni —  Italy,  Sicily,  Germany. 

Mace  —  Banda  Isle  and  other  East  Indies. 

Madder  (a  root  used  in  dyeing)—  The  south  of  Europe, 
Holland,  and  England. 

Madeira  Wine  — The  Island  of  Madeira. 

Mahogany — Jamaica  (the  best),  Cuba,  Hayti,  the 
Bahama  Islands,  Honduras,  Panama,  South  America. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn  —  America. 

Malmsey  Wine  —  Malvesia,  one  of  the  Grecian 
Islands. 

Manganese  (a  species  of  calcareous  earth)  —  Sweden, 
Germany,  France,  England. 

Mangrove— Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America,  be- 
tween the  tropics. 

Manna  (a  vegetable  product)  —  The  south  of  Europe, 
particularly  Sicily  and  Calabria. 

Maple  Sugar  —  Europe  and  North  America. 

Marble  — Spain,  France,  Italy,  Sweden,  Norway,  the 
Island  of  Paros,  England,  Scotland,  America.  The 
Statuary  Marble  is  from  Paros  and  Carrara. 

Melons  — Asia,  South  of  Europe,  Egypt'  Arabia, 
America,  West  Indies. 

Mica  (a  kind  of  argillaceous  earth)— Siberia,  Ben- 
gal, Malabar,  Russia,  Finland,  Sweden,  Saxony. 

Millet  Seed  —  The  south  of  Europe,  Africa,  East  In- 
dies, and  America. 

Mocho  Stone  —  East  Indies,  Iceland,  the  palatinate 
of  the  Rhine  and  other  parts  of  Europe. 

Monkeys  —  South  America  and  the  hottest  regions  of 
Asia  and  Africa. 

Molasses  — West  Indies,  United  States  (Louisiana). 

Morocco  Leather  —  The  Levant,  Barbary,  Spain, 
France,  Flanders,  England,  and  America. 

Mosquito  (a  species  of  gnat)  —  The  hot  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America. 

Mother  of  Pearl  (the  lining  of  the  pearl  mussel's 
shell)  —  The  Red  Sea,  East  Indies,  America. 

Mulberry  — Italy  (black),  China,  (white),  United 
States  (white  and  red),  East  Indies,  Japan,  Siberia, 
Russia. 

Muscatel  Wine  —  Languedoc  in  France. 

Musk  (an  animal  odoriferous  substance)  —  Siberia, 
Persia,  Thibet,  Tonquin,  Cochin  China. 

Musk  Ox  — North  America. 

Myrrh  (a  gum  resin)— The  coast  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Naphtha  (a  highly  inflammable  fluid  bitumen)  — 
Baku,  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Persia,  Media, 
Tartary,  China,  Italy,  Peru. 

Natron  (soda)  —Denmark,  Hungary,  Switzerland, 
Egypt,  China,  Bengal,  Persia,  Syria,  South  America. 

Nautilus  Argonauta  —  The  Mediterranean,  African, 
and  Indian  Seas. 

Nitre  (a  neutral  salt,  the  chief  ingredient  in  gun- 
powder)— Spain,  France,  Naples,  Egypt,  East  Indies, 
America. 

Nutmegs  —  The  East  Indies,  South  America. 

Olives  — Portugal,  Spain,  France,  Italv,  Northern 
Africa,  Mexico. 

Onyx  —  East  Indies,  Siberia,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Portu- 
gal, Mexico. 

Opium  (a  concreted  juice,  obtained  from  a  species  of 
poppy) — Arabia,  Persia,  and  other  warm  regions  of 
Asia,  especially  the  East  Indies. 

Opossum  —  America. 

Orang-outang  —  Africa- 
Oranges  —  Spain,  Majorca,  Portugal,  Italv,  Genoa, 
Nice,  the  Azores,  America,  West  Indies.  Oranges  for 
wine  from  Seville  in  Spain. 

Orpiment  (yellow  arsenic)  —  Hungary,  Georgia,  Tur- 
key, the  Levant,  England.  « 

Orrig  Root  —  Italy  and  other  parts  of  the  south  of 
Europe. 

Ostrich  —  The  torrid  regions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  South 
America. 

Attar  of  Roses  —  Arabia,  Persia,  Turkey,  East  In- 
dies, 


Ounce  —  The  torrid  parts  of  Africa  and  Asia. 

Palm  Oil  Tree  —  South  America. 

Panther — Africa  and  the  hot  parts  of  Asia. 

•Papyrus  (a  plant  which  formed  the  paper  of  the  earlv 
times)  — Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Ethiopia,  Syria,  Sicilv,  Mad- 
agascar. 

Parrots  —  Africa,  East  Indies,  South  America,  West 
Indies. 

Pearl  (a  gem  produced  by  a  species  of  ovster  or  mus- 
sel) —  Arabia,  Persia,  the  East  Indies,  America. 

Pearl  Ashes — America. 

Pelican  —South  America,  all  the  warm  latitudes  of 
the  old  and  new  continents,  the  lakes  of  Judea  and 
Egypt,  and  the  rivers  Nile  and  Strymon. 

Penguin  —  The  South  Islands,  Europe,  America. 

Pepper— The  East  Indies,  America,  West  Indies.  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

Peruvian  Bark  —  South  America  (Peru  and  Quito). 

Petroleum— The  East  Indies,  Persia,  Media,  Siberia. 
France,  England,  Germany,  Spain,  Italy ,  and  the  United 
States. 

Pimento  — The  West  Indies,  particularly  Jamaica. 

Pineapple  —  Mexico,  South  America,  the  hot  parts  of 
Africa,  India,  the  West  Indies. 

Pitch  —United  States,  Sweden,  Norway. 

Plantain  (a  fruit)  — Africa,  South  America,  West  In- 
dies. 

Platina  —  South  America  (near  Quito,  Santa  Fe\  and 
Choco). 

Plumbago —England,  and  several  countries  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  America. 

Pomegranate—  Spain,  Italy,  Africa,  West  Indies. 

Porcupine  —  Spain,  Italy,  India,  Persia,  South  Tar- 
tary, Africa,  America. 

Porphyry  —  Egypt,  Italy,  Germany,  and  other  parts 
of  the  continent. 

Potash  —  Russia"and  America. 

Prunes  —  France  (chiefly  from  the  neighborhood  of 
Marseilles). 

Ptarmigan  (white  grouse)  —  The  mountainous  parts 
of  Europe  and  Siberia. 

Pomace  Stone —  The  neighborhood  of  Vesuvius  and 
other  volcanoes. 

Pumpkin  —  Germany  and  America. 

Quagga  (a  quadruped  of  the  horse  species)  —  South 
America. 

Quassia  (the  root,  bark,  and  wood,  of  a  tree)—  South 
America,  and  the  West  Indies. 

Quicksilver —  Ionia,  Hungary,  Spain,  Italy,  East 
Indies,  South  America." 

Raccoon  (a  species  of  badger)  —  North  America. 
Jamaica. 

Raisins  —Spain  and  Turkey,  Asia  Minor,  California. 

Rattan  Cane  —  The  East  India  Islands. 

Red  Port  AVine  —  Oporto  in  Portugal. 

Reindeer  —  Lapland,  British  America,  Greenland. 

Resin  (the  residuum  from  the  distillation  of  the  oil  of 
turpentine)  — Sweden  and  Norway,  United  States. 

Rhenish  Wine — The  banks  of  the  Rhine. 

Rhinoceros — Africa,  East  Indies  (Bengal,  Java, 
Sumatra,  Ceylon). 

Rhubarb  — Asiatic  Turkey,  Russia,  China,  Persia. 
Tartary,  East  Indies,  and  America. 

Rice'  —  Asia  (the  East  Indies  and  China),  Egypt,  north 
of  Africa,  America  (the  best  from  Carolina),  Spain, 
Italy,  Turkey. 

Rock  Salt  —  England,  Italy,  Poland,  America. 

Rosewood  — Jamaica,  the  Canary  Islands. 

Ruby  —  The  East  Indies,  Peru,  Brazil. 

Rum  — Jamaica,  and  other  West  India  Islands. 

Sable  (a  species  of  ferret)—  Siberia,  Kamchatka, 
and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

Saffron  (the  flower  of  a  plant)  —  Egypt,  Europe, 
America. 

Sago  (a  fecula  obtained  from  the  pith  of  a  species  of 
palm)  — Africa,  Malabar,  and  the  East  Indian  Islands. 

Sal  Ammoniac  — India,  Persia.  Isle  of  Bourbon, 
Egypt,  the  neighborhood  of  .Etna,  Vesuvius,  Hecla,and 
other  volcanoes,  the  Lapiri  Islands. 

Sandal  Wood— The  East  Indies,  and  Sandwich 
Islands. 

Sapphire  —  Brazil,  East  Indies,  Persia,  Bohemia 
France. 

Sardonyx — Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  Bohemia,  Sax- 
ony, Ceylon. 

Sarsaparilla  (root  of  a  plant)  —  North  America. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


469 


Sassafras  (the  root,  bark,  and  wood  of  a  tree) — North 
America. 

Scorpion  —  Africa,  India,  Persia,  America. 

Seal  —  The  north  of  Europe,  Greenland,  and  the  Arc- 
tic Sea,  the  lower  parts  of  South  America,  in  both 
oceans. 

Senna  (the  leaves  of  a  plant) — Arabia,  Persia,  and 
Upper  Egypt. 

Shaddock  (a  species  of  citron)— East  Indies,  West 
Indies. 

Shagreen  (a  grained  leather  prepared  from  the  skin 
of  a  species  of  shark)  —  Constantinople.Tripoli,  Algiers, 
and  some  parts  of  Poland. 

Sherry  Wine  —  Xeres  in  Spain. 

Silk  —Spain,  the  south  of  France,  Italy,  the  Levant, 
Persia,  China.  East  Indies,  and  United  States. 

Silver  —  Africa,  Mexico,  Peru,  United  .States,  Spain, 
Germany,  Siberia,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  England. 

Silver  Bear  —  The  confines  of  Russia. 

Soy  (a  liquid  condiment  prepared  from  a  kind  of 
pulse)  —  China  and  Japan. 

Spermaceti  —  The  produce  .of  the  Cachalot,  a  whale, 
inhabiting  the  European  seas,  the  coasts  of  America, 
and  Davis  Straits. 

Sponge  (a  marine  animal  production)  —  The  Archi- 
pelago, the  Mediterranean  and  Indian  Seas. 

Spoonbill— South  America,  Mexico,  Jamaica. 

Stork— Abyssinia,  Arabia,  Asia. 

Sturgeon  —  European  and  American  seas  and  rivers. 

Sugar  —  East  India  Islands,  China,  West  Indies, 
Louisiana. 

Sulphur  —  Italy,  Sicily,  Naples,  Spain,  Norway, 
Siberia. 

Sumach  (a  plant  used  in  dyeing  and  tanning)— Spain, 
Portugal,  the  Levant,  and  United  States. 

Swordfish  —  The  Mediterranean,  Atlantic  and  East 
Indian  Seas. 

Tamarinds  — Arabia,  the  East  Indies,  America, 
West  Indies. 

Tapir  (an  animal  of  the  class  mammalia) — South 
America. 

Tar —  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway,  France,  Switzerland, 
America. 

Tarantula  Spider— South  of  Europe,  Barbary,  East 
and  West  Indies. 

Tea— China,  Japan,  India. 


Teak  Wood— East  Indies,  (Malabar,  Pegu). 

Tiger— East  Indies,  China,  Japan,  Africa. 

Tin— England,  the  Scilly  Islands,  Bohemia,  Saxoiry, 
Silesia, Banca,  Molucca,  Chile,  Mexico. 

Timber— Norway,  Prussia,  Russia,  America. 

Tobacco  — United  States,  Peru,  the  West  Indies, 
Asiatic  Turkey,  China,  Philippine  Islands. 

Tokay  Wine— Hungary. 

Tolu  'Balsam  (a  fragrant  concreted  juice)  — South 
America. 

Topaz  —  Africa,  East  Indies,  Siberia,  Russia,  Bohe- 
mia, Saxony,  Mexico,  Brazil. 

Tortoise*—  Africa,  Sardinia,  America,  and  West  In- 
dies. 

Treacle  (a  gross  fluid,  obtained  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar) — The  West  Indies  and  Louisiana. 

Turpentine  (the  resinous  product  of  different  species 
of  pine,  from  which  an  essential  oil  is  distilled)  —  North 
America,  Russia,  Norway,  France,  Switzerland,  the  Pyr- 
enees, and  Germany. 

Turquoise  (a  mineral  of  a  pale  sky  blue  color)—  Per- 
sia, Mount  Caucasus,  Egypt,  Arabia,"  Hungary,  France. 

Vampire  Bat  —  East  Indian  Islands,  South  America, 
Guinea,  Madagascar,  New  Holland,  New  Hebrides, 
Friendly  Islands,  New  Caledonia. 

Vanilla  (a  plant  whose  aromatic  pods  are  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  chocolate)  —  South  America,  West  In- 
dies. 

Vulture— Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Arabia,  Syria,  Persia, 
South  America,  West  Indies. 

Walrus  —  The  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla, 
Hudson's  Bay,  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Icy  Sea. 

Whale  —  Greenland,  Davis  Straits,  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  Seas. 

Whisky  (a  spirit  drawn  from  barley,  rye,  corn) — 
United  States,  Scotland,  and  Ireland. 

White  Bear—  Tartary. 

Wolf  —  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America. 

Yams  (the  edible  roots  of  a  creeping  plant)  —  Amer- 
ica, West  Indies,  East  Indies,  Africa. 

Zebra  (a  species  of  horse)—  The  plains  of  Southern 
Africa. 
Zinc—  Germany,  United  States,  and  South  America. 


RAILWAY  MILEAGE  IX  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

BY  STATES  AND  TERRITORIES. 


Mileage  on  June  30, 1897. 


State  or  Territory. 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona , 

Arkansas.. 

California 

Colorado  

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Territory 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi , 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 


Official. 

Unofficial. 

Total 
Mileage. 

3,752.66 

93.75 

3,846.41 

1,320.07 

1,320.07 

2,706.45 

40.78 

2,747.23 

5.218.89 

55.59 

5,274  48 

4,535.09 

37.10 

4,572.19 

1,009.05 

1,009.05 

317.36 

317.36 

29.75 

29.75 

3,127  85 

55.00 

3,182.85 

5,203.43 

200.00 

5,403.43 

1,106.91 

1,106.91 

10,752.27 

23.31 

10.775.58 

6,383.25 

1.00 

6,384.25 

1,200.44 

1,2)0  44 

8,508.98 

1.87 

8,510.85 

8,794  38 

8.791  38 

3,022.49 

18.06 

3.040  55 

2.352.26 

45.25 

2,397.51 

1,707.36 

34.32 

1.741.68 

1.253.19 

88.06 

1,341.25 

2,089.65 

29.80 

2.119.4S 

7,808.42 

133.75 

7.942.17 

1     6,198.10 

6,198.10 

2.505.77 

29.00 

2,594.77 

6,637 .33 

11.97 

6,649.30 

2.907.45 

2,907.45 

5.557.05 

32.00 

5,589.05 

908.37 

908.37 

1,222.18 

3.33 

1,225.51 

State  or  Territory. 


New  Jersey 2 


Mileage  on  June  30, 1897. 


Official.    Unofficial. 


New  Mexico. 

New  York 

North  Carolina . 
North  Dakota. . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania... 
Rhode"  Island . . . 
South  Carolina. 
South  Dakota. . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia  . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


,202.36 
,487.03 
,131.07 
,500.48 
,547.00 
,719.25 
454.20 
,529.59 
,886.33 
220.56 
,596.82 
,782.58 
009.96 
,503.53 
,415>4 
988.56 
574.95 
691.081 
070.27! 
231.94 
179.97 


1     Total 
Mileage. 


Grand 
Grand 
Grand 
Grand 
Grand 
Grand 
Grand 
Grand 


total  in  C 
total  in  I". 
total  in  U. 
total  in  U. 
total  in  1". 
total  in  U. 
total  in  I*, 
total  in  I". 


S.  1897  182,919.82 

S.  1896  181,153.77 

S.  1895  179,175.51 

S.  1894  176,602.61 

S.  1893  170,332.30 

S.  1892  166,690.97 

S.  1891  164.602.79 

S.  1890  159,271.74i 


18.00 

'  12.88 
34.00 

'  10.00 
5.00 

'  81.79 

'33  50 
16.84 
82.00 
61.40 


70.60 
138.70 
10.00 


1,508.65 
1,622.86 
1,481.96 
2,105.94 
6,128.77 
5,872.55 
3,799.95 
4,325.31 


2,220.36 
1,487.03 
8,143.90 
3,534.45 
2,547.00 
8,729.25 

459  20 
1,529.59 
9,968.12 

220.56 
2,630.32 
2,799.42 
3,091.96 
9,564.93 
1,415.84 

988.56 
3.645  55 
2,829.78 
2,080.27 
6,231.94 
1,179.97 


184.428.47 
182.776.63 
180.657.47 
178,708.55 
176,461.07 
171,563.52 
168,402.74 
163,597.05 


470 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


RAILROAD  TRAFFIC  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Coo*™.          |  «j£* 

Cost  of  Roads 
'and  Equip- 
ments. 

Passengers 
Carried. 

Tons 

of  Freight 

Carried. 

Receipts. 

Expenditures. 

Europe 

130,000 
191,010 
5,530 
17,630 
10,140 

§15,272,000,000 

11,740,000,000 

335,000,000 

860,000,000 

470,000,000 

1,663,000,000 
507,000,000 

12,000,000 
121,000,000 

81,000,000 

765,000,000 

619,000,000 

5,000,000 

25,000,000 

17,000,000 

$1,275,000,000 

1,095,000,000 

20,000,000 

85,000,000 

40,000,000 

|C76,000,000 

America 

776,000,000 

15,000 ,000 

45.000.(100 

25,000.000 

Total 

354,310 

$28,677,000,000 

2,384,000,000 

1,431,000,000 

$2,515,01)0,000 

$1,535,000,000 

This  table  of  statistics  of  the  railroads  of  the  world  is  by  Mulhall,  and  represents  the  business  of  the  year 
1890.  The  following  statement  of  the  railroad  mileage  of  the  world  is  from  the  latest  bulletin  of  the  International 
Railway  Congress :  North  America,  203,138;  South  America,  23,779;  Europe,  152,423;  Asia,  26,078;  Africa,  8,141; 
Australia,  13,795.    Total,  427,374. 


From 


Railroad  Mileage  by  Countries. 

Archiv  fur  Eisenbahnwesen,"  as  translated  from  the  original  data  in  metric  units  by  the 
Railroad  Gazette: — 


Countries.  Miles. 

All  of  Germany 29,422 

Austro  -  Hungary     (including 

Bosnia,  etc.) 19,997 

G  reat  Britain  and  Ireland 21 ,265 

France 25,585 

Russia  (including  Finland)... .  24,012 

Italy 9,599 

Belgium 3,500 

Netherlands  (including   Lux- 
embourg)     1,944 

Switzerland 2,214 

Spain 7,632 

Portugal 1,465 

Denmark 1,435 

Norway 1,204 

Sweden 6,149 

Servia 354 

Roumania 1,789 

Greece..., 592 

European    Turkey,   Bulgaria, 

and  Roumelia 1,510 

Malta,  Jersey,  Man 68 

Total,  Europe 159,824 


Countries. 
Central  America. 


Miles. 
621 


United  States 182,746 

British   North   America    and 

Newfoundland 16,737 

Mexico 7,388 


Total,  North  America 207,483 

United  States  of  Colombia 346 

Cuba 1,076 

Venezuela 634 

San  Domingo 117 

Brazil 8,092 

Argentine 8,337 

Paraguay 157 

Uruguay 1,119 

Chile 2,505 

Peru 1 ,036 

Bolivar 621 

Ecuador 186 

British  Guiana 22 

Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  Trinidad, 

Martinique,  and  Porto  Rico.  522 

Total,  South  America 25,370 

British  India 20,173 

Ceylon 297 

Asia  Minor  and  Syria 1,559 

Russia  (Transcaspian  District)       940 

Siberia 1,888 

Persia 34 

Dutch  India 1,293 

Japan 2,290 


Countries.  Miles. 

Portuguese  India 51 

Malay  States 101 

China 269 

Siam 89 

Cochin   China,     Pondieherry, 

Malacca,  and  Tonquin 231 

Total,  Asia 29,275 

Egypt 1,446 

Algiers  and  Tunis 2,560 

Cape  Colony 2,500 

Natal 402 

South  African  Republic 627 

Orange  Free  State 621 

Mauritius,  Reunion,  Senegal, 
Angola,   Mozambique,   and 

Congo 1,044 

Total,  Africa 9,200 

Australia 13,902 

RECAPITULATION. 

Europe 159,824 

North  America 207,493 

South  America 25,370 

Asia 20.275 

Africa 9.200 

Australia 18,902 

Total .445,064 


INSURANCE. 

A  Stock  Insurance  Company  is  one  whose  cap- 
ital is  owned  by  stockholders,  they  alone  shar- 
ing the  profits,  and  they  alone  being  liable  for 
losses.  The  business  of  such  a  company,  and  also 
of  a  mixed  company,  is  managed  by  directors 
chosen  by  the  stockholders.  Policy  holders,  un- 
less at  the  same  time  stockholders,  have  no 
voice  in  the  management  of  the  company's 
business  or  in  the  election  of  its  officers. 

A  Mutual  Insurance  Company  is  one  in  which 
the  profits  and  losses  are  shared  among  the 
policy  holders  (the  insured). 

Mixed  Companies  are  a  combination  of  the 
foregoing.  In  a  mixed  company  all  profits 
above  a  certain  fixed  dividend  are  usually  di- 
vided among  the  policy  holders. 

Some  mutual  and  mixed  companies  issue 
what  are  called  non-participating  policies.  The 
holders  of  these  do  not  share  in  the  profits  or 
losses. 

Fire  Insurance. —  Policies  for  fire  insur- 


ance are  generally  issued  for  periods  of  one 
to  five  years.  Ordinarily,  in  case  of  loss  by 
fire,  the  insured  will  be  paid  the  extent  of  his 
loss  up  to  the  amount  of  insurance,  unless  the 
insurance  company  prefer  to  replace  or  repair 
the  damaged  property,  which  privilege  is  usu- 
ally reserved.  If  the  policy  contains  the  "  aver- 
age clause  "  the  payment  will  cover  only  such 
portion  of  the  loss  as  the  amount  of  insurance 
bears  to  the  value  of  the  property  insured. 

A  Floating  Policy  is  one  which  covers  prop- 
erty stored  in  several  buildings  or  places.  The 
name  is  applied  more  particularly  to  policies 
which  cover  goods  whose  location  may  lie 
changed  in  process  of  manufacture,  or  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  business.  The  "average 
clause  "  is  a  usual  condition  of  policies  of  this 
class. 

Short  Rates  are  rates  for  a  term  less  than  a 
year.  If  an  insurance  policy  is  terminated  at 
the  request  of  the  policy  holder,  the  company 
retains  the  customary  "short  rates"  for  the 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


471 


time  the  policy  has  been  in  force,  as  shown  by 
the  following  table  : — 


Policy 

Policy 

Policy 

Policy 

Policy 

ror 

for 

roi 

for 

for 

1  year. 

2  years. 

3  years. 

4  years. 

.".  \  ea  re. 

1  mo. 

2  mo. 

3  mo. 

4  mo. 

5  rao. 

2     " 

4     •■ 

6    " 

8    " 

10    " 

3     " 

6     " 

9    " 

12    " 

15    " 

-t     - 

8    " 

12    " 

16    " 

20    " 

5     " 

10    " 

15    " 

20    " 

25    " 

12    " 

18    " 

24    " 

30    " 

7     " 

14    " 

21     " 

28    " 

35    " 

8     '• 

16    " 

24    " 

32    " 

40    " 

9     « 

u  •• 

27     " 

36    " 

45     " 

LO     " 

20    " 

30     " 

40    " 

50    •« 

11     " 

22    " 

33     '• 

44    " 

55    " 

Charge  this 
proportion 

of  whole 
Premium. 


20  per  cent. 

30 

40  " 

50 

60 

70  " 

75  " 

80  " 

85 

90  " 

95 


When  a  policy  is  terminated  at  the  option  of 
the  company,  a  ratable  portion  of  the  premium 
is  refunded  for  the  unexpired  term. 

Life  Insurance. — In  ordinary  life  poli- 
cies a  certain  premium  is  to  be  paid  every  year 
until  the  death  of  the  insured,  when  the  policy 
becomes  payable  to  the  beneficiary.  There  are 
other  kind  of  policies,  however,  and  these  are 
described  below  : — 

Limited  Payment  Life  Policy. —  Conditions: 
Premiums  to  be  paid  annually  for  a  certain 
fixed  number  of  years,  or  until  the  death  of  the 
insured,  should  that  occur  prior  to  the  expira- 
tion of  this  period.  Policy  payable  at  death 
of  the  insured.  Advantages :  Payments  on 
this  kind  of  policy  may  all  be  made  while  the 
insured  is  best  able  to  make  them,  and  if  he 
live  to  an  old  age,  the  policy  will  not  be  a  con- 
tinual burden,  but  will  rather  be  a  source  of 
income,  as  the  yearly  dividends  may  be  taken 
out  in  cash  or  added  to  the  amount  of  insur- 
ance. 

Term  Life  Policy. —  In  this  method  of  insur- 
ance, the  insurance  company  agrees  to  pay  to 
the  beneficiaries  a  certain  sum  on  the  death  of 
the  insured,  should  that  event  occur  within  a 
fixed  term. 

"Endowment  Polio/. —  A  combination  of  a 
Term  Policy  and  a  Pure  Endowment.  These 
policies  are  issued  for  endowment  periods  of 
in.  l."i.  20,  25,  30,  or  35  years,  and  may  be 
paid  up  by  a  single  payment,  by  an  annual 
premium  during  the  endowment  period,  or  by 
five  or  ten  annual  payments.  Conditions:  1. 
Insurance  during  a  stipulated  period,  payable 
at  the  death  of  the  insured,  should  that  event 
happen  within  said  period.  2.  An  endow- 
ment of  the  same  amount  as  the  policy,  paya- 
ble to  the  insured,  if  still  living  at  the  end  of 
the  period  fixed.  Advantages  :  Limited  term 
of  payments  :  insurance  during  the  time  when 
the  death  of  the  insured  would  cause  most  em- 
barrassment to  his  family :  provision  for  old 
age,  as  the  amount  of  the  policy  will  be  paid 


to  the  insured  if  still  living,  at  a  time  when 
advanced  age  may  make  it  of  great  benefit. 

A n unity  Policies  are  secured  by  a  single  cash 
payment  and  insure  the  holder  the  yearlv  pay- 
ment of  a  certain  sum  of  money  during  life. 

Joint  Life  Policy. —  An  agreement  to  pay  a 
certain  sum  on  the  death  of  any  one  of  two  or 
more  persons  thus  insured. 

Non-forfeiting  Policies  do  not  become  void 
for  non-payment  of  premiums.  In  some  com- 
panies all  limited- payment  life  policies,  and  all 
endowment  policies,  after  premiums  for  three 
(or  two)  years  have  been  paid,  and  the  origi- 
nal policy  is  surrendered  within  a  certain  time, 
provide  for  paid-up  assurance  for  as  many  parts 
of  the  original  amount  assured  as  there  shall 
have  been  complete  annual  premiums  received 
in  cash  by  the  company.  Some  companies 
voluntarily  apply  all  credited  dividends  to  the 
continuance  of  the  insurance.  Others  apply 
the  legal  reserve  to  the  purchase  of  term  insur- 
ance at  regular  rates. 

Special  Forms. — The  Reserve  Endowment, 
Tontine  Investment,  and  other  special  policies 
guarantee  to  the  holder  a  definite  surrender 
value  at  the  termination  of  certain  periods. 
The  surrender  value  of  a  policy  is  the  amount 
in  cash  which  the  company  will  pay  the  holder 
of  a  policy  on  its  surrender  —  the  legal  reserve 
less  a  certain  per  cent,  for  expenses. 

The  Preserve  of  life  insurance  policies  is  the 
present  value  of  the  amount  to  be  paid  at  death, 
less  the  present  value  of  all  the  net  premiums 
to  be  paid  in  the  future. 

The  Reserve  Fund  of  a  life  insurance  com- 
pany is  that  sum  in  hand  which,  invested  at  a 
given  rate  of  interest,  together  with  future 
premiums  on  existing  policies,  should  be  suf- 
ficient to  meet  all  obligations  as  they  become 
due.  It  is  the  sum  of  the  separate  reserves  of 
the  several  policies  outstanding. 

Marine  and  Transit  Insurance. — In- 
surance of  vessels  and  their  cargoes  against 
the  perils  of  navigation  is  termed  Marine  In- 
surance. 

Inland  and  Transit  Insurance  refer  to  insur- 
ance of  merchandise  while  being  transported 
from  place  to  place  either  by  rail  or  water 
routes,  or  both. 

Insurance  Certificates,  showing  that  certain 
property  has  been  insured  and  stating  the 
amount  of  the  insurance  and  the  name  of 
the  party  abroad  who  is  authorized  to  make  the 
settlement,  are  issued  by  marine  companies. 
They  are  negotiable  and  are  usually  sent  to  the 
consignee  of  the  merchandise  to  make  the  loss 
payable  at  the  port  of  destination. 

The  adjustment  of  marine  policies  in  case  of 
loss  is  on  the  same  principle  as  the  adjustment 
of  fire  policies  containing  the  "  average  clause. " 


472 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Open  Policies  are  such  upon  which  additional 
insurances  may  be  entered  at  different  times. 

PUBLIC    DEBT   OF   THE   UNITED 
STATES. 

OFFICIAL  STATEMENT  OF  NOVEMBER  1,  1898. 
Classification  of  Debt  November  1,1898. 

Interest-bearing  debt $1,026,766,960  00 

Debt  on  which  interest  has  ceased  since 

maturity 1,246,870  26 

Debt  bearing  no  interest 383,191,367  64 


Aggregate  of  interest  and  non-interest 
bearing  debt 8(1,411.205,197  90 

Certificates  and  Treasury  notes  offset 
by  an  equal  amount  of  cash  in  the 
Treasury ' 563,631,933  00 


Aggregate  of  debt,  including  certificates 
and  Treasury  notes $1,964,837,130  90 

Cash  in  the  Treasury. 

Gold  certificates $36,940,149  00 

Silver  certificates 398,753,504  00 

Certificates  of  deposit,  act 

June  8, 1872 20.105,000  00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 97,833,280  00 


Fund  for  redemption  of  un- 

current     National     bank 

notes $9,101,914  43 

Outstanding     checks     and 

drafts 6,096,687  58 

Disbursing  officers'  balances.. 58,91 1,586  64 
Agency  accounts,  etc 5,269,000  36 

Sold    reserve 

$100,000,000  00 
Net  cash  bal- 
ance  200,238,275  30 


$553,631,933  00 


Wages  and  Cost  of  Living. 

From  the  report  of  the  Secretary  of  State  on  the  state 
of  labor  in  Europe,  derived  from  facts  reported  by  the 
United  States  Consuls  corrected  to  1892,  the  following 
tables  are  gleaned : — 

COMPARATIVE  RATES  OF  WEEKLY  WAGES  PAID 
IN  EUROPE  AND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Bookbinders 

Bricklayers 

Cabinetmakers  — 

Carpenters  &  Join- 
ers  

Farm  Laborers 

Laborers,  Porters, 
etc 

Painters 

Plasterers 

Plumbers 

Printers 

Shoemakers 

Tailors 

Tinsmiths 


U.  S. 


5.55  3.50  3.90  6.50-  6.60 
5.4".  3.55  S. 947. 04-  8  12 
4.85  3.82  3.90  .50-  7.83 
4.00 ,3. 60;?. 45 17.68-  9.03 
6.00  3.97  3.^17.70-8.48 

5.42  4.0o'4. 187. 33- 8.25 
'3.15  2.87  3.50  3.40-  4.25 


....  2.92  2.60  4.50-5.00 
4.90  3.92  4.60  7.25-  8.16 
...  3.80  4.35  7.68-10.13 
5.50  3.60  3.90  7.13-  8.46 
4.70  4.80  3.90,7.52-  7.75 
4.75  3.12  4.32|  7.35 

5.10  3.58  4.30  5.00-  7.30 
4.40  3.65  3.60  6.00-7.30 


M 

u 

o 

c 
fig 

a 

'* 

o 

a 

s. 

*A 

O 

$ 

$ 

5-  8 

8-  12 

10-14 

9-  12 

12-18 

9-  20 

12-15 

9-  10i 

9-13 

7-15 

9-12 

7J-12 

6-  9! 

5i-  9 

10-16 

6-  12 

10-15 

9-  15 

12  18 

12-  20 

8-18 

12-  18 

12-18 1 

9-  18 

10-18 

6-  18 

10-14 1 

9-  12 

79,379,189  01 


.300,238,275  30 


Aggregate $933,249,397  31 

Cash  balance  in  the  Treasury  November  1, 
1898 $300 ,238,275  30 

Interest-bearing  Debt. 

Funded  loan  of  1895 $25,364,500  00 

Funded  loan  of  1907 559,646,000  00 

Refunding  certificates 40,980  00 

Loan  of  1904 100,000,000  00 

Loan  of  1925 162,315.400  00 

Two-twenties  of  1898 179,399,180  00 


Aggregate  of  Interest-bearing  debt,  ex- 
clusive of  United  States  Bonds  issued  to 
Pacific  railroads $1,026,766,960  00 

Debt  on  which  Interest  has  Ceased  since  Ma- 
turity. 
Aggregate    debt  on    which   interest  has 
ceased  since  maturity $1,246,870  26 

Debt  Bearing  no  Interest. 

United  States  notes $346,681,016  00 

Old  demand  notes 53,997  50 

National  bank  notes : 

Redemption  account 29,572.380  00 

Fractional  currency . 6,883,974  14 

Aggregate  of  debt  bearing  no  interest $383,191,367  64 

Certificates  and  Notes  Issued  on  Deposits  of 
Coin  and  Legal-tender  Notes  and  Purchases 
of  Silver  Bullion. 

Gold  certificates $30,940,149  00 

Silver  certificates 398,753.5'4  00 

Certificates  of  deposit 20,105.000  00 

Treasury  notes  of  1890 97,833,280  00 

Aggregate  of  certificates  and  Treasurv 
notes,  offset  by  cash  in  the  Treasury... ".$553,631 ,933  CO 


Night  Signals  on  Ocean  Steamship 
Lines. 

American—  Red  light,  roman  candle  throwing  six  red 
balls. 

Anchor — Red  and  white  lights  alternately-  (lanterns). 

Allans- Three  blue  lights  displayed  in  form  of  triangle. 

Cunti  rd— Blue  light  and  two  roman  candles,  each  throw- 
ing six  blue  balls. 

French — Blue  light  forward,  white  light  amidships,  red 
light  aft  simultaneously. 

Guion— Blue  lights,  forward,  aft,  and  on  bridge  simul- 
taneously. 

II<t mburg— Two  red,  white,  blue  Coston  lights  at  stern 
of  vessel  in  succession. 

Iiiinnn— Blue  light  forward  and  aft,  and  red  light  on 
bridge  simultaneously. 

Monarch — Green,  white,  green  Coston  light. 

National— Blue  light  forward  and  aft,  and  red  light  on 
bridge  forming  a  triangle. 

North  German  Lloyd — Two  blue,  red  Coston  lights,  one 
forward  and  one  aft  simultaneously. 

Bed  Star — Red  light  forward,  amidships,  and  aft,  to- 
gether. 

State— Blue,  red  Coston  lights. 

White  Star— Two  green  lights  simultaneously. 

Designating  Marks  of  Ocean 

Steamship  Lines. 

lines.  funnel  marks. 

American — Lower  two  thirds  red,  with  white  keystone, 

black  top. 
Anchor — Black. 

Allan— Red,  with  white  ring  under  black  top. 
Cunard — Red,  with  black  top. 
French — Red,  with  black  top. 
Guion—  Lower  two  thirds  black,  a  red  band  and  black 

top. 
Hamburg — Black. 
Inman—  Lower  two  thirds  black,  white  band  and  black 

top. 
Monarch — French-grav  and  black  top. 
National — White,  with  black  top. 
North  German  Lloyd — Black. 

Red  Star — Cream  color,  with  black  top  with  red  star. 
Royal  Netherlands— Black,  with  band   having  green 

border. 
State — Lower  two  thirds  buff,  red  band  under  black  top. 
White  Star— Cream,  black  top. 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


473 


PRODUCTION    OF    COAL. 

AREA  OF  THE  WORLD'S  COAL  FIELDS,  IX 
SQUARE  MILES. 

China  and  Japan,  200,000;  United  States,  194,000; 
India,  35.000;  Russia,  27.000;  Great  Britain,  9.000;  Ger- 
many. 3.6O0;  France,  l,8O0:  Belgium,  Spain,  and  other 
countries,  1.400.    Total.  471.800. 

The  coal  fields  of  China,  Japan,  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  and  India  contain  apparently  303.000,000,- 
000  tons,  -which  is  enough  for  700  years  at  present  rate 
of  consumption.    If  to  the  above  be  added  the   coal 


fields  in  the  United  States,  Canada,  and  other  countries, 
the  supply  will  be  found  ample  for  1.000  years.  Im- 
proved machinery  has  greatly  Increased  the  yield  per 
miner,  and  thus  produced  a  fall  In  price  to  the  advan- 
tage of  all  industries. 

The  production  of  the  principal  coal  countries  in  1896 
was:  United  Kingdom,  195.361.000  tons;  United  States, 
186.186,611  tons ;  Germanv,  85.690,000  tons;  France,  28,- 
"50,000  tons:  Belgium,  21.252.000  tons;  Spain,  1.853,000 
tons ;  Canada,  3  750.000  tons ;  New  South  Wales.  3.750,000 
tons;  India,  3,84*. 000  tons;  Russia  (1894).  7,437,000  tons; 
Japan  (1894-95),  4,261.218  tons.  There  is  also  a  large  pro- 
duction of  coal  in  China,  but  statistics  are  indefinite. 


COAL  PRODUCTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Compiled  from  the  report  of  "  The  Mineral  Industry."  covering  products  of  1897.     Weight  expressed  in  short 

tons  of  2,000  pounds. 


States. 


Tons. 


States. 


Tons. 


States. 


Tons. 


States. 


Tons. 


Alabama 5,868.271    Iowa 4.560,000   Nebraska 500  Tennessee 2,902,341 

Arkansas 826,243   Kansas 3.672.195   New  Mexico 733.539  Texas '  598,987 

California 87.449   Kentucky 3.340,273   North  Carolina..             20,611   Utah |  506,455 

Colorado 3,5S5.»>40    Maryland 4.411,932   North  Dakota. ..            120,000   Virginia !  1,418.746 

Georgia 196,268   Michigan 152.850   Ohio 12,46-5.5X3  Washington 1.4*9,815 

Illinois* 20,072.758   Missouri* 2.429.388  Oregon |  110,929  West  Virginia...  13.762.133 

Indiana 4,223,086   Montana* 1,603,237   Pennsylvania....     107.035,691   Wvoming :  2,744,960 

Indian  Terrify*.     1,334.795  1 ! || || 

*  Fiscal  year.  Total  production  :  Bituminous,  147,557.980  tons ;  value,  8120,505,982.  Anthracite,  52,645,133  tons ; 
value,  $86857,717.  Cannel  (produced  in  Kentucky),  56,511  tons;  value,  §153,145.  Grand  total,  200,259,624  tons; 
value,  S206,516,844. 


PRODUCTION    OF    COPPER,    TIN, 
AND  ZINC. 

The  production  of  copper  in  the  world  in  1897,  stated 
in  long  tons,  was  as  follows:  United  States,  227.763; 
Spain  and  Portugal.  54.000 :  Chile,  21.900:  Japan,  23,000;- 
Germanv.  20.145:  Mexico,  15,038;  Australia,  17,000;  South 
Africa,  7.440;  other  countries.  25,704.     Total,  412,050. 

The  copper  production  of  the  United  States  in  1897, 
in  pounds,  was  distributed  as  follows  :  Arizona,  81,019,- 
922;  California,  14,129,920;  Colorado,  9,437,663 ;  Michigan, 


145,839,749 ;  Montana,  237,158,540 ;  Utah,  3,854,821 ;  Eastern 
and  Southern  States,  3,727,939;  all  others,  2,018,929; 
copper  in  sulphate,  13,003,236.    Total,  510,190,719. 

The  production  of  tin  in  the  world  in  1897,  in  long 
tons,  was  as  follows:  England,  4.500;  Straits  Settle- 
ments, 44.900;  Australia,  3,466;  Banka.  Billiton,  and 
Singkel,  14,800 ;  Bolivia,  5,506.    Total,  73,172. 

The  production  of  zinc  in  the  world  in  1897,  in  metric 
tons,  was  as  follows :  Austria.  9,332 ;  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  the  Rhine  district  of  Germany,  187,406;  Upper 
Silesia,  95,550;  France  and  Spain,  32.634:  England.  23,- 
805 ;  Russia,  5,852 ;  United  States,  91,071.    Total,  446,650. 


THE  FLEET  OF  TRANSATLANTIC  PASSENGER  STEAMERS. 

Includes  only  regular  passenger  lines  from  New  York.     Offices  and  piers  are  in  Manhattan  Borough,  unless 

otherwise  stated. 


Steamships. 


Built. 


Place. 


Builders. 


Tonnage. 

Horse 
Power. 

*> 

» 

X 

■ 

8 

o 

■3 
■    « 

"3  =5 

S3 

a 

ce  © 

-  z 

« 

m     Commander. 


Dimensions 
in  Feet. 


- 


ALLAN-STATE  LINE. 
(Office,  53  Broadway.) 


New  York  and  Glasgow,  Pier  foot  I 

West  21st  St. [_ 

State  of  Nebraska.  1880  Glasgow jLond.  &  Gl'gow  Co.,  Ld.  2580  4000J 

Mongolian 1891  Glasgow [Lond.  &  Gl'gow  Co.,  Ld.  30K0  4*3* 

Numidian 1891  Glasgow Lond.  &  Gl'gow  Co.,  Ld.  3080  4838 

Laurentian 1872  Glasgow |Lond.  &  Gl'gow  Co.,  Ld !  4522 


State  Line  Established  1872. 


650  Brown I  385  43     32 

...Braes 40045     33.6 

....  40045     [33.6 

I....I I  400  42.535.3 


New  York  and  Southampton,  Pier  I 
foot  Fulton  St.,  N.  R. 


AMERICAN  LINE. 
(Office,  6  Bowling  Green.) 


Established  1892. 


St.  Louis 1894  Philadelphia  . .  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons 5894  11629 

St.  Paul 1894  Philadelphia  . .  Wm.  Cramp  &  Sons 5874  11629 

Paris 18*9  Glasgow J.  &  G.  Thomson 6289  10795 

New  York 1888  Glasgow J.  &  G.  Thomson 6318  10803 

New  York  and  Glasgow,  Pier  foot ) 
West  24th  St.  ( 


20000  ....  Randle    535.8  63    1  42 

20000 Jamison 535.8  63  42 

20000  2000  Watkins 580     63.3  42 

20000  2000  Passow 580     63.3J  42 


ANCHOR  LINE. 
(Office,  7  Bowling  Green.) 


Established  1852. 


Citv  of  Rome 1**1  Barrow Barrow  S.  B.  Co 3453  8144 

Anchoria 1874  Barrow Barrow  S.  B.  Co 2713  4168 

Bolivia 1873  Port  Glasgow..  R.  Duncan  &  Co 2626  4050 

Circassia 1878  Barrow Barrow  S.  B.  Co 2770  4272 

Ethiopia 1873  G lasgow A.  Stephen  &  Son 2604  4005 

Furnessia 1880  Barrow Barrow  S.  B.Co 2013  5495 


1500  Young. 561  53  37 

C17  John  Wilson  . .  408  40  34 

1120 Craig.. 400;  40  25 

600 400  42  26 

720  Wads  worth  ...  402  42  26 

600  Harris 445  46  35 


474 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  Fleet  of  Transatlantic  Passenger  Steamers 

— Continued. 

Built. 

Builders. 

Tonnage. 

Hocse 
Power. 

Commander, 

Dimensions 
in  Feet. 

Steamships. 

ei 

Place. 

e 

00 

■ 

o 

0 

i 

—  - 
B  - 

'A 

U.  a] 

p 

a 
3 
i-l 

5 

a. 

a 

New  York,  Queenstown,  and  Liver- 
pool. Pier  font  Clarkson  St. 

Campania j  1892  Fairfield . 

Lucania i  1892  Fairfield . 

Etruria [1885  Fairfield. 

Umbria |1884  Fairfield. 

Aurania 1883  Glasgow 

Servia   1 1881  Glasgow. 


CUNA  RI)  LINE. 
(Office,  4  Bowling  Oreen.) 

[Fairfield  Co 50;)0  12950J 

Fairfield  Co 5000  12960 

John  Elder  &  Co 3257  7718 

John  Elder  &  Co 3245  77is 

! J.  &  G.  Thomson 1028  726* 

J.  &  G.  Thomson |3971  7391 


Established  1840. 


30000     *   I  Walker 620    165  3  43 

30000J    *     H.  McKay 620     65.3  43 

14500  2500  Ferguson* 501.6  57.2  38.2 

14500  2500  Dutton 501.6  57.2  38  2 

8500  1500  A.  McKay....    470     57.2  37.2 
10000  1000  Watt 515     52.1  37 


New   York  and   Havre,   Pier  foot  ] 
Morton  St. 


FRENCH  LINK. 
(Office,  3  Bowling  Green.) 


Established  1SC0. 


La  Touraine 1890;  St.  Nazaire  . 

La  Gascogne 1886  Toulon 

La  Champagne 1886  St.  Nazaire   . 

La  Bretagne 1886  St.  Nazaire  . . 

La  Normandie 1882  Barrow,  Eng 

New  York,  Cherbourg,  Southamp- 
ton, Boulogne,  and  Hamburg, 
Pier  foot  1st  St.,  Hoboken. 

Fiirst  Bismarck. . .  1890iStettin 

Augusta  Victoria..  1889!  Stettin 

Pennsylvania 1897  Belfast 

Pretoria 1897i  Hamburg. . 

Palatia 1894  Stettin 

Patria 1894J  Stettin 

Phoenicia 1891j  Hamburg.. 

Armenia 1896  Newcastle. 

Arcadia 1896  Belfast .... 

Arabia 1S96J Belfast .... 

Asturia 1896  Newcastle. 

Andalusia 11896  Newcastle. 

Adria 1896  Newcastle . 

Ambria |l896  Flensburg. 

Alesia 1 1896  Flensburg . 

Aragonia 1898  Flensburg . 

Graf  Waldersse. . .  11897  Hamburg. . 

Patricia 1897  Stettin 

Bulgaria 1898  Hamburg  . 

Brasilia jl898JBelfast  .... 

Deutschlandf I  ••  iStettin 


Cie  Gle  Transatlantique. 

Soc.  des  Forges,  etc [4158 

CieGleTransatlantinue.  3906 
Cie  Gle  Transatlantique.  3889 

3475 


9778 

12000 

7416 

9000 

7110 

9000 

7010 

91)00 

6112 

6500  .... 

Santelli. 
Simon. . 
Poirot. . 
Rup6 . . . 
Fajolle  . 


536      55      38 


50     34 


HAMBURG-AMERICAN  LINE. 
(Office,  37  Broadway.) 


Established  1847. 


12500 
8000 
8000 

8ooo; 

7030 
7000 


I  Vulcan  S.  1$.  Co.. 
Vulcan  S.  B.  Co.. 
Harland  &  Wolff. 
Blohm  &  Vo8S... 
Vulcan  S.  B.  Co. . 
Vulcan  S.  B.  Co.. 
Blohm  &  Voss... 

Palmers 

j  Harland  &  Wolff. 

IHarland&  Wolff 7000 

Palmers TOM 

Palmers ....     7000 

Palmers 7000 

Flensburg  S.  B.  Co 5043 

Flensburg  K.  B.  Co. S06Q 

Flensburg  S.  B.  Co [    5250 

Blohm  &  Voss 13000 

VulcanS.B.  Co 13000 

Blohm  &  Voss 10236 

Harland  &  Wolff 1 0221 


10000  16400  2800 
10000  13500  2500 
12600    6000..... 

6000  .... 

55K>j 

5500 

5500  .... 

3000    .... 

3000! .... 

3000j.... 
3000  .... 
3000  .... 
3000  .... 
5000  .... 
5000  .... 
5000  .... 
6000  .... 

8000  .... 

4000  .... 
4000  .... 


New  York,  Boulogne,  Amsterdam,! 
and  Rotterdam,  Piers  foot  5th  ; 
and  6ih  Sts.,  Iloboken.  ) 


Rotterdam 1  97  Belfast 

Spaarndam 1881  Belfast 

Maasdam 1872  Belfast 

Werkendam 1881  Belfast 

Amsterdam 1879  Belfast 

Edam 1878  Belfast 

Statendam 1898  Belfast 

New  York,  Southampton,  and  Bre- 
men, Pier  2d  St.,  Hoboken.  i 


..  Vulcan  S.  B.  Co.  ■ Mono  :::;ooo 

HOLLAND   AM  Kl.'K  A    LINK. 
NETHERLANDS-AMERICAN  LINE. 

(Office,  39  Broadway.)  

.  I  Harland  &  Wolff .. . 6000 


Albers 

Kaempff.. . 

Spliedt 

Koplf 

Karlowa. . . 

Bauer 

Lcithauser 

Magin 4oO 

Martens 400 

Pietsch j  400 

Kuhn 390 

Schroeder 400 

Renter 4oo 

Froehlich 404 

404 
404 
666 
666 
601 
601 


Krech 

H.  Schmidt... 


58  40 
56  38 
62  42 
62  42 
52  32 
52  32 

52  32 
50  30 
49  30 

49  30  * 

53  29 

50  30 
50  30 
32  25 
32  25 
32  25 
62  42 
62  42 
62  34V2 
62  341 .. 
66  42 


Established  1874. 


Harland  &  Wolff 3123 

Harland  &  Wolff 2T62 

Harland  &  Wolff 2654 

Harland  &  Wolff 2681 1 

Harland  &  Wolff 2361 


8000 

4639 

3984 
3657 
8627 

3329 


Harland  &  Wolff 7000  10500 


5000  .... 

3500  .... 

3500  .... 
2500 

2500  .... 

2100  .... 

5500  .... 


Van  der  Zee  . .  i  485     53     34 

Stenger I  430     42     31 

Ald.Potjer....!  420      II 
Rruinsiua . 
iW.Bakker. 
Is.  de  Yrics. 
Bonjer  


31 

410!  39  29 
411  39  29 
390  38  2:1 
525     60     42 


NORTH  GERMAN  LLOYD. 
(Office,  2  Bowling  Green.) 


Established  1857. 


Kaiser  Wilkelinl 

Der  Grosse 1897  Stettin 

Kaiser  Fried  rich..  1898  Danzig 

Kaiserin Maria  Th.  1898  Stettin 

Lahn 1887 1  Fairfield...  . 

Saale 1886  Glasgow 

Trave 1886  Glasgow'. . . . 

Friedrichd. Crosse  1896  Stettin 

KciniginLuise 1896  Stettin 

Barbarossa 1896  Hamburg. .  . 

Bremen 1896  Danzig 

H.  II.  Meier 1892  .Newcastle  . . 

New  York  a  -.d  Genoa,  Pier  foot  2  1 
St..  Hoboken. 


Kaiser  Wilhelm  lIjl888i.Stettin 

Aller 1886|Glasgow 

Ems 18s4  Glasgow 

Niw  York  and  Antwerp,  Pier  foot 

Fulton  St..  N.  P. 

Kriesiand 1889  Glasgow. . . . 

Westernland 1883  Birkenhead 

Noordland 1883  Birkenhead 

Southwark 1893  Dumbarton 

Kensington 1894  Glasgow 


Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Co.1 .... '  13800 

ScbicbauSnipbuild'gCo 12800 

Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Co.  3769     7800 
Fairfield  E.  &  S.  15.  Co. .  2879     5581 

Elder  &  Co 2779    5381 

Elder  &  Co 2779    5831 

Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Co 10600 

Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Co HWOO 

Blohm  &  Voss |   ...    10600 

SchichauShipbuild'gCo 10600 

Mitchell,  Armstrong  Co 6306 

NORTH  GERMAN  LLOYD. 

(Office,  2  Bowling  Green.) 
Vulcan  Shipbuilding  Co.  4776     6990 

I  Elder*  Co 12779     " 

[Elder  *  Co 

RED  STAR  LINE. 

(Office, 6  Bowling  Green.) 

.1 7&  G.  Thomson 502:;     6821 

Laird  Bros 4320     5094 

Laird  Bros 40l9i   5398 

W.  Dennv  &  Bros 56421   8607 

J.  &  U.  Thomson 5645     8669 


I  I         I 

1  27000  ....  Englehart MO 

25000 Stormer 690 

lTooo  ....  .Meier 546 

ssoo    ...  Pohle 11  1 

75'0 lilanke 455 

7500  ....  Christollers...!  455 

700  1  ....  Eiehel I  546 

7000  ....  v.  Sehucknfnn    544 

7000  ....  Richter 546 

8000  ....  Keimkasten...    544 


3800  ....  Steeneken |  481 


! 

66  43 

64  41 

52  37 

49  37 

48  36 

48  36 


Established  1892. 


Kogemann 465     52     27 

Nierich 455     is     :«; 

llarrassowitz..     445      47      35 


Established  1873. 


son  Nickels 455  61 

700  Mills 455  47 

500  Loesewitz I  419  47 

1237  Bence 494  57 

1237  Bond |  494|  75 


38 
38 

35 
37 
87 


1 26,500  registered,    t  Building. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


475 


The  Fleet  of  Transatlantic  Passenger  Steamers — Continued. 


Steamships. 


Biilt. 


Place. 


Builders. 


Tonnage. 

Horse 
Power. 

o 
'A 

■ 

c 

l-H 

-  z 

Dimensions 
iu  Feet. 


Commander,  i  .d 


New  York,  Cbristiania,  Copenha- 
gen, and  Stettin,  Pier  foot  4th 
St.,  Hoboken. 


SCANDINAVIAN-AMERICAN  LINE. 

(Office,  28  State  St.) 


Established  1879. 


Hekla 1884  Greenock Scott  &  Co 

[gland 1882  ( openhagen. . .  Burmeister  &  Wain. 

Norge 1881  Glasgow Stephens  &  Son 

ThingvaUn 1874  Copenhagen.. .  Burmelster  &  Wain. 


3258  2150  ....  Thomsen  , 

2844  2000|....!skjodt.... 

3359  1600  . . . .  Knudsen  . 

2524  1000  ....  Laub \ 


41  29 

39  29 

41  32 

87  21 


New  York.  Queenatown,  and  Liver- 
pool, Pier  f  >ot  West  10th  St. 


WHITE  STAR  LINE. 
(Office,  9  Broadway.) 


Established  1870. 


Teutonic 1889  Belfast Harland  &  Wold' 4209 

Majestic 1**9  Belfast Harland  &  Wolff 4268 

Britannic 18741  Belfast Harland  &  Wolff 3152! 

Germanic 1874  Belfast Harland  &  Wolff 2989 

Cymric: 1886  Belfast Harland  &  Wolff 8000 

Oceanic 1899  Belfast Harland  &  Wolff 7930 

New  York  and  Hull,  Wilson  Pier,  I 
Brooklyn  Borough.  ) 


9984  16000  1875  Cameron 565 

99651  16000  1875  E.  J.  Smith.. . .    566i 

5004    4590   890  Haddock  455| 


5065!  4500  765  McKinstry 
12340  6700  1197  Lindsay  . . . 
17000 


455 

585 


WILSON  LINE. 
(Office,  29  Broadway.) 


Established  1840. 


Buffalo 1885  Newcastle Palmers 2909  4431 

Ohio 1880  Dumbarton....  A.  McMill  &  Sons 2557  39671 

( loll trado '  1887  Hull Earles 2787  4220 

Martcllo 1884  Hull Earles 2424  3709 

Franciseo    1*91  Newcastle R.  Stephenson  &  Co.,  Ld.  2971  4604 

Hindoo 1889  Newcastle H.  Stephenson  &  Co.,  Ld.  2407,  3720 

Idaho 1897  Wallsend Swan  &  Hunter 4000  6000J 

Chicago 1898  W.Hartlepool.  Furness,  Withy  &  Co....  4384  70001 


600  Malet 385  46 

450Akester 360  43 

6'K»  Whitton 370  45 

550iPotter 370  43 

600  Jenkins 370  47 

600;  Wing 368  43 

....  :  470  50 

....| !  490  52V< 


28 
25 
28 
28 
28 
28 
42 
34% 


FASTEST  ATLANTIC  OCEAN  PASSAGES. 


Route. 


Steamer. 


Line. 


Date. 


D.   H.   M. 


Queenstown  to  New  York. . .  Lncania Cunard Oct.  21-26, 1894 5 

New  York  to  Qoeenstown.. .  Lncania Cunard 'Sept.  8-14, 1894 15  8 

8  »uthampton  to  New  York.  Kaiser  Wilheltn  der  Grosse.. .  North  German  Lloyd..  !Mar.30-Apr.  5. 1898.. j  5  20 

New  York  to  Southampton.  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse...  North  German  Llovd. .{Nov. 23-29, 1897 5  17 

Havre  to  New  York I  .a  Touraine French .*.... 'July  16-23, 1892 6  14 

New  York  to  Havre La  Touraine French |Oct.  29-Nov.  5, 1892. .  |  6  20 


BEST  RECORDS  OF  OTHER  LINES. 


Line. 


Route. 


Steamer. 


Date. 


D.    H.    M. 


American Queenstown  to  New  Y'ork Paris Oct.  14-19,1892 5  14  24 

American Southampton  to  New  York St.  Paul Aug.  8-11,  1896 6  0  31 

American New  York  to  Southampton St.  Louis Sept.  1-8.  1897 6  10  14 

Hamburg-American New  York  to  Southampton Fiirst  Bismarck Oct.  20-27, 1898 6  10  15 

Guion New  York  to  Queenstown Alaska Sept.  12- 19, 1882 6  18  37 

Onion Queenstown  to  New  York. Alaska Sept.  16-22,1883 6  21  40 

White  Star New  York  to  Queenstown Teutonic Oct.  21-27, 1891 5  21  3 

White  Star Queenstown  to  New  York Teutonic Aug.  13-19, 1891 5  16  31 

Anchor Glasgow  to  New  York ('itv  of  Rome Aug.  18-24, 1886 6  20  36 

Anchor New  York  to  Glasgow Citv  of  Rome Aug.  13-19, 1885 6  18  25 

Red  Star New  York  to  Antwerp Friesland August,  1894 8  22  13 

Approximate  distances :  Bandy  Hook  (Lightship),  New  York,  to  Queenstown  (Roche's  Point),  2,800  miles ;  to 
Plymouth (Eddystone), 2,963 miles;  to  Southampton  (The  Needles),  3.100  miles;  to  Havre.  3,170  miles.  The  fast- 
est day's  run  was  made  by  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  der  Grosse,  of  the  North  German  Lloyd  line,  May  2,  3, 1898  —  580 
knots,  or  •_'.!. 43  knots  per  hour. 

THE  RECORD-BREAKERS  IN  THIRTY-EIGHT  YEARS. 

The  following  is  the  succession  of  steamships  which  have  broken  the  record  since  186G,  with  their  running  time 

The  route  in  all  cases  was  i  hat  between  New  Y'ork  and  Queenstown,  east  or  west. 


Dote. 

Steamer. 

D.  II.  M.       Date. 

Steamer. 

]d.  II.  M.ll     Date. 

Steamer. 

1). 

II.  ML 

1:56 

1866 

City  of  Bin 

Baltic 

(itv  of  Berlin. . . 

<  lermanic 

Britannic 

9      1    45  1880 

8      2    48   1882 

7    22      3  1884 

7    20      9   18>4. 

7     15    48   1885 

7    11    :\-  l*s7 

7    10    53    1888 

Arizona 

Alaska 

Oregon 

America 

..7       7     23    1889 

..    6     18    37    1*91 

City  of  Paris 

5 
.5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 

19     18 

18       8 

-  •:'  ic 

..6    11      9    1891 

..    (i     in      0    1892 

..6      5    .".1    1892 

Teutonic 

City  of  Paris 

City  of  Paris. . . . 

Lucania 

16     31 
15     58 
14     24 

1876 

1*77 

rjmbria 

Etruria 

..,6      4    42   1893 

..6      1    55    1894 

12       7 
7     23 

America n  sailing  ship  A.  (1.  Hopes  arrived  off  Sandy  Hook,  March  21, 1898.  in  19 days  from  Liverpool,  Eng.,  having  made  the  trip 
from  Cape  <  lear  I  Irish  coast)  to  Sandy  Hook  (2,700  kiiotsi  in  17  days,  an  average  of  nearly  160  knots  a  day.  .\|,.st  transatlantic 
records  of  sailing  vessels  are  fr  m  Xew'York  to  Liverpool  or  Oueenstown.  There  is  no  record  on  file  from  Liverpool  to  New  York, 
excepting  tliat  of  the  Young  America,  which  made  the  trip  to  Liverpool  in  18  days  and  came  back  in  23  days.  The  famous  Dread- 
naught  once  sailed  to  Liverpool  from  this  port  in  13  days  and  8  hours,  and  the  Red  Jacket  was  a  close  second  in  13  days,  11  hours  and 
25  minutes. 


476 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


THE   SUBMARINE   CABLES   OF   THE   WORLD. 

[From  report  issued  by  the  International  Bureau  of  Telegraph  Administrations.] 

The  following  table  sets  forth  the  entire  system  of  submarine  cables  of  the  world,  including  those  along 
the  shores  and  in  the  bays,  gulfs,  and  estuaries  of  rivers,  but  excepting  those  in  lakes  ami  the  interior  water- 
courses of  continents.  The  list  includes  all  cables  operated  by  private  companies,  and  in  addition  thereto  under 
the  name  of  each  nation  is  given  the  list  of  cables  operated  by  the  government  of  that  nation. 


Companies. 


Anglo-American  Telegraph  Co. : 

Transatlantic  System  —  Valentia  (Ire- 
land) to  Heart  s  Content  (Newfound- 
land)   

Minon,  near  Brest  (France),  to  St. 
Pierre-Miquelon 

Communication  on  American  coasts . . . 

European  Communication 


Total 

Commercial  Cable  Co. : 
Transatlantic  System— Waterville  (Ire- 
land) to  Canso  (Nova  Scotia) 

Canso,  N.  S.,  to  New  York 

Canso,  N.  S.,  to  Rockport,  Mass 

Communication  in  Europe 


Total 

Direct  United  States  Cable  Co. : 
Ballinskellig's   Bay  (Ireland)  to  Hali- 
fax (Nova  Scotia) 

Halifax,  N.  S.,  to  Rye  Beach,  N.  H  . . 


Total 

Western  Union  Telegraph  Co. : 
Transatlantic   System  —  Sennen   Cove, 
near   Penzance,   England,   to    Dover 

Bay,  near  Canso,  N.  S 

Dover  Bay,  N.  S.,  to  New  York 

Gulf  of  Mexico  System 


Total 

Compagnie  Francaise  du  Telegraphe  de 
Paris  k  New  York : 

Brest  (France)  to  St.  Pierre-Mi q 

_St.  Pierre  to  Cape  Cod,  Mass 

Other  branch  lines 


Total 

Compagnie   Francaise   des  Cables  Tele- 
graphiques : 
Brest  (France)  to  Cape  Cod,  Mass. .  . 

African  Direct  Telegraph  Co 

Black  Sea  Telegraph  Co 

Brazilian  Submarine  Telegraph  Co. : 
Carcavellos,  near  Lisbon  (Portugal),  to 
Madeira,  to  St.  Vincent  (Cape  Verde 
Island),  to  Pernambuco  (Brazil) 


SjB 


u 


12 


l'l|^ 

^o« 


7,510 

2,718 

1,964 

101 


12,293 


6,893 
826 
511 
839 


9,069 


2,564 
535 


3,099 


5,107 

1,776 

459 


7,342 


2,282 
828 
422 


3,532 


3,250 

2,938 

337 


6         7,375 


Companies. 


Central  and  South  American  Telegraph 

Co : 

Compagnie  Allemande  des  Cables  Tele- 

graphiques 

Compania     Telegrarico  -  Telefonica     del 

Plata 

Compania    Telegraflco    del    Rio    de   la 

Plata  

Cuba  Submarine  Telegraph  Co. . . 

Direct  Spanish  Telegraph  Co 

Direct  West  India  Cable  Co. : 

Bermuda-Turk's     Island,   and    Turk's 

Island-Tamarique 

Eastern  and  South  African  Telegraph  Co 
Eastern  Extension  Australasia  and  China 

Telegraph  Co 

Eastern  Telegraph  Co. : 

Anglo-Spanish-Poftugucse  System. . 

System  West  of  Malta 

Italo-Greek  System 

Austro-Greek  System 

Greek  System 

Turko-Greek  System 

Turkish  System 

Egypto-European  System 

Egyptian  System 

Egy  pto-Indian  System 


Total 


■is 

£  ft 


Europe  and  Azores  Telegraph  Co 

Great  Northern  Telegraph  Co. : 
Cables  in  Europe  and  Asia 

Halifax  and  Bermuda  Cable  Co 

Indo-European  Telegraph  Co 

India  Rubber,  Gutta  Percha,  and  Tele 
graph  Works  Co 

Mexican  Telegraph  Co 

River  Plate  Telegraph  Co 

Societe  Francaise  des  Telegraphes  Sous- 
Ma  rins 

South  American  Cable  Co 

United  States  and  Havti  Telegraph  and 
Cable  Co 

West  African  Telegraph  Co 

West  Coast  of  America  Telegraph  Co 

Western  and  Brazilian  Telegraph  Co 

West  India  &  Panama  Telegraph  Co 


81      26,153 


3  145 

3        1,527 
1 

U 

2 


Total 318    140,419 


*  Official  figures  not  announced  when  this  list  was  revised. 


Cables  Owned  by  Nations. 


Austria 

Belgium 

Denmark 

France  

Germany 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

Greece 

Holland 

Italy 

Norway 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey  


41 

214 

2 

55 

73 

235 

54 

5,0!5 

58 

2,225 

135 

1,989 

47 

55 

24 

62 

39 

1,061 

325 

324 

4 

115 

9 

231 

15 

1,744 

14 

96 

'2 

10 

23 

344 

Argentine  Republic  and  Brazil 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 

Bahama  Islands 

British  America 

British  India  (Indo-European  Telegraph 

Department) 

China 

Cochin  China  and  Tonquin 

Japan  

Macao 

Nouvelle  Caledonie 

Netherlands  Indies 

Senegal,      Africa  —  Dakar      to      Goree 

Island 


49 
31 

1 
1 

111 

2 
2 
70 
1 
1 
7 


Total 1.142      19,880 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


477 


OCCUPATIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  ENGAGED  IN  PRINCIPAL  SPECIFIED  OCCUPATIONS. 

(Census  of  1890.) 


Occupations. 


All  occupations. 


Agriculture,  fisheries,  mining 

Agricultural  laborers 

Dairymen  and  dairy  women 

Farmers,  planters,  overseers... 

Fishermen  and  oystermcn 

Gardeners,  florists 

Lumbermen  and  raftsmen 

Miners  (coal) 

Miners  (others) 

Quarrymen 

Stock'raisers,  herders,  drovers. 
Wood  choppers 


Professional  service 

Actors 

Architects 

Artists  and  teachers  of  art.. . 
Authors  and  scientific  persons 

Clergymen 

Dentists 

Designers  and  inventors  . . 
Engineers    (civil,    mechanical, 

electrical,  and  mining) 

Journalists 

Lawyers  

Musicians,  teachers  of  music. . . 

Officials  (government1) 

Physicians  and  surgeons 

Professors  in  colleges 

Teachers 

Theatrical  managers,  showmen, 

etc 


Domestic  and  personal  service. 

Barbers  and  hairdressers 

Bartenders 

Boarding    and    lodging   house 

keepers 

Engineers  and  firemen  (not  loco 

moti  ve) , 

Hotel-keepers 

Janitors 

Laborers 

Launderers  and  laundresses 

Nurses  and  midwives 

Saloon  keepers 

Servants 

Soldiers,  sailors,  and  marines. . 


Trade  and  transportation 

Agents  (claim,  commission,  real 
estate,  insurance, etc.) 

Bankers  and  brokers  (mouey 
and  stocks) 

Bookkeepers  and  accountants. . 

Clerks  and  copyists 

Commercial  travelers 

Foremen  and  overseers 

Hackmen,  teamsters,  etc 

Hostlers 

Hucksters  and  peddlers 

Livery -stable  keepers 

Locomotive  engineers  and  fire- 
men  

Merchants  (retail) 

Merchants  (wholesale),  import- 
ers  

Messengers  and  office  boys 

Newspaper  carriers,  newsboys. . 

Officials  of  companies 

Porters  and  helpers 

Sailors 

Salesmen  and  saleswomen 

Steam  railroad  employees 

Stenographers,  typewriters 

Street  railway  employees 


8^333,69? 

2,556,930 
16,072 

5,055,130 
59,887 
70,186 
65,829 
208,330 
140,906 
37,628 
70,047 
33,665 

632,641 


5,779 

8,048 
11,676 

3,989 
87,060 
17,161 

9,086 

43,115 
20,961 
89,422 
27,636 
74,789 
100,248 
4,697 
96,581 

17,421 

2,692,820 


82,151 
55,660 

11,756 

139,718 

38,825 

18,776 

1,858,504 

31,816 

6,688 

69,137 

237,523 

27,919 

3,097,653 


169,704 

29,516 
131,602 
492,852 
58,089 
35,117 
368,265 
54,005 
56,824 
26,719 

79,459 
638,609 

27,334 

48,446 

6.216 

39,719 

24,002 

55,875 

205  931 

381,312 

12,148 

37,423 


32,593 

47 

5,315 

2,780 

54.813 

210,627 

51,402 

2,275 

1,205,876 


228,309 


4,875 

504 

27,772 

64,048 

612 

983 

237 

24 

2,259 

48 

4 
25,451 

198 

2,909 

72 

237 

325 

29 

58,449 

1,438 

21,185 

12 


Occupations. 


Telegraph  and  telephone  oper- 
ators  .' 

Telegraph  and  electric  light 
employees 

Undertakers 


Manufacturing   and   mechanical 
industries 


Bakers 

Blacksmiths 

Bleachers,  dyers,  scourers 

Bookbinders 

Boot  and  shoe  makers 

Brewers  and  maltsters 

Brick  and  tile  makers 

Broom  and  brush  makers 

Builders  and  contractors 

Butchers 

Butter  and  cheese  makers 

Cabinetmakers 

Carpenters  and  joiners 

Carpet-makers 

Carriage  and  wagon  makers. . . 

Clock  and  watch  makers 

Compositors 

Confectioners 

Coopers 

Cotton  mill  operatives 

Distillers  and  rectifiers 

Door,  sash,  and  blind  makers.. 

Dressmakers i 

Engravers 

Glass  workers 

Glove  makers 

Gold  and  silver  workers 

Gunsmiths, locksmiths, and  bell 
hangers 

Harness  and  saddle  makers  and 
repairers 

Hat  and  cap  makers 

Hosiery  and  knitting  mill 
operatives 

Iron  and  steel  workers 

Leather  curriers  and  tanners. . . 

Machinists 

Manufacturers  and  officials 

Marble  and  stone  cutters 

Masons  (brick  and  stone) 

Meat  and  fruit  packers  and  can- 
ners 

Mill  and  factory  operatives 

Millers  (flour  and  grist) 

Milliners 

Molders 

Painters,  glaziers,  varnishers. . . 

Paper-hangers 

Paper  mill  operatives 

Photographers : . . 

Piano  and  organ  makers 

Plasterers 

Plumbers  and  gas  and  steam 
fitters : 

Potters 

Printers  and  pressmen 

Publishers  of  books  and  news- 
papers  

Rubber  factory  operatives 

Saw  and  planing  mill  em- 
ployees   

Seamstresses 

Ship  and  boat  builders 

Silk  mill  operatives 

Steam  boiler  makers 

Tailors  and  tailoresses 

Tinners  ai.d  tinware  makers  — 

Tobacco  factory  operatives 

Wire  workers 

Wood  workers 

Woolen  mill  operatives 


43,740 

10,465 
9,817 


J.064J.44 

57,908 

205.256 

12,495 

12,289 

179,838 

20.277 

60,007 

8,944 

45,9  6 

105,313 

10,941 

35.891 

611,226 

11545 

34,294 

20,543 

23,702 

17,562 

47,435 

80,144 

3,340 

5,034 

828 

8,016 

32,660 

2,760 

16,890 

9,065 

42,612 
17,336 

8,706 
142,087 

39,032 
176  937 
101,216 

61.006 
158,874 

4,604 
51,561 
52,745 
406 
66.241 
218.622 
12.313 
18,869 
17,834 
14,360 
38,912 

56,555 
12.943 
80,899 

6,207 
9,886 

133,216 
3,988 
22.929 
14.192 
21.272 

121,586 
54,427 
83.601 
11.255 
63,529 
47,636 


478 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OP  FACTS. 


THE  WORLD'S  PRODUCTION  OF  WOOL  IN  1898. 


Countries. 

Pounds,    i 

COUNTRIES. 

Pounds. 

COUNTRIES. 

Pounds. 

North  America : 
United  Statest 

1 

266,720,684 
12,000,000 
5,000,000 

Europe : 

Great    Britain    and   Ire- 

138,&7,440 
103,010.000 
102,000,000 

13,410.000 

49,690,000 

21,451,000 

64,300.000 

301,100,000 

8,200,000 

67,500,000; 

14,000,0(11) 

Asia — ('i)iilhun-il . 
British  India , 

85,000.000 

89,000,00? 

35,000,000 
15,000,000 

Total 

283,720,084 

Total 

280,000,000 

5,000,000 

Italy* 

Africa : 

Central    America    and 

Austria-Hungary 

30,425,000 

South  America : 

370,000,000 
1,500,000 
7,500,000 
90,000,000 
15,000,000 
20,000,000, 

Sweden  and  Norway 

Turkey  and  Balkan  Pen- 

Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Or- 
ange Free  State 

Egypt  

105,000,000 
3,000,000 
1.000,000 

All  other  Africa 

Chile 

T    t    1 

139.425,000 

'.I4l.4ls.-ll(i 

Asia: 

533,000,000 
50,000 

All  other  South  America. 

60,000,000 
46,000,000 

504,000,000 

2,689,614,124 

*  Fleece  washed.    Great  Britain  and  Ireland*  product  of  1897.       t  Washed  and  unwashed. 


RAILROAD    SPEED. 

NOTABLE  FAST  RUNS  OF  PASSENGER  TRAINS  FOR  LONG  DISTANCES. 


May, 

July, 

Aug., 

Sept., 

Nov., 

Mar., 

Nov., 

Nov., 

May, 

May, 

Aug., 

Aug., 

April, 

April, 

April, 

Aug., 

Sept., 

Sept., 

Oct., 

Oct., 

Oct., 

Mar., 

Feb., 

Mar,, 

April, 

Mav, 

July, 

Aug., 

Dec, 

Feb., 

May, 

July, 


1848. 
1885. 
1888. 
1891. 
1891. 
1892. 
1892. 
1892. 
1893. 
1893. 
1894. 
1894. 
1895. 
1895. 
189). 
1895. 
1895. 
1886. 
1895. 
1895. 
1895. 
1896. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1897. 
1898. 
1898. 
1898. 


Great  Western  (England) 

West  Shore 7...... 

L.  &  N.  W.,  and  Caledonian 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R 

Pennsylvania 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R.« 

New  York  Central  &  II.  R.* 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R.* 

New  York  Central  &  H.  It.* 

New  York  Central  &  L.  S 

Plant  System,  Atlantic  Coast  Line. 
Plant  Svstem,  A.  C.  L.,  Pa.  R.  R. . . 

Old  Colony 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware,  Lackawanna  &  Hudson.. 

London  &  Northwestern 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R 

N.Y.  Central  "  World  Flyer    

Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern.. 

Pennsyl  vania 

Long  island 

Phila.,  Wilmington  &  Baltimore... 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 

Central  R.  R.  of  New  Jersey 

Lehigh  Valley,  Black  Diamond  Ex. 

Chicago,  Burlington  &  Quincy 

New  York  Central  &  H.  R.* 

Union  Pacific 

Union  Pacific 

A.,  T.  &  S.  F.,  "  Santa  Fc  Route 

Chicago  &  Alton  

Lehigh  Valley,  Black  Diamond  Ex. 


Ll'SIVK.      ST01">. 


London — Didcot 53 .25 

East  Buffalo— Frankfort 201 . 7 

London — Edinburgh 400 

New  York— East  Buffalo 436.32 

Jersey  City — Washington 227 

Oneida— De  Witt 21 .37 

Syracuse — Utica 51.67 

Chittenango — Schenectady 116.16 

Syracuse  —Rochester 80  38 

New  York — Chicago 961 

Jacksonville— Richmond 661 .5 

Jacksonville— Washington 760.9 

Concord,  N.  H. — New  London 119 

Camden — Atlantic  City 58.3 

ringhamton— East  Buffalo 197 

]  .ondon — Aberdeen 510 

New  York— Buffalo , 436.50 

Albany— Syracuse 148 

Chicago— Buffalo 510 

Jersey  City— Philadelphia 89.78 

Long  Island  City — Amaganset; 101 

Baltimore — Gray's  Ferry 92. 5 

Chicago— Denver 1,025 

Jersey  City— Washington 231 

Alpine,  N.  Y. — Geneva  Junction,  If.  V...    48.96 

Mendota— Chicago 79 

Syracuse— Buffalo 149 

North  Platte— ( )maha 291 

North  Matte— Council  Bl nil's 293.7 

La  Junta,  Col.— Dodge  Citv,  Kansas 204. 4 

Willow  Spring— -Springfield 108.1 

Sayre— Buffalo 177 


0.47 
4.00 
7.38 
7.19.5 
4  11 
0.17§ 
0.46 
1.50 
1. 11 
19.57 
12.51 
15.49 
2.22 
0.453 
3.05 
8  32 
0-47 
2.10 
8.1 
1.33 
1.46 
1.28 
18.52 
4.8 
0.33 
.70 
2.23 
4.39 
4.57 
3.44 
2.40 
2.59 


08 

50.4 

52.4 

59.56 

54  20 

72.69 

67  38 
63  38 
68.45 
48.20 
51.48 
49.37 
50.28$ 
76.50 
00.64§ 
68.28J 
64.33+ 

68  3 
65. 71 
57.9 
58.9 
63 

58.74 
60 

80 
60 
02.5 
03.49 

59.33 

56.7J 

60.7 
59.32 


3 
3 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 
10 
26 
34 

3 

0 

2 

3 
•2 

0 

5 

0 

2 

20 

<«> 
0 

2f 

1 

'efc 


*  By  "Empire  State  Express."  f  Six  minutes.  $  Including  stops.  §  Excluding  stops.  «[  Exclusive  of  stops. 
or  63.6i  miles  per  hour  including  stops.  Made  the  trip  from  Chicago  ti>  New  York.  952  miles,  in  17  hours,  45  min- 
utes, 23  seconds  (or  54.20  miles  per  hour,  including  ten  stops),  (a)  Including  "  slow-ups  "  for  taking  water,  chang- 
ing engines,  etc.    (b)  Deducting  stops.  64.08  miles  per  hour. 

In  making  a  comparison  between  English  and  American  trains,  certain  conditions  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. In  the  former  instance  the  average  weight  of  the  train  making  the  record  between  London  and 
Aberdeen  in  August,  1895,  was  between  105  and  120  tons.  The  "Empire  State  Express"  in  the  record  of  Sep- 
tember, 1895— New  York  to  Buffalo— was  similar  in  make-up  to  the  train  that  made  the  English  record,  but. 
weighed  259  tons,  a  vast  difference  and  necessarily  an  important  factor  in  speed.  London  to  Paris — On  a  special 
run  over  the  L.,  C.  &  D.  Ry.  to  Paris,  287V4  miles  (via  Calais),  for  the  Grand  Prix,  running  time  6  hours,  30  minutes, 
12  seconds,  or  from  57.5  to  60.1  miles  per  hour. 

AVERAGE   SPEED,    INCLUDING   STOPS,   OF   FOREIGN   EXPRESS  TRAINS   PER    HOUR   IN   MILES. 

England,  51.75;  Germany,  61.25;  France,  49.88;  Belgium,  45.01;  Holland,  44.73;   Italy,  42.34;  Austria-Hungary. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


479 


Fastest  Recorded  Runs  for  Short  Distances. 


Date. 


Railroad. 


July, 

Aug. 

Nov. 
Nov. 
May, 
May, 
May. 
Aug. 
Oct., 
Aug. 


Terminals. 


1890 Philadelphia  &  Reading Skillmans— Belle  Meade. . . 

,  1891 Philadelphia  &  Reading Somerton — 

1892 Philadelphia  &  Reading Somerton— Parkland 

1892 Central  of  New  Jersey I  Fan  wood— Westfleld,  N.  J. 

1893 N.  V.  Central  &  Hudson  River j  Grimesville — 

1893 N.  Y.  Central  &  Hudson  River Grimesville— 


1893 IN.  Y.  Central «&  Hudson  River 

1895 Pennsylvania 

1895 [Lake  Shore  &  Michigan  Southern. . 

1898 1  Wabash 


Looneyville— Grimesville. 

Handover — Anacosta 

Erie— Buffalo  Creek  (c). .. . 
Boody — Blue  Mound 


Distance,       Time, 
Miles.         M.    S. 


4.1 

1 

5 

1 

1 

1 

5 

5.1 


2  30 
0  39. 

3  25 
0  37 
0  35 
0  32 


Miles 
per  Hour. 


98.4 
90.5 
87.8 
97.3 

102.8 

112.5 

100 

102 
85.4 
87.46 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  HOG  PRODUCTS  EXPORTED  FROM  THE 

UNITED  STATES. 


(  oi   n ; TRIES. 
1896-97. 


United  Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Belgium 

Netherlands 

Denmark 

Sweden  and  Norway. 

Spain 

Italy 

Cuba 

Hayti 

Porto  Rico 

British  West  Indies.. 

Mexico 

Brazil 

Colombia 

Venezuela 

British  Guiana 

Peru 

Quebec,  Ontario, etc.* 

Nova  Scotia,  etc 

Newfoundland,  etc.. 
All  other 


Bacon. 
Pounds. 


Hams, 
Pounds. 


Pork. 
Pounds. 


386,457,479 
1,979,586 
26,878,289 
25,578,760 
11,562,634! 
1,102,978; 
6,327,048 


176,674 

10,581,819 

5,065 

618.015 

192,087 

101,735 

16,770,805 

27,781 

37,677 

5,752 

4,099 

10,514,6*6 

276,625 

7,929 

1,191,925 


Year  to  June  30....     500,399,448     165.247.3nL'  06.768.920 
Value $34,187,147    $15,970.02183,297,214 


134,933,004 

316,624 

2,943.983 

13,668,788 

1,637,525 

28,885 

262,730 

1,143 

40.559 

4,012,433 

217,999 

Nss.-.q:, 

672,244 

264,049 

18,373 

172,921 

551,393 

235,327 

20,095 

2,886,137 

108,406 

75,943 

1,289,796 


17,749,994 
131,650 

1,902,637 
333,146 

2,159,423 

11,000 

377,700 


19,000 

222,660 

11,491,100 

3,450,200 

8,475,000 

800 

315,400 

185,722 

21,500 

2,753,700 

8,600 

6,130,521 

2,805,(00 

3,314,800 

4,958,867 


Total 
Meats. 
Pounds. 


539,140,477 

2,427,760 

31,724,909 

39,580,694 

15,359.582 

1,142,863 

6,967,478 

1,143 

236,233 

14,816,912 

11,714,164 

4,957,160 

9,339,331 

366,584 

17,104,578 

336,424 

610,570 

2,994,779 

32,794 

19,531,344 

3,190,631 

3,398,672 

7,440,588 


Lard. 
Pounds. 


192,116,083 

20,934,590 

166,192.473 

29,827,434 

61,181,905 

4,294,631 

4,945,118 

126,865 

2,274,703 

25,717,489 

2,760,179 

4,572,985 

2,448,882 

7,195,747 

12,358,589 

2,917,290 

6,648,066 

414,279 

397,370 

4,170,809 

889,664 

311,760 

15,618,729 


Aggregate, 
1896-97. 


731,256,560 

23,362,350 
197,917,382 

69,408,128 

76,541,487 
5,437,494 

11,912,596 

128,008 

2,510,936 

40,534,401 

14,474,343 
9,530,145 

11,788,213 
7,562,331 

29,463,167 

3,253,714 

7,258,636 

3,409,058 

430,164 

23,702,153 
4,080,295 
3,710,432 

23,059,317 


Aggregate, 
1895-96. 


601,357,839 

34,494,639 

134,097,526 

61,835,270 

42,578,216 

7,737,998 

9,644,243 

73,345 

850,344 

35,990,821 

15.668,265 

9,804,165 

15,342,695 

3,781,160 

32,712,927 

2,174,859 

7,740,056 

5,725,774 

167,553 

23,830,113 

4,128,193 

5,157,187 

16,527,979 


Aggregate, 
1894-95. 


732,415,670     508,315,040  1,300,731,310  1,133,421,107  1,091,200,200 
$53,4.34,382    829.120.4851    $82,580,8071    $83,075,922    $89,696,768 


634,531.355 

44,744,508 

121,408,880 

78,448,298 

38,579,035 

7,410,486 

6,144,359 

130,450 

646,675 

40,202,681 

17,106,672 

7,779,631 

10,495,854 

2,207,743 

36,262,365 

2,110,451 

7,400,541 

3,554,340 

123,267 

14,021,246 

1,346,353 

2.410,649 

14,090,447 


*  Includes  Manitoba,  Northwest  Territories,  and  British  Columbia. 

The  tables  of  statistics  of  hog  products  were  compiled  by  the  Cincinnati  Price  Current. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  reported  the  following  farm  animals  in  the  United  States  in  1896:  Horses, 
15,124.057.  value,  $500,140,186;  mules,  2,278,946,  value,  $103,204,457 ;  milch  cows,  16,137,586,  value,  $303,955,545;  oxen 
and  other  cattle,  32,085,409,  value,  $508,928,410;  sheep,  38,298,783,  value,  $05,167,735;  swine,  42,842,759,  value, 
•186,529,746. 

PRODUCTION  OF  TOBACCO. 

STATEMENT  OF  PRODUCTION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  THE  YEAR  ENDING  JANUARY  1,  1895, 
FROM  THE  REPORT  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


States. 


Acres. 


Arkansas 1,932 

Connecticut j  6,731 

Illinois !  2,980 

Indiana 5,369 

Kentucky 236,927 

Maryland 11,822 

Massachusetts 2,323 

Missouri 11,581 

New  York 5.530 


Pounds. 


1,195,908 
10,176,908 
1,790,980 
3,841,952 
183,618,425 
7,010,380 
3,449,655 
8,296.749 
6,934,620 


Value. 


States. 


$131,550  North  Carolina. 

1,628,305  i Ohio 

132,533  Pennsylvania... 

199,782   Tennessee 

10,099,013  Virginia 

420,623  West  Virginia.. 

344,960  Wisconsin 

755,004 

554,770       Total 


Acres. 


63,510 
37,493 
21,341 
39.300 
54,592 
3.737 
18,066 


523,103 


Pounds. 


42,043,620 
32,408,938 
26,228,089 
26,724,000 
35,593,984 
2,634,585 
14,669,592 


400,678.385 


Value. 


$3,783,926 
1,753,323 
2,360,528 
2,405,160 
2,135,639 
263,459 
792,158 


$27,760,739 


Estimate   for    1896   by   the  Department  of  i 
Agriculture:    Area,   595,000   acres;    product,  > 
403,004,000     pounds;     value,     $24,258,000;' 
yield  per  acre,  678  pounds.     This  is  the  last 
year  that  an   estimate   has  been  made  by  the 
Department. 

The  number  of  cigarettes  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  in  1890-91  was,  according  to 


the  Internal  Revenue  returns,  2,877,799,440. 
The  value  of  domestic  leaf  tobacco  exported 
from  the  United  States,  year  ending  June  30, 
1895,  was  $25,622,770;  value  of  leaf  tobacco 
imported  same  period,  <§  14,745,720. 

The  product  of  tobacco  in  Europe  is  nearly 
equal  in  quantity  to  the  average  production 
of  the  United  States.      Neumann-Spallart  has 


480 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


usually  made  it  about  500,000,000  pounds. 
Austria-Hungary  produces  about  one  third  of 
it,  Russia  one  tenth,  Germany  nearly  as  much, 
France  about  35,000,000  pounds,  and  the 
other  countries  a  small  quantity.  Europe  can 
easily  produce  all  the  tobacco  required,  but 
two  reasons  are  prominent  for  importation  of 
tobacco  from  this  country.  It  is  very  cheap, 
and  it  is  very  desirable  for  mixing  with  and 
fortifying  European  leaf. 

TEA  AND    COFFEE. 

Tea. —  The  production  of  tea  in  1888,  by 
countries,  according  to  Mulhall,  was,  in 
pounds  :  China,  290,000,000 ;  India,  90,- 
000,000;  Japan,  40,000,000  ;  Ceylon,  19,000,- 
000  ;  Paraguay,  10,000,000  ;  Java,  7,000,000. 

The  consumption  of  tea  is  estimated  by  the 
same  authority  as  follows,  in  pounds :  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  184,500,000;  United 
States,  80,000,000  ;  Russia,  37,000,000  ;  Can- 
ada, 22,000,000  ;  Australia,  20,000,000  ;  vari- 
ous other  countries,  106,500,000. 

The  importation  of  tea  into  the  United 
States  in  the  fiscal  year  of  1896  was  93,998.372 
pounds,  valued  at  $12,704,440. 

Coffee The  total  production  of  coffee  in 

the  world  in  1889  was  1,249,000,000  pounds, 
of  which  Brazil  produced  812,000,000,  other 
parts  of  America,  253,000,000,  East  Indies 
and  Africa,  184,000,000. 

The  consumption  by  countries,  according 
to  Mulhall,  is  in  tons:  United  States,  215,- 
000  ;  Germany,  105,000  ;  Brazil,  etc.,  78,000  ; 
France,  65,000;  Netherlands,  40,000;  Aus- 
tria, 36,000  ;  Belgium,  25,000 ;  Scandinavia, 
25,000;  Italy,  14,000;  Great  Britain,  15,000; 
Russia,  8,000 ;  Spain  and  Portugal,  5,000. 
The  importation  of  coffee  into  the  United 
States  in  1896  was  580,597,915  pounds,  valued 
at  $84,793,124. 

In  1897  the  consumption  of  coffee  in  the 
United  States  was  636,340,000  pounds,  or  9.95 
pounds  to  each  individual.  In  all  Europe  it 
was  610,300,000  pounds. 

The  English  are  the  greatest  tea  drinkers 
among  western  nations,  the  Americans  the 
greatest  coffee  drinkers. 

CANAES. 

A  Ship  Channel,  connecting  the  waters  of 
the  Great  Lakes  between  Chicago,  Duluth, 
and  Buffalo,  giving  channel  300  feet  wide,  20 
to  21  feet  depth,  is  under  construction  by  en- 
gineers of  the  United  States  Army. 

The  Harlem  River  Ship  Canal,  connecting 
the  Hudson  River  and  Long  Island  Sound,  by 
way  of  Spuyten  Duyvil  Creek  and  Harlem 
River,  was  opened  for  traffic  on  June  17, 1895, 
and  cost  about  $2,700,000. 


New  York  Canals. —  The  whole  number  of 
tons  of  freight  carried  upon  the  state  canals 
during  the  season  of  1896  was  3,714,894,  of 
which  the  Erie  Canal  carried  2,742,438 ; 
Champlain,  802,510;  Oswego,  57,245;  Black 
River,  57,953  ;  Cayuga  and  Seneca,  54,739. 
The  tonnage  was  214,580  tons  in  excess  of  that 
of  1895.  The  increase  of  tonnage  on  wheat 
over  1895  was  128,507  tons  ;  on  rye,  77,050 
tons  ;  on  barley,  29,691  tons  ;  on  oats,  103,434 
tons;  and  on  apples,  21,666  tons. 

Suez  Canal. —  The  Suez  Canal  is  ninety-two 
miles  long  and  cost  $102,750,000.  One  thou- 
sand four  hundred  and  fifty-eight  ships,  of 
4,045,238  tons  net,  passed  through  the  Suez 
Canal  during  the  first  six  months  of  1897, yield- 
ing $7,437,975  in  dues.  As  to  the  nationality  of 
the  vessels,  the  British  were  908,  German  161, 
French  101,  Dutch  106,  Austro-Hungarian  37, 
Italian  39,  Norwegian  28,  Turkish  4,  Spanish 
27,  Russian  19,  Egyptian  3,  Japanese  18, 
American  1,  Chinese  2,  Danish  2,  Mexican  1. 

Manchester  Canal. —  A  statement  of  the 
traffic  for  the  year  1896  shows  a  total  tonnage 
of  1,509,658  —  944,558  of  which  were  im- 
ported and  565,100  were  exported.  In  1895 
the  total  was  1,087,443  tons,  of  which  592,581 
tons  were  imported  and  494,862  tons  exported. 
The  chief  articles  of  import  in  1 896  were  as 
follows,  in  tons :  Timber,  179,859 ;  paper 
and  paper  making  materials,  95,478  ;  dye- 
woods,  18,948;  pig  iron,  56,129;  manufac- 
tured iron,  22,980-;  iron  ores  and  pyrites, 
44,427  ;  American  cotton,  44,409  ;  Egyptian 
cotton,  22,419;  grain,  75,265;  flour,  meal, 
etc.,  31,968  ;  food  stuffs  (not  described),  14,- 
334;  fruit  (dried),  5,091;  fruit  (green), 
27,137  ;  sugar,  23,131  ;  tea,  2,267 ;  oil  in 
barrels  (chiefly  from  New  York),  17,449  tons. 

Baltic  Canal. —  Also  known  as  the  "North 
Sea  and  Baltic  "  and  "  Kiel  "  Canal.  During 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1896,  16,834  vessels 
of  1,505,983  tons  passed  through  from  one 
sea  to  the  other,  the  receipts  and  expenditures 
amounting  to  about  $200,000.  The  canal  is, 
of  course,  a  waterway  of  great  strategical  im- 
portance for  the  Imperial  fleets.  It  permits 
the  German  naval  forces  to  concentrate  them- 
selves either  in  one  sea  or  the  other  in  a  very 
few  hours. 

Panama  Canal. —  The  canal  has  been  re- 
organized under  the  corporate  name  of  Com- 
pagnie  Nouvelle  du  Canal  de  Panama  (the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company).  The  new  com- 
pany has  not  any  governmental  character,  but 
is  organized  under  the  general  laws  of  France 
by  the  representatives  of  financial  institu- 
tions of  alleged  unquestioned  strength  and 
powerful  influence,  with  a  capital  stock  of  65,- 
000,000  francs,  and   is   not  inviting  any  out- 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


481 


side  financial  aid,  but  has  conducted  with  its 
own  resources  the  great  undertaking,  and  dem- 
onstrating the  success  of  the  practical  ques- 
tions involved  before  public  aid  is  again 
invited.  The  work  of  constructing  and  re- 
building the  canal  has  been  carried  on,  and  a 
large  force  of  men  has  been  engaged  upon  the 
work  during  the  past  two  years,  under  the 
direction  of  eminent  engineers.  At  present 
the  chief  work  is  being  done  on  the  cutting  of 
the  Culebra  Hill. 

It  is  anticipated  that  the  canal  will  be  com- 
pleted. It  is  thought  that  $20,000,000  more 
may  finish  the  work.  The  distance  between 
the  two  oceans  is  45  miles.  Of  this  twelve 
miles  on  the  Atlantic  coast  and  three  miles 
upon  the  Pacific  coast  are  approaching  comple- 
tion. 

Xicaragua  Canal  was  projected  to  connect 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans,  using  the 
waters  of  Lake  Nicaragua.  Total  distance 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  169.4  miles ;  depth  of 
canal,  30  feet ;  least  width  at  bottom,  100 
feet ;  time  transit  from  ocean  to  ocean,  28 
hours;  length  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  110  miles; 
average  width,  40  miles ;  surface  area,  about 
2,600 square  miles  ;  area  of  watershed  of  lake, 
about  8,000  square  miles. 

From  New  York  to  San  Francisco  by  water, 
around  Cape  Horn,  the  distance  at  present  is 
15,660  miles  ;  by  the  Nicaragua  Canal  the  dis- 
tance between  the  same  points  will  be  4,907 
miles,  a  saving  of  10,753  miles.  The  distance 
in  statute  miles  from  New  York  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  by  the  principal  land  and  water  routes 
is  as  follows:  By  water  to  Cape  Horn,  7,897; 
by  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  3,709  ;  by  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railroad,  3,619 ;  by  Central 
Pacific  Railroad,  3,269  ;  by  Northern  Pacific 
Railroad,  3,237;  by  Nicaragua  Canal,  2,519. 
Estimated  cost  of  construction  of  Nicaragua 
Canal  bv  the  Nicaragua  Canal  Commission 
was  $133,472,893. 

DICTIONARY  OF  LAW  AND  BUS- 
INESS TERMS. 

Abandonment.  The  relinquishing  to  the  underwrit- 
ers, under  an  insurance,  of  all  the  property  saved  from 
a  wreck,  in  order  to  entitle  the  insured  to'  claim  for  a 
total  loss. 

Abate.  To  break  down,  destroy,  or  remove;  as,  for 
instance,  to  abate  (remove  or  mt  an  end  to)  a  nuisance. 

Abduction.  The  unlawful  taking  or  detention  of  a 
woman  (having  property  in  possession  or  expectancy), 
against  her  will,  with  the  intention  of  procuring  lier 
marriage  or  defilement.  Also  the  unlawful  taking  of  an 
unmarried  girl  under  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  out  of 
the  possession  and  against  the  will  of  the  father,  or 
other  person  having  the  lawful  care  of  her,  although 
done  without  force  or  corrupt  motives.  The  former  is 
a  felony,  and  the  latter  a  misdemeanor. 

Abettor.  A  person  who  encourages  or  excites  an- 
other to  commit  an  offense  punishable  by  law. 

Abeyance.  The  fee  simple  of  lands  is  in  abeyance 
when  there  is  no  person  in  being  in  whom  it  can  vest, 
so  that  it  is  in  a  state  of  expectancy  or  waiting  until  a 


proper  person  shall  appear,  or  the  right  thereto  is  deter- 
mined.   The  same  aimlies  to  dignities  or  offices. 

Abortion.  The  offense  of  procuring  the  miscarriage 
of  a  woman  quick  with  child. 

Abstract  of  Title.  An  epitome  of  the  deeds  and  doc- 
uments constituting  the  evidence  of  title  to  an  estate. 

Above  Par.  Stock  which  sell  for  more  than  their 
face  value  are  said  to  be  above  par. 

Acceptance.  The  act  by  which  a  person  on  whom  a 
bill  of  exchange  is  drawn,  undertakes  to  pay  it  at  ma- 
turity. The  bill  of  exchange  itself  is  sometimes  called, 
in  common  parlance,  an  acceptance. 

Accessory.  A  person  concerned  in  a  felonious  offense, 
although  not  the  actual  perpetrator,  nor  present  at  its 
performance.  He  may  be  accessory  either  before  or 
after  the  fact. 

Accommodation  Bill.  A  bill  of  exchange  accepted 
without  value,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  thereon 
by  discount. 

Action.  The  method  of  demanding  the  enforcement 
of  a  legal  right,  and  procuring  redress  for  a  civil  injury 
in  the  courts  of  common  law. 

Accept.  To  acknowledge  bv  signature;  to  accept  a 
draft  is  to  acknowledge  the  obligation  to  pay  it  when 
due. 

Acceptance  "  supra-protest  "  or  for  honor.  An  ac- 
ceptance by  some  third  party  after  protest  for  non-ac- 
ceptance by  the  drawee,  with  the  view  of  saving  the 
honor  of  the  drawer  or  of  some  particular  indorser. 

Acceptor.  The  party  who  accepts  a  draft  so  as  to 
bind  himself  to  pay  the  sum  specified  in  it. 

Acknowledge.  *  To  admit ;  to  certify  by  signature  to 
the  genuineness  of  a  deed  or  mortgage ;  to  give  infor- 
mation of  the  arrival  of  a  letter  or  remittance. 

Accrued.    Interest  or  increase  due  and  unpaid. 

Account.  A  statement ;  an  arrangement  of  debits  and 
credits  in  relation  to  any  person  or  thing;  a  record  of 
business  transactions. 

Account  Sales.  A  statement  of  the  product  arising 
from  the  sale  of  goods  received  by  a  merchant  from 
another  party,  and  sold  for  his  benefit, together  with  the 
costs  and  charges  incurred  in  making  such  sale. 

Accountant.    One  who  is  skilled  in  accounts. 

Actuary.  A  clerk  of  certain  courts  and  insurance 
offices ;  one  skilled  in  annuities ;  an  acting  officer. 

Administrator.  He  that  has  the  goods  of  a  person 
dying  without  a  will  committed  to  his  care,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  legal  distribution.  The  nearest  of  kin  is  entitled 
to  administration. 

Ad  Valorem.  ,  Stamp  duties,  the  amount  of  which  is 
regulated  according  to  the  value  of  the  property,  etc., 
are  so  termed. 

Adjust.  To  put  in  order ;  to  bring  to  a  satisfactory 
state,  so  that  parties  can  agree  in  the  result. 

Advance.    Additional  price,  stocks  above  par. 

Advances.  Sums  of  money  paid  by  a  merchant  upon 
goods  lodged  in  his  hands  "for  saleat  a  future  time. 
This  term  also  covers  money  loaned  by  bankers  on  bills 
of  lading. 

Adventure,  i^t/perty  ventured  in  a  voyage ;  a  specu- 
lation. 

Advice.  Counsel  given,  usually  in  regard  to  the  pur- 
chase and  sale  of  goods. 

AduReration.  Mixing  a  spurious  with  a  genuine 
article. 

Affidavit.  A  written  statement  upon  oath.  It  must 
be  sworn  before  a  person  authorized  to  administer 
oaths;  who  that  is,  depends  upon  what  the  affidavit 
relates  to.  The  same  officer  is  not  usually  empowered 
to  administer  oaths  in  all  the  courts. 

Affinity.  Relation  by  marriage  between  the  husband 
or  wife  and  the  blood  relations  of  either ;  but  not  be- 
tween the  husband  and  wife  themselves. 

Affirmation.  A  solemn  declaration  in  lieu  of  an 
oath. 

Agent.  A  person  appointed  to  do  an  act  for  another. 
The  act  when  performed  is,  in  law,  the  act  of  the  prin- 
cipal; tb»  maxim  being  "qui  facit  per  aiium  facit 
perse." 

Alibi.  Elsewhere.  A  defense  by  which  it  is  proved 
that  the  accused  was  not  at  the  place  where  the  offense 
was  committed  at  the  time  of  its  commission. 

Alien.  One  born  iu  a  foreign  country  out. of  the  alle- 
giance of  the  queen. 

Alimony.  An  allowance  made  by  a  husband  to  his 
wife  when  living  apart  from  her. 

Allocatur.  The  certificate  by  which  a  taxing  mas- 
ter certifies  the  amount  at  which  he  has  taxed  a  bill  of 
costs. 

Allonge.    A  slip  of  paper  attached  to  a  note,  draft, 


482 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


or  other  negotiable  paper,  to  receive  indorsements  when 
the  back  of  the  paper  will  hold  no  more. 

Allowance.  Abatement,  a  deduction  made  for  vari- 
ous reasons. 

Amount.  The  sum  total ;  the  aggregate.  Gross 
amount  is  the  total  without  deduction.  Net  amount  is 
the  total  less  deduction. 

Ambassador.  An  envoy  of  the  highest  rank  sent  to 
a  foreign  government. 

Ancestor.  The  law  distinguishes  between  ancestor 
and  predecessor ;  the  former  is  applied  to  individuals, 
the  latter  to  corporations. 

Ancient  Demesne.  A  tenure  of  lands  partaking  of 
the  properties  both  of  copyhold  and  freehold. 

Annuity.    A  periodical  payment  of  money,  amount- 
ing to  a  tixed  sum  in  each  year,  the  moneys  so  paid 
being  either  a  gift  or  in  consideration  of  a  gross  sum 
received. 
Anticipate.    To  take  beforehand,  or  pay  before  due. 
Antedate.    To  date  beforehand. 

Appeal.  The  removal  of  a  cause  from  an  inferior 
into  a  superior  court,  for  the  purpose  of  impeaching  the 
judgment  of  the  inferior  court. 

Appearance  to  Action.  The  first  formal  step  by  a 
defendant  in  an  action  of  suit.  It  is  a  notice  that  hein- 
tends  to  defend. 

Appellant/  Theperson  appealing  to  a  superior  from 
the  decision  Of  an  inferior  court. 
Appraiser.  A  person  who  values  personal  chattels. 
Appropriation.  The  appropriation  of  a  payment 
means  the  applying  of  it  to  the  discharge  of  a  particu- 
lar debt,  where  the  creditor  to  whom  it  is  made  has 
more  than  one  debt  due  from  the  same  debtor. 

Appraisement.  The  act  of  setting  a  value  upon 
goods  or  other  property. 

Appurtenance.  That  which  appertains  or  belongs 
to  something  else. 

Arbitration.  An  extrajudicial  method  of  settling 
matters  in  difference  by  referring  them  to  the  arbitra- 
ment or  determination  of  persons  appointed  by  the  dis- 
putants, and  termed  arbitrators. 

Arraignment.  A  term  of  criminal  procedure.  A 
prisoner,  after  having  had  the  indictment  read  over 
him,  is  commanded  to  state  whether  or  not  he  is  guilty. 
This  proceeding  is  termed  the  arraignment. 

Arrest.  A  legal  seizure,  capture,  or  taking  of  a  man's 
person  which  is  effected  by  corporeal  touching,  or 
something  equivalent  thereto.  In  civil  cases  a  man  can 
only  be  arrested  under  legal  process.  The  officer  cannot 
break  open  a  man's  outer  door  for  the  purpose  of  ar- 
resting him ;  nor  can  arreston  a  civilprocess  be  effected 
on  a  Sunday,  except  after  an  escape. 

Arrest  of  Judgment.    Where  the  court  stays  a  judg- 
ment, after  a  verdict  on  some  question  of  law. 
Arson.    Felonious  house  burning. 
Articles  of  Peace.    A  complaint  against  a  person  to 
compel  him  to  find  sureties  to  keep  the  peace. 

Arbitraging.  Operating  in  the  same  stock  or  prod- 
uct in  two  different  markets  to  make  a  profit  out  of 
the  difference  in  price  or  "spread"  between  them,  as, 
for  instance,  buying  wheat  in  St.  Paul,  and  selling  it  in 
Chicago. 
Arrear.  That  which  is  behind  in  payment. 
Assault  and  Battery.  An  attempt;  or  offer,  with 
force  and  violence,  to  do  a  corporal  hurt  to  another  is 
an  assault ;  an  injury  actually  done  to  the  person  of  an- 
other in  an  angry,  revengeful,  or  insolent  manner,  be  it 
ever  so  small,  is  a,  battery. 

Assets.  Property,  whether  real  or  personal,  in  the 
hands  of  an  executor,  etc.,  for  the  purpose  of  satisfying 
debts. 

Assignee.  A  person  to  whom  any  real  or  personal 
property  is  transferred  by  the  act  of  law,  as  an  executor, 
an  assignee  of  a  bankrupt,  etc.,  or  by  the  act  of  party, 
as  a  purchaser  of  a  lease. 

Assignment.  A  transfer  of  any  kind  of  property 
from  one  person  to  another. 

Assumpsit.  A  verbal  or  parol  promise  expressed  or 
implied,  springing  out  of  a  simple  oontract.  The  law 
always  implies  a  promise  to  do  that  which  a  party  is 
legally  bound  to  perform.  An  action  of  assumpsit  or 
promise  is  the  remedy  for  breach  of  a  parol  as  distin- 
guished from  a  written  contract. 

Assurance.  The  securing  the  payment  of  a  sum  of 
money  orother  benefit  on  the  happening  of  acertain 
event,  as,  for  instance,  the  death  of  a  person.  This  is 
the  term  now  usually  applied  to  Life  contingencies,  as 
contradistinguished  from  fires,  losses  at  sea,  etc.,  as  to 
which  the  term  insurance  is  still  used. 
Assessment.    A  call  upon  the  holders  of  stock  or 


policies  to  pay  into  the  treasury  a  certain  sum  in  order 
to  pay  off  debts  or  effect  a  reorganization. 

Assign.  To  transfer  or  make  over  to  another,  the 
right  one  has  in  any  object,  as  in  an  estate,  especially 
in  trust  for  the  security  of  creditors. 

Assay.  To  determine  the  amount  of  a  particular 
metal  in  an  ore  or  metallic  compound. 

Assess.    To  tax,  or  value  for  the  purpose  of  taxing. 

Assignor.    One  who  makes  a  transfer  to  another. 

Association.  A  company  of  persons  united  for  a  par 
ticular  purpose. 

Assume.  To  take  on  one's  self  or  become  liable  for  the 
debts  of  another. 

Attachment.  A  process  of  the  courts  of  law  and 
equity  for  compelling,  by  arrest,  the  performance  of  an 
act,  which  a  party  U  already  in  contempt  for  not  per- 
forming. Also  an"  ancient  remedy  open  to  creditors  in 
London,  and  some  other  cities,  to  attach  the  money  or 
goods  of  their  debtor  iu  the  hands  of  a  third  party 
within  the  city. 

Attorney.  A  person  appointed  by  another  by  letter 
or  power  of  attorney  to  do  anything  for  hini  in  his 
absence. 

Attorney-at-L.aw.  An  officer  of  the  superior  courts 
of  law,  legally  authorized  to  transact  the  business  of 
other  persons  —  termed  his  clients  —  in  those  courts. 

Attach.    To  take  by  legal  authority. 

Attest.  To  call  to  witness  or  give  official  testimony 
required  in  solemn  instruments. 

Auditor.  A  person  authorized  to  examine  and  adjust 
accounts. 

Average.  A  contribution  to  a  general  loss.  When, 
for  the  safety  of  a  ship  in  distress,  any  destruction  of 
property  is  incurred,  all  persons  having  goods  on  board 
contribute  ratably  to  the  loss;  this  is  called  average. 

Award.    The  judgment  or  decision  of  an  arbitrator. 

Backing  a  Warrant.  The  indorsing  by  a  justice  of 
the  peace  of  the  county  where  a  warrant(whicb  has  been 
granted  by  the  justice  of  the  peace  of  another  county) 
is  about  to  be  executed,  and  is  a  necessary  act  to  be  done 
before  a  person  can  be  apprehended  in  a  county  differ- 
ent to  that  in  which  the  warrant  was  issued. 

Bail.  The  sureties  for  the  reappearance  of  a  person 
released  from  custody. 

Bail-bond.  A  document  under  seal,  by  which  a  per- 
son becomes  bail. 

Bailee.  An  individual  intrusted  with  the  custody  of 
goods ;  for  instance,  a  carrier. 

Bailiff.  There  are  various  kinds  of  bailiffs ;  the  most 
common  being  those  appointed  by  the  sheriff,  couj- 
monly  called  sheriff's  officer. 

Bailment.  A  delivery  of  a  thing  in  trust  for  some 
special  object  or  purpose. 

Bailor."  The  person  who  makes  a  bailment,  or  de- 
livers goods  to  a  bailee. 

Banker.  A  person  who  holds  the  money  of  another, 
and  disposes  of  it  as  the  other  from  time  to  time  directs. 

Bank  Note.  A  promise  by  a  banker  to  pay  a  speci- 
fied sum  to  the  holder. 

Barristers.  A  body  of  men  qualified  by  admission  in 
one  of  the  Inns  of  Court,  to  plead  as  advocates ;  such 
admission  is  termed,  being  "  called  to  the  bar." 

Battel.  Atrial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  the 
law,  by  which  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  a  party  was  de- 
cided. 

Balance.  The  arithmetical  difference  between  the 
two  sides  of  an  account ;  the  sum  necessary  to  make  the 
two  sides  of  an  account  equal  in  amount,  spoken  of  as  a 
debitor  credit  balance;  (verb)  to  bring  into  a  state  of 
equality;  to  settle  by  paying  what  remains  due  on  an 
account. 

Balance  of  Trade.  The  difference  in  value  between 
our  exports  and  our  imports. 

Bank.  An  establishment  for  the  custody  and  issue 
of  money;  the  office  in  which  the  transactions  of  a 
banking  association  are  conducted. 

Bankable.  Receivable  as  cash  by  a  bank,  such  as 
checks,  express  orders,  money  orders,  etc. 

Bank  Bill.  The  note  of  a  bank  payable  on  demand, 
and  used  as  currency  ;  a  bank  note. 

Bank  Book.  The  book  kept  by  a  depositor,  in  which 
the  receiving  teller  writes  the  separate  deposits,  and 
the  bookkeeper  of  the  bank  enters  the  paid  checks. 

Bank  Clearing.  The  aggregate  amount  of  the  checks 
and  drafts  exchanged  between  banks  (members  of 
clearing  house  association).  In  large  cities  less  than 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  commercial  business  is  done  with 
currenev.  While  the  clearings  do  not  representthe  sum 
total  of  the  counter  transactions  of  banks  for  any  given 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


483 


time,  they  form  a  good  basis  for  calculation  as  to  the 
comparative  volume  of  trade  from  week  to  week.  They 
really  indicate  the  growth  or  shrinkage  of  trade. 

Bequest.  A  testamentary  disposition  of  personal 
estate. 

Bear.  A  stock  exchange  phrase  used  to  designate  a 
man  who,  having  sold  more  stock  than  he  possesses, 
endeavors  to  depress  its  value,  that  he  may  buy  at  a  low 
rate,  and  so  make  good  his  deficiency. 

Bigamy.  The  criminal  offense  of  a  married  man  or 
woman  pretending  to  marry  again,  his  wife  or  her  hus- 
band (as  the  ease  may  be)  being  still  alive. 

Bill.  The  term  applied  to  an  intended  statute  when 
passing  through  Congress,  prior  to  its  becoming  law. 

Bill  of  Exceptions.  A  mode  of  appealing  from  the 
decision  of  a  judge  on  a  point  of  law. 

Bill  of  Exchange.  A  written  order  for  payment  of 
money  by  one  person  (called  the  drawer),  upon  another 
(termed  the  drawee).  When  the  drawee  has  undertaken 
to  pay  the  bill,which  he  does  by  writing  his  name  across 
it,  he  is  termed  the  acceptor.  Bills  of  exchange  are 
negotiable,  i.  e.,  they  confer  on  the  holder  the  right  of 
suing  upon  it,  which  he  could  not  do  in  the  case  of  a 
mere  ordinary  contract,  for  the  want  of  that  privity 
which  the  law  in  ordinary  cases  requires  between  the 
parties  to  a  contract.  The  law  as  to  bills  of  exchange 
is  governed  by  the  Law  Merchant.   (See  Law  Merchant.) 

Bill  of  Lading.  A  memorandum  or  receipt  signed 
by  the  master  of  a  ship,  acknowledging  the  shipment 
of  goods,  which  are  usually  made  deliverable  to  the 
consignee  by  post.  By  indorsing  the  bill  of  lading  the 
property  in  the  goods*  is  passed  to  the  indorsee,  and  so 
from  hand  to  hand.  The  bill  of  lading,  properly  in- 
dorsed, forms,  in  fact,  the  title  to  the  goods,  and  with- 
out the  production  of  which  the  captain  would  not 
deliver  the  goods. 

Bill  of  Sale.  An  assignment  of  goods  and  chattels, 
by  writing;  generally,  but  not  necessarily,  under  hand 
and  seal. 

Bill  of  Lading.  A  negotiable  receipt  for  goods  de- 
livered to  a  transportation  company  for  carriage. 

Bill  of  Parcels.  A  written  statement  given  by  the 
seller  to  the  buyer,  containing  particulars  of  the  goods 
bought  and  their  prices. 

Bills  Discounted.  Promissory  notes,  acceptances, 
or  bills  of  exchange  discounted  for  the  accommodation 
of  an  indorser  by  bankers. 

Bills  Payable.  Promissory  notes  or  drafts  held  by  a 
merchant  against  others  for  future  payment. 

Bills  Receivable.  Promissory  note's  or  drafts  due  to 
a  merchant  by  others. 

Bill  of  Rights.  A  bill  permitting  an  importer  to  ex- 
amine his  goods  at  the  custom  house. 

Block.  A  number  of  shares,  say  5,000  or  10,000,  massed 
together  and  sold  or  bought  in  a  lump. 

Bona  Fide.     With  good  faith. 

Bond.  A  written  obligation,  under  seal.  If  for  the 
payment  of  a  sum  of  money  upon  or  after  the  death  of 
a  person,  it  is  then  termed  "a  post-obit  bond.  The  per- 
son making  a  bond  is  called  the  obligor,  and  he  to 
whom  it  is  given,  the  obligee. 

Boreugh.  A  town  having  now,  or  having  formerly 
had,  corporate  rights. 

Bottomry.  The  borrowing  of  money  by  the  master 
on  the  bottom  or  hull  of  a  ship ;  to  be  paid  with  interest, 
if  the  ship  return  in  safety,  but  otherwise  to  be  lost  or 
forfeited. 

Board  of  Trade.  A  voluntary  association  of  busi- 
ness men  for  the  regulation  and  advancement  of  com- 
mercial interests. 

Bond.  An  instrument  under  seal,  by  which  the 
maker  binds  himself,  and  usually  his  heirs,  executors, 
and  administrators,  to  do  or  not  to  do  a  specified  act. 
A  certificate  of  ownership  of  a  specified  portion  of  a 
capital  debt  due  by  a  government,  a  city,  a  railroad,  or 
other  corporation,  to  individual  holders,  and  usually 
bearing  a  fixed  rate  of  interest. 

Bonded  Goods.  Imported  goods  left  in  a  bonded 
warehouse  until  the  duties  are  paid. 

Bonded  "Warehouse.  A  government  warehouse  in 
which  bonded  goods  are  stored  until  the  duties  thereon 
are  paid. 

Bonus.  A  premium  on  a  loan ;  something  extra  or  in 
addition. 

Boom.  A  rush  of  business.  A  quick  inflation  of 
values. 

Breach  of  Covenant.  The  doing  of  an  act  which  a 
party  has  covenanted  not  to  do,  or  neglecting  to  do  that 
which  he  has  covenanted  to  perform. 

Breach  of  the  Peace.    An  act  by  which  the  public 


repose  is  disturbed,  and  the  safety  of  the  community 
more  or  less  endangered. 

Breach  of  Promise.  The  doing,  or  abstaining  from 
doing,  something,  contrary  to  an  understanding  or 
contract. 

Breach  of  Trust.  A  neglect  of  duty  by  a  trustee 
i  or  person  standing  in  a  fiduciary  relation.in  violation 
|  of  his  trust. 

Bribery.  The  giving  or  receiving  any  reward  for 
corrupt  purposes. 

Brief.  An  abridgment  of  a  client's  case,  for  the  in- 
struction of  counsel  on  trial  or  hearing  in  court. 

Broker.  An  agent  employed  to  buy  or  sell  goods;  a 
sort  of  middleman  between  vendor  arid  purchaser.  He 
is  not,  like  a  factor,  intrusted  with  the  possession  of 
the  articles  he  vends. 

Brokerage.    The  commission  paid  to  a  broker. 

Brand.    A  trade-mark  ;  a  particular  kind  of  goods. 

Break.    A  quick,  small  decline. 

Burglary.  The  offense  of  entering  a  dwelling- 
house,  in  the  night,  with  the  intent  to  commit  felonv. 

Bursar.  The  treasurer  of  a  college.  In  Scotland  it 
is  nearly  synonymous  with  sizar  in  the  English  uni- 
versities. 

Bucket  Shop.  A  place  where  bets  are  made  on 
quotations  of  prices,  established  on  legitimate  Ex- 
changes, and  Boards  of  Trade.  PreteJWed  trading. 
Illegal  in  most  States. 

Bulge.    A  quick,  small  advance. 

Bull.  A  person  whose  interest  is  to  secure  higher 
prices ;  a  buyer  for  an  advance. 

Bulling.  "Raising  the  price  of  stocks,  etc. 


@  At.  ,,    Ditto,  the  same. 

%  Account.  X    By,  as  9  X  12. 

%  Percent.  I1,  One  and  onefourtli. 

•$.  Number.  1*,  One  and  one  half. 

$  Dollars.  I3,  One  and  three  fourths. 

f  Cents.  +    Addition. 

V*  Checkmark.  —    Subtraction. 

d.  Pence.  X    Multiplication. 

£  Pound  sterling.  -"-    Division. 

s.  Shillings.  =    Equal  to. 

Buyer  Three.  A  Wall  street  expression  signifying 
that  the  buyer  has  three  days  in  which  to  pay  for  his 
purchase. 

Bullion.  Uncoined  gold  or  silver,  including  gold 
dust,  ingots,  and  bars. 

By-Law.  A  private  law  made  by  those  duly  author- 
ized by  charter,  custom,  or  prescription;  but  such  by- 
law must  be  consonant  to  the  public  laws  and  statutes, 
and  for  the  common  benefit. 

By-Bidder.  One  who  bids  at  an  auction  in  behalf  of 
the  owner  for  the  purpose  of  running  up  the  price  of 
articles: 

Canon  Law.  A  collection  of  ecclesiastical  constitu- 
tions, definitions,  and  rules,  derived  from  the  ancient 
councils,  the  writings  of  the  fathers,  ordinances  of 
popes,  etc.  At  the  Reformation  it  was  enacted  that  a 
review  should  be  had  of  the  Canon  Law ;  but  that,  until 
such  review,  the  existing  law  should  continue  in  force, 

I  except  as  far  as  the  same  should  be  repugnant  to  the 
law  of  the  land  or  the  Royal  Prerogatives  —  this  still  re- 
mains the  state  of  the  law,  such  review  never  having 
been  made.    The  canons  of  1603  having  been  made  by 

'  the  clergy,  and  confirmed  by  the  king,  James  I.,  alone, 
but  not  by  Parliament,  do  not  bind  the  laity. 

Capias!  A  writ  authorizing  the  arrest  "of  a  defend- 
ant in  a  suit.  It  is  issued,  either  after  judgment,  or 
when  it  is  satisfactorily  shown  that  the  defendant  is 
about  to  leave  the  realm  before  trial. 

Capias  ad  Satisfaciendum, or  CA-SA.  The  writ  of 
capiat  when  issued  after  judgment ;  so  termed,  because 
the  defendant  is  taken  to  satisfy  the  plaintiff's  de- 
mands. 

Carrier.  A  person  whose  business  it  is  to  carry 
goods  for  the  proper  deliver}'  and  safety  of  which  he 
is  legally  responsible. 

|  Caveat.  A  proceeding  to  prevent  an  act  being  done, 
such  as  the  granting  of  administration,  without  notice 

j  to  the  party  entering  the  caveat. 

Caveat  Emptor.  Let  the  purchaser  beware.  It 
signifies  that  a  vendor  is  not  bound  to  answer  for  the 
goodness  of  his  wares,  unless  he   expressly   warrants 

I  them. 


484 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Call.  A  privilege  to  buy  at  a  certain  time  for  an 
agreed  price,  called  the  "call  price,"  which  is  always 
a  little  above  market  price. 

Call  Loans.  Money  loaned  subject  to  the  call  of 
demand  of  lender.  It  must  be  returned  the  day  it  is 
called  for  before  the  close  of  banking  hours. 

Capital.  Money  or  other  property  invested  in  busi- 
'ness. 

Cashier.  The  clerk  who  has  charge  of  the  cash ;  the 
second  executive  officer  in  a  bank. 

Carat.  Weight  showing  the  degree  of  fineness  of 
gold. 

Cargo.    A  ship's  lading  or  freight. 

Carte  Blanche.  Signature  of  an  individual  or  in- 
dividuals on  blank  paper  with  space  above  to  write  a 
note;  full  power. 

Certiorari.  A  writ  for  the  removal  of  a  cause  from 
an  inferior  to  a  superior  court.  This  writ  always  lies, 
unless  where  expressly  taken  away  by  statute,  and  here- 
in it  differs  from  an  appeal,  which  can  never  be  had 
unless  expressly  given. 

Certificate.    A  written  voucher  attesting  a  fact. 

Certified  Check.  A  check  to  which  the  cashier  of 
a  bank  certifies  in  writing  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
signature  of  the  drawer,  and  that  he  has  funds  on  de- 
posit sufficient  to  meet  it,  the  bank  reserving  the 
amount  certified  and  regarding  it  as  having  been  al- 
ready paid,  and  therefore  unavailable  for  other  use. 

Challenge.  An  exception  taken  by  a  prisoner 
against  one  or  more  jurors,  who,  when  challenged,  ;ue 
set  aside,  if  the  challenge  be  allowed,  and  new  ones  put 
in  their  places. 

Chancellor.  An  officer  of  the  highest  dignity  and 
authority  in  various  departments. 

Chancery.  The  highest  court  of  judicature  next  to 
the  Parliament,  and  of  very  ancient  institution.  The 
Court  of  Chancery  is  called  a  Court  of  Equity,  because 
it  was  instituted  for  the  purpose  of  proceeding  by  the 
rules  of  equity  and  conscience,  and  of  moderating  the 
rigor  of  the  common  law ;  equity  beingthe  correction  of 
that  wherein  the  law,  by  reason  of  its  universality,  is 
deficient.  Yet  the  Court  of  Chancery  is  not  intended  to 
act  in  opposition  to,  but  in  assistance  of,  the  common 
law,  supplying  its  deficiencies,  not  contradicting  its 
rules ;  no  judgment  of  law  being  reversible  by  a  decree 
in  Chancery. 

Charter.  A  royal  grant  or  privilege,  granted  to  cor- 
porations, companies,  etc. 

Charter-Party.  An  instrument  between  merchants 
and  owners  or  masters  of  ships,  containing  the  partic- 
ulars of  the  contract  for  the  hire  of  the  ship.  It  is  in 
fact  a  mercantile  lease  of  the  ship. 

Chattels.  There  are  two  kinds,  chattels  real  and 
chattels  personal ;  the  former  are  leasehold  property,  and 
the  latter  personal  goods  or  chattels,  as  furniture  or 
money. 

Chose.  Athing.  Chose-en-action  isathing  of  which 
a  man  has  not  the  possession,  and  which  he  can  only 
claim  by  action,  as,  for  instance,  a  debt  owing  to  him 
by  another. 

Chattel  Mortgage.  A  mortgage  of  personal  prop- 
erty. 

Check.  An  order  tipon  a  bank,  or  banker,  to  pay  on 
demand  to  the  person  named  in  the  check,  or  to  his 
order,  the  sum  of  money  specified  in  the  body  of  the 
check  in  writing. 

Choses  in  Possession.  Things  of  which  one  has  the 
possession. 

Citation.  The  first  step  in  an  ecclesiastical  cause, 
analogous  to  the  writ  of  summons  in  an  action. 

Civil  Law.  The  Roman  law  is  comprised  in  the  in- 
stitutes, code,  and  digest  of  the  Emperor  Justinian. 

Cipher  Code.  An  arrangement  of  words  to  stand  for 
phrases,  numbers,  or  quotations,  so  that  telegrams  may 
be  thus  sent  in  a  private  and  condensed  form. 

Client.  Anciently,  a  Roman  citizen,  taken  under  the 
protection  of  some  great  man,  who  was  styled  his 
patron.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  a  party  who  em- 
ploys a  solicitor  or  counsel  in  any  legal  proceeding. 

Clear.  To  exchange  checks  and  bills,  and  to  settle 
balances  as  is  done  in  a  clearing  house. 

Clearing  House.  An  organization  for  the  settle- 
ment of  balances  between  members.  Usually  applied  to 
banks. 

Clearing  House  Certificates.  Certificates  issued 
by  a  clearing  house  agiinst  collateral  approved  by  the 
loan  committee,  and  used  in  the  settlement  of  the 
daily  balances  between  its  members. 

Clearance.  Certificate  from  the  custom  authorities 
permitting  a  vessel  to  leave  port. 


Clearing.    Act  of  leaving  port. 

Clique.  A  combination  of  persons  "to  run  a  deal" 
or  manipulate  a  market.  Usually  applied  to  stocks, 
grain,  and  provisions. 

Closed  Policy.  A  policy  in  which  the  amount  in- 
sured is  definitely  stated. 

Codicil.    A  supplement  to  a  will. 

Commission.  The  warrant,  or  letters  patent,  author- 
izing any  inquiry  judicial  or  otherwise  ;  as  the  commis- 
sion of  the  judges,  the  commission  of  the  peace,  etc. 

Commitment.  The  sending  a  person  who  has  been 
guilty  of  any  crime,  to  prison,  by  warrant  or  order. 

Committee.  Persons  to  whom  the  consideration  of 
any  matter  is  referred ;  as  a  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Congress. 

Common  (Rights  of).  These  are  of  four  sorts  :  viz., 
pasture,  piscary,  estovers,  and  turbary.  Common  of 
pasture  is  the  right  of  feeding  one's  cattle  on  the  land 
of  another ;  piscary,  that  of  fishing  in  waters  belong- 
ing to  another ;  estovers,  the  right  of  taking  wood  from 
another's  estate,  for  household  use  and  implements  in 
husbandry ;  and  turbary,  theright^of  digging  turf  upon 
another's  ground. 

Common  Law.  The  law  of  England  is  composed  of 
Acts  of  Parliament  or  statutes,  and  the  custom  of  the 
realm,  the  latter  consisting  of  those  rules  or  maxims 
which  have  obtained  by  common  consent  an  immemorial 
usage.  The  former  are  designated  the  lex  scripta,  or 
statute  law;  the  latter  the  lex  non  scripta,  or  common 
law.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  superior  courts  of 
Westminster,  which  are  called  Courts  of  Common  Law, 
as  distinguished  from  the  Court  of  Chancery,  which  is 
the  Court  of  Equity. 

Complainant.  One  who  complains  of  the  act  of  an- 
other in  a  court  of  justice,  more  commonly  called 
plaintiff. 

Compounding  Offenses.  Entering  into  an  agree- 
ment not  to  prosecute  an  offender,  for  any  considera- 
tion received  or  to  be  received,  constitutes  a  crime,  for 
which  the  offender  may  be  indicted. 

Compounding  with  Creditors.  An  agreement  by 
which  creditors  take  a  portion  of  their  claims  in  dis- 
charge of  the  whole. 

Conditions  of  Sale  The  terms  upon  which  a  vendor 
undertakes  to  sell  to  a  purchaser. 

Confirmation.  A  deed  by  which  a  voidable  estate 
in  land  is  made  perfect. 

Conjugal  Rights.  Those  rights  of  husband  and 
wife  which  spring  out  of  their  relationship. 

Consanguinity.  Relationship  by  blood,  in  contradis- 
tinction to  affinity,  which  is  a  relationship  by  marriage. 

Conservator.  A  standing  arbitrator,  appointed  to 
compose  and  adjust  differences  that  may  rise  between 
parties,  etc. 

Consideration.  The  price  or  motive  of  a  contract, 
without  which  a  simple  contract  is  void.  In  technical 
language,  it  may  be  defined  as  "  some  detriment  to  the 
plaintiff  sustained  for  the  sake  or  at  the  instance  of  the 
defendant,  or  some  benefit  to  the  defendant  moving 
from  the  plaintiff." 

Consignee.  A  person  to  whom  goods  are  delivered 
either  as  purchaser,  or  more  generally  for  sale  on  com- 
mission. 

Consignor.  The  person  by  whose  act  or  direction 
goods  are  delivered  to  the  consignee. 

Consignment.  The  act  of  making  over,  or  deliver- 
ing, goods  to  another. 

Conspiracy.  A  combination  of  two  or  more  persons 
to  carry  into  effect  an  unlawful  purpose. 

Consul.  An  officer  appointed  by  government  to  re- 
side abroad  and  watch  over  the  interests  of  our  country- 
men who  may  happen  to  reside  in  or  be  passing  through 
the  place  where  the  consul  is  located. 

Contempt.  A  disobedience  to  the  rules,  orders,  or 
process  of  a  court,  which  has  power  to  punish  such  of- 
fense, which  it  does  by  imprisonment. 

Contract.  A  covenant  or  agreement  between  two  or 
more  persons  with  a  lawful  consideration. 

Contribution.  Where  one  surety  or  joint  contractor 
has  been  obliged  to  satisfy  the  whole  demand,  he  may 
obtain  contribution  from  his  fellow  surety  or  con- 
tractor. 

Contributory.  One  liable  to  contribute  to  the 
liquidation  of  the  liabilities  of  a  joint  stock  company, 
under  the  Winding-up  Acts. 

Conveyance.  A  deed  which  passes  or  conveys  land 
from  one  person  to  another. 

Conveyancers.  Persons  who  devote  themselves  to 
the  preparation  of  formal  documents  concerning  prop- 
erty. 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


485 


Convict.  Ho  that  is  found  guilty  of  an  offense  by 
th«  verdict  of  a  jurv. 

Coroner.  An  officer  -whose  duty  it  is  to  inquire  into 
the  cause  bv  which  any  person  came  to  a  sudden  or 
violent  death,  which  must  be  done,  before  him  and  the 
jury  assembled  for  the  purpose,  upon  view  of  the  body. 

Coats.  The  expenses  incurred  in  the  prosecution  or 
defense  of  legal  proceedings,  of  which  there  are  two 
kinds,  those  between  party  and  party,  and  those  be- 
tween attorney  and  client. " 

Count.  In  "common  law  pleadings,  is  a  section  of  a 
declaration. 

County  Court.  Local  courts  established  throughout 
the  country. 

Covenant.    An  agreement  under  seal. 

Coverture.  The  state  of  a  married  woman  as  being 
under  the  protection  and  influence  of  her  husband  or 
baron.    She  is  called  a  feme  covert. 

Coalers.  Coal  roads.  A  term  usually  applied  on 
stock  exchanges  to  describe  the  Reading,  Lackawanna, 
Delaware  and  Hudson,  and  Jersey  Central  Railroads. 

Cocket.  A  custom  house  warrant  to  show  that  goods 
have  been  entered. 

Collaterals.  Stocks,  bonds,  notes,  or  other  value, 
given  in  pledge  as  security  when  money  is  borrowed. 

Collateral  Security.  Security  for  'the  payment  of 
money  or  the  perf ormance  of  covenants  in  addition  to 
a  principal  promise  or  bond,  e.g.,  a  warehouse  receipt 
or  a  paid-up  insurance  policy  given  as  security  for  the 
payment  of  a  promissory  note  would  be  collateral. 

Combine.  A  word  expressing  the  same  meaning  as 
"trust  "  and  supposed  not  to  be  quite  so  distasteful  to 
the  opponents  of  monopolies. 

Commercial  Paper.  Negotiable  paper,  such  as 
drafts,  bills  of  exchange,  etc.,  given  in  the  due  course 
of  business. 

Common  Stock.  The  ordinary  shares  in  a  corpora- 
tion. 

Compromise.  An  agreement  embracing  mutual 
concessions. 

Concern.  The  business  itself  considered  as  a  person 
independent  of  its  ownership. 

Consign.  To  send  goods  or  property  to  an  agent  or 
broker.  The  sender  of  the  goods  is  a"  consignor:  the 
receiver  is  a  consignee,  and  the  goods  or  things  sent  are 
a  consignment. 

Consols.  A  contraction  of  "  consolidated."  It 
represents  the  consolidation  of  Great  Britain's  bonded 
debt,  and  is  the  leading  English  funded  government 
security. 

Contango.  (London  Stock  Exchange.)  A  rate  paid 
for  carrying  shares  over  until  next  settlement  day. 
When  a  broker  desires  to  "  continue  shares"  or  to  post- 
pone the  day  of  payment  or  delivery,  the  premium  paid 
is  called  in*  the  seller's  case  "backwardation"  and,  in 
the  buyer's  case,  "  contango." 

Conversion.  Bonds  are  frequently  issued  with  a 
provision  whereby  they  can  at  any  'moment  be  ex- 
changed for  equivalent  stock.  Such  securities  are 
called  "convertible."  and  the  act  of  substitution  is 
called  "  conversion." 

Corner.  An  artificial  scarcity  created  by  holding 
property  off  the  market  for  the  extortion' of  abnor- 
mally high  prices.  "Where  the  purchases  of  any  party 
or  parties  exceed  the  amount  of  contract  grain  in 
regular  warehouses  on  the  last  delivery  day  of  the 
month  for  which  such  purchases  have  been  made,  the 
grain  so  bought  is  said  to  be  cornered. 

Corporation.  A  corporate  body  authorized  by  law 
to  act  as  a  single  individual. 

Coupon  Bonds.  Bonds  payable  to  bearer  without 
any  registration  of  the  owner's  name  anywhere.  The 
interest  in  these  bonds  is  evidenced  by  coupons  which, 
when  they  become  due,  are  cut  off  the  original  bond  and 
collected." 

Cover.  The  buying  in  of  grain  or  stocks  to  fill  short 
contracts  is  called'  "  covering." 

Covering  Shorts.  Buying  in  property  to  fill  con- 
tracts (usually  for  future  delivery)  previously  made. 

Coasting.  A  sailing  near  land,  or  trade"  carried  on 
between  ports  in  the  same  country. 

C.  O.  D.  Collect  on  delivery.  Goods  sent  by  express 
marked  in  this  way  must  be  accompanied  by  the  bill  for 
them.  This  bill  is  collected  and  receipted  by  the  mes- 
senger of  the  express  company,  before  delivering  the 
goods. 

Commerce.    Interchange  of  values  or  commodities. 

Common  Carrier.  One  who  makes  it  a  business  to 
transport  goods:  railroad  companies  are  common  car- 
riers. 


Compact.  An  agreement  by  which  the  parties  are 
firmly  bound  together. 

Company.  An  association  of  persons  for  a  common 
enterprise. 

Contraband.    Prohibited ;  illegal. 

Condition  Precedent.  A  condition  which  must  be 
carried  out  before  the  obligation  is  performed. 

Copartnership.    Joint  concern  in  business. 

Correspondence.  An  interchange  of  letters,  or  in- 
tercourse. 

Counterfeit.    A  forgery ;  spurious  bank  bills. 

Countersign.  To  sign,  as  secretary  or  subordinate 
officer,  a  writing  which  has  been  signed  by  the  superior. 

Coupon.  An  interest  certificate  attached  to  a  bond ; 
when  paid,  it  is  cut  off. 

Cross-examination.  The  interrogation  of  a  witness 
by  or  on  behalf  of  the  party  against  whom  the  evidence 
is  given. 

Credentials.  Testimonials;  that  which  gives  credit 
or  authority. 

Custom.  A  law, not  written,  established  by  long  use, 
and  the  consent  of  our  ancestors ;  if  it  be  universal,  it  is 
common  law;  if  particular,  it  is  then  properly  custom. 

Customs.  Duties  levied  on  commodities  exported  and 
imported. 

Curb.  Prices  made  by  private  transactions  not  in 
trading  hours  are  called  curb  markets. 

Curbstone  Market.  A  hanger-on  of  Board  of  Trade 
or  Stock  Exchanges,  who  does  business  on  the  sidewalk. 
An  irregular  speculator,  with  the  street  for  his  place  of 
business,  and  for  his  office  his  hat. 

Currency.    Money  in  current  use. 

Custom  House.  A  government  place  where  imported 
goods  are  entered  and  duties  collected. 

Damages.  The  amount  of  money  awarded  by  a  jury, 
to  be  paid  by  a  defendant  to  a  plaintiff,  as  a  compensa- 
tion fpr  the  injury  of  which  the  latter  complains. 

Days  of  Grace".  Usually  three  days  allowed  for  the 
payment  of  a  note  after  maturity. 

Debenture  Bonds.  Concentration  of  floating  capital- 
ization into  convenient  bonded  form.  Originally,  notes 
in  the  form  of  bonds. 

Debenture.  A  written  instrument  of  the  nature  of  a 
bond  or  bill  for  a  certain  sum  of  money. 

De  Bonis  Non.  When  an  administrator  dies,  the 
risht  does  not  descend  to  his  own  representative,  but  a 
fresh  grant  of  administration  must  be  obtained  of  the 
goods  remainingunadministered,  and  which  is  called  an 
administration  de  bonis  non. 

Declaration.  In  an  action  at  law,  signifies  the  plain- 
tiff's statement  of  his  cause  of  action. 

Declaration  of  Trust.  A  written  or  verbal  expres- 
sion or  statement,  by  which  a  person  acknowledges  him- 
self to  be  a  trustee  for  another.  If  relating  to  lands,  it 
must  be  in  writing. 

Deed.  A  writing  sealed  and  delivered  by  the  parties 
to  it. 

De  Facto.    A  thing  actually  done  or  existing. 

Default  (judgment  by).  If  a  defendant  omits  to  ap- 
pear or  plead  to  an  action,  within  the  time  allowed,  the 
plaintiff  can  sign  judgment  by  default. 

Defaulter.  A  person  who  neglects  to  perform  an  act 
required  to  be  done. 

Defeasance.  A  collateral  deed  made  at  the  same 
time  with  some  other  deed,  and  containing  certain  con- 
ditions which  may  defeat  or  render  null  and  void  the 
provisions  of  such" other  deed. 

Defendant.  The  party  against  whom  an  action  or 
suit  is  brought. 

Demesne.  Lands  which  formerly  the  lord  kept  in  his 
own  hands,  being  next  to  his  mansion. 

Demise.  A  word  used  in  conveyance*  of  estates  for 
terms  of  years. 

Demurrage.  A  compensation  or  allowance  for  de- 
taining a  ship  beyond  the  usual  or  specified  time. 

Demurrer.  A  mode  of  raising  a  point  of  law,  upon 
the  facts  stated  in  the  pleadings,  assuming  them  to  be 
true. 

Deposition.  The  testimony  of  a  witness  taken  down 
in  writing  and  signed  by  him. 

Devise.  The  giving  "away  of  lands  or  other  real  es- 
tate by  will. 

Debtor.  A  party  who  owes  a  debt;  one  who  owes 
another  money,  goods,  or  services. 

Delivery  Day.  The  first  trading  day  of  the  month  is 
usually  called  delivery  day,  but,  as  all  transactions  are 
at  the  option  of  the  seller,  he  may  select  and  deliver  the 
grain  on  any  day  of  the  month  for  which  it  has  been 
sold. 


486 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Deposit.  To  place  funds  in  a  bank ;  a  sum  deposited 
at  a  certain  time ;  the  amount  on  deposit  at  any  given 
time. 

Defalcation.  A  deduction,  abatement,  or  diminu- 
tion, as  in  a  promissory  note. 

Debt.    What  one  owes  to  another.    . 

Delivery.  To  pass  money  or  goods  to  another ;  a  giv- 
ing. 

Demand.    An  asking  by  authority ;_  a  claim  by  right. 

Depository.  One  to  whom  something  is  intrusted ;  a 
guardian. 

Deputy.  One  appointed  to  act  for  another ;  a  repre- 
sentative. 

Disability.    A  legal  incapacity  to  do  an  act. 

Disclaimer.  A  renunciation  by  an  executor  or  trus- 
tee of  the  office  imposed  upon  him,  also  a  mode  of  de- 
fense in  equity,  etc. 

Discovert.  A  term  applied  to  a  widow  or  unmarried 
woman. 

Disfranchise.  To  take  away  from  certain  places  or 
persons  any  privilege,  freedom,  or  liberty. 

Disseisin.  A  wrongful  invasion  of  the  possession  of 
another,  and  turning  him  out  from  the  occupation  of 
his  lands,  either  by  force  or  surprise. 

Distress.  The  distraining  or  taking  the  effects  of  a 
tenant,  in  order  to  satisfy  the  rent  due  to  his  landlord. 

Dishonor.  To  refuse  to  accept  a  draft,  or  to  pay  a 
note  of  acceptance. 

Direct  Evidence.  Evidence  which  applies  directly 
to  the  fact  to  be  proved. 

Discount.  In  mercantile  transactions,  a  discount 
means  a  deduction  of  a  certain  amount  from  the  face  of 
a  bill  for  cash.  In  banking,  a  discount  means  the  de- 
duction of  a  certain  amount  from  the  face  value  of  a 
note  or  bill,  as  a  payment  for  allowing  the  holder  of  the 
note  the  immediate  use  of  the  money ;  the  rate  of  dis- 
count varies. 

Dividend.  A  portion  allotted  to  stockholders,  in  di- 
viding the  profits. 

Domicile.  The  domicile  of  a  person  is  where  he  has 
his  permanent  home.  There  are  three  sorts  of  domiciles 
—  by  birth,  by  choice,  and  by  operation  of  law. 

Dower.  A  widow  is  entitled,  at  the  death  of  her 
husband,  to  a  life  interest  in  a  third  part  of  the  estates 
of  inheritance  of  which  her  husband  was  seised,  and 
did  not  dispose  of  by  deed  or  will. 

Domiciliated.  A  negotiable  instrument  payable  in 
a  different  place  from  that  in  which  it  is  drawn  is 
domiciliated  where  payable. 

Donee.  One  to  whom  a  gift  is  made  or  a  bequest  is 
given. 

Donor.    One  who  gives  or  bestows. 

Dormant.  Not  acting;  a  partner  who  takes  no 
share  in  the  active  business  of  the  concern,  but  shares 
in  the  gains  or  losses. 

Drop.  In  stocks  or  grain  it  is  equivalent  to  a  "  break  " 
except  that  it  may  be  due  to  wholly  natural  causes. 

Draft.  A  bill  of  exchange  used  for  domestic  pur- 
poses. 

Drawback.    Duty  refunded  on  exported  goods. 

Drawee.    One  on  whom  a  draft  is  drawn  ;  the  payor. 

Drawer.    One  who  draws  a  bill  or  draft. 

Duress.  Anything  done  under  compulsion  and 
through  unavoidable  necessity. 

Dun.     To  press  urgently  the  payment  of  a  debt. 

Duty.  A  government  tax  paid  on  goods  imported  or 
exported. 

Duplicate.    A  copy  or  transcript  of  anything. 

Easement.  A  convenience  which  one  has  in  or  over 
the  lands'of  another,  as  a  way  or  a  water  course. 

Earnest.  A  pledge,  like  money  deposited,  affords 
good  groundsCor  reliance. 

Effects.    Goods  or  property  of  any  kind. 

Ejectment.  An  action  at  law  to  recover  the  posses- 
sion of  lands.  • 

Elegit.  A  writ  of  execution  under  which  all  the 
debtor's  lands  may  be  seized  or  extended,  and  held  by 
the  judgment  creditor  until  his  judgment  is  satisfied. 

Embezzlement.  The  act  of  appropriating  that 
which  is  received  in  trust  for  another,  which  is  a 
criminal  offense. 

Embargo.    Prohibition  of  vessels  from  sailing. 

Embarrassment.  Financial  distress ;  on  the  verge 
of  bankruptcy. 

Embassy.  A  public  message  or  commission ;  the 
person  by  whom  it  is  sent. 

Emporium.     A  commercial  center. 

Enfeoff  (To).  The  act  of  conveying  an  estate  of  free- 
hold by  deed  of  feoffment. 


Enfranchisement.  The  admittance  of  a  person 
into  a  society  or  body  politic.  Enfranchisement  of 
copyholds  is  a  conversion  of  copyholds  into  freehold 
tenure. 

Engrossing.  A  style  of  writing,  not  now  generally 
used,  for  deeds,  but  still  used  for  the  probates  of  wills. 

Enrollment.  The  registering  of  deeds  as  required 
by  certain  statutes ;  as,  lor  instance,  deeds  conveying 
lands  to  charitable  uses. 

Entail.  That  inheritance  whereof  a  man  is  seized  to 
him  and  the  heirs  of  his  body.  Tail-general  is  where 
lands  and  tenements  are  given  to  one,  and  the  heirs  of 
his  body  generally.  Tenant  in  Tail-special  is  where  the 
gift  is  restrained  to  certain  heirs  of  the  donee's  body,  as 
male  or  female. 

Entry.  A  record  of  a  business  transaction ;  deposit- 
ing of  a  ship's  papers  at  custom  house  to  procure  license 
to  land  goods. 

Endorse.  To  write  one's  name  on  the  back  of  a 
check,  note,  or  draft. 

Equitable  Mortgage.  The  most  familiar  instance 
is  the  deposit  (either  with  or  without  a  memorandum, 
although  it  is  better  to  have  one)  of  the  title  deeds  of 
an  estate  by  way  of  security,  which  constitutes  an 
equitable  mortgage  without  the  execution  of  any  formal 
mortgage  deed. 

Equity  of  Redemption.  The  right  which  equity 
gives  to  a  mortgager  of  redeeming  his  estate  after  the 
appointed  time  for  payment  has  passed,  and  which  right 
can  only  be  barred  by'a  foreclosure. 

Equity.  In  law,  qualifying  or  correcting  the  law  in 
extreme  cases. 

Error.  A  writ  of  error  is  a  commission  to  judges  of 
a  superior  court,  by  which  they  are  authorized  to  ex- 
amine the  record  upon  which  a  judgment  was  given  in 
an  inferior  court,  and  to  affirm,  reverse,  or  vary  the 
same,  according  to  law. 

Errors  Excepted.  A  phrase  inserted  as  a  proviso, 
that  the  person  who  renders  a  statement  may  have  the 
power  of  correcting  any  mistake  that  he  may  have  com- 
mitted. 

Escheat.  Is  where  lands,  for  want  of  heirs,  or  from 
forfeiture,  escheat  or  fall  back  to  the  sovereign  or  lord 
of  the  fee  as  the  original  grantor. 

Estate.  The  interest  which  a  person  has  in  lands,  or 
other  property. 

Estoppel.  "Where  a  man  is  precluded  in  law  from 
alleging  or  denying  a  fact  in  consequence  of  his  own 
previous  act,  allegation,  or  denial  to  the  contrary. 

Estreat.  Where  a  recognizance  becomes  forfeited  by 
any  of  its  conditions  being  broken,  it  is  estreated  ;  that 
is,  extracted  from  the  record,  and  sent  up  to  the  Ex- 
chequer, whence  a  process  will  issue  to  recover  the  pen- 
alty. 

Evidence.  Proof,  either  written  or  unwritten,  of  the 
facts  in  issue  in  any  legal  proceeding. 

Excise.  A  tax  or  impost  charge  by  government  on 
certain  commodities. 

Execution.  The  act  of  putting  the  sentence  of  the 
law  into  force. 

Executor.  One  appointed  by  a  person's  last  will  to 
administer  his  personal  estate. 

Exhibits.  Documents,  etc.,  produced  in  evidence, 
and  marked  for  the  purpose  of  identification. 

Ex  Officio.  Anything  done  by  virtue  of  an  office. 
An  information  filed  by  the  attorney-general,  by  virtue 
of  his  office,  is  called  an  Ex  Officio-Information. 

Ex  Parte.  A  statement  is  called  ex  parte  where  only 
one  of  the  parties  gives  an  account  of  a  transaction,  in 
which  two  or  more  are  concerned. 

Ex  Post  Facto.  An  ex  post  facto  law  is  a  law  made 
purposely  to  restrain  or  punish  an  offense  already  com- 
mitted. 

Extrajudicial.  Any  act  done  by  a  judge  beyond  his 
authority,  or  any  opinion  expressed  by  him  not  strictly 
pertinent  to  the  matter  in  issue  before  him. 

Exhaust  Price.  The  point  at  which  one's  margins 
will  be  exhausted.  If  trades  are  not  re-margined  they 
are  likelv  to  be  closed  out  by  the  broker  at  the  exhaust 
price,  if  "it  is  reached  by  the  market. 

Exchange.  Act  of  bartering ;  a  bill  drawn  for  money ; 
a  place  where  merchants  meet;  a  difference  between 
the  value  of  money  in  two  places,  or  the  premium  and 
discount  arising  from  the  purchase  and  sale  of  funds. 

Executory.    Yet  to  be  performed. 

Exports.  Goods  or  produce  carried  abroad  in  com- 
merce. 

Express.  A  special  messenger ;  a  regular  conveyance 
for  packages,  etc. 


FINANCE,   INDUSTRY,   TRANSPORTATION. 


487 


Factor.  An  agent  intrusted  with  tlie  possession  of 
goods  for  sale  belonging  to  his  principal.  A  broker,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  not  the  custody  of  the  goods  of  his 
principal. 

Faculty.  A  privilege  or  dispensation  granted  by  an 
ecclesiastical  court  in  certain  cases. 

False  Pretenses.  The  criminal  offense  of  obtaining 
any  chattel,  money,  or  valuable  security  by  means  of  a 
false  pretense ;  it  "is  punishable  by  transportation,  tine, 
or  imprisonment. 

Face.    The  amount  expressed  on  a  note  or  draft. 

Failure.    Act  of  becoming  insolvent. 

Facsimile.    An  exact  copy. 

Fancy  Stocks.  Term  applied  to  stocks  subject  to 
sudden  fluctuation  in  price. 

Favor.  A  note  or  draft  is  said  to  be  in  favor  of  the 
payee. 

Fee  Simple.  That  estate  or  interest  in  lands  which 
a  person  holds  to  him  and  his  heirs  forever.  During 
his  life  he  possesses  over  it  a  perfectly  free  and  unre- 
strained power  of  disposition,  and  on"  his  death,  with- 
out having  alienated  it  by  deed  or  will,  it  descends  to 
his  heirs,  both  lineal  and  collateral,  male  and  female, 
according  to  an  established  order  of  descent. 

Felony.  Formerly  defined  as  comprising  "  all  capi- 
tal crimes  below  treason."  It  may  now  more  accurately 
be  defined  as  comprising  all  crimes  occasioning  a  for- 
feiture of  lands  or  goods  or  both. 

Feme  Covert.    A  married  woman. 

Feme  Sole.    An  unmarried  woman. 

Feoffment.  A  mode  of  conveyance  of  lands  in  fee, 
accompanied  by  certain  solemnities.  It  is  rarely,  if  ever, 
now  used. 

Fiat.  An  order  or  warrant  for  a  thing  to  be  done  er 
executed. 

Fieri  Facias.  A  writ  of  execution,  by  which  the 
sheriff  is  commanded  to  levy  the  debt  and  damages  of 
the  goods  and  chattels  of  the  defendant. 

Finding.  A  finder  of  goods  may  appropriate  them  to 
his  own  use  if  he  really  believes  when  he  takes  them 
that  the  owner  cannot  be  found ;  but  if  a  jury  should 
say  that  the  finder  appropriated  the  goods,  not  having 
(or  that  he  could  reasonably  be  supposed  not  to  have  had) 
such  belief  at  the  time  of  appropriation,  it  amounts  to  a 
theft,  and  can  be  punished  criminally. 

Finding  a  Bill.  The  grand  jury  either  find  or  ignore 
the  bills  against  prisoners;  if  they  find  a  true  bill,  the 
case  goes  into  court,  and  is  tried. 

Fire  Policy.  An  instrument  by  which  an  insurance 
company  guarantees  to  a  person, "who  has  insured  his 
property,  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money,  if  it  is  injured 
or  destroyed  by  fire. 

Fixtures,  this  term  is  generally  used  to  denote  those 
personal  chattels  which,  though  "annexed  to  the  free- 
hold of  demised  premises,  a  tenant  is  nevertheless  en- 
titled to  remove.  They  consist  of  trade  fixtures,  and  of 
those  put  up  for  the  ornament  or  convenience  of  the 
premises. 

Finance.    Revenue;  income;  pertaining  to  money. 

Financier.  An  officer  of  finance ;  one  having  charge 
of  the  revenue. 

Firm.    A  partnership,  trading  house,  or  its  name. 

Fiscal.    Pertaining  to  a  treasury  or  revenue. 

Flat.  A  term  signifying  that  stocks  are  sold  without 
reference  to  accumulated  interest;  low  in  price;  dull  as 
to  sales. 

Flotsam.  Goods  which  float  after  being  thrown  over- 
board at  sea  or  in  case  of  shipwreck.  The  goods  thus 
cast  away  are  called  jetsam  or  jettison,  if  they  sink  and 
remain  under  water. 

Foreclosure.  The  barring  the  equity  of  redemption 
on  mortgages. 

Foreign  Bill  of  Exchange.  A  bill  drawn  by  a  per- 
son abroad,  and  accepted  in  the  United  States,"or  vice 
versa. 

Forfeiting  Recognizances.  When  a  person  who  has 
entered  into  recognizances  fails  to  comply  with  their 
conditions,  the  same  are  forfeited  or  estreated. 

Forfeiture.  A  punishment  consequent  upon  the 
commission  of  certain  criminal  offenses  or  illegal  acts. 

Forgery.  The  crime  of  counterfeiting  a  signature, 
seal,  or  mark  ;  or  the  fraudulent  alteration  of  a  writing 
to  the  prejudice  of  another. 

Foreclose.  To  cut  off  the  power  of  redemption 
under  a  mortgage. 

Forestall.  To  buv  goods  before  thev  reach  the  mar- 
ket. 

Folio.  Page'  of  a  book,  usually  the  two  opposite 
pages. 

F.  O.  B.     Free  on  board:   the  bill  or  invoice  with 


F.  O.  B.  includes  the  transporting  to  the  shipping  port 
and  all  the  shipping  expenses. 

Foreign  Exchange.  Drafts  drawn  on  the  financial 
centers  of  Europe;  for  instance,  London,  Berlin,  or 
Paris.  Drafts  on  London  are  called  Sterling  Ex- 
change, as  they  are  drawn  in  pounds  sterling. 

Franchise.  A  royal  privilege  to  which  a  subject  is 
entitled  —  as  a  fair,  a  market,  a  free  warren,  a  park. 

Fraud.  A  dishonest  and  illegal  artifice,  by  which 
undue  advantage  is  taken  of  another,  or  by  which  the 
interests  of  that  other  are  unjustly  prejudiced.  Fraud 
strikes  at  the  root  of  every  transaction,  and  vitiates 
every  contract,  whether  by  record,  deed,  or  otherwise. 

Freehold.  Land  held  in  fee  simple,  fee  tail,  or  at 
least  for  life. 

Freight.  The  remuneration  due  to  the  owner  of  a 
ship  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  or  merchandise,  on 
which  he  has  a  lien  for  the  freight. 

Franc.  A  French  silver  coin,  value  about  twenty 
cents. 

Frank.    A  free  letter. 

Free  Trade.  The  policy  of  conducting  international 
commerce  without  duties. 

Fractional  Orders.  Orders  for  less  than  5,000  bushels 
of  grain  or  100  shares  of  stock  are  called  fractional 
orders,  as  the  above  amounts  represent  the  units  of 
speculation.  Fractional  orders  are  entirely  regular, 
both  on  the  Chicago  Board  of  Trade  and  the  Stock 
Exchanges.  Orders  are  executed  in  1,000  bushel  lots  of 
wheat,  but  not  in  corn  or  oats.  Neither  is  there  any 
market  for  small  quantities  of  provisions  or  cotton. 

Frozen  Out.  Said  of  deals  or  trades  closed  out 
compulsorily  because  of  inability  to  further  protect 
contracts  with  re-margins. 

Funded  Debt.  The  public  debt  of  this  country, 
consisting  of  an  immense  sum  which,  from  time  to 
time,  has  been  lent  to  government  by  individuals,  and 
which  they  or  their  assigns  receive  interest  for,  out  of 
the  taxes. 

Future  Estates.  Estates  not  in  possession,  but  in 
expectancy,  as  a  remainder. 

Funds.    Stock  or  capital,  a  sum  of  money. 

Funded.  Put  into  a  permanent  loan  on  which  an 
annual  interest  is  paid. 

Futures.  Buyers  of  cash  grain  protect  themselves 
against  possible  loss  by  selling  an  agreed  amount  for 
future  delivery  in  some  general  market,  usually  Chicago. 
Such  contracts  are  called  futures  because  they  do  not 
terminate  until  some  designated  month  in  the  future. 
These  transactions  pass  from  hand  to  band  and  may  be 
turned  over  hundreds  and  thousands  of  times  in  an 
active  market  before  maturity,  and  this  is  called  deal- 
ing in  futures.  Nearly  all  speculative  operations  are  in 
futures. 

Garnishee.  The  party  in  whose  hands  money,  due 
to  a  defendant,  is  attached. 

Gain.    Profit ;  heneflt;  increase  in  wealth. 

Gauging.    Measuring  the  contents  of  casks,  etc. 

Gist.    The  main  point  of  a  case ;  the  turning  point. 

Gift.  A  voluntary  conveyance  or  gift  of  lands  or 
goods.  If  of  the  former,  it  "is  liable  to  be  defeated  in 
the  lifetime  of  the  grantor,  by  his  conveying  the  same 
lands  to  a  purchaser,  for  a  valuable  consideration,  even 
though  with  notice  of  the  prior  gift. 

Gold  and  Silver  Certificates.  Certificates  issued 
by  the  United  States  government,  circulating  as  money, 
oh  the  security  of  gold  deposited  with  the  government 
for  that  purpose,  or  of  silver  coin  belonging  to  itself. 

Gross  "Weight.    Weight  of  goods  including  case,  bag, 

Grace,  Days  of.  The  name  given  to  the  days  of  in- 
dulgence allowed  to  the  acceptor  of  a  bill  of  exchange 
after  it  becomes  due.  The  number  of  such  days  varies 
in  different  countries.  In  some,  as  in  France,  they  are 
abolished  altogether.  In  England,  three  days  are  al- 
lowed, so  that  a  bill  at  a  month  drawn  on  the  first  of  one 
month,  will  become  due  on  the  fourth  of  the  next. 

Grand  Jury.  The  jury  to  whom  all  bills  of  indict- 
ment are  referred  in  the  first  instance.  It  is  the  duty 
of  this  jury  to  interrogate  the  witnesses  for  the  prosecu- 
tion, and  ascertain  whether  or  not  a  prima  facie  case  is 
made  out  against  the  prisoner ;  if  so,  they  find  a  true 
bill,  and  he  takes  his  trial;  if  not,  they  ignore  the  bill, 
and  he  is  discharged. 

Grant.  A  mode  of  conveyance,  formerly  applicable 
onlv  to  incorporeal  hereditaments,  reversions,  etc. ;  but 
its  significance  has  been  extended  by  a  recent  statute, 
and  it  is  now  the  instrument  most  usually  employed  in 
the  conveyance  of  land. 


488 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OP  FACTS. 


Granger  Roads.  Western  railroads.  This  term  was 
originally  applied  in  Wall  street  to  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul  roads,  but  is  now  employed  on  Stock  Exchanges  to 
designate  those  railroads  which  handle  principally  farm 
produce. 

Gross.  Whole ;  entire ;  total ;  specifically  without  de- 
duction, as  for  damage  or  waste  material;  without  al- 
lowance of  tare,  opposed  to  net,  as  gross  sum  or  amount, 
gross  profits,  income  or  weight. 

Guaranty.  An  engagement  to  he  responsible  for  the 
debts  or  duties  of  a  third  person. 

Guarantor.    A  warrantor. 

Guaranteed  Stock.  Stocks  of  leased  or  subsidiary 
company  guaranteed  by  the  principal  company. 

Habeas  Corpus.  A  writ  of  right  for  those  who  are 
grieved  by  illegal  imprisonment.  The  Habeas  Corpus 
Act  is  next  in  importance  to  Magna  Charta,  for,  so  long 
as  this  statute  remains,  no  subject  of  England  can  long 
be  detained  in  prison,  except  under  legal  process. 

Habendum.  One  of  the  formal  parts  of  a  deed :  its 
office  is  to  limit  or  define  the  estate  granted.  It  is  so 
called  because  it  begins  with  the  words  "  to  have." 

Harbor.  A  place  of  rest  or  safety  for  ships ;  a  port  for 
loading  and  unloading. 

Heir.  The  legal  representative  of  his  ancestor,  with 
respect  to  the  real  property  of  such  ancestor.  He  takes 
all  the  real  property  not  otherwise  disposed  of  by  the 
ancestor  in  his  lifetime  or  by  his  will. 

Heir  Apparent.  Is  one  whose  right  of  inheritance 
is  certain,  and  which  nothing  can  defeat,  provided  he 
outlives  his  ancestor;  as  the  eldest  son  or  issue.  Heir 
presumptive  is  one  who  would  inherit,  provided  his  an- 
cestor were  to  die  at  that  particular  time,  but  whose 
right  of  inheritance  might  be  defeated  by  some  nearer 
heir  being  afterwards  born ;  as  a  brothe'r  or  nephew, 
whose  presumptive  succession  may  be  destroyed  by  the 
birth  of  a  child. 

Heirlooms.  Such  personal  chattels  as  go  to  the  heir 
along  with  the  inheritance,  and  not  to  the  executor  of 
the  deceased. 

Hereditaments.  All  things  which  may  be  inherited, 
that  is,  which  would  descend  to  the  heir,  if  not  disposed 
of  by  deed  or  will.  Hereditaments  are  of  two  kinds, 
corporeal  and  incorporeal. 

Hedge.  The  operation  called  hedging  by  speculators 
is  practically  the  same  as  straddling,  though  the  terms 
are  not  synonymous.  Traders  hedge  to  avert  a  loss  and 
straddle  for  a" profit. 

High  Seas.  Waters  of  the  ocean  outside  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  any  country. 

Homicide.  The  crime  of  killing  any  human  being; 
of  which  there  are  three  kinds  — justifiable,  excusable, 
and  felonious. 

Honor.    To  accept  and  pay  when  due. 

Hue  and  Cry.  The  old  common  law  process  of 
pursuing  felons  "with  horn  and  voice."  Also,  the 
name  of  a  paper  now  circulated  amongst  the  police 
containing  the  names  and  description  of  felons. 

Hypothecate.  A  term  used  for  pawning  a  ship  and 
goods,  or  either,  for  necessaries,  which  a  master  of  a 
ship  may  do  when  in  distress  at  sea. 

Ignore.  When  the  grand  jury  reject  a  bill  of  indict- 
ment, they  are  said  to  ignore  it,  from  the  Latin  word 
ignoramus. 

Illegal  Condition.  A  condition  annexed  to  any- 
thing which  is  illegal,  immoral,  impossible,  or  other- 
wise contrary  to  law. 

Immoral  Contracts.  Contracts  infringing  the  rules 
of  morality  which,  for  reasons  of  public  policy,  are  void 
at  law. 

Impaneling.  Writing  in  a  parchment  schedule  the 
names  of  the  jury  by  the  sheriff. 

Import.    To  bring  from  another  country. 

Importer.    One  who  brings  goods  from  abroad. 

Impost.    Duty  on  goods  paid  by  the  importer. 

Incorporeal  Hereditaments.  Hereditaments  of  a 
non-tangible  nature,  and  consisting  of  rights  or  bene- 
fits issuing  out  of  corporal  or  tangible  things, — as  a 
rent,  an  advowson,  etc. 

Incumbent.  The  present  possessor  of  an  ecclesias- 
tical benefice. 

Incumbrance.  A  charge  or  lien  upon  propertv,  as  a 
mortgage. 

Indemnity.  A  written  instrument  whereby  one  un- 
dertakes to  free  another  from  responsibility. 

Indenture.    A  deed  or  writing,  formerly  cut  or  in- 


dented ;  now  the  name  usually  given  to  deeds,  although 
indenting  is  no  longer  essential. 

Indictment.  A  written  accusation  of  one  or  more 
persons,  of  a  crime  or  misdemeanor,  preferred  to,  and 
presented  on  oath,  by  a  grand  jury. 

Indorsement.  Anything  written  on  the  back  of  a 
deed  or  other  instrument ;  such  as  a  bill  of  exchange. 

Infant.  Every  person  is  by  the  law  styled  an  infant 
till  he  has  attained  the  age  of  twenty-one  years. 

Inheritance.  An  estate  in  lands  or  tenements  to  a 
man  and  his  heirs. 

Injunction.  A  prohibitory  writ  granted  by  the 
Court  of  Chancery  forbidding'  certain  acts  to  be  done 
under  pain  of  contempt.  It  may  be  granted  in  urgent 
cases  ex  parte,  but  notice  is  sometimes  required  to  be 
given. 

Inquest.  A  meeting  of  jurors,  who  are  summoned  la 
take  into  consideration  certain  matters,  which  may  ap- 
pear in  evidence  before  them,  and  to  bring  in  theii 
verdict  accordingly. 

Inquiry  (writ  of).  A  writ  directed  to  the  sheriff, 
commanding  him  to  summon  a  jury  and  assess  the 
damages  in  an  action ;  as,  for  instance,  when  the  de- 
fendant has  suffered  judgment  by  default. 

Insolvency.  The  state  of  a  p'erson  who  is  unable  to 
pay  his  debts. 

insurance.  A  security  or  indemnification  against 
the  risk  of  loss  from  the  "happening  of  certain  events. 
The  usual  kinds  are  fire  and  marine. 

Interpleader.  When  two  or  more  persons  claim  the 
same  thing  of  a  third,  the  latter  may  call  upon  them  to 
interplead,  i.  c,  to  try  the  right  to  it  between  them- 
selves ;  he,  the  third  person,  retaining  possession  of  the 
thing  in  the  meantime,  as  a  kind  of  stakeholder. 

Interrogatories.  Written  questions  to  which  the 
parties  interrogated  are  to  give  written  answers  on  oath. 

Intestate.  A  person  dying  without  a  will,  or,  hav- 
ing made  a  will,  without  ajq>ointingan  executor  thereof. 

Innuendo.  That  part  of  the  declaration,  in  actions  of 
libel  and  slander,  which  explains  the  meaning,  or  points 
the  application,  of  the  libelous  or  slanderous  matter 
complained  of. 

In  Re.    In  the  matter  of. 

Installment.  Part  of  a  sum  of  money  paid  or  to  be 
paid  from  time  to  time. 

Interest.  The  use  of  money;  premium  paid  for  the 
use  of  money. 

Investment.  The  laying  out  of  money  in  the  pur- 
chase of  property. 

Inventory.     A  list  of  goods. 

Invoice.    A  list  of  goods  bought  or  sold,  or  consigned. 

In  Sight.  Said  of  stocks  of  grain,  cotton,  coffee,  or 
other  merchandise,  available  for  immediate  use.  (Jrain 
stored  in  private  warehouses,  or  held  by  producers,  is 
not  usually  included  in  the  supply  "  in  sight." 

Inspection.  Grain  received  at  Chicago  is  inspected 
and  graded  by  sworn  inspectors  under  rules  established 
by  the  Board*  of  Railroad  and  Warehouse  Commission- 
ers, appointed  by  the  state  of  Illinois.  From  this  in- 
spection, if  not  satisfactory,  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to 
the  Inspection  Committee  "of  the  Board  of  Trade.  In 
other  states  similar  laws  exist. 

I.  O.  U.  A  written  acknowledgment  of  a  debt.  This 
instrument  is  regarded  in  a  court  of  law  as  evidence  of 
an  account  stated.  It  is  not  a  promissory  note  and  does 
not  require  a  stamp. 

Issue.  The  disputed  point  or  question  to  which  the 
parties  in  an  action  have,  by  pleading,  narrowed  their 
several  allegations,  and  are  hence  said  to  join  issue.  If 
it  be  an  issue  of  fact,  it  is  tried  by  a  jury,  if  of  law,  by 
the  court.  Issue  is  also  the  legal  term  for  children  or 
remoter  descendants. 

Jettison.  A  voluntary  throwing  of  goods  overboard 
at  sea  in  a  storm  to  lighten  the  ship. 

Joinder  in  Action.  The  coupling  or  joining  two 
parties  in  one  suit  or  action. 

Joint  Tenants.  Persons  who  bold  lands,  etc.,  jointly 
by  one  title.  On  the  death  of  one  the  survivor  takes  the 
whole. 

Jointure.  A  settlement  of  lands  or  tenements  on  a 
woman,  to  take  effect  after  her  husband's  death  in  lieu 
of  dower. 

Journal.  A  book  used  to  classify  and  arrange  busi- 
ness transaction*. 

Judgment.  The  sentence  of  the  law  pronounced  by 
the  court  upon  the  matter  contained  in  the  record. 

Jury.  A  certain  number  of  men  sworn  to  deliver  a 
verdict  upon  such  evidence  of  facts  as  shall  be  delivered 
to  them,  touching  the  matter  in  question. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


489 


Judgment  Note.  A  note  in  the  usual  form,  -with  the 
addition  of  the  power  to  confess  judgment  if  not  paid. 

Jurisdiction.  The  authority  by  which  judicial  offi- 
cer* take  cognizance  of  and  decide" causes. 

Landlord.  A  proprietor  of  lands  occupied  by  an- 
other, which  latter  party  is  termed  the  tenant. 

Lapse.  A  forfeiture  of  the  right  of  presentation  to  a 
church  by  the  neglect  of  the  patron  to  present.  The 
word  is  also  applied  where  a  testamentary  gift  falls  by 
the  death  of  its  object  in  the  lifetime  of  the  testator. 

Larceny.  The  wrongful  and  unlawful  taking  and 
carrying  away  by  one  person  of  the  personal  goods  of 
another,  with  the  felonious  intention  of  converting 
them  to  his  own  use. 

Law.  This  word  signifies  generally  an  inflexible  rule 
of  action.  The  law  of  England  is  composed  of  written 
laws  or  statutes,  and  unwritten  laws,  or  the  customs  of 
the  realm.    The  latter  is  also  termed  the  common  law. 

Law  of  Nations.  A  system  of  rules  or  principles 
deduced  from  the  law  of  nature,  and  intended  for  the 
regulation  of  the  mutual  intercourse  of  nations. 

Leading  Question.  A  question  put  or  framed  in 
such  a  form  as  to  suggest  the  answer  sought  to  be 
obtained.  Such  a  question  is  not  allowed  to  be  put  to  a 
witness,  except  on  cross-examination. 

Lease.  A  conveyance  or  demise  of  lands  of  tene- 
ments for  life,  or  years,  or  at  will,  but  always  for  a  less 
term  than  the  party  conveying  has  in  the  premises. 

Lease  and  Release.  The  form  of  conveyance,  until 
recently  commonly  used  for  conveying  land ;  but  a 
lease,  commonly  called  a  lease  for  a  year,  is  no  longer 
necessary  ;  the  release  alone  being  now  as  effectual  as  a 
lease  and  release  were  formerly. 

Leasehold.  Lands  held  on  lease,  which  (however 
long  the  term)  are  considered  as  chattels  real,  and  go  to 
the  next  of  kin,  and  not  to  the  heir,  on  the  death  of  the 
owner  intestate. 

Legacy.  A  gift  or  bequest  of  money,  goods,  or  other 
personal  property  by  will.  The  person  to  whom  it  is 
given  is  styled  the  legatee:  and,  if  the  gift  is  of  the 
residue,  after  payment  of  debts  and  legacies,  he  is  then 
styled  the  residuary  legatee. 

Lessor  and  Lessee.  The  person  who  grants  a  lease 
is  called  the  lessor,  the  party  to  whom  it  is  granted,  the 
lessee,  and  the  person  to  whom  either  of  them  assigns, 
the  assignee. 

Letters  of  Administration.  The  instrument  granted 
by  the  Probate  Court  under  which  administrators  de- 
rive their  title  to  administer  the  goods  and  chattels  of 
an  estate. 

Letters  (or  Power)  of  Attorney.  A  writing,  under 
seal,  empowering  another  person  to  do  any  act  insteai 
of  the  person  granting  the  letter.  It  may  be  either 
general  or  special ;  the  attorney  represents  his  principal 
in  the  matters  prescribed  by  the  letter  until  it  be  re- 
voked. 

Letters  of  License.  An  instrument  whereby  credit- 
ors grant  to  their  debtor  time  for  the  payment  of  his 
debts,  and  bind  themselves  not  to  molest  him  until  that 
time  has  expired. 

Levy.  The  seizing  of  goods  or  chattels  by  a  sheriff 
under  an  execution  is  called  a  levy. 

Ledger.    Book  of  accounts. 

Letters  of  Credit.  A  letter  authorizing  the  holder 
to  receive  money  on  account  of  the  writer. 

Legal  Debts."  Debts  that  are  recoverable  in  a  court 
of  common  law. 

Legal  Tender.  That  which  the  law  authorizes  to  be 
tendered  in  payment  of  debts.  Strictly  speaking,  it  is 
the  exact  amount  of  the  debt  in  current  funds.  It  is 
not  a  legal  tender  to  demand  change. 

Letter  of  Advice.  A  letter  of  information  concern- 
ing a  shipment  of  goods  or  of  the  drawing  of  a  draft. 

Libel.  A  malicious  defamation,  expressed  either  in 
printing  or  writing,  or  by  signs,  pictures,  etc.,  tending 
either  to  blacken  the  memory  of  one  who  is  dead,  or  the 
reputation  of  one  who  is  alive,  and  theieby  exposing 
him  to  public  hatred,  contempt,  or  ridicule. 

Lien.  A  qualified  right  which  a  person  has  in  or  to 
a  thing  in  his  possession,  arising  from  a  claim  upon  the 
owner.     Liens  are  of  two  kinds,  particular  or  general. 

Limited  Liability.  The  limitation  of  the  liability  of 
shareholders  in  a  company  to  the  amount  unpaid  upon 
their  shares,  introduced  by  recent  Acts,  and  applicable 
to  all  companies  registered  thereunder:  .such  compa- 
nies are  bound  to  use  the  word  "  Limited  "  in  their  title 
after  the  word  "  Company." 

Lineal  Descent.  That  which  goes  from  father  to 
Aml,  from  son  to  grandson,  and  so  on. 


Liquidated  Damages.  Damages,  the  amount  of 
which  is  fixed  or  ascertained. 

Liability.    Debt  or  claim  against  a  person. 

License.  Legal  permission  to  sell  goods  or  to  do 
certain  things. 

Liquidate.  To  pay  off,  as  debts ;  to  settle  or  adjust 
accounts. 

Lighterage.  A  charge  for  conveying  goods  to  or 
from  a  vessel  in  a  harbor. 

Limit.  A  set  figure,  at  which  one's  trade  is  to  be 
made  or  closed. 

Liquidation.  When  employed  by  speculators,  this 
term  signifies  the  selling  out  of  property  previously 
bought  or  contracted  for.  The  expression  "  liquidation 
by  longs,"  is  in  contradistinction  to  "covering  by  shorts." 
In  a  market  where  both  processes  are  extensively  car- 
ried on,  it  is  called  "  evening  up." 

Loan.  To  deliver  to  another  for  temporary  use ;  the 
thing  lent. 

Long.  One  who  has  property  bought  in  anticipation 
of  a  rise  in  price.  Hence,  for  a  trader  to  be  "long  "  of 
stocks  or  grain  presupposes  him  to  be  a  "bull."  Also 
used  adjectively. 

Long  Market.  A  market  that  is  overbought,  the 
volume  of  open  contracts  to  buy  property  for  future 
delivery  being  in  dangerous  excess  of  the  probable  de- 
mand. 

Lunatic.  One  who  has  had  understanding,  but,  by 
grief,  disease,  or  other  accident,  has  lost  the  use  of  his 
reason  generally,  though  he  may  have  lucid  intervals. 

Magna  Charta.  The  great  charter  of  English  lib- 
erties granted  by,  or  rather  extorted  from,  King  John, 
at  Runnymede,  between  Windsor  and  Staines,  on  the 
15th  of  June,  1215,  and  afterwards  confirmed  bv  Henrv 
III. 

Maihem  or  Mayhem.  The  violently  depriving  an- 
other of  the  use  of  such  of  his  members  as  may  render 
him  less  able,  in  fighting,  either  to  defend  himself  or  to 
annoy  his  adversary. 

Malice  Prepense.  Malice  aforethought;  -i.  e.,  delib- 
erate, ]) redetermined  malice. 

Mandamus.  A  writ  commanding  the  completion  or 
restitution  of  some  right,  or  the  performance  of  a  duty. 

Manor.  A  territorial  domain,  held  partly  by  the  lord 
and  partly  by  his  tenants;  it  must  have  continued  from 
time  immemorial,  and  have  annexed  to  it  a  Court 
Baron,  with  at  least  two  suitors. 

Manslaughter.  The  unlawful  killing  of  another,  but 
without  malice. 

Manumission.    The  making  a  bondman  free. 

Marque  and  Reprisal  (Letters  of).  Commissions 
granted  to  individuals  to  fit  out  privateers  in  time  of 
war ;  not  xised  in  the  late  war,  and  abandoned  by  all  the 
great  powers  at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  1856. 

Master  of  the  Rolls.  An  assistant  of  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  who  hears  and  decides  the  cases  assigned  to 
hiin,  at  his  own  court  in  the  Rolls  Yard.  He  holds  his 
office  by  patent  for  life. 

Maturity.  Bills,  or  notes,  when  due,  are  said  to  be  at 
their  maturity. 

Maxims  in  Law.  Certain  proverbial  axioms,  which 
form  part  of  the  general  custom  or  common  law  of  the 
land.  As,  "Xo  man  is  bound  to  criminate  himself." 
"Conditions  against  law  are  void."  "It  is  fraud  to 
conceal  fraud,"  etc.,  etc. 

Malfeasance.    An  act  which  one  has  no  right  to  do. 

Mandatory.  One  to  whom  business  is  intrusted  or 
charge  given. 

Manifest.  A  list  of  articles  comprising  a  vessel's 
cargo. 

Manufacture.  The  process  of  converting  raw  ma- 
terial into  articles  of  use  and  sale. 

Margin.  A  sum  of  money  deposited  with  a  broker, 
in  stock  transactions,  to  protect  him  against  loss  by  the 
depreciation  of  stocks  held  by  him  for  another  party. 
Also  the  difference  between  the  value  of  securities  de- 
posited as  collateral  and  the  amount  loaned  upon  them. 

Marine.    Relating  to  the  sea. 

Maritime  Law.  Law  relating  to  harbors,  ships,  and 
seamen. 

Mart.    A  place  of  public  sale ;  a  market. 

Maximum.    The  highest  figure. 

Merger.  The  sinking  of  a  smaller  estate  into  a 
greater,  whereby  the  former  is  utterly  extinguished  and 
destroyed.  It  takes  place  when  two  estates  meet  to- 
gether, without  any  intermediate  estate  between  them, 
to  both  of  which  estates  the  same  individual  is  en- 
titled in  one  and  the  same  right  —as  where  a  tenant  for 
life  afterwards  acquires  the  fee  simple. 


490 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Mesne-Process.  Commonly  used  to  describe  the 
first  process  in  an  action,  as  where  a  party  used  to  be 
arrested  on  mesne-process,  as  distinguished  from  an 
arrest  on  a  final  judgment. 

Mercantile  Law.  Law  relating  to  business  trans- 
actions. 

Mercantile  Agency.  A  concern  which  procures  in- 
formation relating  to  the  financial  standing  and  credit 
of  merchants  for  the  use  of  others,  to  whom  said  mer- 
chant may  apply  for  credit. 

Misdemeanor.  An  indictable  offense,  which,  though 
criminal,  does  not  amount  to  felony. 

Misprision.  A  neglect,  oversight,  or  contempt;  as, 
for  example,  misprision  of  treason  is  a  negligence  in  not 
revealing  treason. 

Minimum.    The  lowest  figure. 

Mint.     The  place  where  money  is  coined. 

Misfeasance.  Doing  in  an  improper  manner,  by 
which  another  receives  an  injury. 

Mitigation.  Lessening  the  amount  of  a  judgment, 
penalty,  or  punishment. 

Moot  Point.  An  obscure  point  of  law  not  definitely 
settled ;  and  therefore  open  for  discussion. 

Mortgage.  A  conveyance  of  lands  by  way  of  secu- 
rity, for  the  repayment  of  a  sum  of  money  borrowed,  or 
owing. 

Mortmain.  Lands  held  by  corporations  are  said  to 
be  held  in  mortmain. 

Motion.  An  occasional  application  to  the  court,  to 
obtain  some  rule  or  order  in  the  progress  of  a  cause. 

Money.    Current  coin  and  circulating  medium. 

Money  Broker.  A  broker  who  deals  in  money  or 
exchanges. 

Monopoly.    The  sole  power  of  vending  goods. 

Mortgagee.  The  person  to  whom  the  conveyance  is 
made. 

Mortgagor.    One  who  makes  the  mortgage. 

Municipal  Law.  That  which  pertains  solely  to  the 
citizens  of  a  particular  state,  city,  or  province. 

Muniments.  Deeds,  evidences,  and  writings  in  gen- 
eral. 

Murder.  Unlawfully  killing  any  person,  with  malice 
aforethought,  either  express  or  implied  by  law. 

Mutiny  Act.  An  Act  annually  passed  to  punish 
mutiny  and  desertion,  and  for  the  better  regulation  of 
the  army. 

Naturalization.  The  making  a  foreigner  a  lawful 
subject  of  the  state. 

Negotiable  Instruments.  Those  instruments  which 
confer  on  the  holders  the  legal  right  to  sue  for  the  money 
or  property  thereby  secured,  and  which  by  delivery 

Sass  such  money  or  property  from  man  to  man  —  as 
ills  of  exchange,  bills  of  lading. 

Next  Friend.  The  party  in  whose  name  an  infant  or 
feme-covert  brings  an  action  or  suit. 

Negotiable.  That  may  be  transferred  by  indorse- 
ment and  delivery,  or  by  delivery  alone. 

Negotiate.  To  transact  business  or  treat  with  an- 
other respecting  trade  or  treaty. 

Net.    Clear  of  all  charges  and  deductions. 

Net  Proceeds.  The  sum  left  after  deducting  com- 
mission or  discount,  etc. 

Negotiable  Paper.  Notes,  drafts,  or  other  written 
obligations,  which  may  be  bought  and  sold. 

Net  Cash.  A  term  applied  to  a  bill  of  goods  to  be 
paid  without  any  allowance  or  discount,  and  without 
reference  to  time,  but  by  common  custom  understood  to 
be  thirty  days,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

Nisi  Prius.  A  term  applied  to  those  courts  in  which 
civil  causes  are  tried  before  a  judge  and  jury. 

Nolle  Prosequi.  An  acknowledgment  by  the  plain- 
tiff that  he  will  not  further  prosecute  his  suit,  as  to  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  the  cause  of  action. 

Non  Assumpsit.  He  has  not  promised.  A  plea  by 
which  a  defendant  denies  his  liability  in  an  action  of 
assumpsit. 

Non  Pros.  When  the  plaintiff  neglects  to  take  any 
step  within  the  prescribed  time,  the  defendant  may 
move  for  a  judgment  against  him,  which  is  called  judg- 
ment of  non  pros. 

Nonsuit.  A  renunciation  of  a  suit  by  a  plaintiff,  after 
which  he  may  still  commence  another  action  for  the 
same  cause,  which  he  could  not  do  if  a  verdict  goes 
against  him. 

Notary  Public.  A  person  whose  business  it  is  to 
note  and  protest  bills  of  exchange,  and  who  also  attests 
deeds  and  writings,  to  make  them  authentic  in  another 
country. 


Non  Feasance.  The  non-performance  of  an  act  that 
should  be  done. 

Note.  An  obligation  without  a  seal;  a  written  prom- 
ise to  pay. 

Nominal.    Existing  in  name  only. 

Nuisance.  Anything  which  unlawfully  annoys  or 
does  damage  to  another.  Nuisances  may  be  either  pub- 
lic or  private. 

Nuncupative  Will.  An  oral  will  before  a  sufficient 
number  of  witnesses,  and  afterwards  reduced  to  writ- 
ing —  now  abolished,  except  as  to  soldiers  and  sailors. 

Nunc  Pro  Tunc.  Literally,  now  for  then;  and  is 
often  so  used  in  legal  proceedings. 

Oath.  An  appeal  to  God  as  a  witness  of  the  truth  of 
what  is  affirmed  or  denied  in  evidence,  in  the  presence 
of  a  judge,  magistrate,  or  other  officer  authorized  to 
administer  oaths. 

Obligation.  That  which  legally  binds  a  party  to  per- 
form a  duty. 

Official  Assignees.  Officers  of  the  Court  of  Bank- 
ruptcy, one  of  whom  is  allotted  to  each  bankrupt's 
estate.  He  acts  with  the  assignees  appointed  by  the 
creditors  in  the  administration  of  the  estate ;  but  his 
especial  duty  is  to  keep  the  assets  of  the  estate,  and  re- 
ceive and  pay  all  money  on  account  of  it. 

Onus  Probandi.  The  burden  of  proof .  It  is  a  legal 
principle  that  the  issue  in  an  action  must  be  proved  by 
the  party  who  states  an  affirmative  ;  not  by  the  party 
who  states  a  negative.  The  burden  of  proof,  therefore, 
is  on  the  former  party. 

On  Call.  When  money  is  loaned  "  on  call,"  it  is  un- 
derstood that  it  must  be  returned  the  day  it  is  called 
for,  before  the  close  of  banking  hours,  and  without  pre- 
vious notice. 

Open  Policy.  A  policy  upon  which  amounts  yet  to 
be  ascertained  and  insured,  may  be  entered  at  different 
times. 

Option.  Property  bought  or  sold  at  the  call  or  de- 
mand of  the  buyer  or  seller  as  may  be  specified  ;  a  con- 
ditional contract. 

Ostensible  Partner.  A  person  whose  name  appears 
to  the  world  as  a  partner  in  a  firm.  Although  such  a 
person  may  not  have  any  interest  in  the  partnership,  he 
is  liable  for  its  debts  and  engagements. 

Outlawry.  The  act  or  process  by  which  a  person  is 
excluded  from,  or  deprived  of,  the  benefit  of  the  laws, 
attended  with  a  forfeiture  of  his  goods  to  the  Crown. 

Outlawed.  Term  applied  to  a  debt  or  note  which  has 
run  beyond  the  time  when  its  payment  can  be  enforced 
by  law. 

Overt  Act.  An  open  act,  capable  of  being  manifested 
by  legal  proof . 

Overdraw.  To  issue  a  check  for  more  than  the  con- 
cern's deposit. 

Overdue.    Remaining  unpaid  after  maturity. 

Overissue.  An  issuing  as  of  stock,  beyond  or  in  ex- 
cess of  the  capital  stock. 

Oversold.     The  reverse  of  overbought. 

Owe.    To  be  indebted  to,  or  bound  to  pay. 

Oyer  and  Terminer.  A  commission  directed  to  the 
judges  and  others,  by  virtue  whereof  they  have  power 
to  hear  and  determine  treasons,  felonies,  etc. 

O  Yes.  A  corruption  of  the  French  oyez,  hear  ye ! 
The  term  is  used  by  a  public  crier  to  enjoin  silence  and 
attention. 

Panel.  A  schedule  or  slip  of  parchment,  containing 
the  names  of  such  jurors  as  have  been  returned  by  the 
sheriff  to  serve  on  trials. 

Paraphernalia.  Things  to  which  a  wife  is  entitled 
over  and  above  her  dower,  consisting  of  wearing  ap- 
parel and  ornaments  suitable  to  her  rank  and  station  in 
life.  The  husband  may  (with  the  exception  of  his 
wife's  wearing  apparel)  dispose  of  them  in  his  lifetime, 
but  not  by  will.  On  his  death  they  belong  to  the  wife 
absolutely. 

Parol.     Word  of  mouth,  verbal. 

Particeps  Criminis.    A  participator  in  the  crime. 

Partition.  The  dividing  of  lands  held  by  joint  ten- 
ant, coparceners,  or  tenants  in  common,  into  two  dis- 
tinct portions. 

Pawn.  A  delivery  of  goods  and  chattels,  to  be  re- 
in hied  until  a  debt  is  discharged. 

Par.  Equal  value;  when  market  value  equals  lace 
value. 

Partnership.  Company;  union  of  two  or  more  in 
business. 

Pawnbroker.  One  who  lends  money  on  a  pledge  or 
deposit  of  goods. 


FINANCE,    INDUSTRY,    TRANSPORTATION. 


491 


Payee.    The  party  to  whom  payment  is  to  be  made. 

Payor.    One  who  pays  or  is  bound  to  pay. 

Paper  Profits.  Profits  on  contracts  not  yet  closed, 
and  consequently  not  yet  in  hand. 

Par  of  Exchange.  Equivalent  value  of  the  cur- 
rency of  a  country  in  that  of  another. 

Partial  Payment.    Part  payment  of  a  debt. 

Partner.    An  associate  in  business. 

Passing:  a  Dividend.    When  the  directors  of  a  cor- 

E oration  vote  against  declaring  a  dividend  it  is  said  to 
e"  passed."  This  is  nearly  always  the  cause  of  great 
weakness  in  the  stock. 

Penance.  An  ecclesiastical  punishment,  varied  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  offense,  in  which  the  peni- 
tent is  supposed  to  make  satisfaction  to  the  Church  for 
the  scandal  he  has  given  by  his  evil  example. 

Perjury.  The  offense  committed  by  a  person  who, 
having  been  sworn  to  tell  the  truth  in  a  matter  pending 
in  a  court  of  justice,  willfully  and  deliberately  takes  a 
false  oath. 

Perpetuity.  A  rule  that  land  cannot  be  limited  be- 
yond a  life  or  lives  in  being  and  twenty-one  years  after- 
wards, and  the  period  of  gestation,  if  "it  actually  exists, 
is  commonly  called  the  rule  against  perpetuities. 

Personal  Estate,  or  Personalty.  Movable  things, 
whether  alive  or  dead,  as  distinguished  from  land,  or 
immovables,  which  are  termed  real  estate. 

Petitioning  Creditor.  A  creditor  who  petitions  the 
Court  of  Bankruptcy  to  make  his  debtor  a  bankrupt. 

Pin  Money.  An  allowance  set  apart  by  the  husband 
for  the  personal  expenses  of  a  wife,  i.  e.,  for  her  dress 
and  pocket  money. 

Pit  Traders.  Brokers  who  are  in  the  pit  daily  trad- 
ing for  their  own  account. 

Plaintiff.    The  complainant  in  an  action  or  suit. 

Plea.  The  defendant's  answer  to  the  plaintiff's  dec- 
laration. 

Pleader.  A  lawyer,  who  draws  the  pleadings  in 
actions. 

Pleadings.  The  mutual  allegations  or  statements 
which  are  made  by  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  in  an 
action. 

Pledge.    A  pawn ;  a  deposit  as  security. 

Posse  Comitatus.  The  power  of  the  county.  This 
includes  the  aid  and  attendance  of  all  men,  except 
ecclesiastics  and  inferior  persons,  above  the  age  of  fif- 
teen, within  the  county;  which  force  may  be  used  in 
cases  of  riot  or  rebellion,  or  where  any  resistance  is 
made  to  the  execution  of  justice. 

Postea.  The  verdict  of  the  jury  drawn  up  in  due 
form,  and  entered  on  the  back  of  the  record. 

Pound  Breach.  The  indictable  offense  of  breaking 
open  a  pound  for  the  purpose  of  taking  cattle  therefrom. 

Policy  of  Insurance.  Contract  between  the  insurer 
and  the  insured. 

Portage.  The  price  of  carrying;  cost  paid  by  the 
captain  for  running  his  vessel. 

Point.  On  stock  exchanges  "a  point"  is  understood 
to  mean  one  dollar  a  share.  A  decline  in  Missouri 
Pacific  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-two  would  be  a  de- 
cline of  three  points. 

Pool.  The  stock  and  money  contributed  by  a  syndi- 
cate to  control  the  price  of  a  given  surety  or  commodity. 
Also  refers  to  the  individuals  composing  the  pool. 

Post  Date.    To  date  after  the  real  day. 

Pre-emption.    The  right  of  first  buying. 

Prescription.  A  title  acquired  by  use  and  time,  and 
allowed  by  law. 

Presentment.  The  notice  taken  by  a  grand  jury  or 
inquest  of  any  offense,  etc.,  from  their  own  knowledge 
or  observation. 

Primogeniture.  The  right  of  the  eldest  son  to  in- 
herit his  ancestor's  estate,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  younger 
son,  where  the  ancestor  has  died  intestate. 

Privilege.  An  exemption  from  the  general  rules  of 
law.  It  is  of  two  kinds — real,  attaching  to  any  place, 
or  personal,  attaching  to  persons,  as  ambassadors,  etc. 

Probate.  The  copy  of  a  will  made  out  on  parchment 
with  a  certificate  of  its  having  been  proved. 

Process.  A  general  term  applied  to  formal  judicial 
proceedings. 

Prohibition.  A  writ  issuing  out  of  the  superior 
courts  directing  the  judge  of  an  inferior  court  not  to 
proceed  further  in  a  suit. 

Promissory  Note.  A  written  promise  by  which  one 
person  engages  or  promises  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of 
money  to  another. 

Pro  Kata.    In  proportion. 

Protest*    On  bills  of  exchange.    A  protest  means 


the  solemn  declaration  of  a  public  notary  of  the  dis- 
honor of  a  bill. 

Proviso.  A  condition  inserted  in  a  deed,  on  the  per- 
formance whereof  the  validity  of  the  deed  frequently 
depends. 

Premises.  Things  previously  mentioned;  houses, 
lands,  etc. 

Premium.  The  sum  paid  for  insurance ;  the  excess 
of  value  above  par. 

Price.    Value  set  or  demanded ;  current  value. 

Price  Current.  A  table  of  the  current  price  of  mer- 
chandise, stocks,  bills  of  exchange,  etc. 

Prima  Facie.    On  the  first  view  of  the  matter. 

Primage.  A  charge  imposed  in  addition  to  the 
freight. 

Principal.  An  employer;  the  head  of  a  commercial 
house ;  the  sum  loaned,  upon  which  interest  is  paid. 

Preferred  Stock.  Shares  of  a  corporation  having 
preference  over  ordinary  shares,  but  not  over  bonded  or 
mortgaged  indebtedness.  Preferred  stock  is  usually 
issued  for  borrowed  capital.  Earnings,  if  any  are  left 
after  paying  interest  on  the  bonded  det>t,  go  next  to  pay 
a  dividend  on  the  preferred  stock,  and  only  what  then 
remains  is  applied  to  the  common  stock. 

Privileges.  "  Puts  "  and  "  Calls."  A  "  put "  is  the 
privilege  or  option,  which  a  person  purchases,  of  "  put-, 
ting,"  i.  e.,  delivering,  property  or  contracts  for  prop- 
erty to  the  seller  of  such  privilege,  at  a  named  price 
within  a  stipulated  time  — one  or  more  days,  weeks,  or 
months.  "  Puts  "  are  good  (from  the  buyer's  stand- 
point) when  the  market  declines  below  the  "  put "  price 
within  the  time  covered  by  the  privilege  contract.  The 
buyer  can  then  buy  the  property  at  the  cheaper  figure 
and  "  put "  it  to  the  person  who  sold  him  the  risk,  his 
profit  being  the  difference  between  the  "  put "  price  and 
the  quotation  at  which  the  property  is  bought  with 
which  to  make  the  delivery.  A  "  call "  is  the  reverse  of 
a  "  put, "the  purchaser  of  a  "  call "  acquiring  the  right 
to  "  call"  upon  the  seller  of  the  privilege  for  property, 
or  contracts  for  property,  at  a  named  price  within  a 
stipulated  time.  "Calls"  are  good  when  the  market 
advances  above  the  call  price,  and  the  buyer  of  such 
privilege  is  enabled  to  sell  at  a  profit  the  property 
"  called  "  from  the  seller  of  the  privilege.  The  seller  of 
privileges  occupies,  in  a  sense,  the  position  of  an  in- 
surance or  guaranty  company.  He  sells  market  risks  as 
an  insurance  company  sells  fire,  life,  or  accident  risks. 
Trading  in  privileges  is  illegal  in  some  states,  notably 
in  Illinois.  Prices  paid  for  privileges  are  usually  $1.00 
per  thousand  bushels  for  a  single  day,  $1.25  for  a  week 
or  ten  days,  and  from  $2.50  to  $7.50  for  a  month  or  dur- 
ing the  life  of  a  distant  option. 

Promoters'  Shares.  Those  issued  by  corporations 
in  payment  of  the  services  of  promoters  in  the  organi- 
zation of  companies. 

Pyramiding.  Enlarging  one's  operations  by  the 
use  of  profits  which  one  has  made.  For  instance,  if 
one  buys  5,000  bushels  and, the  market  advances  2  cents, 
he  sells,  realizes  $100  profit,  and  with  this  in  addition  to 
his  additional  margin  he  buys  10,000  bushels  of  wheat, 
which  he  closes  on  a  further  advance  and  makes  a  stiP 
larger  investment.  On  steadily  advancing  markets  with 
moderate  reactions  this  plan  makes  large  profits,  but 
must  not  be  followed  too  far  and  liberal  margins  should 
be  kept. 

Quarantine.  Signifies  40  days.  It  is  applied  to  the 
period  which  persons  coming  from  infected  countries 
are  obliged  to  wait  onboard  snip  before  they  are  allowed 
to  land.  But  in  law  it  more  strictly  applies  to  the 
similar  period  during  which  a  widow,  entitled  to  dower, 
is  permitted  to  remain  in  her  husband's  caDital  man- 
sion after  his  death,  whilst  she  awaits  the  assignment 
of  her  dower. 

Quash.    To  annul  or  cancel. 

Quasi  Contract.    An  implied  contract. 

Quid  Pro  Quo.  Giving  one  thing  for  another,  being 
the  mutual  consideration  in  contracts. 

Quo  Warranto.  An  ancient  writ  still  in  use, 
directed  against  any  person  or  corporation,  who  usurps 
any  office,  franchise,  or  liberty,  calling  upon  them  to 
show  by  what  authority  they  support  their  claim. 

Quotations.  A  statement  of  the  prices  of  articles  of 
merchandise,  given  for  the  information  of  correspond- 
ents. 

Rape.  The  carnal  knowledge  of  a  female  who  is 
above  the  age  of  ten  years,  against  her  will ;  or  of  a 
girl  under  the  age  of  ten  years,  although  with  her  per- 
mission.   The  age  of  consent  varies. 

Rate.    The  proportion  or  standard. 


492 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Real  Estate  or  Realty.  The  term  applied  to  land, 
in  contradistinction  to  personalty. 

Recital.  The  formal  statement  of  some  matter  of 
fact  in  any  deed  or  writing.  It  usually  commences  with 
the  formal  word  "Whereas." 

Recognizance.  An  obligation  of  record  which  a 
man  enters  into,  with  condition  to  do  some  particular 
act ;  as,  to  appear  at  the  assizes,to  keep  the  peace,  to  pay 
a  debt,  or  the  like. 

Record.  An  authentic  testimony,  in  writing,  con- 
tained in  rolls  of  parchment,  and  preserved  in  a  court  of 
record. 

Re-Entry,  proviso  for.  A  stipulation  in  a  lease 
that,  on  non-pavment  of  rent  or  non -performance  of  the 
covenants,  the  ieasor  may  re-enter. 

Registrars.  Officers  having  custody  of  a  Registry, 
such  as  the  registrars  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths. 

Rejoinder.  The  answer  of  a  defendant  in  an  action 
to  the  plaintiff's  replication. 

Release.  A  form  of  conveyance.  Also,  an  acquit- 
tance under  seal  of  a  debt  or  other  obligation. 

Remainder.  A  vested  or  contingent  estate  or  inter- 
est in  land,  limited  to  take  effect  and  come  into  pos- 
session on  the  determination  of  a  prior  estate  created 
at  the  same  time. 

Rent.  The  annual  return  made  by  the  tenant  to  his 
landlord,  which  may  be  either  money,  labor,  or  provi- 
sions. 

Replevin.  An  action  to  try  the  validity  of  a  distress. 
The  things  distrained  are  re-delivered  to  the  tenant  on 
security  or  pledges  given  by  him  to  try  the  right. 

Reprieve.  A  suspension  of  the  execution  of  sentence 
of  death  on  a  criminal. 

Rescue.  A  resistance  against  lawful  authority,  as, 
for  instance,  the  violently  taking  away  a  man  who  is  un- 
der legal  arrest. 

Residuary  Devisee.  The  person  to  whom  a  testator 
devises  the  remainder  of  his  lands,  not  otherwise  dis- 
posed of. 

Residuary  Legatee.     A  legatee  to    whom    is    be-  | 
queathed  the  residue  or  remainder  of  a  testator's  per- 
sonal estate,  after  payment  of  all  legacies,  claims,  and  ! 
demands. 

Residue  or  Residuary  Estate.  The  portion  of  a  j 
testator's  estate  not  specifically  disposed  of. 

Retainer.    A  fee  given  to  counsel  to  secure  his  serv-  j 
ices.    It  may  be  either  general  or  special.    The  former 
secures  the  services  of  the  counsel  to  the  party  giving 
it  in  all  matters ;  the  latter  only  in  one  cause  or  matter.  ' 
The  fee  in  the  former  cause  is  five  guineas,  in  the  latter  | 
one  guinea. 

Return  of  a  Writ.    The    certificate  of   the  sheriff  j 
made  to  the  court  of  what  he  has  done  towards  the  ex- 
ecution of  any  writ  directed  to  him. 

Reversal.  The  making  a  judgment  void,  in  con-  I 
sequence  of  some  error  in  the  same. 

Reversion.  The  residue  of  an  estate  left  in  the 
grantor,  and  returning  to  him  or  his  heirs,  after  the 
grant  is  determined.  * 

Receipt.  A  writing  acknowledging  the  taking  of  | 
money  or  goods. 

Refund.    To  repay  or  pay  back. 

Resources.    Pecuniary  means:  effects;  property. 

Respondential  I  '<> ml.    A  pledge  of  a  cargo  at  sea. 

Retail.    To  sell  in  small  quantities. 

Revenue.    Tax  ;  income ;  rents ;  customs  and  duties. 

Revocation.  The  recall  of  power  or  authority  con- 
ferred, as  the  revocation  of  an  agency. 

Receiver's  Certificates.  Those  issued  by  a  receiver 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  money  for  a  company  in  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  court.  When  approved  by  the  court 
and  issued,  they  are  a  first  lien  upon  the  net  earnings 
and  property  of  the  company. 

Registered  Bonds.  That  class  of  Government  Bonds 
which  are  payable  to  the  order  of  some  individual  or 
corporation,  whose  name  is  registered  as  the  owner 
thereof  in  the  government  offices  at  Washington.  Such 
bonds,  if  stolen  or  lost,  cannot  be  realized  upon. 

Remittance.  Value,  as  bills  or  money  transmitted 
to  another. 

Renewal  of  a  Note.  Extending  the  time  of  its  pay- 
ment by  giving  a  new  note  in  exchange  for  it. 

Rule'.  An  order  made  bj  the  court  at  the  instance 
of  one  of  the  parties  in  an  action.  It  may  cither  be  a 
rule  absolute,  or  merely  a  rule  nisi,  or  to  show  came. 

Rules  of  Court.  The  rules  framed  by  the  judges  for 
regulating  the  practice  of  the  different  courts  of  law. 

Salvage.  An  allowance  made  for  saving  ships  or 
goods  from  enemies,  or  wreck,  or  loss  at  sea. 


Scire  Facias.  A  judicial  writ  founded  on  matter  ol 
record,  and  used  for  various  purposes,  as,  for  in. 
stance,  to  enforce  against  a  shareholder  a  judgment 
against  a  Joint  Stock  Company,  which  it  is  unable  to 
satisfy. 

Scrivener.  One  intrusted  with  other  men's  moneys 
to  put  out  for  them,  and  for  which  he  charges  a  com- 
mission, or  bonus. 

Scrip.  Dividends  issued  by  a  stock  company  payable 
in  stock.  Scrip  dividends  are  simply  an  increase  of  the 
capital  of  the  company,  as  the  stock  issued  to  meet  them 
is  added  to  the  capital,  and  in  its  turn  is  entitled  to 
future  dividends. 

Scalper.  One  who  trades  in  options  continually,  and, 
by  reading  the  temper  of  the  market  at  the  moment, 
tries  to  get  a  profit  out  of  the  minor  fluctuations;  also 
applied  to  irregular  railroad  ticket  brokers.  The  term 
is  coming  into  general  use  in  other  lines. 

Scalping.  Buying  and  selling  on  small  fluctuations 
of  V\e  market.    Taking  a  small  profit  or  a  small  loss. 

Seizin.  Possession  of  a  freehold  estate.  Seizin  in 
deed  is  when  actual  possession  is  obtained.  Seizin  in 
law  is  a  right  to  lands  of  which  actual  possession  has 
not  been  obtained. 

Separate  instate.  Real  or  personal  property  settled 
upon  a  married  woman,  and  which  she  may  dispose  of 
as  if  she  were  a  single  woman. 

Sequestration.  Used  in  several  cases;  but  most  fre- 
quently as  signifying  an  execution  for  debt  against 
a  beneficed  clergyman,  in  which  case  the  debt  is  satis- 
fied out  of  the  tithes  and  other  profits  of  the  benefice. 
In  Scotland  a  sequestration  is  nearly  equivalent  to  our 
term  "  bankruptcy." 

Set-off.  A  mode  of  defense,  whereby  a  defendant  sets 
up  a  demand  of  his  own  to  counterbalance  the  plaintiff's 
claim  either  wholly  or  in  part. 

f-  eaworthy.  Fit  for  a  voyage ;  in  a  proper  condition 
to  venture  at  sea. 

Secondarily.  Applied  to  the  indorser  of  a  note  or 
the  drawer  of  a  bill,  signifying  that  he  is  only  condi- 
tionally liable,  or  liable  if  the  maker  and  drawee  fail. 

Seigniorage.  The  difference  between  the  commer- 
cial value  of  bullion  in  coin  and  the  face  value  of  the 
coin  itself. 

Shipment.    Goods  ;  act  of  shipping. 

Short  Market.  A  market  that  is  oversold  ;  the  vol- 
ume of  open  contracts  to  deliver  property  being  in  dan- 
gerous excess  of  available  supply. 

Short  Selling.  The  process  of  selling  property  for 
future  delivery  in  the  expectation  of  being  able  to 
obtain  the  property  cheaper  before  the  maturity  of  con- 
tract, or  of  being  able  to  close  out  the  contract  at  a 
profit  without  the  actual  delivery  of  the  property. 

Simony.  The  corrupt  presentation  of  anyone  to  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice,  for  money,  gift,  or  reward. 

Simple  Contract.  An  agreement  entered  into  ver- 
bally or  by  writing  not  under  seal. 

Sight.  "  The  time  of  presenting  a  bill  to  the  drawee. 

Signature.  The  peculiar  style  in  which  a  person 
signs  his  name. 

Sinking  Fund.  A  fund  created  by  a  government  or 
corporation  for  the  extinction  of  its  indebtedness,  by 
the  gradual  purchase  of  its  outstanding  obligations, 
and  the  application  of  the  interest  saved  on  these 
obligations  thus  redeemed  to  further  purchases. 

Silent  Partner.  One  who  invests  his  capital  in  a 
business  house,  but  whose  name  does  not  appear  in  the 
firm.  His  liability  is  limited  to  the  extent  of  his  con 
tribution,  except  in  cases  where  he  fails  to  make  th« 
proper  publication  of  his  connection  with  the  concern. 

Silver  Certificates.  Those  lamed  against  standard 
silver  dollars  deposited  in  the  treasury,  in  denomina- 
tions of  .si,  s-_\  $.-,,  ;iik1  slit,  and  higher  denominations. 
Xot  legal  tender  but  receivable  for  public  dues. 

Slander.  The  malicious  defamation  of  a  nan  by 
word  of  mouth,  analogous  to  libel,  which  is  slander  by 
writing. 

solicitor.  One  who  solicits ;  a  lawyer  or  advocate  in 
a  court  of  chancery. 

Solvency.    Ability  to  pay  all  debts. 

Special  Pleading.  When  the  pleadings  in  an  action 
are  not  in  the  ordinary  form, but  are  of  a  more  complex 
character,  they  are  termed  special  pleading*. 

Specific  Performance.  A  remedy  In  equity,  to  com- 
pel the  performance  of  a  contract  according  to  its 
terms,  instead  of  proceeding  at  law  to  recover  damages 
merely. 

Specialty.  A  writing  sealed  and  delivered,  contain- 
ing some  agreement. 


FINANCE,  INDUSTRY,   TRANSPORTATION. 


m 


Speculation.  Buying  commodities  not  needed  for 
use,  or  selling:  commodities  not  owned,  with  the  hope  of 
making  profits  by  fluctuations  in  the  values  of  these 
commodities.  A  speculator  buys  wheat  because  he 
hopes  to  sell  it  at  a  better  price,  biit  not  because  he  needs 
it  for  use.  He  sells  sugar  stock  because  he  believes  he 
can  buy  it  at  a  cheaper  price  later,  and  make  the  differ- 
ence. 

Statutes.  The  written  laws  of  the  kingdom  are  of 
two  kinds, public  or  private;  the  former  applies  to  all 
statutes  which  affect  the  public  generally,  and  of  which 
the  judges  take  cognizance  without  being  specially 
pleaded.  The  latter  relates  to  the  private  rights  of  in- 
dividual bodies,  as.  for  instance,  the  various  acts  for  the 
management  of  railway  and  other  companies  are  private 
acts. 

Stoppage  in  Transitu.  Goods  sold  on  credit  to  a 
person,  since  becoming  insolvent  or  bankrupt,  may  be 
seized  by  the  vendor  at  any  time  before  their  actual  and 
complete  delivery  to  the  vendee.  This  seizure  is  called 
stoppage  in  transitu ;  it  is  often  a  nice  and  difficult 
question  to  determine  when  the  transit  has  ended  and 
the  purchaser's  possession  begun. 

Stipend.  Settled  pay  for  services ;  dailv,  monthly,  or 
annual  salary. 

Stipulation.    An  agreement  or  contract. 

Stocks.  Shares  in  joint  stock  companies,  and  notes 
on  the  government. 

Stock  Broker  or  Jobber.  One  who  speculates  in 
stocks. 

Statute  of  Limitations.  An  assigned  period  within 
which  legal  action  must  be  commenced  to  enforce  pay- 
ment. 

Statement.  Usually  a  list  of  property,  or  resources 
and  liabilities. 

Statistics.  A  collection  of  facts  respecting  any  par- 
ticular thing. 

Sterling  Exchange.  A  bill  of  exchange  drawn  on 
London.  This  is  the  most  general  current  exchange, 
and  is  good  for  the  payment  of  debts  anywhere.  Our 
shippers  of  cotton,  grain,  flour,  and  merchandise  re- 
ceive bills  of  lading  with  draft  attached,  which  they  sell 
to  foreign  exchange  houses  here,  who  issue  their  bank- 
ers' bills  against  these  commercial  bills. 

Stock.  Certificates  issued  by  a  corporation  certifying 
that  the  person  in  whose  name  they  are  written  "and 
stand  registered  on  the  corporation  books  is  entitled  to 
share  in  the  company's  profits,  to  vote,  etc. 

Stock,  Assessable.    That  is  liable  to  assessment. 

Stock,  Cumulative.  One  on  which  a  corporation 
agrees  to  pay  past  due  dividends  before  declaring  a 
dividend  on  stocks  coming  after  it  in  the  distribution 
of  net  earnings. 

Stock  Exchange.  An  incorporated  body  of  brokers, 
who  buy  and  sell  stocks,  bonds,  and  other  values. 

Stock,  Son- Assessable.  Stock  carrying  with  it  no 
liabilities. 

Subornation  of  Perjury.  The  offense  of  procuring 
another  to  take  a  false  oath. 

Subpoena.  A  writ  used  for  the  purpose  of  compel- 
ling witnesses  to  attend  and  give  evidence. 

Sufferance.  A  tenant  at,  is  a  person  who  acquired 
the  possession  of  lands  by  right,  and  holds  over  after  his 
right  is  determined. 

Suit.  Proceedings  in  equity  are  usually  termed  suits, 
as  distinguished  from  the  proceedings  at  common  law, 
which  are  termed  actions. 

Summons,  Writ  of.  The  process  used  for  the  com- 
mencement of  all  action  in  the  courts  of  law. 

Supersedeas.  A  command  to  stay  some  ordinary  pro- 
ceedings at  law,  on  good  cause  shown. 

Sue.    To  prosecute  in  law. 

Surety.  Security  against  loss;  a  person  bound  for 
the  faithful  performance  of  a  contract  by  another. 

Suspend.    To  stop  payment  temporarily. 

Syndicate.  A  number  of  capitalists  who  unite  to  dis- 
pose of  a  loan,  or  to  conduct  a  great  financial  enterprise. 

Tacit.    That  which  is  understood ;  implied. 

Tare.  An  allowance  for  weight  of  box,  case,  bag, 
cask,  etc.,  containing  merchandise. 

Tariff.  A  list  of  prices;  duties  on  imports  and  ex- 
ports. 

Tax.  A  rate  or  sum  of  money  imposed  on  persons  or 
property  for  public  use. 

Tenancy.    The  holding  of  property  under  tenure. 

Tenant.  One  who  holds  lands  of  another  as  a  tenant 
for  life,  for  years,  in  tail,  etc. ;  it  is  a  word  extensively 
used  in  legal  phraseologv. 

Tender.    A  legal  tender  is  an  unconditional  offer  to 


pay  a  debt,  which,  if  refused,  may  be  afterwards  pleaded 
in  bar  to  an  action. 

Tenement.  Property  held  by  a  tenant;  It  oomprises 
lands,  houses,  and  every  species  of  real  property  which 
may  be  holden. 

Tenure.  The  system  of  holding  lands  in  subordina- 
tion to  some  superiors. 

Testamentary  Guardian.  A  person  appointed  by  a 
father  in  his  will  to  be  the  guardian  of  his  child. 

Testator  or  Testatrix.    The  maker  of  a  will. 

Teste.  The  clause  at  the  bottom  of  a  writ  beginning 
with  the  word  "  witness,"  is  so  called. 

Tenants  in  Common.  Persons  holding  lands  and 
tenements  by  several  and  distinct  titles,  and  not  by  a 
joint  title. 

Title.  The  evidence  of  the  right  which  a  person  has 
to  the  possession  of  property. 

Time  Draft.  A  draft  maturing  at  a  future  specified 
time. 

Tonnage.  "Weight  of  a  ship's  load ;  capacity  of  a  ves- 
sel.   Also  a  duty  on  ships  estimated  per  ton. 

Traverse.  A  plea  which  denies  the  truth  of  some 
part  of  the  plaintiff's  declaration  in  an  action. 

Treasure  Trove.  Any  money,  etc.,  found  hidden 
under  the  earth  the  owner  thereof  being  unknown. 

Trespass.  Any  wrong  or  damage  which  is  done  by 
one  man  to  another,  whether  it  relates  to  his  person  or 
property,  but  it  usually  signifies  a  wrongful  entry  on 
another's  premises. 

Trial.  The  formal  method  of  examining  and  adju- 
dicating upon  a  question  of  fact  in  a  court  of  law. 

Trover.  The  form  of  action  used  to  trv  a  disputed 
question  of  property  in  goods  or  chattels,  in  which  the 
plaintiff  can  only  recover  their  estimated  value,  and  not 
the  goods  or  chattels  themselves. 

True  Bill.  The  words  indorsed  upon  an  indictment 
by  a  grand  jury,  when  satisfied  that  the  charge  against 
the  offender  is  made  out. 

Trust.  A  trust  exists  where  a  party,  called  the 
cestui  que  trust,  has  a  right  in  equity  to  the  beneficial 
enjoyment  of  property,  the  legal  ownership  of  which  is 
vested  in  another,  who  is  hence  called  a  trustee. 

Transact.  To  perform  any  act  of  business;  to  man- 
age. 

Transfer.    To  convey;  to  sell  or  alienate  title. 

Treasury.    A  place  where  public  money  is  kept. 

Trustee.  One  to  whom  some  special  trust  is  as- 
signed. 

Trade.  A  company  of  persons  engaged  in  the  same 
occupation ;  business  of  buying  and  selling. 

Trade  Discount.  A  deduction  of  a  certain  rate  per 
cent,  from  the  face  of  a  bill  made  by  wholesale  houses 
and  others  in  trade. 

Trade-Mark.  A  distinguishiag  mark  used  by  a 
manufacturer  on  his  goods  or  labels. 

Trunk  Lines.  Through  lines  of  railroad  from  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  to  Chicago  or  more  western  points. 

Trust.  A  combination  of  manufacturers  or  dealers 
for  the  purpose  of  limiting  production  and  advancing 
prices  for  their  own  benefit. 

Umpire.  A  third  person  chosen  to  decide  a  matter 
in  dispute  left  to  arbitration,  in  case  the  arbitrators 
should  not  agree. 

Under-Eease.  A"  lease  granted  by  one  who  is  him- 
self only  a  lessee  of  the  premises  under-let. 

Under-Eessee.  The  person  to  whom  an  under-leas** 
is  granted. 

Unliquidated  Damages.  Damages  not  fixed  or  as- 
certained, and  which  require  therefore  to  be  estimated 
by  a  jury. 

Uncurrent.  Not  passing  in  common  payment,  as 
pounds,  shillings,  and  pence  in  the  United  States. 

Underwriter.  An  insurer;  so  called  because  he  un- 
derwrites his  name  to  the  conditions  of  the  policy. 

Use.  A  right  to  the  beneficial  enjoyment  of  land 
nominally  vested  in  another. 

Usury.  The  extortion  of  unlawful  gain ;  the  taking 
more  fo'r  the  use  of  money  than  is  allowed  bv  law ;  but 
the  usury  laws  in  this  country  are  now  abolished,  any 
rate  of  interest  therefore  maynowbe  lawfully  taken . 

Isage  of  Trade.  Custom,  or  the  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  act  in  business  transactions. 

Usance.  A  fixed  time  on  bills  of  exchange ;  business 
habit  generally  acted  upon  from  force  of  custom. 

Value  Beceived.  The  words  anally,  but  unneces- 
sarily, appearing  in  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory 
notes. 

Valid.    Of  binding  force;  strong;  effectual. 


494 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Value.  The  rate  of  worth  or  amount  or  price  of  a 
commodity. 

Venditioni  Exponas.  A  writ  directed  to  the  sheriff, 
commanding  him  to  sell  goods  which  he  has  taken  pos- 
session of  under  a  writ  of  fieri  facias,  and  which  re- 
main in  his  hands  unsold. 

Vendor  and  Vendee.  A  vendor  is  the  person  who 
sells,  and  a  vendee  the  person  who  buys,  anything. 

Venue.  The  county  at  which  an  action  at  law  is  in- 
tended to  be  tried. 

Verdict.  A  verdict  is  the  unanimous  judgment  or 
opinion  of  the  jury  on  the  issue  of  fact  submitted  to 
them. 

Vend.  To  sell;  to  transfer  for  a  pecuniary  consider- 
ation. 

Versus.    Against. 

Viva  Voce.    By  word  of  mouth. 

Voluntary  Conveyance,  or  Settlement.  A  con- 
veyance or  settlement  without  any  valuable  considera- 
tion. 

Voucher.    A  receipt  or  discharge. 

Void.    Having  no  binding  force  or  effect. 

Voidable.  That  which  has  some  force  or  effect,  but 
which,  in  consequence  of  some  inherent  quality,  may 
be  annulled  or  avoided. 

Waifs.  Stolen  goods  which  the  thief  has  thrown 
away  or  left  behind  him. 

Ward.  An  infant  under  the  guidance  and  protec- 
tion of  a  guardian. 

Warrant.  An  authority  or  precept  from  a  justice, 
commanding  the  apprehension  of  an  offender,  or  a 
search  to  be  made  for  stolen  goods. 

Warrant  of  Attorney.  An  authority  given  by  any- 
one to  an  attorney  at  law,  to  appear  and  plead  for  him ; 


or  to  suffer  judgment  to  pass  against  hin\,  r,y  confessing 
the  action. 

Warranty.  As  applied  to  goods  and  chattels,  may  be 
either  expressed  or  implied  ;  the  implied  warranty  onlv 
extends  to  the  title  of  the  vendor.  If  that  proves  defi- 
cient, the  purchaser  may  demand  satisfac  tion  from  the 
seller. 

AVatercourse,  Right  of.  A  right  to  an  uninterrupted 
flow  of  water. 

Way,  Right  of.  The  right  of  going  over  another 
man's  ground. 

Wages.    Compensation  for  services. 

Waiver.  The  relinquishment  or  refusal  to  accept  of 
a  right. 

Wares.    Goods;  merchandise;  commodities. 

Wash  Trades.  Pretended  trading.  Trades  madf 
on  an  open  market  by  parties  between  whom  there  is  a 
tacit  or  private  understanding  that  they  shall  be  void. 
Done  with  a  view  to  influence  prices  and  considered  a 
reprehensible  practice. 

Watered  Stock.  An  increase  in  capitalization  with- 
out a  corresponding  increase  in  assets. 

Wharfinger.    The  owner  or  keeper  of  a  wharf. 

Will.  A  will  is  the  legal  written  declaration  of  a 
man's  intentions  of  what  he  wills  to  be  performed  after 
his  death  with  reference  to  the  disposition  of  his  prop- 
erty. It  must  be  in  writing,  signed  by  the  testator,  and 
attested  by  two  witnesses,  who  must  not  only  be  present 
and  see  the  testator  sign,  but  must  themselves  subscribe 
the  will  as  witnesses  in  the  presence  of  the  testator  and 
of  each  other.  Without  these  formalities  the  will  is  in- 
valid. A  codicil  is  a  kind  of  addendum  or  supplement 
to  a  will.  Its  execution  and  attestation  must  be  at- 
tended  with  the  same  formalities  as  the  will  itself. 


Book  VII. 
Religion,  Education,  Fine  Arts. 


Religion,   Education,  Fine  Arts. 


European  Cathedrals.  —  Among  the 
most  noted  and  magnificent  cathedrals  in  Eu- 
rope are  St.  Peter's,  in  Rome  ;  the  cathedral  of 
Cologne,  and  that  of  Milan  ;  St.  Mark's,  in 
Venice ;  Westminster  and  Salisbury,  in  Eng- 
land ;  Rouen  and  Notre  Dame,  in  France ; 
Seville  and  Strasburg,  in  Spain  and  Germany, 
respectively.  St.  Paul's,  in  London,  though 
architecturally  much  inferior  to  the  others,  is 
yet  so  noted  as  to  deserve  a  brief  description. 
It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  514  feet  long 
and  287  feet  wide.  The  cost  of  the  whole 
building,  which  is  of  Portland  stone,  was  nearly 
$4,000,000,  being  the  proceeds  of  a  tax  on  the 
coal  brought  into  the  port  of  London  during 
its  erection.  The  edifice  was  built  under  the 
direction  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  was  thirty- 
five  years  in  course  of  erection,  and  was  com- 
menced and  finished  under  the  same  bishop, 
the  same  architect,  and  the  same  mason.  The 
great  bell  of  this  cathedral  is  only  tolled  on  the 
occasion  of  a  death  in  the  royal  family.  St. 
Peter's,  at  Rome,  was  commenced  about  the 
year  1503  by  Julius  IL  under  the  direction  of 
Bramante,  but  the  present  form  of  the  basilica 
is  due  almost  entirely  to  Michael  Angelo.  The 
interior  is  613  feet  in  length,  the  height  of  the 
nave  152  1-2  feet ;  the  length  of  the  transepts 
is  446  1-2  feet ;  the  interior  diameter  of  the 
dome  is  139  feet,  the  exterior  195 1-2  feet.  The 
colonnades  around  the  piazza  inclose  a  space 
787  feet  in  diameter,  and  are  connected  with 
the  facade  by  two  galleries  296  feet  in  length. 
The  facade  is  379  feet  long,  and  148  1-2  feet 
high,  and  contains  five  doors,  which  admit  to 
the  grand  entrance,  which  occupies  the  whole 
width  of  the  church,  468  feet  long,  66  feet 
high,  and  50  feet  wide.  The  height  from  the 
pavement  to  the  top  of  the  cross  is  476  feet. 
The  Cologne  cathedral  is  one  of  the  noblest 
specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in  Europe. 
It  is  said  to  have  had  its  origin  in  an  erection 
by  Archbishop  Hildebold,  during  the  reign 
of  Charlemagne,  in  814.  Frederic  the  Red- 
bearded  bestowed  upon  it,  in  1162,  the  bones 
of  the  three  holy  kings,  which  he  took  from 
Milan,  and  this  gift  contributed  greatly  to  the 
increase  of  its  importance.  The  bones  are 
retained  as  precious  relics  to  this  day,  but  the 
old  structure  was  burned  in  1248.  According 
to  some  accounts  the  present  cathedral  was 
begun  in  the  same  year,  but  others  fix  the  date 
of  its  commencement  in  1270-'75.  To  whom 
the  design  of  this  noble  building  is  to  be  as- 
cribed is  uncertain.  The  work  was  carried 
on,  sometimes  more  actively,  sometimes  more  J 


slowly,  till  the  era  of  the  Reformation,  when  it 
was  suspended ;  and  during  the  subsequent 
centuries  not  only  was  nothing  done  to  advance 
it,  but  what  had  been  already  executed,  was 
not  kept  in  repair.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century,  however,  attention  was  di- 
rected to  its  unrivaled  beauties,  and  the  neces- 
sary funds  to  repair  and  complete  it  according 
to  the  original  designs  were  raised.  The  body 
of  the  church  measures  500  feet  in  length,  and 
230  feet  in  breadth  ;  the  towers  are  above  500 
feet  high.  Since  1823  84,500,000  have  been 
expended  on  the  building  ;  the  total  cost  of  the 
whole  is  estimated  at  $10,000,000.  The  cathe- 
dral at  Milan  is  also  of  Gothic  architecture, 
but  the  facade  is  marred  by  classic  doors  and 
windows,  and  the  altars  within  are  in  the  same 
style.  The  edifice  is  nearly  500  feet  long,  and 
250  feet  wide  through  the  transepts,  and  the 
height  of  the  nave  is  about  150  feet.  The  cen- 
tral spire  is  more  than  350  feet  high.  The 
throng  of  statues  (some  4,500  in  all)  and  the 
many  pinnacles  are  marked  features  of  the  ex- 
terior. 

The  celebrated  church  of  St.  Sophia,  at 
Constantinople,  was  originally  built  by  the 
Emperor  Constantine  in  325-326,  and  is  so 
called  as  being  dedicated,  not,  as  commonly 
supposed,  to  a  saint  of  that  name,  but  to 
Hagia  Sophia  (Holy  Wisdom)  ;  that  is,  to  the 
Eternal  Wisdom  of  God,  or  the  Logos,  the 
second  person  of  the  Trinity.  The  church 
was  twice  destroyed  and  rebuilt,  the  present 
edifice  having  been  built  by  the  Emperor 
Justinian  about  532.  It  may  be  described  as 
a  square  of  241  feet,  forming  interiorly  a 
Greek  cross,  and  surrounded  in  the  interior  by 
a  woman's  choir  or  gallery,  supported  by 
magnificent  pillars,  for  the  most  part  borrowed 
from  ancient  buildings.  In  the  center  rises  a 
dome,  which  is  supported  by  two  great  semi- 
domes,  the  whole  presenting  a  series  of  unex- 
ampled beauty.  The  height  of  the  dome  is 
175  feet.  The  building  is  approached  by  a 
double  porch,  which  is  about  100  feet  in  depth. 
The  whole  of  the  interior  was  richly  decorated 
with  sculptured  marble  and  mosaics.  The 
building  occupied  seven  years  in  its  erection, 
and  the  history  of  the  work  and  of  the  details 
of  its  material  and  construction  is  full  of 
marvels.  Ten  thousand  workmen  are  said  to 
have  been  employed  upon  it.  The  materials 
were  supplied  from  every  part  of  the  empire, 
and  comprised  remains  of  almost  every  cele- 
brated temple  of  the  ancient  paganism.  The 
sedilia  of  the  priests  and  those  of  the  patri- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


497 


archs  were  of  silver  gilt.  The  dome  of  the 
tabernacle  was  of  pure  gold,  and  was  sur- 
mounted by  a  gold  cross  weighing  75  pounds 
and  incrusted  with  precious  stones.  All  the 
sacred  vessels  and  other  apparatus  were  of 
gold.  The  altar  cloths  were  embroidered  with 
gold  and  pearls  ;  and  the  altar  itself  was  com- 
posed of  a  mass  of  molten  gold,  into  which 
were  thrown  pearls,  sapphires,  diamonds, 
onyxes,  and  every  other  object  which  could 
raise  its  costliness  to  the  highest  imaginable 
degree.  The  total  cost  of  the  structure  is 
stated  by  the  ancient  authorities  at  320,000 
pounds.  Some  regard  this  as  pounds-weight 
of  silver,  others  as  of  gold.  If  the  latter, 
which  is  most  generally  adopted,  the  cost 
reaches  the  enormous  sum  of  $65,000,000. 
On  the  capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
in  1453  St.  Sophia  was  appropriated  as  a 
mosque,  and  has  since  been  put  to  that  use. 

Easter. —  The  festival  of  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ  probably  derives  its  Teutonic  name 
from  the  festival  of  the  goddess  Ostara  —  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  Eastre  —  which  the  Saxonsof  old 
were  wont  to  celebrate  about  the  same  season 
at  which  the  Christian  festival  of  Easter  occurs. 
In  the  second  century  a  dispute  arose  as  to  the 
proper  time  for  celebrating  Easter  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  Churches.  The  great 
mass  of  Eastern  Christians  celebrated  Easter 
on  the  14th  day  of  the  first  month  or  moon, 
considering  it  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Jewish 
Passover,  when  Christ  was  crucified.  The 
Western  Christians  celebrated  it  on  the  Sun- 
day after  the  14th,  holding  that  it  was  the 
commemoration  of  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus. 
The  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325,  decided  in 
favor  of  the  Western  usage.  At  the  time  of 
the  introduction  of  the  Gregorian  Calendar  it 
was  debated  whether  Easter  should  continue  a 
movable  feast  or  whether  a  fixed  Sunday  after 
the  21st  of  March  should  not  be  adopted.  In 
deference  to  the  ancient  custom,  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  decided  to  adhere  to  the 
method  of  determining  the  day  by  the  moon. 
It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  it  is  not 
the  actual  moon  in  the  heavens,  nor  even  the 
mean  moon  of  the  astronomers,  that  regulates 
the  time  of  Easter,  but  an  altogether  imaginary 
moon,  whose  periods  are  so  contrived  that  the 
new  (calendar)  moon  always  follows  the  real 
new  moon  —  sometimes  by  two,  or  even  three 
days.  The  effect  of  this  is  that  the  14th  of 
the  calendar  moon  —  which  had  from  the  time 
of  Moses  been  considered  full  moon  for  eccle- 
siastical purposes  —  falls  generally  on  the  15th 
or  16th  of  the  real  moon,  and  thus  after  the 
real  full  moon,  which  is  generally  on  the  14th 
or  15th  day.  With  this  explanation,  then,  of 
what  is  meant  by  "  full  moon  "  viz.,  that  it  is 


the  14th  day  of  the  calendar  moon,  the  rule 
is  that  Easter  day  is  always  the  first  Sunday 
after  the  Paschal  full  moon,  i.  e.,  the  full  moon 
which  happens  upon  or  next  after  the  21st  of 
March ;  and  if  the  full  moon  happens  on  a 
Sunday,  Easter  day  is  the  Sunday  after. 

Apostles,  Deaths  of. —  It  is  generally 
believed  that  only  one  of  Christ's  Apostles, 
John,  escaped  martyrdom.  Matthew  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  slain  with  a  sword  in 
Ethiopia.  James,  son  of  Zebedee,  was  be- 
headed at  Jerusalem.  James,  the  brother  of 
our  Lord,  was  thrown  from  a  pinnacle  of  the 
Temple  and  then  beaten  to  death  with  a  ful- 
ler's club.  Philip  was  hanged  up  against  a 
pillar  at  Hieropolis,  a  city  of  Phrygia.  Bar- 
tholomew was  flayed  alive  at  Albanapolis,  in 
Armenia.  Andrew  suffered  martyrdom  on  a 
cross  at  Patrae,  in  Achaia.  Thomas  was  run 
throughthe  body  with  a  lance  at  Coromandel, 
in  the  East  Indies.  Thaddeus  was  shot  to 
death  with  arrows.  Simon  Zelotes  was  cruci- 
fied in  Persia.  Peter  was  crucified,  head  down- 
ward it  is  said,  during  the  Neronian  perse- 
cution. Matthias  was  first  stoned  and  then 
beheaded,  and  Paul  was  beheaded  at  Rome  by 
the  tyrant  Nero.  Judas  Iscariot,  after  the 
betrayal  of  our  Lord,  hung  himself. 

Bible,    English    Translations   of. — 
Between  the  eighth  and  tenth  centuries  por- 
tions of  the  Bible  were  translated  into  Anglo- 
Saxon  by  Aldhelin,  Egbert,  Bede,  and  others. 
In  1290  an  English  version  of  the  Psalms  was 
made.     Wycliife's  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  finished  in  1380,  and  a  little  later  he 
completed   the    Old.     The    seven    penitential 
Psalms  were  apparently  printed  in  1505.      Be- 
fore 1526  William  Tyndale  had  completed  an 
English  translation  of   the   New    Testament. 
In  the  beginning  of  that  year  they  were  secretly 
conveyed   to    England   from    the    Continent, 
where  the  translation  had  been  made,  where 
they  were  bought  up  and  burned.       The  ex- 
cellence of  his  translation  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  in  our  present  version  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  New  Testament  is  taken  verba- 
I  tim  from  Tyndale's  translation.     In  1535  the 
:  first  English  version  of  the  whole  Bible  was 
;  published  by  Miles  Coverdale,  a  friend  of  Tyn- 
|  dale's,  and  was  dedicated  to  Henry  VIII.     Be- 
j  tween  that  year  and  1557  several  versions  of 
I  the  Bible  were  printed,  but  they  were  in  the 
greater  part  revisions  of    Tyndale's  previous 
work.     The  Geneva  Bible,  or,  as  best  known, 
i  the  Breeches  Bible,  appeared  in  1557.     It  was 
translated  by  several  English  divines  who  had 
fled  to  Geneva  to  escape  from  the  persecutions 
of    Bloody    Mary,   and  received   the  name  of 
Breeches   Bible  on    account  of  the  rendering 
.  of  Genesis  iii,  7  :     «  Then  the  eyes  of  both  of 


498 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


them  were  opened,  and  they  knew  that  they 
were  naked,  and  they  sewed  fig-tree  leaves  to- 
gether and  made  themselves  breeches."  The 
Bishops'  Bible  was  published  in  London  in 
1568.  The  text  of  this  was  compared  with 
the  original  by  eight  bishops  and  seven  other 
scholars  of  reputation,  who  appended  their 
initials  to  their  respective  tasks.  In  1582  ap- 
peared, at  Rheims,  in  France,  an  English  ver- 
sion of  the  New  Testament,  prepared  by  sev- 
eral Roman  Catholic  exiles,  and  in  1609-'10  a 
similar  version  of  the  Old  Testament  at  Douay. 
They  form  the  standard  English  Scriptures  of 
the  Roman  Catholics,  being  generally  known 
as  the  Douay  Bible.  In  July,  1604,  King 
James  appointed  fifty-four  scholars  to  prepare 
a  new  version  of  the  Bible.  Only  forty-seven 
accepted  the  appointment,  and  the  result  of 
their  labors  was  the  publication  in  1610  of  the 
version  known  as  "  King  James's  Bible,""  which 
has  been  in  common  use  from  that  time  to 
this,  slightly  modified  by  the  revision  prepared 
by  the  most  learned  English  and  American 
scholars  a  few  years  ago. 

Benefit  of  Clergy. — Until  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.  all  members  of  the  clerical  order 
were  almost  totally  exempted  from  the  juris- 
diction and  authority  of  the  secular  magistrate 
in  respect  of  crimes  and  offenses.  This  was 
called  "  Benefit  of  the  Clergy. "  If  a  priest  or 
"clerk"  happened  to  be  imprisoned  by  the 
secular  arm  on  a  criminal  charge,  he  was,  on 
the  demand  of  the  bishop,  instantly  delivered 
up  without  any  further  inquisition  —  not  to  be 
let  loose  upon  the  community,  it  is  true,  but  to 
be  detained  by  the  ordinary  till  he  had  either 
purged  himself  from  the  offense,  or,  having 
failed  to  do  so,  had  been  degraded.  In  the 
reign  mentioned  this  was  so  far  altered  that 
the  prisoner  had  first  to  he  arraigned,  but 
could  arrest  judgment  by  plea,  declining  the 
jurisdiction  either  before  or  after  conviction. 
At  first  the  test  of  admission  to  this  singular 
privilege  was  the  clerical  dress  and  tonsure  ; 
but  in  course  of  time  all  Avho  could  read — a 
mark  of  great  learning  in  those  days  —  whether 
of  the  clergy  or  laity,  were  allowed  the  privi- 
lege. A  layman,  however,  could  only  claim  it 
once,  and  upon  doing  so  was  burned  on  the 
hand  and  discharged.  He  was  then  tried  by 
the  bishop,  and  usually  acquitted,  even  though 
he  had  been  previously  convicted  either  by  his 
country  or  his  own  confession.  By  this  ac- 
quittal the  offender  was  restored  to  his  liberty, 
his  credit,  and  his  property  —  in  short,  in  the 
eye  of  the  law  he  became  a  new  and  innocent 
person.  The  test  of  reading  was  applied  as 
follows:  On  conviction,  the  felon  demanded 
his  clergy,  whereupon  a  book  (commonly  a 
Psalter)  was  put  into  his  hand,  which  he  was 


required  to  read,  when  the  judge  demanded  of 
the  bishop's  commissary,  Legit  ut  clericus  ?  If 
the  answer  was  simply  legit,  the  prisoner  was 
burned  on  the  hand  and  discharged  ;  but  if  it 
was  non  legit,  he  suffered  the  punishment  due 
to  his  offense.  During  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne  the  benefit  of  clergy  was  extended  to 
all  persons  convicted  of  clergyable  offenses, 
whether  they  could  read  or  not,  but  it  was  dis- 
cretionary with  the  judge  whether  a  fine  or 
imprisonment  was  inflicted.  The  benefit  of 
clergy  was  totally  abolished  during  the  reign 
of  George  IV. 

Catacombs. —  Those  in  Paris  were  origi- 
nally quarries  which  had  existed  under  the 
city  from  the  earliest  time.  In  1774  the 
Council  of  State  issued  a  decree  for  clearing 
the  Cemetery  of  the  Innocents,  and  for  remov- 
ing its  contents, as  well  as  those  of  other  grave- 
yards, into  these  quarries.  These  quarries  — 
or  catacombs,  as  they  were  called  —  were  con- 
secrated with  great  solemnity  on  April  7, 1786, 
and  the  work  of  removal  from  the  cemeteries 
was  immediately  begun.  The  bones  were 
brought  at  night  in  funeral  cars,  covered  with 
a  pall,  and  followed  by  priests  chanting  the 
service  of  the  dead.  At  first  the  bones  were 
heaped  up  without  any  kind  of  order  except 
that  those  from  each  cemetery  were  kept  sepa- 
rate ;  but  in  1810,  a  regular  system  of  arrang- 
ing them  was  commenced,  and  the  skulls  and 
bones  were  built  up  along  the  wall.  From  the 
main  entrance  to  the  catacombs,  which  is  near 
the  Barriers  d'Enfer,  a  flight  of  ninety  steps 
descends,  at  whose  foot  galleries  are  seen 
branching  in  various  directions.  Some  yards 
distant  is  a  vestibule  of  octagonal  form,  which 
opens  into  a  long  gallery  lined  with  bones  from 
floor  to  roof.  The  arm,  leg,  and  thigh  bones 
are  in  front,  closely  and  regularly  piled,  and 
their  uniformity  is  relieved  by  three  rows  of 
skulls  at  equal  distances.  This  gallery  con- 
ducts to  several  rooms  resembling  chapels, 
lined  with  bones,  variously  arranged.  One  is 
called  the  "  Tomb  of  the  Revolution,"  an- 
other the  "Tomb  of  Victims"  —  the  latter 
containing  the  relics  of  those  who  perished  in 
the  early  period  of  the  Revolution  and  in  the 
"  massacre  of  September."  It  is  estimated 
that  the  remains  of  fully  3,000,000  human 
beings  lie  in  this  receptacle.  Owing  to  the 
unsafe  condition  of  the  roof,  admission  to  the 
catacombs  has  been  forbidden  for  years.  Of 
the  other  catacombs  in  existence,  the  most 
celebrated  are  those  on  the  Via  Appia,  at  a 
short  distance  from  Rome,  where,  it  is  believed, 
the  early  Christians  were  in  the  habit  of  retir- 
ing in  order  to  celebrate  their  new  worship  in 
times  of  persecution.  These  catacombs  con- 
sist  of  long,  narrow  galleries,  usually  about 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


499 


eight  feet  high  and  five  feet  wide,  which  twist 
and  turn  in  all  directions,  very  much  resem- 
bling mines,  and  at  irregular  intervals  into 
wide  and  lofty  vaulted  chambers.  The  graves, 
where  are  buried  many  of  the  saints  and  mar- 
tyrs of  the  primitive  church,  were  constructed 
by  hollowing  out  a  portion  of  the  rock  at  the 
side  of  the  gallery  large  enough  to  contain 
the  body.  The  catacombs  at  Naples,  cut  into 
the  Capo  di  Monte,  resemble  those  at  Rome, 
and  evidently  were  used  for  the  same  purpose, 
being  in  many  parts  literally  covered  with 
Christian  symbols.  In  one  cf  the  large  vaulted 
chambers  there  are  paintings  which  have  re- 
tained a  freshness  which  is  wonderful.  Simi- 
lar catacombs  have  been  found  at  Palermo  and 
Syracuse,  and  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria, 
Persia,  Egypt,  and  in  Peru  and  other  parts  of 
South  America. 

Apocrypha, The. — In  the  earliest  churches 
the  word  Apocrypha  was  applied  with  very 
different  significations  to  a  variety  of  writ- 
ings ;  sometimes  it  was  given  those  whose 
authorship  and  original  form  were  unknown  ; 
sometimes  to  writings  containing  a  hidden 
meaning ;  sometimes  to  those  whose  public 
use  was  not  thought  advisable.  In  this  last 
signification  it  has  been  customary,  since  the 
time  of  Jerome,  to  apply  the  term  to  a  number 
of  writings  which  the  Septuagint  had  circulated 
among  the  Christians,  and  which  were  some- 
times considered  as  an  appendage  to  the  Old 
Testament,  and  sometimes  as  a  portion  of  it. 
At  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  360  A.  D.,  the 
Greek  Church  rejected  all  books  except  those 
in  the  present  Protestant  canon.  In  474  Pope 
Gelasius  convened  a  council  of  seventy  bishops, 
which  confirmed  the  opinion  of  Pope  Innocent 
I.,  recognizing  the  Apocryphal  books  as  sacred, 
and  rejecting  some  of  the  doubtful  books  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  Council  of  Trent, 
1545-'63,  finally  settled  the  question  for  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  accepting  the  Apocry- 
pha as  a  part  of  the  sacred  canon.  The  Prot- 
testant  churches  reject  their  use  in  public 
worship.  It  was  customary  at  one  time  to  bind 
up  the  Apocrypha  between  the  authorized 
versions  of  the  Old  and  X<-\v  Testaments, 
though  this  has  now  ceased,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, this  curious,  interesting,  and  instruct- 
ive part  of  Jewish  literature  is  now  known  only 
to  scholars. 

Inquisition,  The,  was  a  tribunal  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  for  the  discovery,  re- 
pression, and  punishment  of  heresy,  unbelief, 
and  other  offenses  against  religion.  From  the 
very  first  establishment  of  Christianity  as  the 
religion  of  the  Roman  empire,  laws  more  or 
less  severe  existed,  as  in  most  of  the  ancient 
religions,  for  the  repression  and  punishment  of 


dissent  from  the  national  creed,  and  the  Em- 
perors Theodosius  and  Justinian  appointed  of- 
ficials called  "  inquisitors,"  whose  special  duty 
it  was  to  discover  and  to  prosecute  before  the 
civil  tribunals  offenders  of  this  class.  For 
several  centuries  cases  of  heresy  were  tried  be- 
fore the  ordinary  courts,  but  in  course  of  time 
the  examination  of  those  accused  of  this  crime 
was  handed  over  to  the  bishops.  Special  ma- 
chinery for  the  trial  and  punishment  of  here- 
tics was  first  devised  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
centuries  against  the  various  sects  who  had 
separated  from  the  Church,  and  who  became 
known  under  the  general  term  of  Albigenses. 
Heresy  was  then  regarded  as  a  crime  against 
the  state  as  well  as  the  Church,  and  the  civil, 
no  less  than  the  ecclesiastical,  authorities  were 
arrayed  against  those  sects.  The  murder  of  a 
papal  legate  in,  1205  gave  a  pretext  for  declar- 
ing against  the  Albigenses  a  war  in  which  thou- 
sands perished,  and  in  1299  the  Council  of 
Toulouse  decreed  the  "  Inquisition  "  for  their 
extermination.  The  searching  out  of  here- 
tics was  first  given  to  the  bishops  of  the 
Church,  but  the  "Pope  (Gregory  IX.),  fearing 
that  these  would  not  be  active  enough,  trans- 
ferred their  work  to  the  Dominican  friars.  A 
guild  was  also  formed  called  the  "  Militia  of 
Jesus  Christ,"  whose  object  was  to  aid  in- 
quisitors in  their  work.  The  Church  found 
the  heretics,  examined,  and  sentenced  them, 
and  then  called  in  the  civil  authority  to  put 
its  sentence  into  execution.  The  inquisitorial 
courts  at  first  only  held  occasional  sessions,  but 
after  1248  they  sat  permanently.  A  person,  if 
suspected  of  heresy  or  denounced  as  guilty, 
was  liable  to  be  arrested  and  detained  in 
prison,  only  to  be  brought  to  trial  when  it  might 
seem  fit  to  his  judges.  The  proceedings  were 
conducted  secretly.  He  was  not  confronted 
with  his  accusers,  nor  were  their  names,  even, 
made  known  to  him.  The  evidence  of  an  ac- 
complice was  admissible,  and  the  accused  him- 
self was  liable  to  be  put  to  torture,  in  order  to 
extort  a  confession  of  guilt.  The  punish- 
ments to  which,  if  found  guilty,  he  was  liable, 
were  death  by  fire,  as  exemplified  in  the  ter- 
rible auto-da-f£,  or  on  the  scaffold,  imprison- 
ment in  the  galleys  for  life  or  for  a  limited 
period,  forfeiture  of  property,  civil  infamy, 
and  in  minor  cases  retraction  and  public  pen- 
ance. 

Inquisition,  Spanish. —  The  Inquisition 
was  introduced  in  Spain  in  1232,  by  Pope 
Gregory's  appointment  of  the  Dominicans  of 
Aragon  as  inquisitors,  and  it  ultimately  came 
to  be  viewed  by  the  people  Avith  most  ab- 
ject terror.  At  first  it  passed  no  sentence 
more  severe  than  the  confiscation  of  property, 
but  toward  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century, 


500 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


the  zeal  of  Mendoza,  the  archbishop  of  Seville, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  institution.  At  that 
time  there  was  a  real  or  pretended  alarm  lest 
the  Jews  and  Moors  in  Spain  should  unite 
against  the  Christians.  Bishop  Mendoza  pro- 
posed to  King  Ferdinand,  in  1477,  that  an 
inquisition  should  be  established  in  Castile, 
with  the  primary  object  of  searching  out  the 
Jews  who  had  relapsed  into  Judaism  after 
having  professed  Christianity,  or  who  simply 
feigned  conversion.  The  Inquisitorial  Court 
of  Seville  was  established  in  September,  1480, 
in  the  person  of  two  Dominican  friars.  Tor- 
quemada,  another  Dominican,  appointed  in 
1483,  was  Grand  Inquisitor  for  fifteen  years. 
Under  him  three  new  tribunals  of  the  Holy 
Office  were  erected  at  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Villa 
Real ;  afterwards  a  fifth  was  added  to  Toledo. 
These  Tribunals  were  always  popular  with  the 
lower  orders  and  the  clergy  in  Spain,  but  ter- 
rible in  the  eyes  of  the  nobles  and  the  rich 
middle  class,  who  believed  that  they  were 
often  used  by  the  Government  as  engines  of 
political  repression  in  order  to  diminish  their 
influence.  Ranke  calls  the  Spanish  Inquisi- 
tion "  a  royal  tribunal  furnished  with  spiritual 
weapons."  In  1492  an  edict  was  issued  for 
the  banishment  of  all  Jews  refusing  to  em- 
brace Christianity  from  Spain,  chiefly  on 
account  of  their  alleged  incorrigible  obstinacy 
in  persisting  in  the  attempt  to  convert  Chris- 
tians to  their  own  faith  and  instruct  them  in 
their  rites.  About  a  hundred  thousand  accord- 
ingly went  into  banishment. 

The  history  of  the  Spanish  Inquisition  was 
written  by  Llorente,  who  was  secretary  to  the 
tribunal  of  Madrid  from  1790  to  1792.  Al- 
though he  is  supposed  to  have  possessed  great 
opportunities  for  obtaining  exact  information, 
his  estimate  of  the  persons  condemned  to  death 
is  now  considered  very  much  exaggerated. 
The  figures  of  Llorente  include  not  only  those 
condemned  for  heresy,  but  besides  persons 
charged  with  many  other  crimes,  such  as 
polygamy,  seduction,  unnatural  crime,  smug- 
gling, witchcraft,  sorcery,  imposture,  etc., 
civil  offenses  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Inquisition  and  punishable  with  death. 

The  celebrated  Autos-da-Fe  (Acts  of  the  con- 
fession of  the  faith),  says  Mohler,  "  were  as  a 
rule  bloodless.  But  few  inquisitional  processes 
terminated  with  the  death  of  the  accused." 
The  A  uto,  speaking  generally,  was  a  form  of 
reconciling  culprits  to  the  Church.  Neverthe- 
less the  severities  practiced  by  the  tribunals 
were  such  that  Rome  frequently  interfered. 
By  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
Inquisition,  having  largely  obliterated  heresy 
in  Spain,  became  more  lenient ;  its  efforts  were 
then    principally   directed    against    heretical 


books,  and  occasionally  decreed  an  execution. 
The  jurisdiction  of  the  Inquisition  had  been 
greatly  restricted  when  Joseph  Bonaparte 
abolished  it  in  December,  1808.  It  was  restored 
by  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1814,  but  was  again 
abolished  by  the  Constitution  of  the  Cortes  in 
1820.  After  the  second  restoration  a  tribunal 
was  re-established  at  Valencia  in  1826.  It 
was  finally  abolished,  however,  in  1834,  and 
in  1835  all  its  property  was  confiscated  for  the 
public  debt. 

Celibacy  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church. —  Previous  to  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  there  was  no  law  nor  uniformity  of 
opinion  regarding  the  celibacy  of  the  Romish 
priests.  About  this  time,  however,  Pope  Siri- 
cius  forbade  priests  to  marry,  and  those  who 
had  married  previous  to  ordination  were  com- 
manded to  put  away  their  wives.  Children 
born  to  a  clergyman  after  ordination  were  de- 
clared by  the  Emperor  Justinian  to  be  illegiti- 
mate and  incapable  of  inheritance.  This 
doctrine  was  opposed  by  the  Eastern  Church, 
and  in  692  it  was  condemned  as  heretical  by 
the  Council  of  Constantinople,  and  the  mar- 
riage of  priests  has,  therefore,  always  been 
sanctioned  by  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church. 
Notwithstanding  the  action  taken  by  the 
Romish  Church,  it  was  several  centuries  be- 
fore celibacy  was  firmly  established,  and  this 
was  not  accomplished  until  Pope  Gregory  VII., 
in  the  face  of  violent  opposition  in  all  coun- 
tries, deposed  all  married  priests  and  excom- 
municated all  laymen  who  upheld  them  in  the 
exercise  of  their  spiritual  functions.  This 
decree  was  carried  out  with  the  utmost  rigor, 
and  brought  about  the  result  which  the  Church 
had  been  aiming  at  for  centuries,  and  which 
still  continues  to  be  the  canonical  law. 

Indulgences.  —  Originally,  indulgences 
meant  a  release  from  the  temporal  penalties 
which  remained  due  after  the  sin  itself  had 
been  remitted  by  confession  and  absolution, 
and  were  granted  during  the  first  centuries  of 
the  Christian  churches,  not  only  by  the  pope, 
but  by  all  bishops,  to  infirm  persons  or  to  those 
penitents  who  showed  extraordinary  con- 
trition. An  indulgence  cannot  be  granted  for 
unforgiven  sin.  It  is  not  the  remission  of  sin 
nor  of  the  eternal  punishment  due  to  mortal  sin, 
still  less  is  it  a  permission  to  commit  sin  in  the 
future.  Before  an  indulgence  can  be  gained,  sin 
must  have  been  previously  remitted  by  repent- 
ance. Thus,  instead  of  being  an  encouragement 
to  sin ,  it  is  a  strong  motive  to  repentance.  Many 
indulgences  have  been  abrogated,  or  declared 
apocryphal  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  Council  of  Trent  prohibited  the  "  disrepu- 
table gains"  made  at  some  places  at  the 
expense  of  those  who  desired  to  obtain  indul- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


501 


fences.     The  same  council  prescribes  that  all 
indulgences  must  be  granted  "  gratis." 

Cambridge,  University  of,  is  situated 
at  the  town  of  Cambridge,  forty-eight  miles 
northeast  of  London.  The  first  regular  society 
of  students  was  that  of  Peter-House,  founded 
in  1257.  The  history  of  the  University,  how- 
ever, may  be  said  to  date  from  the  opening  of 
the  twelfth  century,  but  until  the  year  men- 
tioned there  were  no  public  halls  or  hostels,  each 
student  living  in  his  own  hired  lodging.  About 
1257  the  students  began  to  live  together  in 
hostels,  under  the  rule  of  a  principal.  These 
hostels  were  named  after  the  saints  to  whom 
they  were  dedicated,  the  churches  which  they 
adjoined,  or  the  persons  who  formerly  built  or 
possessed  them.  In  the  year  1280  there  were 
as  many  as  thirty-four,  and  some  of  them 
contained  from  twenty  to  forty  masters  of  arts, 
and  a  proportionate  number  of  younger  stu- 
dents. These  hostels  were  the  beginning  of 
what  may  be  called  the  college  system,  which 
distinguishes  the  sister  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  from  those  of  Edinburgh, 
London,  and  the  Continent.  All  the  royal 
and  religious  foundations,  with  one  exception, 
which  now  constitute  the  University  were  en- 
dowed between  the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth 
and  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
governing  body  of  the  university  is  the  senate  ; 
but,  before  being  submitted  to  it,  all  university 
laws  must  be  approved  by  the  council,  a  body 
elected  by  the  resident  members  of  the  senate. 
After  the  chancellor  and  high  steward,  the 
chief  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  vice- 
chancellor,  who  is  elected  annually  from  the 
heads  of  colleges.  There  are  three  terms  in 
this  university  —  the  Michaelmas,  or  October 
term  ;  the  Lent  term,  and  the  Easter  term. 
To  take  an  ordinary  B.A.  degree,  a  student 
must  reside  nine  terms.  The  M.A.  degree 
follows,  without  examination,  about  four  years 
after.  There  are  four  classes  of  students  — 
Fellow  Commoners  and  Noblemen,  Pensioners, 
Sizars  and  Subsizars,  and  the  more  distin- 
guished, who  are  elected  Scholars  on  the  foun- 
dation of  this  college.  The  pensioners  are  the 
great  body  of  students,  are  not  on  the  founda- 
tion, and  pay  for  their  own  commons,  viz., 
dinners  in  halls,  etc.,  and  for  their  rooms. 
The  sizars  are  poorer  students,  selected,  how- 
ever, by  examination,  who  receive  free  com- 
mons and  certain  money  payments,  and  are 
admitted  at  lower  charges  than  the  pensioners, 
but  wear  the  same  dress  and  are  no  longer  sub- 
ject to  the  performance  of  menial  offices,  as 
they  once  were.  The  scholars  are  elected,  by 
examination,  from  the  pensioners  and  sizars. 
They  are  on  the  foundation  of  the  college,  from 
which  they  receive  certain  emoluments.     The 


fellows  are  subsequently  elected  from  the  schol- 
ars and  the  students  who  have  distinguished 
themselves  in  the  Tripos  examinations.  The 
University  has  forty  professors,  in  addition  to 
readers,  demonstrators,  and  assistants.  The 
tutor  of  the  college  is  understood  to  be  in  loco 
parentis  to  his  pupils,  the  dean  has  the  over- 
sight of  "  religion  and  morals,"  and  instruction 
is  given  by  college  lecturers.  The  great  prizes 
at  the  University  are  the  Fellowships,  of  which 
there  are  about  four  hundred.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  the  colleges  and  their  founders  : 
St.  Peter's  College  or  Peter-House,  founded  by 
Hugh  de  Balsham,  Bishop  of  Ely,  1257  ;  Clare 
College,  founded  under  the  name  of  University 
Hall  by  Richard  Baden  in  1326,  was  burned  in 
1338,  and  rebuilt  and  endowed  by  Elizabeth, 
Countess  of  Clare ;  Pembroke  College,  founded 
by  the  Countess  of  Pembroke,  1347  ;  Gonville 
and  Caius  College,  founded  by  Edward  Gon- 
ville in  1348  ;  Trinity  Hall,  founded  by  William 
Bateman,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  1350;  Corpus 
Christi  or  Benedict  College,  founded  by  the 
guilds  of  Corpus  Christi  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin,  1351  ;  King's  College,  founded  by 
Henry  VI.,  1441  ;  Queens'  College,  founded 
by  Margaret  of  Anjou,  wife  of  Henry  VI.,  1446  ; 
St.  Catherine's  College  or  Hall,  founded  by 
Robert  Wodelarke,  provost  of  King's  College, 
1473  ;  Jesus  College,  founded  by  John  Alcock, 
Bishop  of  Ely,  1496  ;  Christ  College,  founded 
by  the  Countess  of  Richmond,  1505  ;  St.  John's 
College,  founded  by  the  Countess  of  Rich- 
mond, 1511  ;  Magdalene  College,  founded  by 
Thomas,  Baron  Audley,  of  Walden,  1519; 
Trinity  College,  founded  by  Henry  VIII. , 
1546  ;  Emmanuel  College,  founded  by  Sir 
Walter  Mildmay,  1584;  Sidney  Sussex  College, 
founded  by  Lady  Frances  Sidney,  1598  ;  Down- 
ing College,  founded  by  Sir  George  Downing, 
1800. 

Oxford  University  is  one  of  the  two 
greatest  seats  of  learning  in  Great  Britain.  It 
is  situated  at  Oxford,  fifty-two  miles  from 
London,  and  comprises  twenty  colleges  and  six 
halls  —  the  latter  for  the  residence  of  students. 
The  colleges,  their  founders,  and  the  dates 
thereof,  are  as  follows :  University  College, 
founded  by  William  of  Durham,  1249;  Bal- 
liol,  by  John  Balliol  and  Devorgilla,  his  wife, 
between  1263  and  1268  ;  Merton,  by  Walter 
de  Merton,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  at  Maiden, 
in  1264,  and  removed  to  Oxford  before  1274  ; 
Exeter,  by  Walter  de  Stapleton,  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  1314;  Oriel,  by  Edward  II.,  1326; 
Queen's,  by  Robert  Eglesfield,  chaplain  to 
Philippa,  queen  of  Edward  III.,  1340;  New, 
by  William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, 1386 ;  Lincoln,  by  Richard  Fleming, 
Bishorv^f  Lincoln,  1427  ;  All  Souls',  by  Henry 


502 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Chicliele,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  1437  ; 
Magdalen,  by  William  of  Waynflete,  Lord 
Chancellor,  1450;  Brasenose,  by  William 
Smith,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  1509;  Corpus 
Christi,  by  Richard  Fox,  Bishop  of  Winches- 
ter, lf>l<>;  Christ  Church,  by  Henry  VIII., 
1546- '47  ;  Trinity,  by  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  1554  ; 
St.  John's,  by  Sir  Thomas  White,  1555 ; 
Jesus,  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  1571  ;  Wadham, 
by  Nicholas  Wadham,  1613  ;  Pembroke,  by 
James  I.,  at  the  expense  of  Thomas  Tisdale 
and  Richard  Wrightwick,  1620 ;  Worcester, 
by  Sir  Thomas  Cookes,  1714  ;  Keble  as  a  me- 
morial to  the  Rev.  John  Keble,  by  public  sub- 
scription, in  1870. 

Adam  and  Eve. —  To  the  Scriptural 
account  of  the  creation  and  fall  of  Adam  and 
Eve,  the  later  Jewish  writers  in  the  Talmud 
have  made  many  additions.  According  to 
them,  the  stature  of  Adam,  when  first  created, 
reached  to  the  heavens,  while  the  splendor  of 
his  countenance  surpassed  that  of  the  sun. 
The  very  angels  stood  in  awe  of  him,  and  all 
creatures  hastened  to  worship  him.  Then 
the  Lord,  in  order  to  show  the  angels  his 
power,  caused  a  sleep  to  fall  upon  Adam,  and 
removed  a  portion  of  every  limb.  He  thus 
lost  his  vast  stature,  but  remained  perfect  and 
complete.  His  first  wife  was  Lilith,  the  mother 
of  demons  ;  but  she  fled  from  him,  and  after- 
ward Eve  was  created  for  him.  At  the  mar- 
riage of  Adam  and  Eve  angels  were  present, 
some  playing  on  musical  instruments,  others 
serving  up  delicious  viands,  while  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  danced  together.  The  happi- 
ness of  the  human  pair  excited  envy  among 
Ihe  angels,  and  the  seraph  Sammael  tempted 
them,  and  succeeded  in  leading  them  to  their 
fall  from  innocence.  According  to  the  Koran, 
all  the  angels  paid  homage  to  Adam  excepting 
Eblis,  who,  on  account  of  his  refusal,  was  ex- 
pelled from  Paradise.  To  gratify  his  revenge, 
Eblis  seduced  Adam  and  Eve,  and  they  were 
separated.  Adam  was  penitent,  and  lived  in 
a  tent  on  the  site  of  the  Temple  of  Mecca, 
where  he  was  instructed  in  the  divine  com- 
mandments by  the  Archangel  Gabriel.  After 
two  hundred  years  of  separation,  he  again 
found  Eve  on  Mount  Arafat. 

Celebrated  Paintings. —  It  is  generally 
agreed  by  art  critics  that  Michael  Angelo  and 
Raphael  stand  at  the  head  of  the  line  of  mas- 
ter painters.  Conspicuous  among  the  great 
paintings  of  the  former  are  "The  Last  Judg- 
ment," "  The  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,"  and 
"  The  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  "  ;  and  among 
those  of  the  latter,  "  The  Dispute  Concerning 
the  Sacrament,"  the  "  Madonna  di  Foligno," 
and  the  "  Madonna  del  Pisce,  or  Virgin  of  the 
Fish."     "  The  Last   Judgment  "    ispa  large 


fresco-painting,  sixty  feet  high  by  thirty  feet 
wide,  occupying  the  wall  opposite  the  entrance 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  in  the  Vatican  Palace  at 
Rome.  Over  three  hundred  figures  are  repre- 
sented in  "  the  most  violent  attitudes  and  most 
admired  disorder."  "  The  Conversion  of  St. 
Paul"  is  another  large  fresco-painting  in  the 
Vatican.  "  The  Crucifixion  of  Peter,"  also 
in  the  Vatican,  is  one  of  the  last  from  the 
hands  of  Angelo.  "  The  Dispute  Concerning 
the  Sacrament"  is  a  fresco,  representing, 
above,  a  collocation  of  the  saints  around  the 
Almighty,  the  Saviour,  and  the  Virgin,  envel- 
oped in  heavenly  glory,  while  beneath  the 
ceremony  of  the  Consecration  of  the  Sacra- 
ment is  depicted.  This  is  found  in  the  Camera 
della  Segnatura  of  the  Vatican.  "  The  Ma- 
donna di  Foligno,"  in  the  Vatican  gallery, 
derives  its  name  from  the  city  of  Foligno, 
which  is  represented  in  the  background.  The 
"Madonna  del  Pisce,"  now  in  the  gallery  at 
Madrid,  Spain,  represents  the  Virgin  and 
Child  enthroned,  with  St.  Jerome  on  one  side, 
and  on  the  other  an  archangel  with  the  young 
Tobit,  who  carries  a  fish,  from  which  circum- 
stance the  name  is  derived.  "The  Madonna 
di  San  Sisto  "  is  considered  by  many  critics  the 
best  of  Raphael's  works.  It  is  located  in  the 
gallery  of  Dresden, Germany,  and  represents  the 
Madonna  standing  -upon  the  clouds  suiTounded 
with  glory,  holding  in  her  arms  the  eternal 
son.  Saint  Sixtus  and  Saint  Barbara  kneel  at 
the  sides.  It  was  originally  painted  on  wood, 
but  has  been  transferred  to  canvas.  The  paint- 
ing of  "The  Last  Supper,"  by  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  master- 
pieces. It  was  originally  painted,  by  order  of 
the  Duke  of  Milan,  on  the  walls  of  the  refec- 
tory in  the  Dominican  conventof  the  Madonna 
della  Grazie.  Rubens'  paintings  of  the  "  De- 
scent from  the  Cross  "  and  "  Elevation  of  the 
Cross,"  at  Antwerp,  rank  high  as  master- 
pieces. The  "  Adoration  of  the  Trinity,"  by 
Albert  Durer,  at  Vienna,  and  his  two  pictures 
containing  life-size  figures  of  Peter  and  John, 
Mark  and  Paul,  presented  to  the  Council  of 
Nuremberg,  Germany,  are  also  very  famous. 
The  two  pictures  of  Mary  Magdalen  are  also 
among  the  most  famous  in  the  world- — "La 
Bussendi  Magdalina,"  by  Corregio,  now  in  the 
Dresden  Gallery,  and  one.  by  Guide  Reni. 

Venus,  Statues  of. —  The  Roman  god- 
dess of  love  and  beauty,  subsequently  identi- 
fied with  the  Greek  Aphrodite,  was  a  favorite 
subject  of  ancient  sculptors.  The  most  fa- 
mous specimen  still  existing  is  the  Venus  de 
Medici,  executed  by  Cleomenes,  the  Athenian, 
about  200  B.  C,  and  generally  admitted  to  be 
the  finest  relic  of  ancient  art.  It  was  dug  up 
in  several  pieces,  either  at  the  villa  of  Hadrian, 


RELIGION1,  EDUCATION,  FIXE  ARTS. 


503 


near  Tivoli,  or  at  the  Portico  of  Octavia,  in 
Rome,  in  the  seventeenth  century.  After  re- 
maining for  some  time  in  the  Medici  Palace 
in  Rome  (whence  its  name)  it  was  carried  to 
Florence  by  Cosmo  III.,  about  1680,  where  it 
is  now  preserved  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery.  From 
the  exquisite  grace  and  symmetry  of  the  fig- 
ure it  has  become  a  sort  of  standard  of  excel- 
lence for  the  female  form.  The  beautiful 
Venus  de  Milo  is  so  called  because  it  was  found 
on  the  Island  of  Milo,  or  Melos,  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago.  It  is  now  in  the  Louvre,  at 
Paris.  Of  modern  statues,  that  by  Canova  is 
the  most  famous. 

Buddhism. — The  religion  known  as  Bud- 
dhism is  one  of  the  oldest  existing  religions,  and 
traces  its  origin  back  to  Siddharthaor  Buddha, 
a  Hindoo  prince.  In  Hindustan,  the  land  of 
its  birth,  it  has  now  little  hold,  except  among 
the  Nepaulese  and  some  other  northern  tribes, 
but  it  bears  full  sway  in  Ceylon  and  over  the 
whole  eastern  peninsula.  It  divides  the  ad- 
herence of  the  Chinese  with  the  system  of  Con- 
fucius. It  prevails  also  in  Japan  and  north  of 
the  Himalayas.  It  is  the  religion  of  Thibet, 
and  of  the  Mongolian  population  of  Central 
Asia.  Its  adherents  are  estimated  at  340,000,- 
000.  According  to  the  Buddhist  belief,  when 
\  man  dies  he  is  immediately  born  again,  or 
appears  in  a  new  shape  ;  and  that  shape  may, 
iccording  to  his  merit  or  demerit,  be  any  of 
the  innumerable  orders  of  being  composing  the 
Buddhist  universe,  from  a  clod  to  a  divinity. 
If  his  demerit  would  not  be  sufficiently  pun- 
ished by  a  degraded  earthly  existence  —  in  the 
Jorm,  for  instance,  of  a  woman  or  a  slave,  of 
ft  persecuted  or  a  disgusting  animal,  of  a  plant, 
or  even  of  a  piece  of  inorganic  matter —  he  will 
be  born  in  some  one  of  the  one  hundred  and 
thirty-six  Buddhist  hells  situated  in  the  interior 
of  the  earth.  These  places  of  punishment 
have  a  regular  gradation  in  the  intensity  of  the 
suffering  and  in  the  length  of  time  the  sufferers 
live,  the  least  term  of  life  being  10,000,000 
years,  the  longest  term  being  almost  beyond  the 
powers  of  even  Indian  notation  to  express.  A 
meritorious  life,  on  the  other  hand,  secures  the 
next  birth  either  in  an  exalted  and  happy  posi- 
tion on  earth  or  as  a  blessed  spirit,  or  even 
divinity,  in  one  of  the  many  heavens  in  which 
the  least  duration  of  life  is  about  10,000,000,- 
000  years.  But  however  long  the  life,  whether 
of  misery  or  bliss,  it  has  an  end,  and  at  its 
close  the  individual  must  be  born  again,  and 
may  again  be  either  happy  or  miserable.  The 
Buddha  himself  is  said  to  have  gone  through 
every  conceivable  form  of  existence  on  the  earth , 
in  the  air  and  in  the  water,  in  hell  and  in 
heaven,  and  to  Lave  filled  every  condition  in 
human  life  ;    and  a  great  part  of  the  Huddhist 


legendary  literature  is  taken  up  iu  narrating  his 
exploits  when  he  lived  as  an  elephant,  as  a  bird, 
as  a  stag,  and  so  on.  A  second  Buddhist  doc- 
trine is  embodied  in  the  "  Four  Sublime  Ver- 
ities." The  first  asserts  that  pain  exists  ;  the 
second  that  the  cause  of  pain  is  desire  or  at- 
tachment ;  the  third  that  pain  can  be  ended  by 
Nirvana;  and  the  fourth  shows  the  way  that 
leads  to  Nirvana,  from  simple  faith  to  complete 
regeneration.  Theoretically  this  religion  has 
no  priests,  nor  clergy,  nor  public  religious  rites. 
Every  man  is  his  own  priest  and  confessor,  and 
the  monks  are  ascetics  only  for  their  own  ad- 
vancement in  holy  living  ;  but  in  fact  Buddhist 
countries  swarm  with  priests  or  religious  teach- 
ers, so  reputed.  The  central  object  in  a 
Buddhist  temple,  corresponding  to  the  altar  in 
a  Roman  Catholic  church,  is  an  image  of  the 
Buddha,  or  a  dagoba  or  shrine  containing  his 
relics.  Here  flowers,  fruit,  and  incense  are 
daily  offered,  and  processions  are  made,  with 
singing  of  hymns.  Of  the  relics  of  the  Buddha, 
the  most  famous  are  the  teeth,  that  are  pre- 
served with  intense  veneration  in  various  places. 
The  quantities  of  flowers  used  as  offerings  are 
prodigious.  A  royal  devotee  in  Ceylon,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  offered  on  one  occasion 
6,480,320  flowers  at  the  shrine  of  the  tooth, 
and  at  one  temple  it  was  provided  that  there 
should  be  offered  "  every  day  100,000  flowers, 
and  each  day  a  different  flower." 

Eden,  Garden  of. —  The  question  of  the 
locality  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  or  of  the  exact 
sense  in  which  the  Mosaic  narrative  is  to  be 
understood,  is  involved  in  inexplicable  mys- 
tery. Josephus  and  several  of  the  Fathers 
conceived  that  Eden  was  a  term  denoting  the 

j  entire  region  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Nile. 

j  Calvin,  Huet,  Bochart,  and  Wells  have,  with 
slight  differences  of  detail,  concluded  in  favor 

I  of  Kornah,    in    Babylonia,  not  far   from  the 

j  Persian  Gulf  ;  while  Armenia,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  the  region 
near  Damascus,  have  been  selected  by  other 
celebrated  scholars.  The  modern  German 
school  of  Biblical  critics,  convinced  that  the 
Hebrew  account  is  traditional,  and,  in  its 
present  form,  of  very  late  composition,  and 
impressed,  beside,  with  the  vast  antiquity  of 

i  the  far  East,  have,  almost  without  exception, 
sought  the  cradle  of  the  human  race  in  Bactria 

I  or  Cashmere,  or  the  region  lying  to  the  north 
of  it,  a  part  of  which  is  to  this  day  called 
Audyana,  the    Garden.     The    Mohammedans, 

i  it  may  also  be  mentioned,  believe  Eden  to  have 
been  in  one  of  the  seven  heavens  —  some  say 

I  the  moon  —  and  that  the  expulsion  from  Para- 
dise consisted  in  Adam  being  cast  down  upon 
the  earth  after  the  fall.  The  endeavor  to  pos- 
itively identify  the  river  syste.ni  of  Eden  with 


504 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


anything  known  at  present  is  useless.  There 
is  no  river  on  the  face  of  the  globe  of  which 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (Hiddekel)  are  sep- 
arate "heads,"  as  they  are  said  to  be  in  the 
second  chapter  of  Genesis ;  for,  although  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  now  unite  for  a  short 
space  on  their  way  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  yet 
until  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great  they 
kept  entirely  distinct  courses,  and  therefore  it 
has  been  assumed  that  the  Deluge  completely 
altered  the  physical  character  of  the  region  de- 
noted by  the  term  Eden.  This  was  Luther's 
notion,  to  which,  however,  it  has  been  objected 
that  the  narrative  in  Genesis  is  so  worded  as  to 
convey  the  idea  that  the  countries  and  rivers 
spoken  of  were  existing  in  the  time  of  the  his- 
torian. Besides,  the  science  of  geology  has 
thrown  so  much  doubt  on  the  universality  of  a 
deluge  so  late  as  the  period  assigned  to  Noah 
that  it  is  hazardous  to  argue  on  the  hypothesis 
of  any  extensive  physical  changes  having  taken 
place  since  the  first  appearance  of  man  on  the 
planet  —  at  least  if  that  be  dated  only  some 
six  thousand  years  back.  In  all  the  theories 
which  have  been  advanced  regarding  the  loca- 
tion of  Eden  two  things  have  not  been  explained 
by  anyone  ;  these  are  the  statement  that  the 
four  rivers  flow  from  one  river,  and  the  river 
Pison  "  compasseth  the  whole  land  of  Havilah. " 
Until  these  are  solved  the  location  of  the  Gar- 
den of  Eden  will  continue  to  remain  a  mystery. 

Diet  of  Worms  was  an  assembly  con- 
voked by  Emperor  Charles  V.,  for  the  purpose 
of  considering  state  affairs,  and  principally 
the  course  to  be  pursued  toward  the  Reforma- 
tion and  Martin  Luther.  It  was  composed  of 
the  princes  and  other  leading  representatives 
of  the  several  states  of  the  German  Empire. 
Luther  appeared  before  this  august  body,  and 
his  defense  of  himself  and  his  followers 
against  the  charge  of  heresy  was  dignified  and 
eloquent,  and  compelled  the  admiration  of  the 
assembly  and  many  of  his  former  foes.  He 
was  allowed  to  leave  the  city  under  escort,  and 
at  the  instigation  of  his  friend,  the  Elector  of 
Saxony,  who  feared  that  he  might  be  assassi- 
nated if  he  continued  in  active  life,  he  was 
taken  to  the  Castle  of  Wartburg,  where  he 
remained,  virtually  a  prisoner,  for  about  one 
year.  When  his  adherents  had  become  numer- 
ous enough  and  strong  enough  for  him  to 
advocate  his  principles  without  fear  of  moles- 
tation, he  was  restored  to  liberty. 

Confucianism  ; is  termed  a  religion,  but 
it  ought  rather  to  be  regarded  as  a  system  of 
social  and  political  life,  built  upon  a  slight 
foundation  of  philosophy.  It  contains  no 
trace  of  a  personal  God.  There  are,  indeed, 
a  number  of  allusions  to  a  certain  heavenly 
agency  or  power  — Shang-te  —  whose  outward 


emblem  is  Tien, or  the  visible  firmament;  but 
this  Shang-te,  in  the  opinion  of  the  most  en- 
lightened Chinese  scholars,  is  nothing  more 
than  a  verbal  personification  of  "the  ever- 
present  Law  and  Order  and  Intelligence  which 
seem  to  breathe  amid  the  wonderful  activities 
of  physical  creation,  in  the  measured  circuit 
of  the  seasons,  in  the  alternation  of  light  and 
darkness,  in  the  ebb  and  flow  of  tides,  and  in 
the  harmonious  and  majestic  revolutions  of 
the  heavenly  bodies."  Confucius  lived  about 
550  B.  C.  He  strove  to  direct  the  attention 
of  men  to  the  duties  of  social  and  political  life, 
and  Confucianism  is  epitomized  in  the  follow- 
ing words  of  the  great  teacher:  "I  teach 
you  nothing  but  what  you  might  learn  your- 
selves, viz.,  the  observance  of  the  three  funda- 
mental laws  of  relation  between  sovereign  and 
subject,  father  and  child,  husband  and  wife, 
and  the  five  capital  virtues  —  universal  char- 
ity, impartial  justice,  conformity  to  ceremonies 
and  established  usages,  rectitude  of  heart  and 
mind,  and  pure  sincerity."  Confucianism 
appeals  to  "  practical  "  men.  It  lauds  the 
present  world  ;  rather  doubts,  than  otherwise, 
the  existence  of  a  future  one  ;  and  calls  upon 
all  to  cultivate  such  virtues  as  are  seemly  in 
citizens  —  industry,  modesty,  sobriety,  gravity, 
decorum,  and  thoughtfulness. 

Millennium. —  The  idea  of  the  millen- 
nium, literally  a  thousand  years'  time,  origi- 
nated proximately  in  the  Messianic  expectation 
of  the  Jews ;  but  more  remotely,  it  has  been 
conjectured,  in  the  Zoroastrian  doctrine  of  the 
final  triumph  of  Ormuzd  over  Ahriman,  and 
was  connected  by  the  Christians  with  the  sec- 
ond coming  of  Christ.  The  notion  of  a  golden 
age,  preserved  by  the  converts  from  heathen- 
ism to  Christianity,  as  well  as  the  oppression 
and  persecution  to  which  they  were  long  su In- 
jected by  the  state  authorities,  were  naturally 
calculated  to  develop  and  strengthen  such 
hopes.  The  chief  basis  of  the  millennium 
idea  in  Judaism,  as  well  as  in  Christianity, 
however,  is  the  ardent  hope  for  a  visible  Divine 
rule  upon  earth,  and  the  identification  of  the 
Church  with  that  of  which  it  is  merely  a  sym- 
bol. In  the  Mosaic  account  of  creation  we 
find  the  primitive  ground  for  making  the  vic- 
torious era  of  the  Church  last  a  thousand 
years.  By  a  strictly  literal  interpretation  of 
the  4th  verse  of  the  90th  Psalm  it  was  sup- 
posed that  a  day  of  God  was  arithmetically 
equal  to  a  thousand  years  ;  hence  the  six  days 
of  creation  were  understood  to  indicate  that 
the  earth  would  pass  through  6,000  years  oi 
labor  and  suffering,  to  be  followed  by  a  sev- 
enth day — that  is,  1,000  years  of  rest  and 
happiness.  In  the  book  of  Revelation  this 
view  is  presented.     Still,  the  rabbinical  tradi- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


505 


tions  differ  widely  among  themselves  as  to  the 
duration  of  the  happy  period  During  the 
civil  and  religious  wars  in  France  and  England 
the  belief  in  millennianism  was  prominent. 
The  Fifth-monarchy  men  of  Cromwell's  time 
were  rnillenarians  of  the  most  exaggerated 
and  dangerous  sort,  and  marked  by  extreme 
arrogance.  Their  peculiar  tenet  was  that  the 
millennium  had  come  and  they  were  the  saints 
who  were  to  inherit  the  earth.  Great  eager- 
ness and  not  a  little  ingenuity  have  been  ex- 
hibited by  many  persons  in  fixing  a  date  for 
the  commencement  of  the  millennium.  The 
celebrated  theologian  Johann  Albrecht  Bengel 
asserted,  from  a  study  of  the  prophecies,  that 
the  millennium  would  begin  in  1836.  This 
date  was  long  popular.  Swedenborg  held  that 
the  last  judgment  took  place  in  1757,  and  that 
the  new  Church,  or  "  Church  of  the  New 
Jerusalem,"  as  his  followers  designate  them- 
selves—  in  other  words,  the  millennium  era  — 
then  began.  In  America  considerable  agita- 
tion was  excited  by  the  preaching  of  one  Wil- 
liam Miller,  who  fixed  the  second  advent  of 
Christ  about  1843.  Of  late  years  the  most 
noted  millenarian  was  Dr.  John  Cummings 
of  England,  who  originally  placed  the  end  of 
the  present  dispensation  in  1866  or  1867  ;  but 
as  the  time  drew  near  withoiit  any  millennial 
symptoms,  he  was  understood  to  have  modified 
his  views  considerably,  and  came  to  the  belief 
that  the  beginning  of  the  millennium  will  not 
differ  so  much,  after  all,  from  the  years  im- 
mediately preceding  it  as  people  commonly 
suppose. 

Ecole  Polyteclmique,  a  celebrated  mil- 
itary academy  of  France,  established  in  1794 
through  the  instrumentality  of  M.  Lavnblardie, 
director  of  the  Fonts  et  Chaussees.     The  acad- 
emy  was   first  called  the    Ecole    Central e  des 
Travaux  Publics;    but  in  the  following  year, 
1795,  the  name  was  changed  to  Ecole  Poly- 
technique,  and  numerous  alterations  were  made 
in    its    organization.      It    was     dissolved    in 
1816,  again  in    1830,  and  again  in   1832,  on 
account  ( f   the   impetuous  way  in   which  the 
scholars  mixed  themselves  up  with  the  political 
disturbances  of  those  years ;    but   it   was   re- 
established on  each  occasion,  after  the  restora-  | 
tion  of  tranquillity.     Candidates  are  admitted  [ 
by  competitive  examination,  which  takes  place  | 
yearly.      To   be   eligible    as   a   candidate   the  i 
youth  must  be  French,  and  must  be  more  than 
sixteen  and  less  than  twenty  years  of  age  before  ! 
the  first  of  January  following ;  but  soldiers  are 
admissible   up   to    twenty-five,  provided   they  ] 
can  give  proof  of  service  in  the  regular  army,  j 
The  course  of  instruction  lasts  for  two  yeai'S,  j 
when  graduates  have  the  privilege  of  choosing, 
from  the  various  public  services  supplied  from 


this  school,  the  particular  branch  they  wish  to 
enter.  The  school  was  last  reorganized  by  a 
decree  of  the  15th  of  April,  1873. 

Benedictines,  as  the  order  of  monks  were 
called  who  followed  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict, 
are  regarded  as  the  main  agents  in  the  spread 
of  Christianity,  civilization,  and  learning  in 
the  west.  At  one  time  the  order  is  said  to  have 
had  as  many  as  37,000  monasteries,  and 
counted  among  their  branches  the  great  Order 
of  Clugny,  founded  about  910  ;  the  still  greater 
Order  of  the  Cistercians,  founded  in  the  follow- 
ing century;  the  congregations  of  Monte  Cas- 
sino  in  1408,  of  St.  Vanne  in  1600,  and  of  St. 
Maur  on  the  Loire  in  1627.  All  the  Benedic- 
tine houses  in  France  were  affiliated  to  this  last 
congregation.  Among  the  monks  of  St.  Maur 
were  many  noted  scholars,  and  the  services 
they  rendered  to  literature  it  would  be  difficult 
to  overestimate.  At  the  Revolution  in  1792 
the  Benedictines  were  suppressed  in  France 
and  their  splendid  conventual  buildings  were 
destroyed,  but  the  order  was  revived  later. 
Most  of.  the  richest  abbeys  and  all  the  cathe- 
dral priories  (excepting  Carlisle)  in  England 
belonged  to  the  Benedictines,  and  they  had 
numerous  monasteries  in  Scotland.  The  Ben- 
edictines gained  great  distinction  in  both  Italy 
and  Germany  —  in  the  former  as  literati,  jurists, 
and  physicians,  and  in  the  latter  as  promoters 
of  education  and  as  the  founders  of  mediaeval 
scholasticism.  As  early  as  1354  this  order 
could  boast  of  having  numbered  among  its 
followers  24  popes,  200  cardinals,  7,000  arch- 
bishops, 15,000  bishops,  1,560  canonized  saints, 
and  5,000  holy  persons  judged  worthy  of 
canonization,  besides  20  empresses,  47  kings, 
above  50  queens,  20  sons  of  emperors,  48  sons 
of  kings,  100  princesses,  and  an  immense  number 
of  the  nobility.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the 
order  had  15,107  monasteries,  of  which  only 
5,000  were  left  after  the  Reformation,  and  there 
are  now  not  more  than  800.  They  were  com- 
monly styled  the  "Black  Monks"  from  their 
dress,  a  long  black  gown  with  a  cowl  or  hood 
of  the  same,  and  a  scapulary.  The  rule  of  St. 
Benedict  was  much  less  severe  than  that  which 
the  eastern  ascetics  followed.  Besides  implicit 
obedience  to  their  superiors,  the  Benedictines 
were  to  shun  laughter,  to  hold  no  private 
property,  to  live  sparely,  to  exercise  hospi- 
tality, and,  above  all,  to  be  industrious. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Architecture,  or  the  art  of  planning  and 
raising  edifices,  appears  to  have  been  among 
the  earliest  inventions.  The  first  habitations 
of  men  were  such  as  nature  afforded,  with  but 
little  labor  on  the  part  of  the  occupant,  and 
sufficient  to  supply  his  simple  wants  —  grot- 


508 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


toes,  huts,  and  tents.  In  early  times,  the 
country  of  Judea,  which  is  mountainous  and 
rocky,  offered  cavernous  retreats  to  the  in- 
habitants, who  accordingly  used  them  instead 
of  artificial  places  of  shelter.  From  various 
passages  in  scripture,  it  appears  that  these 
caves  were  often  of  great  extent,  for,  in  the 
sides  of  the  mountain  of  Engedi,  David  and 
six  hundred  men  concealed  themselves.  In 
the  course  of  time,  art  was  employed  to 
fashion  the  rude  cavernous  retreats,  and  to 
excavate  blocks  by  which  rude  buildings  were 
compiled  in  more  convenient  situations.  The 
progress  of  architecture,  however,  from  its 
first  dawn,  differed  in  almost  every  different 
locality.  Whatever  rude  structure  the  climate 
and  materials  of  any  country  obliged  its  early 
inhabitants  to  adopt  for  their  temporary 
shelter,  the  same  structure,  with  all  its  prom- 
inent featurcGj  was  afterward  kept  up  by  their 
refined  and  opulent  posterity. 

From  the  cause  now  mentioned  the  Egyp- 
tian style  of  building  had  its  origin  in  the 
cavern  and  mound  ;  the  Chinese  architecture, 
with  its  pavilion  roofs  and  pointed  minaret,  is 
molded  from  the  Tartar  tent ;  the  Grecian  is 
derived  from  the  wooden  cabin ;  and  the 
Gothic  from  the  bower  of  trees.  It  is  evident 
that  necessity  as  much  as  choice  or  chance  led 
to  the  adoption  of  the  different  kinds  of  edi- 
fices. 

After  mankind  had  learned  to  build  houses, 
they  commenced  the  erection  of  temples  to 
their  gods,  and  these  they  made  still  more 
splendid  than  private  dwellings.  Thus  archi- 
tecture became  a  fine  art,  which  was  first  dis- 
played on  the  temples,  afterward  on  the  habi- 
tations of  princes  and  public  buildings,  and 
at  last  became  a  universal  want  in  society. 

Traces  of  these  eras  of  advancement  in 
the  art  of  erecting  buildings  are  found  in 
various  quarters  of  the  globe,  especially  in  East- 
ern countries,  where  the  remains  of  edifices 
are  discovered  of  which  fable  and  poetry  can 
alone  give  any  account.  The  most  remark- 
able of  these  vestiges  of  a  primitive  architec- 
ture are  certain  pieces  of  masonry  in  the  island 
of  Sicily,  as  well  as  in  some  other  places,  called 
the  works  of  the  Cyclops,  an  ancient  and  fab- 
ulous race  of  giants,  mentioned  by  Homer  in 
his  Odyssey.  By  whom  these  walls  were  ac- 
tually erected  is  unknown. 

Of  the  progressive  steps  from  comparative 
rudeness  to  elegance  of  design,  history  affords 
no  certain  account,  and  we  are  often  left  to 
gather  facts  from  merely  casual  notices.  The 
most  ancient  nations  known  to  us  among 
whom  architecture  had  made  some  progress 
were  the  Babylonians,  whose  most  celebrated 
buildings  were  the  temple  of  Belus,  the  palace 


and  the  hanging  gardens  of  Semiramis  ;  the 
Assyrians,  whose  capital,  Nineveh,  was  rich 
in  splendid  buildings  ;  the  Phoenicians,  whose 
cities,  Sidon,  Tyre,  Aradus,  and  Sarepta,  were 
adorned  with  equal  magnificence  ;  the  Israel- 
ites, whose  temple  was  considered  as  a  won- 
der of  architecture  ;  the  Syrians  and  the  Phi- 
listines. No  architectural  monument  of  these 
nations  has,  however,  been  transmitted  to  us  ; 
but  we  find  subterraneous  temples  of  the  Hin- 
doos, hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  upon  the 
jslands  Elephanta  and  Salsette,  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Elora.  These  temples  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  stupendous  ever  ex- 
ecuted by  man.  The  circuit  of  the  excava- 
tions is  about  six  miles.  The  temples  are  100 
feet  high,  145  feet  long,  and  62  feet  wide. 
They  contain  thousands  of  figures,  appearing, 
from  the  style  of  their  sculpture,  to  be  of  an- 
cient Hindoo  origin.  Everything  about  them, 
in  fact,  indicates  the  most  persevering  indus- 
try in  executing  one  of  the  boldest  plans. 

Egyptian  Architecture.  —  All  the  ar- 
chitectural remains  of  ancient  times  sink 
into  insignificance  when  compared  with  those 
of  Egypt.  The  obelisks,  pyramids,  temples, 
palaces,  and  other  structures  of  this  coun- 
try, are  on  the  grandest  scale,  and  such  as 
could  only  have  been  perfected  by  a  people 
considerably  advanced  in  refinement.  The 
elementary  features  of  Egyptian  architecture 
were  chiefly  as  follows  :  1.  Their  walls  were 
of  great  thickness,  and  sloping  on  the  outside. 
This  feature  is  supposed  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  mud  walls,  mounds,  and  caverns  of 
their  ancestors.  2.  The  roofs  and  covered 
ways  were  flat,  or  without  pediments,  and  com- 
posed of  blocks  of  stone,  reaching  from  one 
wall  or  column  to  another.  The  principle  of 
the  arch,  although  known  to  the  Egyptians, 
was  seldom  if  ever  employed.  3.  Their  col- 
umns were  numerous,  close,  short,  and  very 
large,  being  sometimes  ten  or  twelve  feet  in 
diameter.  They  were  generally  without  bases, 
and  had  a  great  variety  of  capitals,  from  a 
simple  square  block,  ornamented  with  hiero- 
glyphics, or  faces,  to  an  elaborate  composition 
of  palm  leaves,  not  unlike  the  Corinthian  cap- 
ital. 4.  They  used  a  sort  of  concave  entab- 
lature or  cornice,  composed  of  vertical  flutings 
or  leaves,  and  a  winged  globe  in  the  center. 
5.  Pyramids,  well  known  for  their  prodigious 
size,  and  obelisks,  composed  of  a  single  stone, 
often  exceeding  seventy  feet  in  height,  are 
structures  peculiarly  Egyptian.  6.  Statues 
of  enormous  size,  sphinxes  carved  in  stone, 
and  sculptures  in  outline  of  fabulous  deities 
and  animals,  with  innumerable  hieroglyphics, 
are  the  decorative  objects  which  belong  to  this 
style  of  architecture. 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,   FINE  ARTS. 


507 


The  main  character  of  Egyptian  architecture 
is  that  of  great  strength  with  irregularity  of 
taste.  This  is  observable  in  the  pillars  of 
the  temples,  the  parts  on  which  the  greatest 
share  of  skill  has  been  lavished.  The  temple 
of  Karnak  is  an  example. 

In  these  columns  we  may  notice  that  sturdi- 
ness  is  the  prevailing  characteristic.  The  de- 
sign has  been  the  support  of  a  great  weight, 
and  that  without  any  particular  regard  to 
proportion  or  elegance,  either  as  a  whole  or 
in  parts.  AVhen  assembled  in  rows  or  groups, 
the  columns  had  an  imposing  effect,  because, 
from  their  height  and  thickness,  they  filled  the 
eye  and  induced  the  idea  of  placid  and  easy 
endurance. 

Grecian  Architecture. —  From  Egypt, 
the  architectural  art  spread  to  Greece, 
where  it  passed  from  the  gigantic  to  the 
chaste  and  elegant.  The  period  in  which 
it  flourished  in  the  greatest  perfection  was  that 
of  Pericles,  about  440  before  Christ,  when 
some  of  the  finest  temples  at  Athens  were 
erected.  After  this,  it  declined  writh  other 
arts,  and  was  carried  to  Rome,  where,  however, 
it  never  attained  the  same  high  character. 

Aided  doubtless  by  the  examples  of  Egyp- 
tian art,  the  Greeks  gradually  improved  the 
style  of  architecture,  and  originated  those  dis- 
tinctions which  are  now  called  the  "  Orders  of 
Architecture."  By  this  phrase  is  understood 
certain  modes  of  proportioning  and  decorat- 
ing the  column  and  its  entablature.  They 
were  in  use  during  the  best  days  of  Greece 
and  Rome,  for  a  period  of  six  or  seven  cen- 
turies. They  were  lost  sight  of  in  the  dark 
ages,  and  again  revived  by  the  Italians  at  the 
time  of  the  restoration  of  letters.  The  Greeks 
had  three  orders,  called  the  Doric,  Tonic,  and 
Corinthian .  These  were  adopted  and  modified 
by  the  Romans,  who  also  added  two  others 
called  the  Tuscan  and  Composite. 

The  Doric  Order. —  This  is  the  earliest 
of  the  Greek  orders,  and  we  see  in  it  a  noble 
simplicity  on  which  subsequent  orders  were 
founded.  The  shaft  of  the  Doric  column 
had  no  base,  ornamental  or  otherwise,  but 
rose  directly  from  the  smooth  pavement  or 
stylobate.  It  had  twTenty  flutings,  which  were 
superficial,  and  separated  by  angular  edges. 
The  perpendicular  outline  was  nearly  straight. 
The  Doric  capital  was  plain,  being  formed  of 
a  few  annulets  or  rings,  a  large  echinus,  and  a 
flat  stone  at  top  called  the  abacus.  The  archi- 
trave was  plain  ;  the  frieze  was  intersected  by 
oblong  projections  called  triglyphs,  divided 
into  three  parts  by  vertical  furrows,  and  orna- 
mented beneath  by  guttse,  or  drops.  The 
spaces  between  the  triglyphs  were  called  met- 
opes and  commonly  contained  sculptures.     To 


have  a  just  idea  of  the  Doric,  therefore,  we 
must  go  back  to  the  pure  Grecian  era.  The 
finest  examples  are  those  of  the  temple  of 
Theseus  and  the  Parthenon  at  Athens.  The 
Parthenon,  which  is  now  a  complete  ruin,  has 
formed  a  model  in  modern  architecture.  It 
was  built  by  the  architect  Ictinus,  during  the 
administration  of  Pericles,  and  its  decorative 
sculptures  are  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
under  direction  of  Phidias.  The  platform  or 
stylobate  consists  of  three  steps,  the  upper- 
most of  which  is  227  feet  in  length  and  101 
in  breadth.  The  number  of  columns  is  eight 
in  the  portico  of  each  front,  and  seventeen  in 
each  flank,  besides  which  there  is  an  inner 
row  of  six  columns,  at  each  end  of  the  cell. 

The  Ionic  Order — In  this  order  the  shaft 
begins  to  lengthen,  and  to  possess  a  degree 
of  ornament,  but  still  preserving  a  great 
degree  of  simplicity  of  outline.  In  the  best 
examples,  as  in  the  Parthenon,  the  column 
was  eight  or  nine  diameters  in  height.  It  had 
a  base  often  composed  of  a  torus,  a  scotia,  and 
a  second  torus,  with  intervening  fillets.  This 
is  called  the  Attic  base.  Others  were  used  in 
different  parts  of  Greece.  The  capital  of  this 
order  consisted  of  two  parallel  double  scrolls, 
called  volutes,  occupying  opposite  sides,  and 
supporting  an  abacus,  which  was  nearly  square, 
but  molded  at  its  edges.  These  volutes  have 
been  considered  as  copied  from  ringlets  of  hair, 
or  perhaps  from  the  horns  of  Jupiter  Ammon. 
The  Ionic  entablature  consisted  of  an  archi- 
trave and  frieze,  which  were  continuous  or  un- 
broken, and  a  cornice  of  various  successive 
moldings,  at  the  lower  part  of  which  was  often 
a  row  of  dentils,  or  square  teeth.  The  ex- 
amples at  Athens  of  the  Ionic  order  wrere  the 
temple  of  Erectheus,  and  the  temple  on  the 
Ilissus,  both  now  destroyed.  Modern  imita- 
tions are  common  in  public  edifices. 

The  Corinthian  Order. —  This  was  the  light- 
est and  most  highly  decorated  of  the  Grecian 
orders.  The  base  of  the  column  resembled 
that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was  more  complicated. 
The  shaft  was  often  ten  diameters  in  height, 
and  was  fluted  like  the  Ionic.  The  capital 
was  shaped  like  an  inverted  bell,  and  covered 
on  the  outside  with  two  rows  of  leaves  of 
the  plant  acanthus,  above  which  were  eight 
pairs  of  small  volutes.  Its  abacus  was  molded 
and  concave  on  its  sides,  and  truncated  at  the 
corners,  with  a  flower  on  the  center  of  each 
side.  The  entablature  of  the  Corinthian 
order  resembled  that  of  the  Ionic,  but  was 
more  complicated  and  ornamented,  and  had, 
under  the  cornice,  a  row  of  large  oblong  pro- 
jections, bearing  a  leaf  or  scroll  on  their  un- 
der side,  and  called  modillions.  No  vestiges 
of  this  order  are   now  found   in  the  remains 


508 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


of  Corinth,  and  the  most  legitimate  example 
at  Athens  is  in  the  choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates.  The  Corinthian  order  was  much 
employed  in  the  subsequent  structures  of 
Rome  and  its  colonies.  The  finest  Roman  ex- 
ample of  this  order  is  that  of  three  columns 
in  the  Campo  Vaccina,  at  Rome,  which  are 
commonly  considered  as  the  remains  of  the 
temple  of  .Jupiter  Stator. 

Caryatides. —  The  Greeks  sometimes  de- 
parted so  far  from  the  strict  use  of  the  orders 
as  to  introduce  statues,  in  the  place  of  col- 
umns, to  support  the  entablature.  Statues  of 
slaves,  heroes,  and  gods  appear  to  have  been 
employed  occasionally  for  this  purpose.  The 
principal  specimen  of  this  kind  of  architecture 
which  remains  is  in  a  portico  called  Pandro- 
seum,  attached  to  the  temple  of  Erectheus  at 
Athens,  in  which  statues  of  Carian  females, 
called  Caryatides,  are  substituted  for  columns. 

Roman  Architecture. —  Roman  archi- 
tecture possessed  no  originality  of  any  value  ;  it 
was  founded  on  copies  of  the  Greek  models, 
and  these  were  modified  to  suit  circumstances 
and  tastes.  The  number  of  orders  was  aug- 
mented by  the  addition  of  the  Tuscan  and 
Composite. 

Tuscan  Order. —  This  order  is  not  unlike 
the  Doric,  and  is  chaste  and  elegant.  The 
shaft  had  a  simple  base,  ornamented  with  one 
torus,  and  an  astragal  below  the  capital.  The 
proportions  were  seven  diameters  in  height. 
Its  entablature,  somewhat  like  the  Ionic,  con- 
sisted of  plain  running  surfaces. 

The  Composite  Order. —  Of  this  there  were 
various  kinds,  differing  less  or  more  either 
in  the  ornaments  of  the  column  or  in  the 
entablature.  The  simplest  of  this  hybrid  or- 
der was  that  which  combines  parts  and  pro- 
portions of  the  Doric,  the  Ionic,  and  the 
Tuscan. 

The  temples  of  the  Romans  sometimes  re- 
sembled those  of  the  Greeks,  but  often  differed 
from  them.  The  Pantheon,  which  is  the  most 
perfectly  preserved  temple  of  the  Augustan 
age,  is  a  circular  building,  lighted  only  from 
an  aperture  in  the  dome,  and  having  a  Corin- 
thian portico  in  front.  The  amphitheater 
differed  from  the  theater,  in  being  a  com- 
pletely circular  or  rather  elliptical  building, 
filled  on  all  sides  with  ascending  seats  for 
spectators,  and  leaving  only  the  central  space, 
called  the  arena,  for  the  combatants  and  pub- 
lic shows.  The  Coliseum  is  a  stupendous 
structure  of  this  kind.  The  aqueducts  were 
stone  canals,  supported  on  massive  arcades,  and 
conveying  large  streams  of  water  for  the  supply 
of  cities.  The  triumphal  arches  were  com- 
monly solid  oblong  structures  ornamented  with 
sculptures,  and  open  with  lofty  arches  for  pas- 


sengers below.  The  edifice  of  this  kind  most 
entire  in  the  present  day  is  the  triumphal  arch 
of  Constantine,  at  Rome. 

The  basilica  of  the  Romans  was  a  hall  of 
justice,  used  also  as  an  exchange  or  place  of 
meeting  for  merchants.  It  was  lined  on  the 
inside  with  colonnades  of  two  stories,  or  with 
two  tiers  of  columns,  one  over  the  other.  The 
earliest  Christian  churches  at  Rome  were  some- 
times called  basilica1,  from  their  possessing  an 
internal  colonnade.  The  monumental  pillars 
were  towers  in  the  shape  of  a  column  on  a 
pedestal,  bearing  a  statue  on  the  summit, 
which  was  approached  by  a  spiral  staircase 
within.  Sometimes,  however,  the  column  was 
solid.  The  thernue,  or  baths,  were  vast  struc- 
tures, in  which  multitudes  of  people  could 
bathe  at  once.  They  were  supplied  with  warm 
and  cold  water  and  fitted  up  with  numerous 
rooms  for  purposes  of  exercise  and  recreation. 

Italian  Architecture. —  After  the  dis- 
memberment of  the  Roman  empire,  the  arts 
degenerated  so  far  that  a  custom  became  prev- 
alent of  erecting  new  buildings  with  the  frag- 
ments of  old  ones,  which  were  dilapidated  and 
torn  down  for  the  purpose.  This  gave  rise  to 
an  irregular  style  of  building,  which  contin- 
ued to  be  imitated,  especially  in  Italy,  during 
the  dark  ages.  It  consisted  of  Grecian  and 
Roman  details,  combined  under  new  forms, 
and  piled  up  into  structures  wholly  unlike  the 
unique  originals.  Hence  the  names  Grseco- 
Gothic  and  Romanesque  architecture  have 
been  given  to  it.  After  this  came  the  Italian 
style,  which  was  professedly  a  revival  of  the 
classic  styles  of  Greece  and  Rome,  but  adapted 
to  new  manners  and  wants  ■ — -  a  kind  of  transi- 
tion from  ancient  to  modern  times.  Its  great 
master  was  Andrea  Palladio,  a  Venetian  (born 
1518,  died  1580). 

There  are  considerable  variety  and  beauty  in 
the  foliate  and  other  enrichments  of  an  archi- 
tectural character  in  many  structures  in  Italy, 
but  very  little  ornament  enters  into  the  co- 
lumnar composition  of  Italian  architecture. 
Friezes,  instead  of  being  sculptured,  are  swol- 
len ;  the  shafts  of  columns  are  very  seldom 
fluted,  and  their  capitals  are  generally  poor  in 
the  extreme ;  moldings  are  indeed  sometimes 
carved,  but  not  often  ;  rustic  masonry,  ill- 
formed  festoons,  and  gouty  balustrades  for 
the  most  part  supply  the  place  of  chaste  and 
classic  ornaments. 

The  Chinese  Style. —  The  ancient  Tar- 
tars and  wandering  shepherds  of  Asia  appear 
to  have  lived  from  time  immemorial  in  tents, 
a  kind  of  habitation  adapted  to  their  erratic 
life.  The  Chinese  have  made  the  tent  the 
elementary  feature  of  their  architecture  ;  and 
of  the.'r  style  anyone  may  form  an  idea  by  in- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


509 


specting  the  figures  which  are  depicted  upon 
common  china  ware.  Chinese  roofs  are  con- 
cave on  the  upper  side,  as  if  made  of  canvas 
instead  of  wood.  A  Chinese  portico  is  not  un- 
like the  awnings  spread  over  shop  windows  in 
summer  time.  The  veranda,  sometimes  copied 
in  dwelling  houses,  is  a  structure  of  this  sort. 
The  Chinese  towers  and  pagodas  have  concave 
roofs,  like  awnings,  projecting  over  their  sev- 
eral stories.  Such  structures  are  built  with 
wood  or  brick  ;  stone  is  seldom  employed. 

The  Saracenic,  Moorish,  and  By- 
zantine Styles. —  The  Arabs,  or  Saracens, 
as  they  are  more  usually  called,  and  the  Moors, 
introduced  into  Spain  certain  forms  of  archi- 
tecture which  differed  considerably  from  the 
Grecian  in  appearance,  though  founded  on  its 
remains  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

The  chief  peculiarity  of  this  architecture 
wras  the  form  of  the  arch  ;  the  Saracens  are 
understood  to  have  made  it  of  greater  depth 
than  width,  thus  constituting  more  than  half 
a  circle  or  ellipse,  and  therefore  unphilosoph- 
ical  and  comparatively  insecure ;  while  the 
Moorish  style  was  principally  distinguished 
by  arches  in  the  form  of  a  horseshoe  or  a 
crescent. 

We  associate  with  these  styles  another, 
which  arose  at  Constantinople,  called  the  By- 
zantine, likewise  formed  on  the  remains  of 
Grecian  art,  and  partaking  of  a  slightly  East- 
ern character.  It  became  known  in  Western 
Europe  along  with  the  Lombard,  another  de- 
generate Grecian  style,  about  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries. 

Saxon  Style. —  This  style  commenced  at 
the  establishment  of  Christianity  among  the 
Saxons  in  the  sixth  century,  and  is  called 
Saxon  from  its  having  prevailed  during  the 
reigns  of  the  Saxon  and  Norman  kings  in 
England. 

Gothic  or  Pointed  Style. —  The  term 
Gothic  is  a  modern  error,  which,  being  now 
impossible  to  correct,  is  suffered  to  remain  as 
the  generally  distinguishing  appellation  of  the 
kind  of  architecture  possessing  pointed  arches. 
This  style  originated  in  Germany  about  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  was 
zealously  pursued  as  the  leading  fashion  for 
ecclesiastical  structures  all  over  Europe.  Ex- 
ecuted by  a  class  of  skilled  artisans,  wTho  wan- 
dered from  country  to  country,  the  finest 
specimens  of  the  pointed  style  are  the  cathe- 
drals of  Strasburg,  Cologne,  and  Antwerp, 
and  the  splendid  abbeys  of  Melrose  and  West- 
minster. 

In  this  fanciful  and  picturesque  style  of 
architecture,  the  slender  columns,  always 
united  in  groups,  rise  to  a  lofty  height,  re- 
sembling the   giants  of   the  grove,  in  whose 


dark  shade  the  ancient  Teuton  used  to  build 
his  altar.  In  the  obscure  depth  of  the  dome, 
the  mind  is  awakened  to  solemn  devotional 
feelings. 

When  the  circular  arch  totally  disappeared 
in  1220,  the  early  English  style  commenced. 
The  windows  of  this  style  were  at  first  very 
narrow  in  comparison  with  their  height ;  they 
were  called  lancet  shaped,  and  were  considered 
very  elegant ;  two  or  three  were  frequently 
seen  together,  connected  by  dripstones.  In  a 
short  time,  however,  the  windows  became 
wider,  and  divisions  and  ornaments  were  in- 
troduced. Sometimes  the  same  window  was 
divided  into  several  lights,  and  frequently 
finished  at  the  top  by  a  light  in  the  form  of  a 
lozenge,  circle,  trefoil,  or  other  ornament. 

About  the  year  1300,  the  architecture  be- 
came more  ornamental,  and  from  this  circum- 
stance received  the  name  of  the  decorated 
English  style,  which  is  considered  the  most 
beautiful  for  ecclesiastical  buildings. 

The  transition  from  the  decorated  to  the 
florid,  or  perpendicular,  style  was  very  grad- 
ual. Ornament  after  ornament  was  added,  till 
simplicity  disappeared  beneath  the  extravagant 
additions;  and  about  the  year  1380  the  archi- 
tecture became  so  overloaded  and  profuse  that 
it  obtained  the  title  of  florid,  which  by  some 
persons  is  called  the  perpendicular,  because 
the  lines  of  division  run  in  upright  or  perpen- 
dicular lines  from  top  to  bottom,  which  is  not 
the  case  in  any  other  style. 

Nornian,  Tudor,  and  Modern  Gothic. 
—  Throughout  England  may  be  seen  many 
aged  castles,  some  still  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation,  but  the  greater  number  in  ruins, 
and  occupying,  writh  their  picturesque  remains, 
the  summit  of  a  rising  ground  or  rocky  preci- 
pice. These  castles  are  of  a  style  which  pre- 
vailed during  the  feudal  ages  in  Europe,  and 
was  brought  to  England  by  the  Normans, 
who  erected  them  as  fastnesses,  into  which 
they  might  retire  and  oppress  the  country  at 
pleasure. 

The  feudal  castles  in  England,  like  those  on 
the  Rhine,  consisted  for  the  most  part  of  a 
single  strong  tower,  or  keep,  the  walls  of 
which  were  from  six  to  ten  feet  thick,  and  the 
windows  only  holes  of  one  or  two  feet  square, 
placed  at  irregular  intervals.  The  several 
floors  were  built  on  arches,  and  the  roof  was 
flat  or  battlemented,  with  notches  in  the  para- 
pet, from  which  the  inhabitants  or  retainers  of 
the  chieftain  might  defend  themselves  with 
instruments  of  war.  The  accommodations  for 
living  were  generally  mean,  and  what  would 
now  be  called  uncomfortable.  Around  or  in 
front  of  the  main  tower  there  was  usually  a 
courtyard,  protected  by  a  high  wall,  and  the 


510 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


arched  entrance  was  carefully  secured  by  a 
falling  gate  or  portcullis.  Outside,  there  was 
in  many  cases  a  regular  wet  ditch  or  fosse. 
Castles  of  greater  magnitude  consisted  of  two 
or  more  towers  and  inner  buildings,  including 
a  chapel  and  offices  for  domestics,  and  stables 
for  horses  and  other  animals.  Some  of  them 
were  on  a  great  scale,  and  possessed  considera- 
ble grandeur  of  design. 

As  society  advanced  and  civil  tranquillity 
was  established,  these  military  strengths  grad- 
.  ually  assumed  a  character  of  greater  elegance 
and  less  the  appearance  of  defense.  The  wet 
ditch  disappeared,  and  was  superseded  by  a 
lawn  or  shrubbery.  Instead  of  the  drawbridge 
and  portcullis,  there  was  a  regular  approach 
and  gate  of  ordinary  construction.  The  win- 
dows became  larger,  ajid  were  fitted  with  glass 
frames,  and  stone  was  abandoned  for  the 
greater  comfort  of  wooden  floors.  Instead, 
also,  of  a  bare  region  around,  in  which  no  foe 
might  lurk,  gardens  were  established,  and  a 
long  avenue  of  trees  led  to  the  front  of  the  mod- 
ernized mansion.  In  some  instances  the  pep- 
per-box turrets  at  the  upper  corners  of  the 
building  remained.  Of  the  class  of  structures 
that  sprang  up  in  this  period  of  transition, 
which  we  may  refer  in  England  to  the  fifteenth 
and  sixteenth  and  in  Scotland  to  the  seven- 
teeth  centuries,  there  are  several  highly  inter- 
esting remains.  These  edifices  of  the  nobility 
and  gentry  were  no  longer  called  castles  ;  they 
took  the  name  of  halls,  and  as  such  had 
attained  so  great  a  pitch  of  magnificence  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth,  as  to 
have  subsequently  given  a  name  to  a  new  style 
—  the  Tudor  or  Elizabethan.  Latterly,  and 
with  no  very  distinct  reference  to  any  particular 
period,  this  remarkable  fashion  of  building 
has  been  pretty  generally  called  the  old  Eng- 
lish style  of  architecture.  One  of  the  best 
existing  specimens  of  the  Tudor  era  of  archi- 
tecture is  Haddon  Hall,  in  Derbyshire,  the 
property  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland. 

Modern  British  Architecture. —  Dur- 
ing  the    sixteenth  century,   an  extraordinary 
effort  was  made   in  Italy  to  restore  the  purity 
of  Grecian  architecture ;  and  in  this  attempt 
Palladio  was  followed  by  the  not  less  eminent 
Michael    Angeio    Buonaroti,    who,  at  an  ad- 
vanced age,  in   1546,  undertook  the  continua- ; 
tion  of  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  a  ! 
work  on  which  the  greatest  splendors  of  the 
Italian  style  are  lavished.     Into  England,  this  ' 
revived  taste  for  the  Grecian  was  introduced  j 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  by 
Inigo  Jones,  to  whose  contemptuous  observa-  [ 
tions  on  the  German  or  pointed  style  the  term  j 
Gothic  has  been  traced  ;  and  after  his  decease, 
the  Grecian,  or  more  properly  the  Italianized; 


Grecian,  was  perpetuated  on  a  scale  still  more 
extensive  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Tht 
edifices  erected  by  this  great  master  are  char- 
acterized by  the  finest  taste,  and  his  spires  in 
particular  are  models  of  elegance.  The  great- 
est work  of  Wren  was  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  in 
London,  in  which  the  Italian  is  seen  in  all  its 
glory. 

The  eighteenth  century  was  an  era  of  de- 
cline in  architectural  taste.  Every  other  style 
merged  in  that  of  a  spiritless  and  often  mean 
Graeco-Italian,  out  of  which  the  architects  of 
the  nineteenth  century  have  apparently  had  a 
difficulty  to  emerge.  Latterly,  there  has  been 
a  revival  in  England  of  a  purer  kind  of  Gre- 
cian, and  also,  as  we  have  already  said,  of  old 
English,  and  the  Gothic  or  pointed  style,  and 
in  most  instances  with  good  effect.  It  is  only 
to  be  lamented  that,  by  the  manner  in  which 
state  patronage  is  distributed  in  this  branch  of 
the  fine  arts,  some  of  the  largest  and  most  ex- 
pensive structures  —  Buckingham  Palace  and 
the  National  Gallery,  for  example  —  have  been 
erected  on  the  poorest  conceptions  of  the  Gre- 
cian style,  and  with  a  general  effect  far  from 
pleasing.  In  Paris  there  now  exist  some  mod- 
ern structures  after  correct  Grecian  models, 
which  cannot  be  too  highly  praised  ;  we  would, 
in  particular,  instance  the  building  called  the 
Madeleine,  the  Bourse,  and  the  interior  of  the 
church  of  St.  Genevieve,  which  are  exceed- 
ingly worthy  of  being  visited  by  young  and  as- 
piring architects  from  Britain.  Of  the  superb 
buildings  springing  up  on  all  sides  of  this  vast 
continent,  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak.  WThile 
those  already  in  existence,  notably  in  Wash- 
ington, are  admirable  copies  of  the  great  Greek 
and  Roman  periods,  the  so-called  Queen  Anne 
is  now  the  especial  craze. 

For  palatial  and  other  secular  edifices  in 
England,  the  Renaissance  for  the  most  part 
was  in  favor  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  century. 
The  attempt  of  Stuart  and  others  in  favor  of 
Greek  art  had  but  little  influence  upon  archi- 
tecture, while  the  effort  of  Scott  and  others,  es- 
pecially Ruskin,  to  bias  the  public  mind  in  the 
direction  of  the  Gothic  has  succeeded  far  beyond 
all  efforts  of  the  same  kind  in  other  countries. 
In  churches  and  educational  institutions,  it 
found  especial  favor,  and,  in  1836,  it  was  de- 
cided that  the  legislative  halls  of  the  Empire 
should  be  rebuilt  in  this  style,  according  to  the 
plans  of  Sir  Charles  Barry.  These  contem- 
plated a  Gothic,  rich  but  not  ornate,  with 
square  supporting  towers  at  certain  points, 
flanked,  like  the  walls,  with  massive  buttresses. 
The  New  Palace  of  Westminster,  as  it  is  called, 
covers  eight  acres  and  contains  upwards  of  five 
hundred  apartments  clustered  around  eleven 
open  quadrangles  or  courts.      The  edifice  is  of 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


511 


gray  limestone,  and  is  not  only  one  of  the 
noblest  structures  of  this  century,  but  a  most 
successful  attempt  to  secularize  this  truly 
northern  style  of  architecture. 

Architecture  in  the  United  States. 
—  During  the  Colonial  period  of  the  United 
States  there  was  neither  time  nor  opportunity 
for  the  practice  of  the  fine  arts.  When  the 
Revolution  was  over,  however,  Congress  in 
spite  of  heavy  debt  proceeded  to  lay  out  a  Na- 
tional Capital  and  erect  national  buildings. 
These  latter  were  the  first  to  receive  serious 
architectural  treatment,  and  until  recently 
were,  together  with  the  state  capitols,  in  what 
may  be  called  a  classic  style,  because  they  had 
porticoes  with  columns  and  other  features  of 
the  ancient  orders. 

The  Capitol  at  Washington,  the  inception  of 
which  belongs  to  the  last  century,  is  unques- 
tionably the  grandest  pile  in  that  city,  and 
probably  the  most  monumental  of  United 
States  buildings.  Notwithstanding  its  con- 
ventionally classic  style  it  is  an  edifice  of 
which  a  great  nation  may  be  proud,  majestic 
both  within  and  without,  and  gaining  in  effect 
from  its  position  on  a  commanding  site.  The 
corner  stone  of  the  Capitol  was  laid  in  1793. 
It  is  of  the  Renaissance,  and  consists  of  two 
stories  rising  from  a  lofty  rustic  basement. 
The  ground  plan  is  a  central  pavilion  with 
north  and  south  wings.  The  principal  fagade 
is  on  the  east  side,  where  a  portico  of  Corin- 
thian columns  thirty  feet  in  height  fronts 
the  pavilion,  while  pilasters  of  the  same  order 
»re  continued  along  the  wings.  The  eight 
middle  columns  project  so  as  to  admit  of  an- 
other inner  row,  and  these  sixteen  columns 
support  a  noble  pediment  adorned  with  a  bas- 
relief.  The  subject  is  allegorical,  Liberty  at- 
tended by  Hope  and  Justice,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  designed  by  John  Quincy  Adams. 
The  approach  to  this  imposing  portico  is  by  a 
flight  of  broad  marble  steps.  The  central 
portion  of  the  edifice  is,  for  the  most  part,  oc- 
cupied by  a  circular  apartment,  measuring 
about  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  height, 
and  known  as  the  Rotunda.  It  is  ornamented 
with  paintings  and  bas-reliefs  illustrative  of 
our  national  history.  The  paintings  are  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  gilded  pilasters, 
which  rise  to  the  dome  forming  the  roof. 
The  dome  compares  well  with  those  that  are 
famous  in  the  world,  and,  taken  as  a  whole, 
the  Capitol  is  more  stately  than  the  Houses  of 
Parliament,  and  is  open  to  as  little  criticism 
as  the  buildings  of  its  class  in  other  lands. 

Treasury   and    Patent    Office.  —  Among  the 
older  government  buildings  may  be  cited  the 
United  States  Treasury,  a  structure  with  four  j 
fronts.     The  building  commonly  known  as  the  . 


Patent  Office,  which  has  .recently  been  sub- 
jected to  considerable  alteration,  is  also  a  four 
fronted  building  with  a  portico  in  the  center  of 
each  of  its  sides,  the  principal  consisting  of 
two  rows  of  eight  columns.  As  Grecian 
structures  these  monumental  piles  are  not  un- 
worthy, but  the  incongruity  between  their  ap- 
pearance and  their  purpose  is  manifest. 

Pension  Bureau —  The  newer  government 
structures  at  Washington  have  followed  neither 
the  Grecian  nor  the  vernacular  Palladian. 
The  Pension  Bureau  is  a  large  and  severely 
symmetrical  structure  in  the  style  of  Bramante, 
having  three  stories  of  rectangular  windows, 
a  bold  cornice  and  an  attic  in  the  center. 
The  decorations  are  of  terra  cotta. 

The  Congressional  Library  is  of  the  Italian 
Renaissance  order  of  architecture  ;  it  has  three 
stories  with  a  dome ;  and  is  in  area  470  by 
I  340  feet,  covering  nearly  three  and  one  half 
j  acres  of  ground,  with  four  inner  courts.  The 
building  is  surmounted  on  all  sides  by  a  carved 
I  balustrade.  The  dome  is  finished  in  black 
copper  with  panels  gilded  with  a  thick  coating 
of  gold  leaf.  The  cresting  of  the  dome  above 
the  lantern  terminates  in  a  gilded  fiuial  rep- 
resenting the  torch  of  Science  ever  burning. 
The  general  plan  of  the  structure  consists  of  a 
great  central  rotunda,  from  which  radiate 
book  stacks  and  which  is  inclosed  in  a  paral- 
lelogram of  galleries  and  pavilions.  The 
building  material  employed  for  the  exterior 
walls  is  white  granite  from  New  Hampshire, 
and  for  the  inner  courts  Maryland  granite  and 
white  enameled  bricks.  The  interior  is  rich 
in  choice  marbles  from  Europe,  Africa,  and 
America.  The  entrance  to  the  building  is  by 
massive  stairways  of  the  central  pavilion,  and 
through  bronze  doors  to  the  central  stair  hall. 
This  magnificent  apartment  is  pronounced  to 
be  unsurpassed  by  any  other  entrance  hall  in 
the  world.  It  is  lined  throughout  with  fine 
Italian  marble  highly  polished.  On  the  sides 
rise  lofty  rounded  columns,  with  elaborate 
carved  capitals  of  Corinthian  design  ;  while 
the  arches  are  adorned  with  marble  rosettes, 
palm  leaves,  and  foliated  designs  of  exquisite 
finish  and  delicacy.  The  newel  posts  of  the 
stairway  are  enriched  by  beautiful  festoons  of 
leaves  and  flowers,  and  are  surmounted  by 
two  bronze  lamp  bearers.  The  staircases  are 
ornamented  with  miniature  marble  figures  by 
Martiny,  carved  in  relief,  representing  in  em- 
blematic sculpture  the  various  arts  and  sciences. 
This  beautiful  and  spacious  entrance  hall  has 
been  described  as  a  "  vision  in  polished  stone," 
and  taken  in  connection  with  the  grand  cor- 
ridors and  rich  decorations  may  be  pronounced 
the  finest  marble  interior  in  America. 

The  Bureau  of  Printing  and  Engraving  is  in 


ol2 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


red  and  brown  brick,  round  arched,  and  with- 
out the  orders,  and  may,  perhaps,  be  called 
Romanesque.  Other  specimens  of  Washing- 
ton architecture  worthy  of  mention  are  the 
new  Corcoran  Art  Gallery,  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  and  the  War,  State,  and  Navy 
building. 

Besides  the  buildings  of  the  Greek  style 
erected  in  Washington,  others,  not  only  by  the 
government  but  by  banking  corporations, 
commercial  houses,  etc.,  have  been  erected  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  The  two  best  of 
these  are  probably  the  Sub-Treasury  building 
at  New  York  and  Girard  College  at  Philadel- 
phia.. Both  are  of  white  marble,  and  the  latter 
modeled,  as  to  the  exterior,  after  the  Parthe- 
non,—  that  is  so  far  as  possible,  while  employ- 
ing a  different  order  of  architecture.  It  is 
considered  the  Greek  building  par  excellence 
of  America,  as  the  Madeleine  is  of  France, 
and  is  a  Corinthian  peristyle  resting  upon  a 
Grecian  stylobate.  Its  monolithic  colonnade  is 
quite  imposing,  but  as  a  whole  it  fails  to  excite 
in  the  beholder  much  of  that  emotion  which  is 
awakened  by  the  Grecian  edifice.  Cold  and 
unimpressive,  it  seems  rather  like  some  rare 
exotic  —  a  thing  to  be  gazed  and  wondered  at 
rather  than  enjoyed.  This  is  no  doubt  attrib- 
utable in  part  to  its  position,  for  while  the 
Greek  temple  always  crowned  some  lofty 
height,  or  some  jutting  spur,  this  edifice  is 
built  in  the  middle  of  a  broad,  flat  plain,  with- 
out any  relief  from  the  blue  sky  or  jagged 
mountain  side. 

Several  of  the  state  capitols  illustrate  pleas- 
ing styles  of  architecture.  The  state  house  at 
Newport  is  a  perfectly  symmetrical  brick  and 
stone  structure,  commenced  in  173?.  It  has 
rectangular  windows  with  quoins,  a  balcony  over 
the  entrance,  above  the  balcony  a  broken  pedi- 
ment, and  over  this  a  truncated  gable.  Over 
all  rises  a  low  octagonal  turret.  The  old  state 
house  at  Boston  is  of  the  same  period ;  it  is  a 
very  plain  structure,  with  a  wide  entrance  and 
curious  end  gables.  Independence  Hall  and 
the  White  House  belong  to  the  same  period. 

The  State  Capitol  at  Albany,  as  originally  de- 
signed, was  an  immense  rectangular  Renais- 
sance block,  in  which  an  order  was  given  to 
each  story,  much  after  the  style  practiced  at 
Venice  by  Sansovino  and  San  Micheli,  and  was 
crowned  by  a  domical  tower  of  grand  propor- 
tions. The  design  was  improved  by  Richard- 
son, and  the  upper  portions  of  the  edifice  were 
completed  according  to  it.  There  is  great 
beauty  in  the  newer  portion,  but  it  cannot  be 
said  that  there  is  congruity.  The  towers  are  Ro- 
manesque, while  the  cornice  of  the  order  below 
is  changed  to  Gothic.  Parts  of  the  interior,  as 
the  Hall  of  Assembly,  the  work  of  Eidlitz,  are 


Gothic  of  the  most  beautiful  kind  —  vaulted 
medieval  halls  enshrined  in  a  classical  exterior. 

The  Capitol  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  al- 
though it  has  a  dome  like  many  other  capitols, 
is  far  from  being  an  ordinary  structure,  and 
may  be  reckoned  one  of  the  finest  public  build- 
ings in  the  United  States.  The  style  is  Gothic, 
and  the  regular  fagade  is  broken  into  a  center, 
curtains,  and  wings.  The  center  has  two  low 
towers  in  every  way  subordinate  to  the  tall 
tambour  and  dome  which  rise  behind  them. 
This  cupola  crown  tower  is  decidedly  Gothic 
in  the  sentiment  of  its  details. 

The  City  Hall,  Philadelphia,  is  among  the 
largest  of  modern  buildings,  slightly  exceeding 
the  Capitol  at  Washington  in  area.  Seldom 
has  a  better  opportunity  been  afforded  for  ar- 
chitectonic display  than  is  given  by  its  posi- 
tion at  the  junction  of  two  of  the  principal 
streets  of  the  city.  It  occupies  what  was  once 
Penn  Square  and  thus  stands  free  all  around. 
This  immense  structure  is  conceived  in  the 
style  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris  with  central  and 
angle  pavilions,  the  whole  surmounted  by 
a  mansard  roof  of  great  height.  Each  front 
is  a  symmetrical  whole,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  the  slight  difference  in  length,  the  fronts 
are  alike.  The  central  feature  is  a  gigantic 
tower  which  rises  upward  of  537  feet  above 
the  pavement.  This  tower  was  designed  to  be 
the  loftiest  in  the  world,  but  in  this  respect 
has  already  been  surpassed  by  the  Washing- 
ton Monument  at  the  National  Capital.  The 
magnificence  of  this  edifice  consists  in  its  im- 
posing dimensions,  the  rich  array  of  marble 
and  polished  granite,  and  the  beautiful  sculp- 
ture which  adorns  its  facades  and  entrance 
halls. 

In  our  largest  cities  we  find  many  church 
edifices  both  completed  and  in  process  of 
erection  which  are  worthy  of  attention  for  their 
architecture  as  well  as  the  solidity  and  beauty 
of  material  employed.  Most  of  these  are  of 
the  Gothic  style. 

Trinity  Church  in  New  York,  completed  in 
1846,  was  the  first  stone  edifice  after  the  Gothic, 
in  America.  It  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the 
early  English,  and  the  architect  deserves  the 
gratitude  of  all  lovers  of  the  beautiful,  for  giv- 
ing his  countrymen  so  elegant  and  chaste  a 
model. 

Grace  Church  in  the  same  city,  built  of  gran- 
ite, is  of  a  more  ornate  style  and  presents 
nearly  all  the  peculiar  features  of  the  Gothic, 
although  in  small  dimensions. 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  fronting  on  Central 
Park,  affords  us  the  best  specimen  of  the  Gothic 
as  it  prevailed  in  Europe  in  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  style  is  commonly  known  as  the  Dec- 
orated or  Geometric  Gothic.     Trinity  Church, 


RELIGION,   EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


513 


Boston,  a  Romanesque  or  Byzantine  structure, 
is  the  work  of  Richardson.  The  original  design 
was  improved  in  1886,  and,  as  now  completed, 
furnishes  perhaps  the  noblest  church  edifice  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Cathedral  of  St.  John  tin-  Divine,  New 
York-,  which  gives  promise  of  great  architec- 
tural beauty,  is  in  the  modified  Romanesque 
style  of  architecture. 

The  Temple  Emmanuel  in  New  York  city  has 
a  most  ornate  and  symmetrical  exterior,  with 
two  towers  and  an  arcade  in  the  center,  and 
although  the  effect  is  pretty  and  fanciful  rather 
than  grand,  it  ranks  among  the  finest  of  the 
religious  edifices  of  that  city.  The  Rodef 
Shalom  synagogue,  Philadelphia,  has  an  ef- 
fective facade,  and  is  Gothic  in  sentiment 
notwithstanding  its  Moorish  forms.  The  Syn- 
agogue Emmanuel  in  San  Francisco  is  pecul- 
iar among  synagogues  from  the  fact  that  the 
windows  are  filled  with  Gothic  tracery  and  its 
walls  and  towers  set  with  Gothicized  but- 
tresses. 

Mi  mortal  Hall  of  Harvard  University  is  built 
of  brick  banded  in  the  Lombard  style  with 
buff  tiles  bearing  geometric  designs  in  blue. 
The  central  tower  rises  above  the  Memorial 
Hall  while  smaller  towers,  all  of  the  English 
Gothic,  flank  its  walls. 

The  Art  Museum  at  Cincinnati,  in  the  Ro- 
manesque style,  has  two  ranges  of  rectangular 
twin  windows,  and  the  plain  walls  of  the  up- 
permost story  are  unrelieved  save  by  blind 
arches.  The  central  hall  is  the  most  striking 
feature  of  the  interior.  The  walls  are  of  lo- 
cal blue  limestone,  with  cornices  and  arches 
of  Missouri  granite ;  the  roof  is  of  red  Akron 
pantiles.  The  eastern  wing  has  a  fine  polyg- 
onal apse  with  nine  pairs  of  windows  and  a 
tall  tower  on  the  line  of  the  entrance  front. 

The  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  at  Boston,  com- 
menced in  1871,  is  one  of  the  first  buildings  in 
the  United  States  upon  which  terracotta — made 
in  England  from  the  architect's  drawing  —  has 
been  extensively  used.  This  structure  may 
be  called  Italian  Gothic ;  upon  the  ground 
floor  it  has  arched  openings  in  groups  sepa- 
rated by  buttresses,  while  above  these  large 
panels,  some  of  them  filled  with  sculptures, 
mask  the  picture  gallery.  The  entrance  is 
through  a  pair  of  arches. 

The  Masonic  Temple  of  Philadelphia  is  a  very 
imposing  and  massive  building.  It  dominated 
Penn  Square  until  the  City  Hall  arose  be- 
side it.  It  is  built  of  gray  granite,  and  the 
exterior  is  round  arched  and  may  be  called 
Romanesque,  but  does  not  strictly  conform  to 
the  Norman  phase  of  that  style. 

Harvard  College,  time  honored  in  this 
country,  though  it  would  be  young  in  the  old 


world,  marks  in  its  various  structures  all  the 
phases  through  which  American  architecture 
has  passed.  Its  finest  buildings  are  un- 
doubtedly its  most  modern  ones.  These  are 
the  Memorial  Hall,  the  Gymnasium,  the  Law 
School  and  Seaver  Hall,  the  last  three  of  which 
are  the  work  of  Richardson. 

The  University  of  Pennsylvania  comprises  a 
group  of  Gothic  structures  built  of  green  ser- 
pentine, with  dressings  of  Ohio  stone.  There 
is  little  ornament,  but  the  grouping  is  effective 
and  the  general  effect  satisfactory.  Recent 
buildings  have  been  added  of  a  very  pleasing 
style  and  admirably  express  their  purpose. 

Stone  Hall,  Wellesley  College,  is  a  fine  struc- 
ture and  what  may  be  called  Free  Classic,  but 
in  its  stepped  gables  and  in  the  lines  of  its  cen- 
tral pavilion  approaches  Flemish  Renaissance. 
The  entrance  is  well  accentuated,  contrasting 
admirably  with  the  curtain-walls  which  inter- 
vene between  it  and  %he  tower-like  blocks 
which  mark  the  intersection  of  the  center  with 
its  wings. 

The  Art  School  at  Yale  is  a  species  of  Gothic, 
but  is  of  heavy  outline,  and  its  tower  is  without 
sufficient  prominence.  Most  of  the  newer  Yale 
buildings  are  in  this  style,  including  the  Pea- 
body  Museum,  which  is  perhaps  the  best. 

Princeton  has  a  good  Gothic  dormitory,  and 
the  Lecture  Hall  of  the  theological  seminary, 
with  its  groups  of  cusped  windows,  is  effective. 
The  buildings  of  the  Chicago  University  and 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University  exhibit 
unique  and  pleasing  styles. 

Some  of  the  best  specimens  of  architecture 
in  America,  in  addition  to  those  already  no- 
ticed, are  the  City  Hall  of  San  Francisco,  Alle- 
gheny Court  House  of  Pittsburg,  the  Boston 
Public  Library,  Ridgway  Library  of  Philadel- 
phia, the  Libraries  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  and 
Woburn,  Massachusetts,  the  Metropolitan 
Opera  House,  New  York  city,  the  Casino  of 
the  same  city,  Memorial  Hall  in  Fairmount 
Park,  Ponce  de  Leon  Hotel  at  St.  Augustine, 
Auditorium  Theater,  Chicago,  the  Century 
and  Metropolitan  Clubs,  New  York,  the  Carne- 
gie Library  at  Pittsburg,  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad  Station  at  Philadelphia,  South  Termi- 
nal Station,  Boston,  and  the  National  Academy 
of  Design,  New  York  city  ;  though  many  more 
might  be  mentioned  of  varying  degrees  of  merit. 

Alexandrian  Codex  is  an  important 
manuscript  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  written  in 
Greek.  It  is  written  on  parchment,  in  finely- 
formed  uncial  letters,  and  is  without  accents, 
marks  of  aspiration,  or  spaces  between  the 
words.  Its  probable  date  is  the  latter  half  of 
the  sixth  century.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  gaps,  it  contains  the  whole  Bible  in 
Greek,    along   with   the    Epistles  of  Clemens 


514 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Romanus.  This  celebrated  manuscript,  which 
is  now  in  the  British  Museum,  belonged,  as 
early  as  1098,  to  the  library  of  the  Patriarch 
of  Alexandria.  In  1628  it  was  sent  as  a 
present  to  Charles  I.  of  England,  by  Cyrillus 
Lucaris,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  de- 
clared that  he  got  it  from  Egypt ;  and  that  it 
was  written  there  appears  from  internal  and 
external  evidence. 

Alexandrian  Library  contained  in  the 
time  of  Cleopatra  about  700,000  volumes  or 
rolls,  and  was  founded  at  the  suggestion  of 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  a  fugitive  from  Athens 
in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Soter.  The  greater 
portion  of  this  remarkable  collection  was  de- 
stroyed during  the  Alexandrine  war.  This 
loss,  however,  was  repaired  by  Mark  Antony, 
who  presented  to  Cleopatra  the  library  taken 
at  the  siege  of  Pergamos.  From  this  time 
until  about  the  year  391  A.  D.,  the  library  in- 
creased in  size  and  reputation,  and  contained 
treasures  of  learning  in  all  known  tongues. 
At  the  burning  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Ser- 
apis  by  the  Christians  under  Theodosius  the 
Great,  a*bout  that  year  a  portion  of  the  library 
was  destroyed,  and  when  the  Arabs,  under 
Caliph  Omar,  took  the  city  in  640  A.  D.,  the 
destruction  of  the  remainder  was  completed. 

Egyptian  Labyrinth  was  situated  at 
Crocodilopolis,  near  Lake  Mceris,  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  present  pyramid  of  Biakhmu.  It 
was  built  of  polished  stone,  with  many  cham- 
bers and  passages,  said  to  be  vaulted,  having 
a  peristyle  court  with  3,000  chambers,  half  of 
which  were  under  the  earth  and  the  others 
above  ground,  which  formed  another  story. 
The  upper  chambers  were  decorated  with  re- 
liefs;  the  lower  were  plain,  and  contained, 
according  to  tradition,  the  bodies  of  the  twelve 
founders  of  the  building  and  the  mummies  of 
the  sacred  crocodiles,  conferring  on  the  build- 
ing the  character  of  a  mausoleum,  probably 
conjoined  with  a  temple  —  that  of  Sebak,  the 
crocodile  god.  The  Labyrinth  stood  in  the 
midst  of  a  great  square.  Part  was  constructed 
of  Parian  marble  and  of  Syenitic  granite ;  it 
had  a  staircase  of  ninety  steps,  and  columns  of 
porphyry,  and  the  opening  of  the  doors  echoed 
like  the  reverberation  of  thunder.  There  is 
great  difference  of  opinion  among  authors  as 
to  the  name  of  the  king  under  whom  this 
remarkable  work  was  constructed  and  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  was  intended,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  it  was  not  built  in  a  single  reign. 
According  to  some  ancient  authorities  it  was 
supposed  to  have  been  inhabited  by  the  Dodic- 
archy,  or  twelve  kings,  who  conjointly  ruled 
Egypt  before  Psammetichus  I.  ;  while  others 
claim  it  to  have  been  the  place  of  assembly  of 
the  governors  of  nomes,  or  districts  —  twelve 


in  number,  according  to  Herodotus  ;  sixteen, 
according  to  Pliny  ;  and  twenty-seven,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo.  The  Labyrinth  was  extant  in 
the  time  of  Pliny,  A.  U.  78,  and  was  then, 
according  to  that  author,  3,600  years  old. 
The  ruins  of  the  foundations  or  lower  cham- 
bers have  been  found  at  the  modern  village  of 
Howara,  in  Fayoom.  The  next  labyrinth  in 
renown  to  the  Egyptian  was  the  Labyrinth  of 
Crete,  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Dsedalus 
for  the  Cretan  monarch,  Minos,  in  which  the 
Minotaur  was  confined  by  his  orders.  The 
third  of  the  labyrinths  of  antiquity  was  the 
Samian,  constructed  by  Theodorus  and  artists 
of  his  school,  in  the  age  of  Polycrates,  540  B. 
C.f  supposed  to  be  a  work  of  nature  embel- 
lished by  art,  having  150  columns  erected  by 
a  clever  mechanical  contrivance.  Other  infe- 
rior labyrinths  existed  at  Nauplia,at  Sipontum 
in  Italy;  at  Val  dTspica  in  Sicily,  and  else- 
where. 

Councils  of  Nice. —  The  first  Council  of 
Nice  was  held  in  the  Emperor  Constantine 's 
palace,  June  19,  A.  D.  325,  and  was  attended 
by  318  bishops  of  the  Catholic  Church,  and 
resulted  in  the  adoption  of  the  Nicene  Creed, 
expounding  the  faith  of  the  Church.  August 
17,  A.  D.,  786,  the  second  Council  of  Nice  was 
convened  by  order  of  the  Empress  Irene  and 
her  son  Constantine,  at  which  there  were  376 
bishops  present.  This  council  was  held  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  the  use  of  images  in 
the  churches,  which  had  been  interdicted  by  the 
Emperor  Leo  and  his  son  Constantine,  but  was 
dissolved  owing  to  the  tumults  raised  by  the 
party  in  opposition.  It  was  reconvened  Sep- 
tember 24,  A.  D.  787,  when  the  use  of  images 
was  restored. 

Islam,  or,  as  it  is  called,  Eslam,  is  the 
proper  name  of  the  Mohammedan  religion. 
The  word  is  Arabic,  and  means  "  Submission 
to  God,"  or,  according  to  some  authorities, 
"  Salvation."  Islam,  it  is  held,  was  once  the 
religion  of  all  men  ;  and  every  child,  it  is  be- 
lieved, is  born  in  Islam,  or  the  true  faith,  and 
would  continue  in  it  till  the  end  were  it  not  for 
the  wickedness  of  its  parents,  "  who  misguide 
it  early  and  lead  it  astray  toMagism,  Judaism, 
or  Christianity."  Whether  wickedness  and 
idolatry  came  into  the  world  after  the  murder 
of  Abel,  or  at  the  time  of  Noah,  or  only  after 
Araru  Ibn  Lohai,  one  of  the  first  and  greatest 
idolaters  of  Arabia,  are  moot-points  among 
Moslem  theologians. 

Albigenses. —  About  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  various  sects  of  heretics 
abounded  in  the  south  of  France,  and  to  these 
was  applied  the  name  Albigenses.  The  name 
arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  district 
of  Albigeois  in  Languedoc  —  now  in  the  de- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


515 


partment  of  Tarn,  of  which  Albi  is  the  capi- 
tal—  was  the  first  point  against  which  the 
crusade  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  1209,  was 
directed.  The  immediate  pretense  of  the  cru- 
sade was  the  murder  of  the  papal  legate  and 
inquisitor,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  who  had  been 
commissioned  to  extirpate  heresy  in  the  domin- 
ions of  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse ;  but 
its  real  object  was  to  deprive  the  count  of  his 
lands,  as  he  had  become  an  object  of  hatred 
from  his  toleration  of  the  heretics.  It  was  in 
vain  that  he  had  submitted  to  the  most  humil- 
iating penance  and  flagellation  from  the  hands 
of  the  legate,  Milo,  and  had  purchased  the 
papal  absolution  by  great  sacrifices.  The  ex- 
pedition took  by  storm  Beziers,  the  capital  of 
Raymond's  nephew  Roger,  and  massacred 
20,000  of  the  inhabitants,  Catholics  as  well  as 
heretics.  Simon,  Count  of  Montfort,  who  con- 
ducted the  crusade  under  the  legates,  proceeded 
in  the  same  relentless  way  with  other  places  in 
the  territories  of  Raymond  and  his  allies.  The 
conquered  lands  were  given  to  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort, and  by  him  were  eventually  ceded  to 
Louis  VIII.  Raymond  VI.  and  Raymond  VII. 
disputed  the  possession  of  the  land  by  the 
king,  and  after  thousands  had  perished  on  both 
sides,  a  peace  was  concluded  in  1229,  at  which 
Raymond  VII.  purchased  relief  from  the  ban  of 
the  church  by  immense  sums  of  money,  gave  up 
Narbonne  and  several  lordships  to  Louis  IX.. 
and  had  to  make  his  son-in-law,  the  brother  of 
Louis,  heir  of  his  other  possessions.  The  her- 
etics were  handed  over  to  the  proselyting  zeal 
of  the  Order  of  Dominicans  and  the  bloody 
tribunals  of  the  Inquisition,  and  both  used 
their  utmost  power  to  bring  the  recusant  Albi- 
genses  to  the  stake.  From  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  name  of  the  Albigenses 
gradually  disappears. 

Juggernaut. —  The  temple  in  the  town  of 
Juggernaut,  one  of  the  chief  places  of  pilgrimage 
in  India,  contains  an  idol  of  the  Hindoo  god, 
called  Jaggemaut  or  Juggernaut,  a  corruption 
of  the  Sanskrit  word  Jagannatha,  i.e.,  lord  of  the 
world.  The  legend  regarding  the  building  of  the 
town,  the  erection  of  the  temple,  and  the  forma- 
tion of  the  idol  is  as  follows  :  A  king,  desirous 
of  founding  a  city,  sent  a  learned  Brahmin  to 
pitch  upon  a  proper  spot.  The  Brahmin, 
after  a  long  search,  arrived  upon  the  banks  of 
the  sea,  and  there  saw  a  crow  diving  into  the 
water,  and,  having  washed  its  body,  making 
obeisance  to  the  sea.  Understanding  the  lan- 
guage of  birds,  he  learned  from  the  crow  that 
if  he  remained  there  a  short  time  he  would 
comprehend  the  wonders  of  this  land.  The 
king,  apprised  of  this  occurrence,  built  on  the 
spot  where  the  crow  had  appeared  a  large  city 
and  a  place  of  worship.     The  Rajah  one  night 


heard  in  a  dream  a  voice  saying  :  ' '  On  a  cer- 
tain day  cast  thine  eyes  on  the  seashore,  when 
there  will  arise  out  of  the  water  a  piece  of 
wood  52  inches  long  and  l£  cubits  broad  ;  this 
is  the  true  form  of  the  Deity ;  take  it  up  and 
keep  it  hidden  in  thine  house  seven  days ;  and 
in  whatever  shape  it  shall  then  appear,  place  it 
in  the  temple  and  worship  it."  It  happened 
just  as  the  Rajah  had  dreamed,  and  the  image, 
called  by  him  Jagannatha,  became  the  object 
of  worship  of  all  ranks  of  people,  and  per- 
formed many  miracles.  The  car-festival, 
when  Jagannatha  is  dragged  in  his  car  on  a 
yearly  visit  to  his  country  quarters,  is  currently 
believed  to  be  the  occasion  of  numerous  cases 
of  self-immolation,  the  frantic  devotees  com- 
mitting suicide  by  throwing  themselves  before 
the  wheels  of  the  heavy  car.  This  has  been 
proved,  however,  upon  good  authority,  to  be 
untrue. 

Children's  Crusade. —  In  the  summer  of 
1212  two  immense  armies  of  children  were 
gathered  at  Cologne,  in  Germany,  and  at  Ven- 
dome,  in  France,  summoned  thither  by  two 
boy  prophets,  Stephen  of  Cloys  (France)  and 
Nicholas  of  Cologne  (Germany),  both  about 
twelve  years  of  age.  These  boy  prophets  be- 
lieved or  pretended  to  believe,  that  they  were  in- 
spired by  heaven,  and  the  crusade  which  they 
preached  was  not  a  crusade  of  blood  against 
the  Saracens,  but  a  crusade  of  prayer.  The 
children  were  to  march  to  the  sea,  which  would 
open,  as  it  once  did  for  the  Israelites,  to  per- 
mit them  to  pass  over  into  Palestine  dry  shod. 
There  they  were  to  convert  the  leaders  of  Is- 
lam and  baptize  the  heathen.  The  excite- 
ment aroused  by  this  preaching  spread  so 
among  the  children  that  within  short  intervals 
of  each  other  two  unarmed  hosts  of  German 
children,  drawn  from  all  classes,  and  nearly 
all  under  twelve  years  of  age,  left  Cologne  to 
march  over  the  sea  to  the  Holy  Land.  The 
first  was  led  by  the  famous  Nicholas,  and  the 
second  by  a  boy  whose  name  is  not  known. 
,  Their  combined  numbers  are  believed  to  have 
!  been  40,000.  At  about  the  same  time  an  army 
of  French  children  to  the  number  of  about 
130,000  left  Vendome  under  Stephen.  The 
I  mortality  among  the  German  children  in  their 
I  passage  across  the  Alps  was  frightful.  Nearly 
30,000  succumbed  to  exposure,  fatigue,  and 
hunger.  Of  the  French  army,  10,000  died 
before  it  reached  Marseilles.  The  army  under 
Nicholas  was  broken  up  at  Genoa  when  it  was 
found  that  the  sea  did  not  open  to  let  them 
pass,  and  some  of  the  children  were  returned 
to  their  homes  by  the  humane  Genoese  ;  but 
others  pressed  on  to  Pisa  and  obtained  pas- 
sage by  ship  to  the  Holy  Land.  A  part  of 
the  children  under  the  unknown  leader  were 


516 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


shipped  to  Palestine  from  Brindisi,  and  about 
5,000  of  the  French  children  were  shipped  from 
Marseilles,  and  all  who  survived  the  voyages 
were  sold  as  slaves  to  the  Turks.  Of  the  70,- 
000  children  who  joined  this  crusade,  it  is 
probable  that  less  than  20,000  were  ever  heard 
of  afterward  by  their  parents. 

Latter-Day  Saints,  or  Mormons,  were 
founded  by  Joseph  Smith,  the  son  of  a  Ver- 
mont farmer,  who  claimed  to  have  received 
from  the  hands  of  an  angel  of  the  Lord  certain 
plates,  on  which  were  engraved  God's  revela- 
tion to  the  New  World.  This  was  the  famous 
Book  of  Mormon,  believed  by  the  followers  of 
Smith  to  be  of  equal  authority  with  the  Jewish 
and  Christian  scriptures,  and  to  form  an  indis- 
pensable supplement  to  them .  It  was  published 
in  1830,  with  the  names  of  Oliver  Cowdery, 
Martin  Harris,  and  David  Whitmer  appended 
to  a  statement  that  an  angel  of  God  had  come 
down  from  heaven  and  shown  them  the  original 
plates.  Eight  other  witnesses  testified  that 
they  had  been  shown  the  plates  by  Smith. 
These,  however,  are  the  only  persons  who 
have  been  so  privileged.  The  first  Mormon 
settlement  was  at  Manchester,  N.  Y.,  in  1830, 
but  the  following  year  Smith  and  his  followers 
moved  to  Kiitland,  Ohio.  Their  missionaries 
were  full  of  zeal,  converts  were  made  in  great 
numbers,  and  churches  were  established  in 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and 
Missouri .  Toward  the  close  of  1838,  the  whole 
body  of  Saints,  about  15,000,  took  refuge  in 
Illinois  at  a  place  which  they  called  Nauvoo, 
or  the  City  of  Beauty.  Here,  for  a  space  of 
years,  the  Mormons  lived  in  quietness,  gather- 
ing to  themselves  many  new  converts;  but, 
ultimately,  the  doctrine  of  "sealing  wives" 
aroused  the  wrath  of  the  neighborhood,  and 
Smith  and  his  brother  Hiram  were  thrown 
into  prison  at  Carthage,  where,  on  June  27, 
1844,  they  were  shot  by  a  mob  who  broke  into 
the  jail.  Previous  to  this  event,  however,  the 
main  body  of  the  Mormons  had  removed  to 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  and  upon  Smith's  death 
Brigham  Young  was  chosen  to  succeed  him. 
The  points  of  the  belief  of  the  Mormon  Church 
have  been  somewhat  altered  since  first  received 
from  Joseph  Smith,  that  teacher  having  taught, 
for  instance,  the  dogma  of  a  Trinity,  while 
modern  Mormonism  holds  that  there  is  a  dual- 
ity of  persons  in  the  Godhead,  the  Holy  Ghost 
being  merely  a  spiritual  soul.  They  also 
teach  that  God  has  parts  resembling  the  body 
of  man,  and  not  materially  differing  from  him 
in  size.  They  deny  the  doctrine  that  "all 
men  sinned  in  Adam,"  but  accept  the  atone- 
ment through  Christ  for  sins  committed  by 
men.  They  hold  that  the  ordinances  of  the 
gospel   are:      (1)    Faith    in    Christ;  (2)    Re- 


pentance ;  (3)  Baptism  by  immersion  for 
remission  of  sins  ;  (4)  Laying  on  of  hands  for 
the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  They  believe  that 
a  man  is  called  to  preach  by  "  prophecy  and 
the  laying  on  of  hands,"  and  claim  to  havo 
the  same  organization  in  respect  to  teachers 
that  the  primitive  church  held.  They  further 
hold  a  twofold  priesthood,  which  they  call  the 
Melchizedek  and  the  Aaronic,  and  they  believe 
in  a  "baptism  for  the  dead  "  ;  that  is,  that  a 
living  person  may  save  a  dead  friend  by  being 
immersed  for  him,  unless  he  has  committed 
the  unpardonable  sin.  They  believe  that  the 
gift  of  tongues,  revelations,  visions,  etc.,  is 
still  granted  to  men,  and  that  many  things  are 
still  to  be  revealed  concerning  the  kingdom  of 
God.  They  further  believe  in  the  literal  gather- 
ing of  the  tribes  of  Israel  and  in  the  restoration 
of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  that  Zion  will  be  built 
upon  this  continent ;  that  Christ  will  reign  per- 
sonally upon  this  earth,  and  that  the  earth  will 
be  renewed  and  receive  its  paradisal  glory. 
The  doctrine  of  polygamy  was  not  a  part  of 
the  original  revelation  of  Mormonism,  but  was 
introduced  later,  and  came  to  be  not  simply 
tolerated,  but  enjoined  as  a  positive  duty,  a 
man's  rank  in  heaven  being  alleged  to  be 
largely  dependent  on  the  number  of  his  chil- 
dren. Children  are  taken  into  the  church  at 
the  age  of  eight  years  ;  never  before. 

Leaning"  Tower  of  Pisa. — This  cele- 
brated and  beautiful  bell-tower  is  situated  in 
the  city  of  Pisa,  Italy,  and  was  built  during 
the  twelfth  century  by  the  German  architect 
William  of  Innspruck.  It  is  cylindrical  in 
shape,  50  feet  in  diameter,  180  feet  high,  and 
leans  about  14  feet  out  of  the  perpendicular. 
It  is  entirely  of  white  marble,  and  consists  of 
seven  stories,  divided  by  rows  of  columns. 
The  top,  which  is  surmounted  by  a  flat  roof 
and  an  open  gallery,  commanding  a  splendid 
view  of  the  surrounding  country,  is  reached  by 
300  steps.  The  tower  was  not  originally  in- 
tended to  lean,  but  the  foundation  settled 
more  on  one  side  than  on  the  other  until  it 
reached  the  present  inclination,  which  it  has 
maintained  with  scarcely  any  perceptible  in- 
crease for  hundreds  of  years.  The  upper  part 
of  the  structure  was  built  in  a  manner  to 
counteract  in  part  the  inclination  ;  and  the 
grand  chime  of  bells,  seven  in  number,  of 
which  the  largest  alone  weighs  12,000  pounds, 
is  mounted  with  reference  to  counteract  this 
fault  still  further. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant. —  Previous  to  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple  of  Solomon  by  the 
Babylonians  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was 
contained  therein,  but  what  became  of  it  after 
that  time  is  unknown.  •  It  is  believed  by  some 
to   have   been   taken   away  or    destroyed   by 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  AtiTS. 


517 


Nebuchadnezzar,  while  certain  of  the  Jews  be- 
lieve that  it  was  concealed  from  the  spoilers, 
and  account  it  among  the  hidden  things  which 
will  be  revealed  by  the  Messiah.  That  the  old 
Ark  was  not  contained  in  the  second  Temple 
all  Jewish  writers  agree ;  and  the  absence  of 
the  Ark  is  one  of  the  important  particulars  in 
which  this  Temple  was  held  to  be  inferior  to 
that  of  Solomon.  It  is  held  by  some  writers, 
however,  that  the  Jews  could  not  properly 
carry  on  their  worship  without  an  Ark,  hence 
that  a  new  one  must  have  been  made  and 
placed  in  the  Temple  if  the  original  Ark  was 
not  recovered.  The  silence  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
the  Maccabees,  and  Josephus,  who  repeatedly 
mention  all  the  other  sacred  utensils  but  never 
name  the  Ark,  would,  nevertheless,  seem  con- 
clusive on  this  subject. 

Mount  Ararat.  —  The  mountains  of 
Ararat,  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures,  overlook 
the  plain  of  Araxes  in  Armenia,  and  are 
divided  into  two  peaks,  Great  Ararat  and  Lit- 
tle Ararat.  The  summit  of  the  former  is  17,- 
323  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  of  the 
latter  13,000  feet.  It  is  believed  that  the  rest- 
ing place  of  the  Ark  was  upon  some  lower 
portion  of  this  range  rather  than  upon  the 
peaks,  and  in  support  of  this  view  is  the  fact 
that  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  or  7,000  feet  the 
climate  is  temperate,  the  harvests  are  quick  to 
mature  and  abundant ;  while  the  peaks,  for 
more  than  3,000  feet  below  their  summits,  are 
continuously  covered  with  ice  and  snow. 

Obelisks. —  The  word  is  from  the  Greek, 
and  signifies  a  prismatic  monument  of  stone 
or  other  material  terminating  in  a  pyramidal 
or  pointed  top.  They  are  found  principally  in 
Egypt,  and  date  back  to  the  most  remote  pe- 
riods of  antiquity.  They  were  placed  before 
the  gateways  of  the  principal  temples,  and 
correspond  in  Egyptian  art  to  the  columns  of 
the  Romans  and  stelai  of  the  Greeks,  and  ap- 
pear to  have  been  erected  to  record  the  honors 
or  triumphs  of  the  monarchs.  They  are  also 
called  "monoliths,"  being  cut  out  of  a  sin- 
gle piece  of  stone,  and  have  four  faces,  broader 
at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  the  width  at  the 
base  being  one  tenth  the  height  of  the  shaft  to 
the  beginning  of  the  pyramidion,  or  cap,  which 
is  also  one  tenth  of  the  same  height.  The 
sides  are  generally  sculptured  with  one  verti- 
cal line  of  deeply  cut  hieroglyphs  and  repiesen- 
tations.  Some  of  them  were  originally  capped 
with  bronze  or  gold.  Their  height  varied 
from  a  few  inches  to  upward  of  one  hundred 
feet,  the  tallest  known  being  that  of  Karnuk, 
which  rises  to  105  feet  7  inches.  A  number  of 
them  were  removed  to  Rome  by  Augustus  and 
later  emperors,  and  they  were  afterwards 
transported  to  various  cities  of  Italy  and  France 


and  used  to  adorn  squares  and  public  parks. 
Among  the  most  notable  of  these  relics  of  an- 
cient art  are  the  two  known  as  Cleopatra's 
Needles,  which,  from  the  inscriptions  on  them, 
appear  to  have  been  set  up  at  the  entrance  of 
the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in  Heliopolis,  Egypt, 
by  Thothmes  III.,  about  1831  B.  C.  Two  cen- 
turies after  their  erection  the  stones  were  nearly 
covered  with  carvings,  setting  out  the  greatness 
and  achievements  of  Rameses  II.  Twenty- 
three  years  before  the  Christian  era  they  were 
moved  from  Heliopolis  to  Alexandria  by  Au- 
gustus Caesar  and  set  up  in  the  Csesarium,  a 
palace  which  now  stands,  a  mere  mass  of  ruins, 
near  the  station  of  the  railroad  to  Cairo.  In 
1819  the  Egyptian  Government  presented  one 
of  them  to  England,  but  it  was  not  taken  to 
London  until  1878.  The  other  was  trans- 
ported to  New  York  in  1880,  it  having  been 
presented  to  the  United  States,  and  was  raised 
on  its  pedestal  in  Central  Park,  New  York, 
January  22,  1881.  The  material  of  these,  and 
indeed  of  most  of  the  obelisks,  is  granite 
brought  from  Syene,near  the  first  cataract  of  the 
Nile.  They  were  cut  at  the  quarry,  and  floated 
into  and  down  the  Nile  during  one  of  the  an- 
nual overflows. 

Lake  School. —  Toward  the  close  of  the 
last  century  the  poets  Wordsworth,  Coleridge, 
and  Southey  took  up  their  residence  in  the 
Lake  district  of  Cumberland  and  Westmore- 
land, in  England,  for  the  purpose,  as  they 
said,  of  seeking  the  sources  of  poetical  inspira- 
tion in  the  simplicity  of  nature,  rather  than  in 
the  works  of  their  predecessors  and  the  fash- 
ions of  the  time.  On  this  account  they  were 
given  the  name  of  the  Lake  School  by  the 
Edinburgh  Review 

Kissing  the  Book. —  The  custom  of 
swearing  on  the  Bible  comes  from  the  ancient 
Jews,  who  at  first  touched  their  phylacteries 

—  small  cases  containing  strips  of  parchment 
inscribed  with  texts  from  the  Old   Testament 

—  in  taking  oaths,  and  later  laid  their  hands 
upon  the  Book  of  the  Law  ;  and  the  various 
customs  of  taking  oaths  in  different  countries 
have  all  a  similar  origin.  The  early  Anglo- 
Saxons  regarded  stones  as  sacred  to  their  gods, 
therefore  laid  their  hands  on  a  pillar  of  stone. 
In  mediaeval  times  it  was  customary  to  touch 
a  relic,  and  this  was  regarded  as  giving  the 
oath  more  sacredness  than  when  sworn  upon 
the  missal,  or  prayer  book.  Another  custom 
of  the  same  times  was  swearing  by  churches. 
A  certain  number  were  mentioned,  and  the 
attestor  was  obliged  to  go  to  each  one,  take 
the  ring  of  the  church  door  in  his  hand,  and 
repeat  his  oath.  The  custom  of  kissing  the 
cross  to  attest  an  oath  has  been  observed  in 
Russia  from  very  early  times,  and  has  extended 


518 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


into  other  countries.  According  to  the  laws 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.,  Knights  Templars  were  required 
in  taking  oath  to  touch  the  book  and  kiss  the 
cross.  Since  the  Reformation  the  taking  of 
oaths  by  kissing  the  Bible  has  not  been  per- 
mitted in  Scotland.  In  other  portions  of 
Great  Britain  it  is  the  common  method. 

French  Renaissance. — "Renaissance  " 
is  the  name  given  to  the  style  of  art,  espe- 
cially architecture,  in  Europe  which  succeeded 
the  Gothic  and  preceded  the  rigid  copyism  of 
the  classic  revival  in  the  first  half  of  the  pres- 
ent century.  It  is  also  used  to  denote  the  time 
during  which  this  style  of  art  prevailed,  and 
also  to  include  the  development  of  the  Euro- 
pean races  in  other  lines  as  well  as  art.  The 
name  signifies  the  "  new  birth."  The  date  of 
the  beginning  of  this  period  coincides  with 
that  of  the  fall  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  and 
the  latter  was  no  doubt  the  cause  of  the  former  ; 
for  when  the  Turks  took  possession  of  Con- 
stantinople all  the  memorials,  paintings,  books, 
etc.,  that  could  be  removed  from  the  destroy- 
ing hand  of  the  invaders  were  hastily  conveyed 
to  Italy.  These  inspired  just  admiration 
among  the  Italian  people,  and  aroused  not  only 
a  desire  to  emulate  the  construction  of  such 
worthy  works,  but  also  an  interest  in  ancient 
works  and  models.  In  1494  Charles  VIII., 
King  of  France,  made  a  warlike  expedition 
into  Italy,  and  on  his  return  brought  some 
Italian  workmen  to  supervise  the  construction 
of  the  royal  buildings.  This  was  the  first  in- 
troduction of  the  renaissance  into  France. 
Communication  between  France  and  Italy  was 
also  stimulated  by  this  expedition,  and  the 
growth  of  Italian  ideas  among  the  French  was 
steady,  though  slow.  In  the  reign  of  Louis 
XII.,  1498-1515,  the  work  was  further  stimu- 
lated by  the  founding  of  a  school  of  architec- 
ture under  an  artist  from  Verona.  But  it  was 
under  Francis  I.,  1515- '47,  that  the  new 
growth  was  most  stimulated  and  aided.  This 
prince  was  possessed  both  of  learning  and  in- 
tellectual power.  He  had  a  sincere  love  for 
literature,  science,  and  art,  and  a  keen  appre- 
ciation of  the  beautiful  in  these  departments. 
He  invited  a  number  of  Italian  artists  to  his 
court.  Among  the  most  famous  of  these  were 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  and  Benvenuto  Cellini. 
These  and  others  introduced  Italian  details  in 
their  designs,  which  native  architects  applied 
to  old  forms,  with  which  they  were  familiar ; 
so  that  the  French  renaissance  was  similar  to 
that  of  Italy,  but  different  from  it  in  many 
important  respects.  All  lines  of  art  felt  the 
renaissance  spirit ;  and  not  mei-ely  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture,  but  also  music,  poetry, 
and   literature  were   stimulated.     The  minor 


plastic  and  decorative  arts,  engraving,  work- 
ing in  wood  and  metals,  pottery,  tapestry,  etc., 
were  cultivated  with  eagerness  and  skill.  The 
study  of  the  classics  also  received  a  new  im- 
pulse, and  this  era  had,  in  France,  some  of  the 
greatest  scholars  of  the  times.  Historical 
writers  usually  consider  the  renaissance  period 
as  one  of  the  most  important  influences  in  has- 
tening the  growth  of  individuality  and  the 
work  of  the  Reformation,  and  in  ushering  in 
the  progress  that  has  marked  the  modern  his- 
tory of  the  world.  In  Germany,  Russia,  and 
every  country  in  Europe,  tho  renaissance  pre- 
vailed in  a  manner  similar  to  that  above  de- 
scribed. 

Lollards,  or  Lollhards,  acquired  their 
name  from  their  practice  of  singing  dirges  at 
funerals  —  the  Low  German  word  lullen,  or 
lollen,  signifying  to  sing  softly  or  slowly.  The 
Lollards  were  a  semi-monastic  society  formed  in 
Antwerp  about  the  year  1300,  the  members  of 
which  devoted  themselves  to  the  care  of  the  sick 
andthe  dead.  They  were  also  called,  from  their 
frugal  life  and  the  poverty  of  their  appearance, 
Matemans ;  also,  from  their  patron  saint, 
Brethren  of  St.  Alexius:  and  on  account  of 
their  dwelling  in  cells,  Fratres  Cellitce.  In  the 
frequent  pestilences  of  that  period,  the  Lollards 
were  useful  and  everywhere  welcome,  and  the 
order  spread  through  the  Netherlands  and 
Germany.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  were 
persecuted  and  reproached  with  heresy  by  the 
clergy  and  begging-friars,  their  name  was  after- 
ward very  commonly  given  to  different  classes 
of  religionists ;  and  in  England  it  became  a 
designation  of  the  followers  of  Wycliffe. 

French  Academy,  The,  had  its  origin  in 
a  literary  coterie  which  held  meetings  in 
Paris  during  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  its 
purpose  and  unity  were  given  to  it  by  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  His  object  was  to  have  a  fixed 
standard  of  grammar  and  rhetoric  given  to 
the  language,  believing  that  this  would  tend  to 
the  unification  and  peace  of  France.  The 
duties  which  were  imposed  upon  the  members 
of  the  Academy  were  "  to  purify  and  fix  the 
national  tongue,  to  throw  light  upon  its 
obscurities,  to  maintain  its  character  and 
principles,  and  at  their  private  meetings  to 
keep  this  object  in  view.  Their  discussions 
were  to  turn  on  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  poetry  ; 
their  critical  observations  on  the  beauties  and 
defects  of  classical  French  authors,  in  order 
to  prepare  editions  of  their  works,  and  to 
compose  a  new  dictionary  of  the  French  lan- 
guage." The  original  Academy  was  swept 
away  in  1793,  and  the  present  Academy  pre- 
serves but  little  of  its  original  character  of  a 
mere  coterie  of  grammarians.  This  present 
Academy  came  into  existence  with  the  restora- 


RFLIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


519 


iion  of  the  Bourbons.  It  meets  at  the  Palace 
Mazarin,  Paris.  Its  chief  officer  is  its  secre- 
tary, who  has  a  life  tenure  of  his  position. 
He  receives  a  salary  of  12,000  francs  a  year, 
the  society  being  allowed  by  the  Government 
85,000  francs  a  year  for  the  payment  of  its 
officers  and  the  cai'eof  its  library.  The  Acad- 
emy is  always  to  consist  of  forty  members, 
all  vacancies  being  filled  by  the  votes  of  those 
already  composing  the  body.  To  belong  to  it 
is  regarded  as  a  high  honor,  the  members  be- 
ing spoken  of  as  "the  forty  immortals." 

Majolica  Ware  was  first  manufactured 
in  the  island  of  Majolica,  and  from  thence  the 
art  was  taken  to  Italy,  where,  during  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries,  it  was  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent.  A  factory  for 
manufacturing  this  ware  was  established  in 
Fayence,  France,  in  the  latter  century,  and 
the  name  faience  was  substituted  for  that  of 
majolica.  About  1530,  plates  and  other  ware 
were  manufactured  in  Italy,  decorated  with 
subjects  derived  from  the  compositions  of 
Raphael  and  Marc  Antonio,  and  painted  in  gay 
and  brilliant  colors.  The  establishment  was 
abandoned  in  1574,  but  pieces  of  majolica 
continued  to  be  fabricated  in  various  cities  of 
Italy  till  the  eighteenth  century.  During  the 
decadence  of  the  art  of  making  enameled  pot- 
tery in  Italy,  it  flourished  greatly  in  France  at 
the  famous  Palissy  pottery  works  at  Paris  and 
the  factories  at  Nevers  and  Rouen,  where  it  was 
manufactured  till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

The  Boxers  are  a  Chinese  secret  society, 
partly  religious  and  partly  patriotic.  The 
Chinese  name  of  the  society  is  Yi-Ho-Chuan, 
meaning  in  English,  "righteousness,  harmony, 
and  '  fists  '  "  ;  the  derived  name  « '  boxers  ' '  has 
evidently  been  applied  because  of  the  athletic 
aspect  the  society  first  assumed.  It  was  first 
organized  in  groups  which  began  gymnastic 
exercises  in  the  Chinese  villages,  and  drilling  as 
a  military  organization  was  quickly  developed, 
with  broadswords  for  arms.  On  account  of  the 
swords  the  boxers  have  also  been  known  as  the 
"Big  Knives."  They  first  made  themselves 
felt  in  Shan-Tung  province,  where  the  Ger- 
mans secured  the  lease  of  Kiao-Chou  bay,  and 
large  railroad  and  mineral  rights.  Each  band, 
it  is  said,  is  governed  by  a  "  demonized  ' ' 
leader,  who,  by  the  selection  of  an  epileptic 
patient,  or,  by  the  aid  of  hypnotism,  causes  a 
medium  to  display  wild  and  unnatural  symp- 
toms, or  to  utter  wild  and  strange  speech,  this 
serving  as  a  basis  for  the  claim  of  the  society 
to  spiritual  power.  Every  boxer  is  assured  of 
immunity  from  death  or  physical  injury.  The 
assault  upon  Christianity  by  the  boxers  was 
particularly  directed  against  native  converts, 


but  later  developed  into  a  general  anti-foreign 
crusade.  Though  revolutionary  in  their  meth- 
ods they  profess  fealty  to  the  reigning  dynasty, 
and  devotion  to  the  ancient  religion,  while 
attacking  the  foreign  influences  which  they 
believe  to  be  undermining  the  ancient  institu- 
tions and  nationality  of  China. 

Libraries,  Foreign. —  First  among  the 
libraries  of  Great  Britain,  and  second  to  few, 
if  any,  on  the  continent,  is  that  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  It  contains  about  1,300,000 
printed  volumes,  besides  rare  and  extensive 
collections  of  manuscripts,  maps,  prints,  and 
drawings.  Next  in  rank  is  the  Bodleyan  or 
Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  which  contains 
300,000  volumes  in  addition  to  20,000  to  30,000 
in  manuscript.  The  third  and  fourth  places  are 
occupied  by  the  Public  or  University  Library  of 
Cambridge,  and  the  Library  of  the  Faculty  of 
Advocates  at  Edinburgh,  which  are  nearly  on  a 
par  as  regards  extent  and  value,  containing 
not  less  than  265,000  volumes  each.  The 
Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  with  about 
192,000  volumes,  is  the  largest  and  most  valu- 
able in  Ireland.  These  five  libraries  have  long 
been,  and  still  are,  entitled  by  statute  to  a  free 
copy  of  every  book  published  in  the  empire. 
The  great  National  Library  of  France  —  La 
Biblintheque  du  Roi,  as  it  used  to  be  called,  La 
Bibliotkeque  Nationale,  as  it  is  called  at  present 
—  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  valuable  col- 
lections of  books  and  manuscripts  in  the  world. 
The  number  of  printed  volumes- contained  in. 
it  is  estimated  at  nearly  2,500,000,  and  of 
manuscripts  at  about  150,000.  Among  libra- 
ries of  the  second  class  in  Paris,  the  Arsenal 
Library  with  300,000  volumes,  the  Library  of 
Ste.  Genevieve  with  200,000,  and  the  Mazarine 
Library  with  160,000,  are  the  chief.  In  It- 
aly the  Library  of  the  Vatican  at  Rome  stands 
pre-eminent.  The  number  of  printed  vol- 
umes is  only  about  200,000,  but  the  manu- 
script collection  is  the  finest  in  the  world. 
The  Casanata  Library,  also  at  Rome,  is  said  to 
contain  120,000  volumes  ;  the  Ambrosian  Li- 
brary at  Milan,  140,000  volumes;  the  Mag- 
liabechi  Library  at  Florence,  200,000  volumes  ; 
the  Royal  Library  at  Naples,  200,000  volumes  ; 
the  Library  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice,  120,000 
volumes  and  10,000  manuscripts.  The  Lau- 
rentian  Library  at  Florence  consists  almost  en- 
tirely of  manuscripts.  The  principal  libraries 
of  Spain  are  the  Biblioteca  Nacional  at  Mad- 
rid, numbering  nearly  430,000  volumes,  and 
the  Library  of  the  Escorial,  which  contains 
numerous  manuscript  volumes,  treasures  of 
Arabic  literature.  The  Imperial  Library  at 
Vienna  is  a  noble  collection  of  not  fewer  than 
400,000  volumes,  of  which  15,000  are  of  the 
class  called  incunabula,  or  books  printed  before 


620 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


the  year  1500.  The  Royal  Library  at  Munich 
contains  900,000  volumes,  including  13,000 
'ncunabula,  and  22,000  manuscripts.  The 
Royal  Library  at  Dresden  is  a  collection  of 
500,000  volumes,  among  which  are  included 
some  of  the  scarcest  specimens  of  early  print- 
ing, among  others  the  Mainz  Psalter  of  1457, 
the  first  book  printed  with  a  date.  The  Royal 
Library  of  Berlin  contains  about  700,000  vol- 
umes of  printed  books,  and  15,000  volumes  of 
manuscripts.  Of  the  other  libraries  in  Ger- 
many, that  of  the  University  of  Gottingen  con- 
tains upward  of  500,000  volumes,  the  Ducal 
Library  of  Wolfenbuttel  about  270,000  vol- 
umes, and  the  University  Library  at  Stras- 
burg  over  513,000  books  and  manuscripts.  In 
Holland,  the  principal  library  is  the  Royal 
Library  at  the  Hague,  containing  about  200,- 
000  printed  volumes.  The  Royal  Library  at 
Copenhagen  contains  nearly  550,000  volumes. 
The  largest  library  in  Sweden  is  that  of  the 
University  of  Upsala,  consisting  of  nearly  200,- 
000  volumes.  One  of  its  chief  treasures  is 
the  famous  manuscript  of  the  Gothic  Gospels 
of  Ulfilas,  commonly  known  as  the  Codex  Ar- 
genteus.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  Impe- 
rial Library  of  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  is  esti- 
mated to  be  at  least  900,000,  in  addition  to 
35,000  manuscripts. 

Church  of  England. —  Up  to  the  time 
of  the  Reformation,  ecclesiastical  affairs  would 
be  more  properly  described  as  the  history  of 
.the  Church  in  England,  as  from  that  period 
the  Church  of  England  dates  her  existence. 
From  the  eighth  to  the  sixteenth  century  the 
English  Church  was  subject  to  Rome  ;  but  for 
the  last  two  hundred  years  the  seed  sown  by 
Wycliffe  had  been  bearing  fruit  and  preparing 
the  people  for  a  final  separation,  the  immedi- 
ate occasion  for  which  was  found  in  the  royal 
caprice  of  Henry  VIII.  From  1066  to  1356 
there  was  a  constant  struggle  between  the  civil 
and  ecclesiastical  powers.  Then  came  Wyc- 
liffe's  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English 
and  his  continued  war  against  some  of  the 
leading  doctrines  of  the  Romish  Church,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  a  new  sect  called  Lol- 
lards (See  Lollards),  holding  views  similar 
to  those  of  the"  present  Church.  Despite  per- 
secutions, the  new  doctrines  spread  and  had 
many  adherents.  The  Reformation  is  ordi- 
narily assigned  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
the  two  most  important  acts  being  passed  in 
1532  and  1534  ;  but  the  main  feature  of  these 
acts  was  the  declaration  of  the  independence 
of  the  Church  in  England  and  the  supremacy 
of  the  king  over  that  Church.  They  had  cast 
off  the  bondage  of  Rome,  but  in  doctrine  the 
churches  were  still  in  accord ;  and  it  was  not 
until  thirty  years   afterward  — 1563,    in  the 


reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  —  that  the  Thirty- 
Nine  Articles  of  Faith  were  finally  reviewed 
and  adopted,  and  the  Protestant  Church  of 
England  finally  and  fully  established.  In 
1801,  by  the  "  Act  of  Union,"  the  Episcopal 
churches  in  England  and  Ireland  were  united  ; 
but  the  latter  church  was  disestablished  and 
disendowed  in  1869.  The  Episcopal  Church 
in  Scotland  is  not,  politically  speaking,  in 
union  with  that  of  England ;  but  an  Act  of 
Parliament,  passed  in  1864,  has  taken  away 
many  restrictions  imposed  on  Scottish  Episco- 
palians after  the  battle  of  Culloden,  and 
clergy  ordained  by  Scotch  bishops  may  now, 
under  some  slight  restrictions,  be  presented  to 
benefices  in  England. 

Christian  Association,  Young  Men's. 
—  Associations  of  young  men  for  Christian 
work  have  existed  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, for  upward  of  two  centuries,  and  also  in 
Germany  and  Switzerland.  In  1710  it  is  re- 
corded that  Cotton  Mather  addressed  kindred 
societies  in  New  England,  which  were  known 
as  "  Young  Men  Associated."  In  1849,  the 
societies  which  had  been  established  in  Ger- 
many took  a  wider  scope,  and  from  these  as- 
sociations grew  the  German  associations  of  the 
present  day.  The  English  Young  Men's  Chris- 
tian Association  commenced  in  a  meeting  of 
clerks  organized  by  George  Williams  in  a  mer- 
cantile establishment  in  London  in  1844.  The 
example  of  the  British  metropolis  was  speedily 
followed  by  the  various  cities  of  Great  Britain 
founding  associations,  and  in  December,  1851, 
America  caught  the  enthusiasm  of  the  move- 
ment, and  formed  an  association  in  Montreal, 
modeled  after  the  one  in  London.  Then  Bos- 
ton undertook  the  formation  of  one  for  itself, 
and  their  growth  and  influence  since  that  time 
have  been  simply  wonderful.  They  now  flour- 
ish in  every  Protestant  Christian  country ; 
and  in  almost  every  place  where  a  colony  of 
Christians  are  gathered,  these  associations  are 
to  be  found. 

Blind,  Education  of  The. — The  main 
end  to  be  sought  in  the  education  of  the  blind 
is  to  fit  them  to  compete  in  as  many  ways  as 
possible  with  the  more  fortunate  who  can  see, 
and  take  them  out  of  their  despondency  and 
give  them  a  worthy  object  to  accomplish  in 
life.  The  first  institution  for  the  blind  was 
founded  in  Memmingen  by  AYeef  VI.  in  1178, 
the  second  in  Paris  by  Louis  TX.  in  1260,  and 
the  first  for  the  employment  of  the  adult  blind 
in  Edinburgh  by  Dr.  Johnston  in  1793.  The 
work  in  a  school  for  the  blind  is  about  equal 
to  the  ordinary  high  school  course.  Pupils  are 
classified  as  in  other  schools ;  but  persons  who 
become  blind  at  the  age  of  twenty,  for  instance, 
must  begin  with  the  alphabet,  as  little  children 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


521 


do.  Writing  is  taught  by  tracing  with  a  pencil 
letters  sunk  into  a  stiff  card.  This  manner  of 
writing  can  be  read  by  seeing  persons  only. 
The  point  systems  — Braille's  and  Waite's  — 
are  generally  used  by  blind  persons  to  com- 
municate with  each  other.  In  the  Illinois  In- 
stitution for  the  Blind  the  use  of  the  type- 
writer is  being  taught,  and  it  is  said  that  some 
excellent  work  has  already  been  done  by  the 
pupils.  In  the  study  of  music  the  notes  are 
read  to  the  pupil,  who  writes  them  down  in 
the  Braille  or  Waite  systems,  and  then  studies 
them  at  the  instrument  until  they  are  memo- 
rized. In  most  schools  books  in  raised  print 
are  used.  The  first  book  of  this  character  was 
printed  in  Paris  in  1784  by  M.  Valentine 
Hauy. 

Gnostic,  a  word  sometimes  confounded 
with  agnostic,  and  employed  in  a  loose  and  gen- 
eral way  to  designate  a  freethinker.  Correctly 
speaking,  gnosticism  is  the  term  applied  to 
various  forms  of  philosophical  speculation 
which  sprang  up  in  the  early  history  of  the 
Church.  They  were  generally  regarded  as 
heretical,  but  the  term  itself  means  simply 
knotrledge,  and  does  not  contain  any  idea  of 
antagonism  to  Judaism  or  Christianity.  There 
were  three  main  schools,  or  centers,  of  gnostic 
speculation  :  the  Syrian  of  Antioch  :  the  Alex- 
andrian of  Egypt,  and  that  of  Asia  Minor,  rep- 
resented by  Marcion  of  Pontus.  Gnosticism 
represents  the  first  efforts  to  construct  a  philo- 
sophical system  of  faith,  and  the  main  ques- 
tions with  which  it  concerned  itself  were  the 
same  which  in  all  ages  have  agitated  inquiry 
and  baffled  speculation  —  the  origin  of  life 
and  origin  of  evil,  how  life  sprang  from  an 
infinite  source,  how  a  world  so  imperfect  as 
this  could  proceed  from  a  supremely  perfect 
God.  All  of  the  schools  agreed  in  the  exist- 
ence of  an  infinitely  Supreme  B*dng,  their  dif- 
ferences arising  in  their  various  speculations 
to  account  for  the  passage  from  the  higher 
spiritual  world  to  this  lower  material  one.  In 
the  Alexandrian  thought,  evil  is  but  degen- 
erated good.  The  Syrian  school  assumed  the 
existence  of  two  living,  active,  independent 
principles,  good  and  evil.  The  former  system 
embraced  Judaism  as  a  divine  institution, 
although  inferior  and  defective  in  its  manifes- 
tation of  the  divine  character;  the  latter  re- 
jected it  as  being  wholly  the  work  of  the  Spirit 
of  Darkness.  The  anti-Judaical  spirit  was  de- 
veloped to  the  extreme  in  Marcion  and  his 
followers.  The  gnostics  accepted  Christ,  but 
in  different  and  modified  lights.  According 
to  the  Alexandrian  school,  he  is  a  higher 
Divine  Being,  proceeding  from  the  Spiritual 
Kingdom  for  the  redemption  of  this  lower  ma- 
terial kingdom ;   but  however  superior,  he  is 


yet  allied  to  the  lower  angels  and  the  Demiur- 
gos,  who  is  an  inferior  manifestation  of 
Deity  partaking  of  the  Divine  nature,  the  in- 
termediary between  the  Infinite  Spirit  and  the 
material  world,  and  the  immediate  creator  and 
governor  of  this  world.  The  Syrian  school, 
on  the  other  hand,  regarded  Christ  as  a  being 
totally  distinct  from  the  Demiurgos,  who  was 
in  their  system  not  the  representative  and 
organ  of  the  Supreme  Spirit,  but  a  rival  Spirit 
of  Darkness  ;  and  hence,  in  coming  into  this 
lower  world,  he  was  invading  the  realms  of  the 
powers  of  darkness,  in  order  to  seek  out  and 
rescue  any  higher  spiritual  natures  wTho  were 
living  here  under  the  power  of  the  Evil  One. 
Gnosticism  has  been  well  termed  au  extraordi- 
nary conglomeration  of  Monotheism,  Panthe- 
ism, Spiritualism,  and  Materialism.  It  was 
vague,  confused,  and  irrational  for  the  most 
part,  and  yet  its  influence  in  the  world  was  not 
altogether  bad.  It  compelled  Christian  teach- 
ers to  face  the  great  problems  of  which  it  at- 
tempted the  solution  in  so  many  fantastic  forms. 
It  expanded  the  horizon  of  controversy  within 
as  without  the  Church,  and  made  the  early 
fathers  feel  that  it  was  by  the  weapons  of  rea- 
son and  not  of  authority  that  they  must  win 
the  triumph  of  Catholic  Christianity.  It  may 
be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  Chris- 
tian science  ;  and  Antioch  and  Alexandria,  the 
centers  of  half-pagan  and  half-Christian  specu- 
lation, became  the  first  centers  of  rational 
Christian  theology.  The  several  schools  began 
to  decline  after  the  middle  of  the  third  cen- 
tury. Their  doctrines  were  revived  several 
times  by  certain  sects  in  the  middle  ages,  but 
have  had  no  considerable  body  of  adherents 
since  the  thirteenth  century. 

Hades.  —  The  word  "  hades  "  is  from  the 
Greek.  Its  etymology  is  somewhat  doubtful, 
but  it  is  generally  believed  to  have  come  from 
the  verb  eidein,  meaning  to  see,  and  the  nega- 
tive particle  a.  Hence  it  may  mean  what  is 
out  of  sight,  the  invisible,  or,  where  nothing 
can  be  seen,  the  place  of  darkness.  In  Homer 
the  name  is  applied  to  Pluto,  the  lord  of  the 
j  lower  regions,  perhaps  because  he  was  the 
deity  who  had  the  power  of  making  mortals 
invisible.  The  Greeks,  however,  gave  up  the 
latter  application  of  the  word,  and  when  the 
Greek  Scriptures  were  written  the  word  was 
always  used  to  designate  the  place  of  departed 
spirits.  It  was  the  common  receptacle  of 
departed  spirits,  the  good  as  well  as  the  bad, 
and  was  divided  into  two  parts  —  the  one  an 
Elysium  of  bliss  for  the  good,  the  other  a 
Tartarus  of  punishment  and  grief  for  the 
wicked,  and  its  locality  was  supposed  to  be 
underground  in  the  mud  regions  of  the  earth. 
In  the  very  early  stages  of  Grecian  history  no 


522 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


complete  theory  of  punishments  or  rewards  in 
hades  had  found  its  way  into  the  popular  creed. 
The  prevalent  belief  was  merely  that  the  souls 
of  the  departed . —  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
who  had  personally  offended  against  the  gods 
—  were  occupied  in  the  lower  world  in  the  un- 
real or  shadowy  performance  of  the  same  ac- 
tions that  had  employed  them  when  in  the 
region  of  day.  The  poets  and  dramatists 
introduced  the  accessories  of  tribunals,  trials 
of  the  dead,  a  paradise  for  the  good,  and  place 
of  torture  for  the  bad.  The  modes  of  punish- 
ment imagined  were  ingenious,  such  as  that 
of  Ixion,  who  was  bound  to  an  ever-revolving 
wheel ;  that  of  Sisyphus,  who  was  set  to  roll  a 
huge  stone  up  a  steep  hill,  a  "toil  never  ending 
and  still  beginning,  for  as  soon  as  it  reached 
the  summit  it  rolled  back  again  to  the  plain  ; 
or  that  of  Tantalus,  who  was  placed  up  to  his 
chin  in  the  water,  but  was  unable  to  quench 
his  thirst,  as  the  water  constantly  slipped 
away  from  him  as  he  raised  it  to  his  lips. 
Over  his  head  also  hung  a  branch  loaded  with 
fruit,  but,  as  he  stretched  forth  his  hand  to 
grasp  it,  it  sprang  from  him  toward  the  clouds. 
It  is  plain  that  these  punishments  had  their 
origin  in  the  imagination  of  poets  rather  than 
of  priests  or  religious  teachers. 

Illiteracy  of  Various  Nations. —  In 
Russia,  Servia,  Roumania,  and  Bulgaria  over 
80  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  illiterate, 
Spain  63  per  cent.,  Italy  48  per  cent.,  Hun- 
gary 43  per  cent.,  Austria  39  per  cent.,  Ireland 
21  per  cent.,  France  and  Belgium  15  per  cent., 
Holland  10  per  cent.,  United  States  (whites) 
8  per  cent.,  Scotland  7  per  cent.,  Switzerland 
2.5  per  cent.,  some  parts  of  Germany  1  per 
cent.  In  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Bavaria, 
Wurtemberg  and  Saxony,  only  rarely  a  person 
cannot  write. 

Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon. — The 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon,  so  celebrated 
among  the  Greeks,  contained  a  square  of  four 
plethra  —  that  is,  400  feet  on  every  side  —  and 
were  carried  up  aloft  into  the  air  in  the  man- 
ner of  several  large  terraces,  one  above  an- 
other, till  the  height  equaled  that  of  the  walls 
of  the  city.  The  ascent  was  from  terrace  to 
terrace  by  stairs  ten  feet  wide.  The  whole 
pile  was  sustained  by  vast  arches,  raised  upon 
other  arches,  one  upon  another,  and  strength- 
ened by  a  wall,  surrounding  it  on  every  side, 
of  twenty-two  feet  thickness.  On  the  top  oi 
the  arches  were  first  laid  large  flat  stones, 
sixteen  feet  long  and  four  broad  ;  over  these 
was  a  layer  of  reeds,  mixed  with  a  quantity  of 
bitumen,  upon  which  were  two  rows  of  bricks, 
closely  cemented  together  with  plaster.  The 
whole  was  covered  with  thick  sheets  of  lead, 
upon  which  lay  the  mold  of  the  garden  ;  and 


all  this  flooring  was  contrived  to  keep  the 
moisture  of  the  mold  from  running  away 
through  the  arches.  The  mold,  or  earth,  laid 
thereon  was  so  deep  that  the  greatest  trees 
might  take  root  in  it ;  and  with  such  the  ter- 
races were  covered,  as  well  as  u  ith  all  other 
plants  and  flowers  that  were  proper  for  a  gar- 
den of  pleasure.  In  the  upper  terrace  there 
was  an  engine  or  kind  of  pump  by  which  water 
was  drawn  up  out  of  the  river,  and  from  thence 
the  whole  garden  was  watered.  In  the  spaces 
between  the  several  arches,  upon  which  the  + 
whole  structure  rested,  were  large  amd  magnif- 
icent apartments  that  were  very  light,  and  had 
the  advantage  of  an  exceedingly  beautiful 
prospect. 

Pan,  the  chief  Grecian  god  of  pastures, 
forests,  and  flocks.  He  was,  according  to  the 
most  common  belief,  a  son  of  Hermes  by  a 
daughter  of  Dryops,  or  by  Penelope,  the  wife 
of  Ulysses  ;  while  other  accounts  make  Penel- 
ope the  mother,  but  Ulysses  himself  the  father 
—  though  the  paternity  of  the  god  is  also 
ascribed  to  the  numerous  wooers  of  Penelope 
in  common.  The  original  seat  of  his  worship 
was  the  wild,  hilly,  and  wooded  solitudes  of 
Arcadia,  whence  it  gradually  spread  over  the 
rest  of  Greece,  but  was  not*  introduced  into 
Athens  until  after  the  battle  of  Marathon.  He 
is  represented  as  having  horns,  a  goat's  beard, 
a  crooked  nose,  pointed  ears,  a  tail,  and 
goat's  feet.  He  had  a  terrible  voice,  which, 
bursting  abruptly  on  the  ear  of  the  traveler  in 
solitary  places,  inspired  him  with  a  sudden 
fear  (whence  the  word  panic).  He  is  also  rep- 
resented as  fond  of  music  and  of  dancing  with 
the  forest  nymphs,  and  as  the  inventor  of  the 
syrinx  or  shepherd's  flute,  also  called  Pan's 
pipe.  The  fir  tree  was  sacred  to  him,  and  he 
had  sanctuaries  and  temples  in  various  parts  of 
Arcadia,  at  Troezene,  at  Sicyon,  at  Athens, 
etc.  When,  after  the  establishment  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  heathen  deities  were  degraded  by 
the  Church  into  fallen  angels,  the  characteris- 
tics of  Pan  —  the  horns,  the  goat's  beard,  the 
pointed  ears,  the  crooked  nose,  the  tail,  and 
the  goat's  feet  —  were  transferred  to  the  devil 
himself,  and  thus  the  "  Auld  Hornie  "  of 
popular  superstition  is  simply  Pan  in  dis- 
guise. 

^Esthetics  is  a  term  invented  about  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  by  Baumgarten,  a 
Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  University  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  to  denote  the  science 
of  the  Beautiful,  particularly  of  art,  as  the 
most  perfect  manifestation  of  the  Beautiful. 
Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Beautiful 
was  a  favorite  subject  of  contemplation  among 
the  ancients,  Baumgarten  is  held  to  be  the 
first  who  considered  the  subject  from  the  true 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


523 


scientific  point  of  view,  and  therefore  entitled 
to  be  called  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of 
art.  All  sensuous  apprehension,  not  in  one 
form  or  manifestation  only,  but  in  every  possi- 
ble form  or  manifestation,  was  included  in  his 
view  of  the  subject,  and  this  conception  he 
expressed  by  the  word  ^Esthetics,  from  the 
Greek  aisthanomai,  I  feel  —  indicating  not  ab- 
solute or  objective  knowledge  of  things,  but 
such  as  is  conditioned  subjectively  by  the  play 
of  our  sensibilities.  Beauty  was,  with  Baum- 
garten,  the  result  of  the  highest  and  purest 
aesthetic  perception,  to  the  realization  of  which 


the  finer  portion  of  our  nature  aspires  ;  and  to 
trace  which,  through  the  whole  sphere  of  art, 
was  the  work  of  aesthetic  philosophy. 

COMPULSORY  SCHOOL  LAWS. 

United  States. — Twenty-nine  States  and  two 
Territories  have  passed  compulsory  school  laws 
defining  the  ages  to  which  the  law  shall  apply, 
the  annual  term  of  school  attendance,  and  the 
penalty  imposed  upon  parents  or  guardians  for 
violation  of  the  law. 

These  requirements  are  summarized  in  the. 
following  table : — 


Compulsory  Education  Requirements  in  the  United  States. 


STATE. 

Age. 

Asxual  Period. 

Penalty  on  Parents  or  Guardians. 

8-15 

6-16 

8-15 

8-14  or  15 

7-15 

a  8- 14  or  15 

a  8-14 

67-12 

a  8-13 

0  6-15 
8-14 
7-14 

a  8-14 

8-14 

7-14 
rf8-14 

7-13 
8-16 

8-14 

8-14 
8-14 
8-14 

8-14 

e6-21 
8-14 
8-16 

8-14 

C8-14 

8-14 

8-15 
8-14 

8-14 

16  weeks  (2  terms  of  8  weeks 
each,  if  practicable). 

Fine,  $25  (maximum). 

Each  offense,  $10  (maximum). 

Fine,  $10  to  £50. 

Each  offense,  forfeit  not  exceeding  $20. 

Each  offense,  fine  $20  (maximum). 

For  each  week's  neglect,  fine  $5  (maximum). 

First  offense,  fine  $5  (maximum) ;  each  sub- 
sequent offense.  ^50  (maximum)  or   im- 
prisonment 30  days. 

Each  offense,  $10  to  $25,  or  imprisonment  1 

to  3  months. 
First  offense,  $2  (maximum) ;   each  subse- 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

12  weeks;  6  consecutive 

8  to  13  vears  of  age,  24  weeks ; 
13  to  14,  12  weeks. 

8  to  12  years  of  age  and  un- 
employed youths  14  to  16,  full 
term ;'  for  children  12  to  14, 
at  least  80  days  consecutive. 

70  per  cent,  of  the  entire  term. 
12  weeks ;  6  consecutive 

District  of  Columbia.. 

quent  offense,  $5  (maximum). 
Fine,  $20  (maximum). 
Fine,  not  exceeding  $5. 

Fine,  $5  to  $20  (first  offense);    $10  to  $50 

each  subsequent  offense. 
Fine,  $5  to  $20. 

Ohio 

20   weeks,    city    district;    16 
weeks,   village    and    town- 
ship districts. 

$10  to  $50;   also,  if  court  so  orders,    im- 

prisonment 2  to  90  days. 
Fine,  $3  to  $20. 

First  offense,  $5  to  $10;    each  subsequent 

offense,  $10  (minimum). 
Fine,  $3  to  $20. 

12  weeks ;  6  consecutive 

....do 

....do 

First  offense,  $10  to  $25;    each  subsequent 

offense,  $25  to  $50. 
First  offense,  $5  to  $20;   each  subsequent 

offense,  $10  to  $50. 
Fine,  $10  to  $20. 

Each  offense,  $10  to  $50. 

12  weeks ;  6  consecutive 

First  offense,  fine  $5  to  $10;   each  subse- 

quent offense,  $10  to  $20. 

Each  offense,  $5  to  $20,  or  30  days'  imprison- 
ment. 

Each  offense,  $25  (maximum). 

12  weeks ;  8  consecutive 

Each  offense,  $5  to  $25. 

Fine,  $1  to  $25,  or  imprisonment  for  not 

more  than  10  days. 
First  offense,  $10 "(maximum);  each  subse- 

Utah  

16  weeks ;  10  consecutive 

16  weeks ;  8  consecutive 

....do 

quent  offense,  $30. 
First  offense,  $50  to  $100;  each  subsequent 

offense,  $100  to  $200. 
First,  $5  to  $20 ;  subsequent  offenses,  $10  to 

$50. 
Fine,  $10  to  $25. 

12  weeks ;  8  consecutive 

Two  thirds  of  school  term ;  12 
weeks  consecutive. 

First  offense,  $5  to  $25 ;  subsequent  offense, 

$25  to  $50. 
First  offense,  $20 ;  each  subsequent  offense, 

$20  to  $50. 

a  To  16  if  unemployed  in  labor. 

b  The  law  applies  to  youths  12  to  16  years  of  age  if  discharged  from  employment  in  order  to  receive  instruction. 

c  Law  not  enforced. 

d  In  cities,  7  to  16. 

e  Penalty  imposed  only  for  children  7  to  16. 


6<U 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  EACTS. 


Compulsory  Education  in  Foreign  Countries. 


COUNTRY. 

Age. 

Attendance  Required. 

Penalty. 

6-14 
a  6-14 

Until    scholar   has   acquired 
prescribed   subjects,   relig- 
ion   and    reading,  writing 
and  arithmetic. 

....Do 

Fine,  £3.50  (maximum),  or  imprisonment  up 
to  2  days. 

Fine,  $11  (maximum),  or  8  days'  imprison- 
ment. 

6-13 

5-13 
5-13 

For  4  absences  of  half  a  day 
in  a  month  the   parent   is 
summoned      before      local 
school  committee. 

Full  school   term   unless  by 
special  arrangement. 

....Do 

First  and  second  offenses,  warning;  sub- 
sequent fine,   $3    (maximum)   and    im- 
prisonment 5  days. 

Determined  by  local  by-laws. 

Fine,  $5,  or  imprisonment  14  days. 

• 

66-12 

6-9 

(0 
6-14 

d7-15 

7-14 
6-15 

6-15 
7-16 

6-14 

*           7-16 
7-15 
6-16 

6-14 

7-12 

8  months,  country ;  10  months, 
town. 

Fine,  from  35  cents  to  $1.50. 
Each  offense,  10  cents  to  $2. 

Italy 

8  years,  or  until  elementary 
education  is  completed. 

Each  offense,  70  cents  (maximum),  or  im- 
prisonment up  to  three  davs. 

Fine,  $1.50  to  $7.00,  or  imprisonment  from 
1  day  to  6  weeks. 

Five  sixths  of  possible  attend- 
ances. 

4  days  a  week,  6  hours  a  day. . 

After  13  years  of  age,  10  hours 
a  week.    • 

28   hours  a  week  for  6  to  9 
months. 

Fines  and  imprisonment. 
Do. 

Fine,  38  cents  (minimum),  or  imprisonment 
30  days  (maximum). 

Each  offense  2  to  3  cents,  and  4  hours'  im- 
prisonment. 

Fines  or  imprisonment. 

Warnings ;  subsequently  lines,  60  cents  to 

$3. 
Fine  or  imprisonment. 
Do. 

Tessin  (Switzerland). . 
Vaud  (Switzerland). . . 

Every  day;    penalties  for  10 
absences. 

British  Columbia 

One  half  the  period  during 
which  the  school  is  open. 

60  days  in  each  half  year,  but 

law  not  vet  enforced. 
35  school  days  per  quarter 

7-13 

7-12 
7-13 

8-13 

Fine,  $10  (maximum). 
Fine,  $2. 

$1  per  month  for  each  of  the  children  not 

attending  a  school. 
Fine. 

Prince  Edward  Island 

6-12 

7-13 
7-13 

Fine,  $5  to  $25,  or  imprisonment  7  to  30 

days. 
Fine,  $1.25  to  $5. 

a  13  to  16  in  secular  Sunday  Schools. 

b  12  to  15  continuation. 

c  From  8  until  confirmation ;  in  town  from  7  until  confirmation. 

d  Special  dispensation  after  7  years'  attendance  and  1  year's  prolongation  for  ignorance. 


Halaclia  is  the  term  for  the  Jewish  oral 
law,  and  is  supposed  to  be,  like  the  written 
law  contained  in  the  Bible,  of  divine  origin. 
It  embraces  the  whole  field  of  juridico-political, 
religious,  and  practical  life  down  to  its  most 
minute  and  insignificant  detaLs.  It  began  to 
be  written  down  when  the  sufferings  to  which 
the  Jews  were  almost  uninterruptedly  sub- 
jected from  the  first  exile  downward  had 
made  many  portions  of  it  already  very  uncer- 
tain and  fluctuating,  and  threatened  finally  to 
obliterate  it  altogether  from  memory.  The 
first  collection  of  laws  was  instituted  by  Hillel, 
Akiba,  and  Gamaliel ;  but  the  final  reduction 
of  the  general  code,  Mishna,  is  due  to  Jehudah 
Hanassi,  A.  D.  220.  The  Halacha  was  fur- 
ther developed  in  subsequent  centuries  by  the 
Saboraim,  Geonim,  and  the  authorities  of  each 
generation. 


Oneida  Community  is  a  society  of  Per- 
fectionists, or  Bible  Communists,  founded  by 
John  Humphrey  Noyes,  who  was  born  at 
Brattleborough,  Vt.,  in  1811.  He  was  origi- 
nally a  lawyer,  then  studied  theology  at  Andover 
and  Yale,  and  became  a  Congregational  min- 
ister, but  soon  lost  his  license  to  preach  on 
account  of  the  views  which  he  adopted.  The 
Community  is  situated  on  Oneida  Creek,  in 
Lenox  township,  Madison  County,  N.  Y., 
where  it  owns  a  fine  estate,  several  mills  and 
manufactories,  and  is  said  to  be  in  a  prosperous 
condition.  The  cardinal  principles  of  the 
Community  are  four  in  number:  reconciliation 
to  God,  salvation  from  sin,  recognition  of  the 
brotherhood  and  equality  of  man  and  woman, 
and  the  community  of  labor  and  its  fruits. 
The  last  named  principle  embraces  a  scheme  by 
which  all  the  male  and  all  the  female  members 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


525 


of  the  Community  are  held  in  a  sense  to  be 
married  to  each  other.  This  has  led  to  the 
charge  being  made  against  them  of  being 
"free-lovers";  but,  says  one  writer,  "The 
system,  as  regulated  by  the  '  principle  of  sym- 
pathy '  and  controlled  by  that  free  public 
opinion  which  constitutes  the  supreme  govern- 
ment of  the  society,  is  far  from  being  ame- 
nable to  the  reproach  of  immorality  in  any 
sense  of  the  word."  The  Community  reject 
all  rules  of  conduct  except  those  which  each 
believer  formulates  for  himself,  subject  to  the 
free  criticism  of  his  associates.  They  hold 
that  the  Mosaic  law  and  ordinances  were  abro- 
gated by  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  which 
they  place  at  A.  D.  70,  and  at  which  time  the 
reign  of  sin  was  concluded ;  and  true  believers 
have  since  been  free  to  follow  the  indications 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  all  things,  nothing  being 
good  or  bad  in  itself.  While  all  the  males  and 
females  are  united  by  a  "  complex  marriage," 
their  intercourse  —  which,  in  theory,  is  un- 
fettered by  any  law —  is,  in  practice,  subject  to 
a  good  deal  of  regulation.  Like  everything 
else,  it  is  subject  to  the  opinion  of  the  society, 
and  certain  principles  have  been  so  steadily  ap- 
plied to  it  that  they  have  gained  the  force  of 
laws.  First,  there  is  the  principle  of  the  as- 
cendiug  fellowship.  There  should  be  contrast, 
the  Perfectionists  say,  between  those  who  be- 
come united  in  love.  That  there  should  be 
differences  of  temperament  and  of  complexion 
has,  they  say,  been  well  ascertained  by  phys- 
iologists. They  hold  that  there  should  be  a 
difference  in  age  also,  so  that  the  young  and 
passionate  may  be  united  to  those  who  have, 
by  experience,  gained  self-control.  In  virtue 
of  this  principle,  the  younger  women  fall  to 
the  older  men,  and  the  younger  men  to 
the  older  women.  A  second  principle  is 
that  there  should  be  no  exclusive  attachment 
between  individuals ;  a  third,  that  persons 
should  not  be  obliged  to  receive  the  attentions 
of  those  whom  they  do  not  like  ;  and,  lastly,  it 
is  held  indispensable  that  connections  should 
be  formed  through  the  agency  of  a  third  party  ; 
because,  without  this,  the  question  of  their 
propriety  might  be  open  to  criticism,  and  also 
because  this  affords  the  lady  an  easy  opportu- 
nity of  declining. 

Pagodas  are  in  most  instances  pyramidal- 
shaped  temples  consisting  of  various  layers  of 
stones  piled  one  upon  another  in  successive  reces- 
sion, and  covered  all  over  with  the  richest  orna- 
mentation. They  are  among  the  most  remark- 
able monuments  of  Hindoo  architecture.  The 
pilasters  and  columns,  which  take  a  prominent 
rank  in  the  ornamental  portion  of  these  tem- 
ples, show  the  greatest  variety  of  forms  ;  some 
pagodas  are   also  overlaid  with  strips  of  cop- 


per, having  the  appearance  of  gold.  Though 
the  word  pagoda  is.  used  to  designate  but  the 
temple,  it  is  in  reality  an  aggregate  of  various 
monuments,  which  in  their  totality  constitute 
the  holy  place  sacred  to  the  god.  Sanctuaries, 
porches,  colonnades,  gateways,  walls,  tanks, 
etc.,  are  generally  combined  for  this  purpose 
according  to  a  plan  which  is  more  or  less  uni- 
form. Several  series  of  walls  form  an  inclo- 
sure  ;  between  them  are  alleys,  habitations  for 
the  priests,  etc.  ;  and  the  interior  is  occupied 
by  the  temple  itself,  with  buildings  for  the 
pilgrims,  tanks,  porticoes,  and  open  colon- 
nades. The  walls  have,  at  their  openings,  large 
pyramidal  gateways  higher  than  themselves, 
and  so  constructed  that  the  gateway  of  the 
outer  wall  is  always  higher  than  that  of  the 
succeeding  inner  wall.  These  gateways  are 
pyramidal  buildings  of  the  most  elaborate 
workmanship,  and  consist  of  several,  some- 
times as  many  as  fifteen,  stories.  The  pagoda 
of  Chalambron,  in  Tanjore,  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  and  most  sacred  of  these  monu- 
ments in  India.  The  buildings  of  which  this 
pagoda  is  composed  cover  an  oblong  square 
360  feet  long  and  210  wide.  The  pagodas  of 
Juggernaut  on  the  north  end  of  the  coast  of 
Coromandel  are  three  in  number,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall  of  black  stone,  whence  they 
are  called  by  Europeans  the  Black  Pagodas. 
The  height  of  the  principal  one  is  said  to  be 
344  feet ;  according  to  some,  however,  it  does 
not  exceed  120-123  feet.  The  term  pagoda  is 
also  applied,  but  not  correctly,  to  those  Chinese 
buildings  of  a  tower  form,  as  the  Porcelain 
Tower  of  Nanking.  These  buildings  differ 
materially  from  the  Hindoo  pagodas,  not  only 
as  regards  their  style  and  exterior  appearance, 
but  inasmuch  as  they  are  buildings  intended 
for  other  than  religious  purposes.  The  word 
pagoda  is,  according  to  some,  a  corruption  of 
the  Sanskrit  word  bhdgavata,  from  bhagavat, 
sacred ;  but  according  to  others,  &  corruption 
of  put-gada,  from  the  Persian  put,  idol,  and 
gada,  house. 

Hampshire  Shakers. —  This  community 
of  Shakers  settled  in  the  New  Forest,  near 
Lymington,  Hampshire,  England,  in  1872  or 
1873,  and  consisted  of  eighty-three  persons. 
Their  leader,  a  Mrs.  Girling,  wife  of  an  Ips- 
wich builder,  declared  herself  to  be  the  woman 
of  the  twelfth  chapter  of  Revelations,  who  was 
"clothed  with  the  sun,  and  the  moon  under 
her  feet."  These  Girlingites,  or  Bible  Chris- 
tians, as  they  called  themselves,  believed  that 
the  earth  and  the  fullness  thereof  belonged  to 
the  elect,  and  that  they  were  the  elect.  They 
professed  to  take  the  literal  scriptures  for  their 
guide  in  all  things,  yet  were  so  little  inclined 
to  earn  their  bread  by  the  sweat  of  their  brow 


526 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


that  they  got  into  debt,  mortgaged  the  cot- 
tages which  had  been  secured  for  them  by  a 
Miss  Wood,  a  convert,  and  finally  lost  their 
property  in  1878,  when,  as  a  community,  they 
passed  out  of  existence. 

Pantheon  of  Rome,  a  famous  temple 
of  circular  form,  built  by  M.  Agrippa,  son-in- 
law  of  Augustus,  in  his  third  consulship,  about 
27  B.  C.  The  edifice  was  called  the  Pantheon, 
not,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  from  its  having 
been  sacred  to  all  the  gods,  but  from  its  ma- 
jestic dome,  which  represented,  as  it  were,  the 
"all-divine  "  firmament.  It  was  dedicated  to 
Jupiter  Ultor.  Beside  the  statue  of  this  god, 
however;  there  were  in  six  other  niches  as 
many  colossal  statues  of  other  deities,  among 
which  were  those  of  Mars  and  Venus,  the 
founders  of  the  Julian  line,  and  that  of  Julius 
Caesar.  The  Pantheon  is  by  far  the  largest 
structure  of  ancient  times,  the  external  diam- 
eter being  188  feet,  and  the  height  to  the  sum- 
mit of  the  upper  cornice  102  feet,  exclusive  of 
the  flat  dome  or  calotte,  which  makes  the  entire 
height  about  148  feet.  It  has  a  portico,  in 
the  style  of  the  Corinthian  architecture,  110 
feet  in  length  and  44  feet  in  depth,  made  up  of 
16  granite  columns,  with  marble  capitals  and 
bases,  placed  in  three  rows,  each  column  being 
5  feet  in  diameter  and  46£  feet  high.  These 
columns  supported  a  pediment  with  a  roof  of 
bronze.  The  Pantheon  stands  near  the  ancient 
Campus  Martius,  and,  after  the  lapse  of  1900 
years,  is  still  the  best  preserved  of  the  old 
Roman  buildings.  It  was  given  to  Boniface 
IV.  by  the  Emperor  Phocas  in  609,  and  was 
dedicated  as  a  Christian  church  to  the  Virgin 
and  the  Holy  Martyrs,  a  quantity  of  whose 
relics  was  placed  under  the  great  altar.  In 
830,  Gregory  IV.  dedicated  it  to  all  the  saints. 
It  is  now  known  as  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria 
Rotunda.  This  consecration  of  the  edifice, 
however,  seems  to  have  afforded  it  no  defense 
against  the  subsequent  spoliations,  both  of 
emperors  and  popes.  The  plates  of  gilded 
bronze  that  covered  the  roof,  the  bronze  bassi- 
relievi  of  the  pediment,  and  the  silver  that  [ 
adorned  the  interior  of  the  dome,  were  carried  off 
byConstans  II.,  A.  D.  655,  who  destined  them 
for  his>imperial  palace  at  Constantinople  ;  but, 
being  murdered  at  Syracuse  when  on  his  return 
with  them,  they  were  taken  by  their  next  pro- 
prietors to  Alexandria.  Urban  VIII.  carried 
off  all  that  was  left  to  purloin  —  the  bronze 
beams  of  the  portico,  which  amounted  in 
weight  to  more  than  45,000,000  pounds.  Dur- 
ing  eight  centuries  it  has  suffered  from 
the  dilapidations  of  time  and  the  cupidity  of 
barbarians.  The  seven  steps  which  elevated  it 
tbove  the  level  of  ancient  Rome  are  buried 
>eneath  the  modern  pavement.     Its  rotunda  of 


brick  is  blackened  and  decayed ;  the  marble 
statues,  the  bassi-relievi,  the  brazen  columns, 
have  disappeared ;  its  ornaments  have  van- 
ished, its  granite  columns  have  lost  their  luster, 
and  its  marble  capitals  their  purity.  Yet, 
under  every  disadvantage,  it  is  still  pre- 
eminently beautiful.  No  eye  can  rest  on  the 
noble  simplicity  of  the  matchless  portico  with- 
out admiration.  Its  beauty  is  of  that  sort 
which,  while  the  fabric  stands,  time  has  no 
power  to  destroy. 

Oracles  dated  from  the  highest  antiquity, 
and  flourished  in  the  most  remote  ages.  The 
word  signifies  the  response  delivered  by  a 
deity  or  supernatural  being  to  a  worshiper  or 
inquirer,  and  also  the  place  where  the  response 
was  delivered.  These  responses  were  sup- 
posed to  be  given  by  a  certain  divine  afflatus, 
either  through  means  of  mankind,  as  in  the 
orgasms  of  the  Pythia,  and  the  dreams  of  the 
worshiper  in  the  temples ;  or  by  its  effect  on 
certain  objects,  as  the  tinkling  of  the  caldrons 
at  Dodona,  the  rustling  of  the  sacred  oak,  the 
murmuring  of  the  streams  ;  or  by  the  action  of 
sacred  animals,  as  exemplified  in  the  Apis  or 
sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  and  the  feeding  of 
holy  chickens  of  the  Romans.  These  responses, 
however,  had  always  to  be  interpreted  to  the 
inquirer  by  the  priesthood.  It  is  probable  that 
all  the  Egyptian  temples  were  oracular,  although 
only  a  few  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus,  as 
the  oracles  of  Latona  in  the  city  of  Buto ; 
those  of  Hercules,  Mars,  Thebes,  and  Meroe. 
Oracles -were  also  used  by  the  Hebrews.  The 
Grecian  oracles  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation 
for  truthfulness,  and  the  most  renowned  of 
all  was  the  Delphic  Oracle.  Sacrifices  were 
offered  by  the  inquirers,  who  walked  with 
laurel  crowns  on  their  heads,  and  delivered 
sealed  questions ;  the  response  was  deemed 
infallible,  and  was  usually  dictated  by  justice, 
sound  sense,  and  reason,  till  the  growing  po- 
litical importance  of  the  shrine  rendered  the 
guardians  of  it  fearful  to  offend,  when  they 
framed  answers  in  ambiguous  terms,  or  al- 
lowed the  influence  of  gold  and  presents  to 
corrupt  the  inspirations.  There  were  numer- 
ous other  oracles  in  Greece  and  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor, and  written  ones  existed  of  the  prophecies 
of  celebrated  seers.  Those  of  the  Sibyls  or 
prophetic  women  enjoyed  great  popularity. 

Holy  Grail. —  The  Holy  Grail  was  one  of 
the  leading  themes  of  mediaeval  romance, 
fabled  to  have  been  the  cup  or  chalice  used  by 
Christ  in  the  Last  Supper,  and  in  which  he 
changed  the  wine  into  blood.  This  chalice, 
preserved  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  had  also 
received  the  blood  whicli  flowed  from  the  side 
of  Christ  on  the  cross.  This  is  what  the 
apocryphal  gospel  of  Nicodemus  says,  but  no 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


527 


early  mention  is  made  of  it  by  either  profane 
or  ecclesiastical  writers.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury it  reappears  as  the  central  subject  of  the 
prophecies  of  Merlin  and  the  object  of  the  ad- 
venturous quest  of  the  Knights  of  the  Round 
Table.  It  was  also  mixed  up,  by  romance, 
with  the  struggles  in  Spain  between  Moors  and 
Christians,  and  with  the  foundation  of  the 
Order  of  Templars  in  Palestine. 

Peter  the  Hermit  was  the  apostle  of  the 
first  crusade,  and  was  born  in  the  diocese  of 
Amiens,  France,  about  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century.  After  engaging  in  several 
pursuits  he  became  a  hermit,  and  in  1093  un- 


dertook a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  where  the 
oppression  he  witnessed  and  experienced  deter- 
mined him  to  arouse  the  people  of  Christendom 
to  undertake  a  war  for  the  liberation  of  the  holy 
sepulcher.  The  first  host  of  crusaders  was  led 
by  Peter  in  person,  and  was  unsuccessful.  He 
was  associated  with  the  expedition  under  God- 
frey of  Bouillon.  While  the  crusaders  were  be- 
sieged in  Antioch,  he  deserted,  but  was  captured 
and  brought  back.  On  the  conquest  of  Jeru- 
salem he  preached  a  sermon  to  the  crusaders  on 
the  Mount  of  Olives.  After  this  he  returned 
to  Europe  and  founded  the  Abbey  of  Neuf- 
moustier,  near  Huy,  where  he  died  in  1115. 


UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


• 

a 

a 

sis 

00    O 

<a 

3£> 

a  -w 

a 

S 

PA 

■ 

> 

s  I  ° 

"S3S 
2hfi 

^    < 


1873  Add-Ran  Christ,  Un.t  Waco,  Tex 

1896  Adelphi  Colleget B'klvn  Boro,  N.  Y. 

1859  Adrian  Colleget Adrian,  Mich 

1872  Alabama  Poly.  Inst.t..  Auburn,  Ala 

1861  Albion  Colleget Albion,  Mich 

183G  Alfred  University* ....  Alfred,  N.  Y 

1815  Allegheny  Colleget. . . .  jMeadville,  Pa 

1887  Alma  Colleget JAlma,  Mich 

1892  Am.  Temperance  Un.tjHarriman,  Tenn.. . 
1891  American  Univ.t(.  )• . .  Washington,  D.  C. 

1821  Amherst  College Amherst,  Mass 

1872  Amity  Colleget College  Springs,  la 

1808  Andover  Theol.  Sem. .  Andover,  Mass 

1852  Antioch  Colleget j  Yellow  Springs,  O. 

1872  Arkansas  Colleget Batesville,  Ark .... 

1872  Arkansas  Indus.  Un.t  Favet'ville.Ark/j/) 

1893  Armour  Inst.  Tech'vt  Chicago,  111 

1842  Ashevillo  Colleget..."..  Asheville,  N.  C... 

1869  Atlanta  Universitvt.  ..  Atlanta,  Ga 

1820  Auburn  Theol.  Sem'y .  Auburn,  N.  Y 

1869  Augsburg  Seminary...  [Minneapolis,  Minn 

1860  Augustana  Colleget(tf)  Rock  Island,  111. . . 

1849  Austin  College Sherman,  Tex 

1869  Avalon  Colleget Trenton,  Mo 

1858  Baker  Universityt Baldwin,  Kas 

1845  Baldwin  University. .  Berea,  o 

1889  Barnard  Collegej(rf).. .  Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 

1863  Bates  Colleget Le wiston,  Me 

1845  Baylor  Universityt.  ..Waco,  Tex 

1847  Beloit  Colleget Beloit,  Wis 

1891  Benzonia  Colleget(^). .Benzonia,  Mich. . . 

1855  Berea  Colleget Berea,  Ky 

1881  Bethany  Colleget.   ...  Lindsborg,  Kan.. . 
1841  Bethany  Colleget Bethany,  W.  Va.. . 

1854  Bethel  College Russellville,  Kv. . . 

1847  Bethel  Colleget McKenzie,  Tenn    J 

1868  Biddle  Universityf.. ..  Charlotte,  N.C... . 

1864  Boston  College \  Boston,  Mass 

1869  Boston  Universityt. . . .  Boston,  Mass ' 

1794  Bowdoin  College Brunswick,  Me ' 

1877  Brigham  Young  Col.t  Logan,  Utah I 

1764  Brown  Universitvt Providence,  R.  I.. . ' 

1880  Brvn  Mawr  Colleges. .  BrvnMawr.Pa 

1871  Buchtel  Colleget Ak'ron,  O j 

1846  Bucknell  Universityt.  Lewisburg,  Pa 

1848  Burritt  Colleget. ......  Spencer,  Tenn I 

1855  Butler  Universityt(7).  Irvington,  Ind 

1870  Canisius  College Buffalo,  N.  Y 

1850  Capital  University jColumbus,  O 

1866  Carleton  Colleget iNorthfield.Minn. . 

1851  Carson  &  Newman  C.1j  Mossy  Creek, Tenn 

1870  Carthage  Colleget jCarthage,  111 

1880  Case  Sc.  App'l  Science  Cleveland,  O 

1851  Catawba  Colleget Newton.  N.  C 

1888  Catholic  Univ.  Am.(/)iWashington,  D.  C. 


Disciples....  E.  C.  Snow,  A. M 

Non-Sect C.  H.  Levermore,  Ph.D 

Meth.  Prot. .  [I>r.  David  Jones  (Act.Pres.) 
Non-Sect ....  W.LeRoy  Broun,M.A.,LL.D 
Meth.  Epis. .  Rev.J.P.Ashley,S.T.B..PhD 

Non-Sect Rev.  Boothe  C.  Davis,  Ph.D. 

Meth.  Epis. .  William  H.  Crawford,  D.D. 

Presbyterian  Rev.  A.  F.  Bruske,  D.D 

Non-Sect ....  J.  F.  Spence,  A.M.,  LL.l). . . 
Meth.  Epis. .  |Bp.  J.F.  Hurst,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Non-Sect .George  Harris,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Non-Sect ....  Rev.  J.C.Calhoun,  A.B., A.M 

Congregat'l. .  I  George  F.Moore,  D.D 

Non-Sect  ....[William  A.  Bell,  M.A 

Presbyterian  Eugene  R.Long,  A.M.. l'h. D 

Non-Sect |  J.  L.  Buchanan,  A.M., LL.D. 

Non-Sect j  V.  C.  Alderson 

Non-Sect Archibald  A.  Jones,  A. 15... 

Non-Sect Horace  Bumstead,  D.D 

Presbyterian  Rev.  G.  B.  Stewart,  D.D 

Lutheran Oeorge  Sverdrup 

Lutheran. . . .  |Rev.  O.  Olsson, D.D.,  Ph.D. 
Presbyterian  T.  R.  Sampson,  A.B.,  D.D.. 
U.  Brethren.  C.  J.  Kephart,  A.M..  D.D... 

Meth.  Epis..  Lemuel  H.  Murlin,  D.D I 

Meth.  Epis..  Rev.  R.M.  Freshwater.D.D. 

Non-Sect Emily  J.  Smith,  A.B.,Dean. 

Free  Baptist  George  C.Chase,D.D.,LL.D.; 

Baptist Oscar  H.  Cooper,  LL.D 

Non-Sect . . . .  E.  D.  Eaton,  D.D.,  LL.D .... 
Congregat'l .  Rev.  James  G.  Rodger, A. B. 
Non-Sect ....  Wm.  G.  Frost,  Ph.D.,  D.D.. 

Lutheran Rev.  C.Swensson,  Ph.D ' 

Disciples C.  A.  Young,  Ph.D 

Baptist Rev.  E.  S.  Alderman,  D.D..i 

Cumb.  Pres. .  Charles  E.  Stark,  A.M 

Presbyterian  Rev.  D.  J.  Sanders,  D.D 

R.  Catholic  Rev.  Tim.  Brosnahan,  S.J.. 
Meth.  Epis..  W.F.  Warren.  S.T.D..LL.D. 
Congregat'l  .  Wm.  DeWitt  Hyde.  D.D.. .. 
Latter  Day..  James H.Limford,B.S.,B.D. 

Non-Sect ....  W.  H.  P.  Faunce,  D.D 

Non-Sect M.  Carey  Thomas,  Ph.D 

Universalist.  Rev.  Ira  A.  Priest 

Baptist John  H.Harris.  LL.D., Ph.D. 

Christian W.N.  Billingslev,  A.M 

Non-Sect ....  Scot  Butler,  A.M.,  LL.D. . . . 

R.  Catholic.  J  Rev.  John  B.Theis,  S.J 

Lutheran ....  F.  W.  Stellhorn,  D.D 

Congregat'l..  j  James  W.  Strong,  D.D 

Baptist J.  T.  Henderson,  A.M 

Lutheran IRev.Fred  L.  Sigmund,  A.M. 

Non-Sect .. ..  Cady  Staley,  Ph.D.,  LL.D... 

Reformed  . ..  C.  H.  Mebane,  A.B 

R.  Catholic. . 'Rev. Thomas  J.Conaty,  D.D. 


15  200 
70  1.062 
15  115 
30'  341 
26     427 


150 
326 
223 
400 


l(i 
8 
19 

a 

do 

4^ 
16 

20 

in 
7 

26 
9 

10 

28 

11 

86 

24 

21 

23 

18 

31 

22 

16 
9 
7 

11 

20 
144 

::i 

15 

64 

41 

18 

26|  419| 
188J 
238 
240| 
115 
310 
300 
158 
24' i 
17(1 
175 


240 
41 
150 
108 
790 

1.200 
155 
300 
100 
194 
512 
102 
120 
532 
272 
265 
340 
541 
414 
223 
674 
427 
100 
89 
202 
263 
477 

1,454 
379 
344 
909 
310 
192 


3,250    $20,000 

8,000   

6,000|  80,000 
11,0001  57,791 
12,000!  230,000 
11,728[  289.000 
17,000l  200,000 
15,000     220,000 

2,000, 

4,500   

70,Oro  1,600,000 

4.000  27,000 
51,000     800,000 

5,000     102,000 

4,000j  

7,908!  130,000 
16,000  1,500,000 

2,500    

10,400;  42.000 
32,477|    569,775 

1,000!   

15,000!    325,000 

8,000|      60,000 


10,000 
80,000 


5,000 

7,0.00 

5,000 

(d)    i 

20,000  356,000 

8,000  8,500 

24,000    

6,000    

14,000    

5,000    

3  000 

5,000  125^666 

1.000    

13,000  ........ 

39,109)  400.000 

I  937,000 

63.000  660,416 

3,100  100,000 

90,000  1,297,227 

27,291  1,500,000 

7,500  200,000 

18,000  400,000 

3  825 

6^000  275i666 
21,000' 


6,000 
15.000 
3,500 
5,000 
2,500| 
1,500 


48,487 
125,000 
40,000 
50,000 
1,000,000 
30,000 


46,5841    856,283 


528 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  United  States— Continued. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


* 

a 

C   03 

00 

a 

is 

00  O 

?■=> 

a*3 

0 

4J 

°3 

CG 

f> 

Ph       <J 


1857 
1855 
1866 
1853 
1873 
1864 
1819 
1853 
1891 
1785 
1853 
1869, 
1870 ! 
1887| 
1893, 
1881 
1818 
1885 
1819 
1847 
1874 
1754 
1821 
1839 
18.18 
1857 
1868 
1889 
1842 
1769 
1837 
1884 
1833 
1831 
1337, 
1865 
1783 
1872 
1881 
1867 
1873 
1847 
1855 
1890 
1838 
1837 
1882 
1839 
1855 
1867 

1388 
1882 
1867 
1881 
1852 
1834 
1825 
1854 
1856 
1881 
1817 
1848 
1829 
1789 
1848 
1850 
1S46 
1794 
1891 

1837 
1862 
1K12 
1854 
1775 
1868 
1832 
1834 


Central  Colleget 

Central  PemraColl.t.. 
Central  Tenn.  Col.t(e). 
Central  University!. . . 

Central  University 

Central  Wesleyan  Col.f 

Centre  College 

Chaddock  Colleget 

Charles  City  Colleget . 

Charleston  College 

Christian  Uni  versityt . 
Clarlin  Universityt§ . . 
i Clark  Universityt. 

Clark  University 

I  Clemson  Agri.  College 

Coe  Colleget 

Colby  Colleget 

Colfax  Colleget 

Colgate  University 

College  City  of  N.  Y.. 

Colorado  Colleget 

Columbia  Univ.(d)...". 

Columbian  Univ.t 

Concordia  College 

Consolidated  Univ.t.. 

Cornell  Colleget 

Cornell  Uni  versityt. . . 
Cotner  Universityt... 
Cumberland  Univ.t. . . 
Dartmouth  College. . . . 

Davidson  College 

Deliance  Colleget 

Delaware  College 

Denison  University. . . 
De  Pauw  Universityt . 
Des  Moines  Colleget. 
Dickinson  Colleget.. . . 

Doane  Colleget 

Drake  Universityt 

Drew  Theol.  Sem 

Drury  Colleget 

Earlham  Colleget 

Elmira  College}: 

Elon  Colleget 

Emory  &  Henry  Col.. 

Emory  College 

Emporia  Colleget 

Erskine  Colleget 

Eureka  Colleget 

Ewing  Colleget 

Fairmount  Colleget. . . 

Fargo  Colleget 

Findlay  Colleget 

FiskUniversityt(c) 

Fort  Worth  Univ.t 

Franklin  &  Marshall. 

Franklin  Colleget 

Franklin  Colleget 

Furman  Universityt . . 

Gale  Colleget 

Gates  Colleget 

General  Theol.  Sem. . . 

Geneva  Colleget 

Georgetown  Colleget. 
Georgetown  Univer. . . 

Girard  College 

Grand  River  C.U.Col.t 
Greensboro  Colleget. . 
Gr'nville&  Tusc.  Col.t 

Greer  Colleget .  

Grove  City  College 

Guilford  Colleget.  ... 
Gustav.  Adolphus  C.t. 

Hamilton  College 

Mainline  Universityt. . 
Hampden-S)  dney  Col. . 

Hampton  Inst. t(3) 

Hanover  Colleget 

Hartford  Theol.  Sem.t 


Fayette,  Mo 

New  Berlin,  Pa... 
Nashville,  Tenn. . 

Pella,  la 

Richmond,  Ky... 
Warrenton,  Mo.. 

Danville,  Ky 

Quincy,  111 

Charles  City,  Iowa 
Charleston  ,"S.  C . 

Canton,  Mo 

Orangeburg, S. C 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Worcester,  Mass. . 
Clemson  Col.,  S.C. 
Cedar  Rapids,  la. . 
Waterville,  Me .... 

Colfax,  Wash 

Hamilton,  N.  Y... 
Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 
Colorado  Sp's,  Col 
Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind. . 
Univ.  Park,  Ore. .. 
Mt.  Vernon,  Iowa. 

Ithaca,  N.Y 

Bethany,  Neb 

Lebanon,  Tenn 

Hanover,  N.  H 

Davidson,  N.  C 

Defiance,  O 

Newark,  Del 

Granville,  O 

Greencastle,  Ind.. 
Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Carlisle,  Pa 

Crete,  Neb 

Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Madison,  N.  J 

Springfield,  Mo.  . 
Richmond,  Ind.. . . 

Klmira,  N.  Y 

Elon  College,  N.  C. 

Emory,  Va .. 

Oxford,  Ga 

Emporia,  Kan 

Due  West,  S.C... 

Eureka,  111 

Ewing,  111 

Wichita,  Kan 

Fargo,  N.  D 

Findlay,0..  

Nashville,  Tenn. . . 
Fort  Worth,  Tex  . 

Lancaster,  Pa 

Franklin,  Ind 

New  Athens,  O 

Greenville,  S.  C . 

Galesville,  Wis 

Neligh,  Neb 

Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 
Beaver  Falls,  Pa.. 
Georgetown,  Ky.. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Philadelphia,  Pa.. 

Edinburg,  Mo 

Greensboro,  N.  C.. 
Tusculum,  Tenn. . . 

Hoopeston,  111 

Grove  Citv,  Pa 

Guilford  Col. ,N.C. 

St.  Peter,  Minn 

Clinton,  N.Y 

St.  Paul,  Mlnn.(x). 
Hamp.-Sidney,Va. 

Hampton,  Va 

Hanover,  Ind 

Hartford,  Ct 


Meth.  Ep.  S.. 
Evangelical . 
Meth.  Epis. . 

Baptist 

Presbyterian 
Meth.  Epis. . 
Presbyterian 
Meth.  Epis. . 
Germ.  Meth 

Non-Sect 

Disciples 

Meth.  Epis. . 
Meth.  Epis. . 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Presbyterian 

Baptist 

Baptist 

Baptist 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Lutheran 

Meth.  Epis. 
Meth.  Epis.. 

Non-Sect 

Disciples 

Cumb.  Pres.. 

Non-Sect 

Presbyterian 

Non-S*ect 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Meth.  Epis.. 

Baptist 

Meth.  Epis.. 
Congregat'l . 
Christian.... 
Meth.  Epis.. 
Congregat'l . 
Or.  Friends.. 
Presbyterian 
Christian.... 
Methodist ... 
Meth.  Ep.  S. 
Presbyterian 
Presbyterian 

Disciples 

Baptist 

Congregat'l . 
Congregat'l . 
Ch.of  God.. 
Congregat'l  . 
Meth.  Epis.. 
Ref.  in  U.S.. 

Baptist 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Presbyterian 
Congregat'l.. 
Prot.  Epis. .. 
Ref.  Presb... 

Baptist 

R.  Catholic. 

Non-Sect 

Chris.  Union 
Meth.  Epis. . 
Presbyterian 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Friends 

Lutheran... . 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  Epis.. 
Non-Sect... 

Non-Sect 

Presbyterian 
Congregat'l.. 


E.B.  Craighead,  A.M..LL.D. 
Rev.  A.  E.Gobbie,A.M.,D.D. 

Rev.  John  Braden,  D.D 

Rev.  A.B.  Chaffee, A.M., D.D 
L.  H.  Blanton,  D.D.,  Chan.. 
Geo.  B.  Addicks,  A.B..A.M. 
Rv.W.C.Roberts,D.D.,LL.D 

Rev.  A.  M.  Danely,  A.M 

J.  F.  Hirsch,  M.A 

Harrison  Randolph,  M.A. . . 

D.R.  Dungan,  A.M 

L.  M.  Dunton.  A.M.,  D.D. .. 
Chas.  M.  Melden,  Ph.D. .... 

G.  Stanley  Hall,  LL.D 

Henry  S.  Hartzog,  B.S 

Rev.  S.  B.  McCormick,  D.D. 
Rev.  Nathaniel  Butler,  D.D. 
F.N.  English,  A.M., Ph.D.. 

George  B.  Merrill,  D.D 

Alex.  Stewart  Webb,  LL.D. 
W.  F.  Slocum,  B.D.,  LL.D.. 

SethLow,  LL.D 

S.  H.  Greene,  LL.D 

Jos.  Schmidt,  A.M 

Rev.  C.  R.  Thoburn,  Chan.. 
Wm.  F.  King,  D.D.,  LL.D.. 
J.G.  Schurman,  D. So., LL.D. 

W.  P.  Aylsworth,  LL.D 

Nathan  Green,  LL.D., Chan. 
Wm.  J.  Tucker,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
J.  B.  Shearer,  D.D.,  LL.D.. 
J.R.  H.Latshaw,  A.M., D.D. 
Geo.  A.  Harter,  M.  A.,  Ph.D. 

D.  B.  Purinton,Fh.D.,LL.D. 

Rev.  H.  A.  Gobin.D.D 

J.  P.  Stephenson,  Dean 

Geo.  E.  Reed,  S.T.D.,  LL.D. 
David  B.  Perry,  A.M.,  D.D. 
Wm.  B.  Craig,  D.D.,Chan.. 
Henry  A.  Buttz,D.D..LL.D. 

Homer  T.  Fuller,  Ph.D 

Joseph  J.  Mills,  A.M..LL.D. 
Rev.  A.  C.  MaeKenzie,  D.D. 
Rev.W.W.  Stalls,  A.M., D.D. 
R.G.Waterhouse,M.A.,D.D. 

C.  E.  Dowman,  A.M.,  D.D.. 
Rev.  J.  C.  Miller,  A.M. .D.D. 
Rev.  F.  Y.  Pressly,  D.D.... 

R.  E.  Hieronymus,  A.M 

J.  A.  Leavitt.B.A.,  D.D.... 

Rev.  J.  N.  Morrison 

Rev.  H.  J.  Morley,  LL.D.... 
Rev.  C.  Manchester,  D.D. . . 
Erastus  Milo  Cravath,  D.D. 
Rev.O.  L.  Fisher, A.M., D.D. 
Rev.  J.  S.  Stahr,Ph.D.,D.D. 
Rev.  W.  T.  Stott,  A.M., D.D. 
Rev.  W.  A.  Williams,  D.D. . 
A.P.  Montague,  Ph.D., LL.D. 
Wm.  D.  Thomas,D.D.,Ph.D. 
Rev.  Oscar  F.  Davis 

E.  A.  Hoffman,  D.D. ,D.C.L. 
W.  P.  Johnston,  A.M.,  D.D. 

Arthur  Yager,  Ph.D 

Rev.  J.  I).  Whitney,  S.J 

A.H.  Fetterolf,Ph".D..LL.D. 
Rev.  Geo.  W.  Mitchell, D.D. 
Dred  Peacock,  A.B.,  A.M. . . 

Rev.  Jere.  Moore,  D.D 

J.  M.  Clary,  A.M 

Rev.  I.  C.  Ketler,Ph.D.,D.D. 

Lewis  L.  Hobbs,  A.M 

M.  Wahlstroin,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 
M.  W.  Stryker,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
Rev.  (i.  IL  Bridgman,  D.D. 
Richard  Mcllwaine,  D.D. .. 
Rev.  H.  B.  Frissell.D.D 

D.  W.  Fisher,  D.D.,  LL.D.. . 
Rev.  C.  D.  Hartranft,  D.D.. 


lsl 
103 
536 
206 
BM 
246 
242 

75 
220 

40 
126 
068 
475 


460 
182 

2'_>0 

126 

325 

1,907 

450 

2,157 

1,093 

177 

182 

571 

1,835 

186 

273 

670 

180 

287 

91 

378 

480 

153 


6,000 
5,000 
4,225 
4,000 
8,200 
6,000 

12,137 
1,000 
2,000 

12,500 
1,000 
5,000 
1,000 

17,000 
5,000 
2,500 

34,800 
1,500 

26,047 

81,636 

25,000 
250,000 

12,000 
4,260 
1,500| 

16,536 1 
211,278 


$140,000 
41,000 
15,000 
23,000 

150,000 
70,000 

500,000 

" '21,666 

299,000 

18,000 

5,000 

2J666^666 

80,000 

65,000 

436,400 

1,566.066 

43,800 

360,000 

10400,000 

1,500,000 

'so'.ooo 

100,000 
5,756,370 


6,000 
85,000 
12,000 
500 
10,000 
20,000 
9,700 
2,500 
450  35,000 
140  7,600 
1,100  6,500 
175  43,000 
325   ■_>:;. 500 


360 
114 
100 
119 
305 
104 
80 
210 
138 


166 

110 
468 
930 
306 
260 
loo 
166 
00 
201 
156 
•J42 
360 
684 


67  1,715 

9  97 

15  160 

8!  146 

18 !  275 

10  610 

11  175 
14  256 
18  155 
60  393 

9  128 
80  1,006 

14!  175 

17l  63 


30,000 

5,000 

12.000 

11,000 

20,000 

4,000 

6,000 

3,200 

5,000 


90,000 

2,300,000 

120,000 

300,000 

83,000 
410,000 
350,000 

57,000 
375,000 

79,256 
150,000 
400,000 
235,000 
200,000 

80,000 


28,000 
175,156 


100,000 
' '26,666 


2,600 

1.000 

6,509  i 

3,500 

35,947 

12,000 

3,000 

2,000 

5,000 

5,000 

28,183 

4,500 

12,000' 

80,000 

15,872 

1,000 

6,000 

7,500 

2,000 

4,000 

5,000 

8,000 

40,000 

7,500 

16,000 

9,000 

14,000 

68,000 


40,000 
62,000 
42,000 

' '346,666 
207,000 

'"65,000 

20,000 

20,000 

1,372,245 

114,000 

235,000 

47,000 

15958,293 


1,800 
40,000 


50,000 

6,863 

511,000 


150,000 
708,300 
200,000 
175,000 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


529 


Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  United  States — Continued. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


• 

e 

-  00 

00 

a 

S2 

m  o 

rs 

Sfl 

C« 

0 

- 

c3 

'X. 

> 

a      ^ 
.t    |   O 

■55c 


1636  Harvard  University... 
1833  Haverford  College". . . . 
1855  Hedding  Colleget 

1850  Heidelberg  Univ.f 

1884  Hendrix  Colleget 

Henry  College! 

1857  Highland  University  t 

1855  Hillsdale  Colleget 

1867  Hiram  Colleget 

1849  Hiwassee  Colleget  .... 

1825  Hobart  College 

1866  Hope  Colleget 

1841  Howard  College^?) . . . 
1843  Holy  Cross  College. . .. 

1867  Howard  Universityt-. 
1883  Huron  Colleget 

1829  Illinois  College 

1851  Illinois  Wesleyan  I'.t. 

1880  Indian  Universityt 

1820  Indiana  Universityt  .. 
1847  Iowa  Colleget 

1869  Iowa  State  Colleget. . . 
1843  Iowa  "Weslevan  Univ.t 
1883  John  B.  Stetson  Un.t. 
1876  Johns  Hopkins  Un.(gr). 

1855  Kalamazoo  Coll.t(ff).. . 

1886  Kansas  Wesley  an  Un.l 

1836  Kentucky  Universityt 
1860  Ky.  Weslevan  Coll.t.". . 

1826  Kenyon  College 

1892  Keuka  Colleget 

1867  King  College 

1837  Knox  College! 

1883  La  Fayette  Colleget. . . 
1832  Lafavette  College 

1858  La  Grange  Colleget. . . 

1857  Lake  Forest  Univ.t  . . . 
1832  Lane  Theol.  Seminary 

1863  La  Salle  College '. 

1847  Lawrence  Univ.t 

1866  Lebanon  Valley  Coll.t 
1866  Lehigh  University .... 
1891  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.t. 

1870  Leland  Universityt... 
1891  Lenoir'Colleget . .' 

1856  Lenox  Colleget 

1875  Liberty  Colleget 

1893  Lima  Colleget 

1865  Lincoln  Universityt  .. 
1854  Lincoln  Universitv§(7i 
1882, Livingstone  College§  t 
1851  Lombard  Universityt . 
1860  Louisiana  State  Un'iv. 

1885  Macalester  Colleget. . . 

1863  Manhattan  College 

1836  Marietta  Colleget 

1819  Marvville  Colleget.... 
1863!Mass.  Agricul.  Coll.t. . 

1866  Mass.  Inst.  Techn'lgvt 

1830  McCormiek  The.  Bern. 
1828  McKendree  Colleget- . 

1858  i  McMinnville Colleget. 

18'>7  Mercer  University 

1824  Miami  Universityt 

1867  Mich.  Agricul.  Coll.t.. 
1800  Middleburv  Colleget.. 

1887  Midland  Colleget 

1882  Milligan  Colleget 

1871  Mills  Coll.  and  Sem.t.. 
1867  Milton  College! 

1880  Miss.Agri.&Mech.CoJ. 

1850  Mississippi  College  . . . 

1889  Missouri  Valley  Coll.t. 
1856  Monmouth  Colleget. . . 
1856  Moore's  Hill  Colleget . 

1890  Morgan  Colleget  § 

1894;Morhingside  Colleget. 

1881  iMorris  Brown  Colleget 

1872  Morrisville  Colleget.. . 


Cambridge,  Mass.. 

Haverford,  Pa 

Abingdon,  111 

Tiffin,  O 

Conway,  Ark 

Campbell,  Tex 

Highland,  Kan 

Hillsdale,  Mich 

Hiram,  O 

Hiwassee  C,  Tenn. 

Geneva,  N.  Y 

Holland,  Mich 

East  Lake,  Ala 

Worcester,  Mass . . 
Washington,  D.  C. 
Huron,  S.  Dakota. 
Jacksonville,  111. . . 
Bloomington,  111. . 
Bacone,  Ind.  Ter. . 
Bloomington.  Ind. 

Grinned,"  Iowa 

Ames,  Iowa 

Mt.  Pleasant,  Iowa 

DeLand.Fla 

Baltimore,  Md 

Kalamazoo.  Mich 

Salina,  Kan 

Lexington.  Ky.((/). 
Winchester,  ivy... 

Gambler,  O 

Keuka  Park,  N.  Y. 

Bristol,  Tenn 

Galesburg,  111  

La  Fayette,  Ala. .. 

East  on,  Pa 

La  Grange,  Mo 

Lake  Forest,  lll.(p) 

Cincinnati,  O 

Philadelphia,  Pa.. 

Appleton,  Wis 

Annville,  Pa 

S.  Bethlehem,  Pa.. 

Palo  Alto,  Cal 

New  Orleans,  La. . 

Hickory,  N.  C 

Hopkinton,  Iowa.. 

Glasgow,  Ky 

Lima,  O. .. .". 

Lincoln,  111 

Oxford,  Pa 

Salisbury,  N.  C... 

Galesburg,  111 

Baton  Rouge,  La.. 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Manh'nBoro.,N.Y. 

Marietta,  O 

Maryville,  Tenn... 

Amherst,  Mass 

Boston,  Mass 

Chicago,  111 

Lebanon,  111 

McMinnville,  Or.. 

Macon,  Ga 

Oxford,  0 

Lansing.  Mich 

Middlebury.  Vt  ... 

Atchison,  Kan 

Milligan,  Tenn  .. 
Seminary  Park  Cal 

Milton  Wis 

Agric   Coll.,  Miss. 

Clintor,  Miss 

Marshall,  Mo 

Monmouth,  111 

Moore's  Hill,  Ind.. 

Baltimore,  Md 

Sioux  City,  Iowa. . 

Atlanta,  (ia 

Morrisville,  Mo. . . . 


Non-Sect ....  | Charles  Wm.  Eliot,  LL.D.. . 

Friends Isaac  Sharpless,Sc.D.,LL.D. 

Meth.  Epis..  H.  D.  Clark,  D.D.,  Ph.D.... 

Ref.  in  U.  S.  Rev.  J.  A.  Peters,  D.D 

Meth.  Ep.  S.  Rev.  A.  C.  Millar,  A.M 

Non-Sect ....  T.  H.  Bridges 

Presbvterian  Ambrose  P.  Haydon,  A.M.. 
Free  Baptist  Ceorge  F.  Mosher,  LL.D. .. 
Christian....  Ely  V.  Zollars,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Non-Sect Rev.  J.  E.  Lowry 

Prot.  Epis. . .  Rev.  Robert  E.  Jones,  D.D. 
Ref.  in  Am..  'Gerrit  J.Kollen,A.M.,LL.D. 

Baptist F.  M.  Roof,  A.B.,  A.M 

R.  Catnoiic.  John  F.  Lehy,  S.J 

Non-Sect....  J.E.Rankin,  D.D.,LL.D... 
Presbyterian  Rev.  C.  H.  French,  M.A .... 

Non-Sect ....  C.  W.  Barnes,  M.A 

Meth.  Epis..  Edgar M.  Smith 

Baptist J.  H.  Scott 

Non-Sect Joseph  Swain,  LL.D 

Congregat'L.  Rev.  George  A.  Gates,  D.D. 

Non-Sect W. M. Beardshear,  LL.D... 

Meth.  Epis..  Rev.  A. C.  Piersel 

Baptist John  F.  Forbes,  A.M.,Ph.D. 

Non-Sect Daniel  C.  Gilman,  LL.D  — 

Baptist A.  G.  Slocum,  LL.D 

Meth.  Epis. .  F.  B.  Tubbs,  A.M 

Christian....  I  A.  R.  Milligan 

Meth.  Ep.  S..  !D.  W.  Batson 

Prot.  Epis. . .  !Rev.WFPierce,M.A.,L.H.D. 
Free  Baptist  Rev.  Geo.  H.  Ball,A.M.,D.D. 
Presbyterian  Rev. J. A. Wallace, M.A. , D.D. 

Non-Sect Thomas  McClelland,  D.D. . . 

Non-Sect ....  Geo.  R.  McNeill.A  .M.,Ph.D. 

Presbvterian !  K-  D.  Warfield,  LL.D 

Baptist Jere  F.  Muir,  LL.D.,  A.M 

Presbyterian  James  G.  K.  McClure,  D.D. 

Presbvterian  K-  Fullerton,  M.A 

R.  Catholic.  Rev-  Bro.  Isidore,  F.S.C.... 
Meth.  Epis..  Samuel  Plantz,  Ph.D.,  D.D. 
U.  Brethren.  Rev.  H.  U.Roop,A.M.,Ph.D. 

Non-Sect Thomas  M.  Drown,  LL.  D. . . 

Non-Sect ....  David  Starr  Jordan,  LL.D. . 

Non-Sect!!.!  G.O.  Felton,  A.M 

Lutheran....  Rev.  R.  A.  Yoder,  A.M 

Presbyterian | Andrew  G.  Wilson,  A.M.. . 

Baptist Rev.  J.  H.  Burnett,  A.M..  . 

Evang.  Luth.  Rev.  S.  P.  Long,  A.M 

Cumb.  Pres..  Rev.  J. L.  Goodknight.D.D. 

Presbvterian  Rev.  I.  N.  Rendall,  D.D 

Afric  Meth. !  Wm.  H.  Goler,  D.D 

Universalist.  Charles  E.  Nash  A.M.,  D.D. 

Non-Sect Thomas  D.  Boyd.  M.A 

Presbvterian  James  Wallace,  Ph.D 

R.  Catholic.  Rev.  Bro.  Justin,  LL.D 

Non-Sect ...  Alfred  T.  Perry,  A.M 

Presbyterian  S.W.  Boardman,D.D.,LL.D. 
Non-Sect Henry  H.  Goodell,  LL.D. 


Non-Sect 

Presbyterian 
Meth.  Epis.. 

Baptist 

Baptist 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Lutheran 

Christian 

Non-Sect 

7th  Day  Bap. 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Cumb.  Pres.. 
United  Pres. 
Meth.  Epis. . 
Meth.  Epis.. 


Henrv  S.  Pritchett,  LL.D.. 

A.  S.  Carrier,  D.D 

McK.  H.  Chamberlin,LL.D. 

H.  L'.  Boardman,  A.M 

P.  D.  Pollock,  A.M.,  LL.D.. 

Rev.  David  S.  Tappan.D.D. 

J.  L.  Snyder,  M.A.,  Ph.D.. . 

Ezra  Brainerd,  LL.D 

Rev.  Jacob  A.  Clutz,  D.D. . . 

Josephus  Hopwood,  A.M. . . 

Mrs.  C.  T.  Mills 

Rv.WCWhitford,A.M.,D.D. 

Gen.  Stephen  D.  Lee,  LL.D. 

Rev.  W.T.Lowrey,  D.D. .A.M 

William  H.  Black,  D.D 

Samuel  R.  Lvons,  D.D 

Chas.  W.  Lewis,  M.S 

F.  J.  Wagner,  A.M.,  D.D. .. 

Methodist...  W.  S.  Lewis,  D.D 

Methodist. . .  Rev.  J.  M.  Henderson.  A.M. 
Meth.  Epis. .  J.  J.  Pritchett,  A.M.,  LL.D 


401  3,829  520,000 
34,800 

2,000 
15,000 

5,000 


116 

200 

365 

160 

300 

75 

363 

360 

75 

94 

256 

157 


812614,848 
820,(XiO 

30.000 
275  000 

30,0(1,) 


25  341 

50  683 

12  150 

15  2.35 

41  1,320 

10  120 

60  1,049 

32  506 

52  589 

20  381 

20  275 
123  641 

14  187 

15  472 
15  361 

14  332 

21  175 
12  150 

4  75 
40  650 

7  220 

28  310 

15  150 
121  1,393 

5  3H 

16  211 
23  378 
19  225 
40  321 
83  1,224 


691 
145 
140 
122 
293 


12  194 
11   191 


265 
191 
250 
130 
671 

20;  200 

16  379 

19  157 
161  1,209 

9j  170 

14  298 

8  128 

15  260 

16  145 
48  480 

10  100 

14  124 

9  185 
24  140 
10  142 
21  296 

8  115 
13  270 

20  300 

9  144 
9  100 

13  230 
16  422 
10      180 


5,000 

12,383 

6,000 

2,000 

35,373 

14,000 

1,500 

10,000 

13,000 

1,000 

15,000 

10,000 

500 

30,000 

26,000 

12,000 

4,000 

8,000 

85000 

5,996 

3,500 

14,272 

2.000 

32,000 

2,000 

7.0001 

10,000 

500 

19,100 

7,000 1 

16,000 

18,000 

8,000 

15,620 

9,000; 

100,000 

43,000 

1,500  J 

300 ' 

4,000 

1,000 

500; 

3,000 

14,000| 

3,500! 

7,000! 

20,000j 

6,500; 

9,262: 

60,000 

12,000 1 

19, 100 l 

44.058 

20.0001 

9,000j 

2,600 

15,000 

15,000 

22,000 

22,832 

5,000 

2.000 

6,000 

5,500 

6,487 

4,000 

4.800 

6.000 

5,000 

3,000 

1.500 

1,500 

4,200 


36,000 
234,977 
150,00J 

'445,6i6 
206,329 

'  500,000 
49,000 


50,000 

600,000 
475.000 
682T833 
75,000 
203,000 
3,000.000 
196,583 

""fgnjom 

40,000 
300,000 
200,000 

18,000 
238,162 

43b!666 

12,500 

535.000 

351,000 

205,020 

40.0(10 

2,000,000 

15,000,000 

118,000 

"  "  ib',655 


59.540 
394,800 
600,000 
200,000 
318,313 


250.010 

200,000 

360,575 

1,855.050 

1,163,000 

40,000 

40,000 
187,000 

50,000 
694,000 
370.000 

24,044 


83.244 
98,575 
39,000 
112.546 

looiooo 

20.140 

21,000 

2,500 


530 


THE    CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Uni\ersities  and  Colleges  of  the  United  States — Continued. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


c 

a 

00   £*» 

cj 

3fl 
33 

00 

► 

>  I  c 


§1? 

■5  5  i 


-  5  © 


,     I  I 

1887  Mount  Angel  College.. 
1837  Mt.  Holvoke  College!. 
1808  Mt.  St.  Marv's  College 
1816  Mt.  Union  Collegef  . . . 
1867  Muhlenberg  College.. 
1837  Muskingum  Collegef.. 

1888  Neb.  Weslevan  Univ.t 
1886  Nevada  State  Univ.f . . 

1856  Newberry  Collegef 

1825  Newton  Theol.  Inst.(e) 

1831  New  York  Univ.(w). . . 

1856  Niagara  University. . . 
1859  North  Carolina  Coil 

1854  Northern  111.  Collegef. 
1892  Nor' west  Missouri" C.t 
1861  Northwestern  Coll.f... ; 

1855  North westernUniv.t.. 
1865  Northwestern  Univ.t..  | 
1861  Norwegian  Luth.  Coll. 

1833  Oberlin  Collegef ' 

1887i  Ogden  College 

1870  Ohio  State  Univ.t.  . . . 

1804  Ohio  Universitvt 

1844'Ohio  Wesleyan  Univ.t 
1844  Olivet  Collegef 

1865  Ottawa  Universityf. . . 

1847  Otterbein  Univ.t." 

1886  Ouachita  Bapt.  Coll.f. 
1849  Oxford  College? 

1891  Pacific  Collegef 

1848  Pacific  Universitvt... 
1875  Park  Collegef. 

1875  Parsons  Collegef 

1873  Penn  Collegef 

1832  Pennsvlvania  Coll.f. . . 
186-.'  Penna*.  Military  Col. . . 
1859  Penna.  State  Coll.t .... 
1881  Philander  Smith  Col.t 
1366  Philomath  Collegef. . . 

1381  PikeColleget 

1391  Polytechnic  Collegef.. 
1.354  Polytechnic  Institute. 

1387  Pratt  Institutet 

1380  Presbvterian  Col.S.C.f 
1312  Princeton  Theol.  Sem. 
1746  Princeton  University. 
1371  Proseminar  College.*. . 
1374  Purdue  Universitvt. .. 

1853  Racine  College 

1379  Radcliffe  College? 

1830  Randolph-Macon  Col.. 

1892  Red  River  Yah  Univ.t 
1821  Rensselaer  Polv.  Inst.. 
1835  Richmond  Collegef. . . 
1832  Richmond  Collegef... 
1892  Ridgeville  Collegef. .. 

1876  Rio  Grande  Collegef. . 

1851  Ripon  Collegef 

1853  Roanoke  College 

1857  Rock  Hill  College 

1863  Roger  Williams  U.f§. . 

1885  Rollins  Collegef 

1883  Rose  Polvtechnic  Inst. 

1766  Rutgers  Cc  liege 

1853  Rutherforu  Collegef. . 

1871  San.  Fran.  Theol.  Sem. 

1866  Scio  Collegef 

1870, Scotia  Seininarvj§ 

1856  Seton  Hall  College.... 
1865  Shaw  Universit  vf$ 
1827  Shurtleff  Collegefto).. 

1867  Simpson  Collegef 

1875  Smith  College}; 

1801  South  Carolina  Coll.f. 
1883  South  Dakota  Univ.t.. 
1859  S'th'nBap.Theo.Sem. 
1856  Southern  Universitvt. 
1*49  So.  Kentucky  Coll.f. . . 
1878  Southwest  Bap.  Col.t. . 


Mount  Angel,  Ore. 
So.  Hadley,  Mass. . 
Eiumitsbiirg,  Md.. 

Alliance,  O 

Allentown,  Pa 

New  Concord,  (). . . 
University  PI., Neb. 

Reno,  Nev 

Newberry,  S.  C 

Newt'nC'ntr.Mass. 
New  York  city(?r). 
Niagara  Falls'N.Y. 
Mt.  Pleasant,  N.  C. 

Fulton,  111 

Albany,  Mo i 

Naperville.  Ill 

Evanston,  HI | 

Watertown,  Wis.. I 

Decorah,  Iowa ' 

Oberlin,  O \ 

Bowling  Gr'n,  Ky. 

Columbus,  O 

Athens,  O 

Delaware,  o 

Olivet,  Mich 

Ottawa,  Kan 

Westerville,  O 

Arkadelphia,  Ark. 

Oxford, O 

Newberg,  Ore 

Forest  Grove,  Ore. 

Parkville.Mo 

Fairfield,  Iowa 

Oskaloosa,  Iowa. . . 

Gettysburg,  Pa 

Chester,  Pa 

State  College,  Pa.. 
Little  Rock,  Ark.. 
Philomath,  Ore... 
Bowling  Green ,  Mo 
Fort  Worth,  Tex . . 
B'klvn  Boro,  N.  Y. 
B'klyn  Boro,  N.  Y. 

Clinton,  S.  C 

Princeton,  N.  J... 
Princeton,  N.  J. . . 

Elinhurst,  111 

Lafayette,  Ind 

Racine,  Wis 

Cambridge,  Mass.. 
Ashland,  Ya. it).... 
Wahpeton,  N.Dak. 

Troy,  N.  Y 

Richmond,  <  > 

Richmond,  Ya 

Ridgeville,  Ind 

Rio  Grande,  O 

Ripon,  Wis 

Salem,  Va 

Ellicott  City,  Md.. 
Nashville,  Tenn... 
Winter  Park,  Fla.. 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.. 
N.  Brunswick.N.J. 
Ruth'f 'd  Col.,  N.C. 
San  Anselmo,  Cal. 

Scio,0 

Concord,  N.  C 

South  Orange, N.J. 

Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Upper  Alton,  111.. . 
Indianola,  Iowa. .. 
Vhampton.  Haw.. 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Mitchell.  s.D 

Louisville,  Ky 

Greensboro',  Ala. . 
Hopkinsville,  Ky.. 
Bolivar,  Mo... ..".. 


I 
R.  Catholic. 

Non-Sect 

R.  Catholic. 
Meth.  Epis.. 

Lutheran 

PnitedPres. 
Meth.  Epis.. 
Non-Sect .... 
Lutheran.. .. 

Baptist 

Non-Sect 

R.  Catholic. . 

Lutheran 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  South. 
Evangelical.. 
Meth.  Epis. . 

Lutheran 

Lutheran 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  Epis. . 
Congregat'l.. 

Baptist 

U.  Brethren. 

Baptist 

Presbyterian 

Friends 

Congregat'l.. 

Non-Sect 

Presbyterian 

Friends 

Lutheran 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  Epis 


F.  Dominic,  O.  S.  B 

Miss  Woollev,  A.M.,  Litt.D 

YervRev.  W.L.O'Hara,  A.M. 

Albert  B.  Riker,  D.D 

Rev.  Theo.  L.  Seip,  D.D ... . 

Rev.  Jesse  Johnson,  D.D.. 

I).  W.  C  Huntington,  D.D.. 

JosephE.Stubbs,D.D.,LL.D. 

Geo.  B.  Cromer,  A.M 

Rev.  Nathan  E.  Wood.  15.1). 

H .M.McOracken  D.D.,LL. O 

Rev.  Patrick  McHale.  CM. 

Rev.  W.  A.  Lutz,  A.M 

J.  E.  Bittinger,  A.M 

Wm.  H.  Pritchett,  A.M 

Rev.  H.  J.  Kiekhoefer.A.M. 

D.  Bonbright 

A.F.Ernst..   

Rev.  Laur.  Larsen 

John  H.  Barrows,  LL.D  . . . 

Wm.  A.  Obenchain,  A.M. .. 

W.  O.  Thompson,  LL. I) 

Chas.W.  Super,Ph.D.,LL.D 

J.  W.  Bashford,  Ph.D.,D.D. 

Rev.Willard  G.Sperrv.D.D. 

J.  D.  S.  Riggs,  A.M.,Ph.D. . 

T.  J.  Sanders,  A.M.,  Ph. 1)  . 

John  W. Conger,  A.B.,A.M. 

John  H.  Thomas,  D.D 

Edwin  McGrew,  M.S  

W.  M.  Ferrin,  A.M 

L.M.  McAfee  (Chin,  ot  Fac.1 

Rev.  F.  W.Hinitt.  M.A 

A.  Rosenberger,  A. B., LL.D. 

H.W.McKnight.D.D.,LL.D. 

Chas.  E.  Hyatt,  C.E 

Geo.  W.  Atherton,  LL.D. . . 

Rev.  James  M.  Cox,  A.M. . . 

U.  Brethren.  P.  O.  Bonebrake,  M.A 

Non-Sect 7!.  E.  Downing,  A.M 

Meth.  Ep.  S..  Rev.  W.  F.  Lloyd,  D.D 

Non-Sect ....  Henrv  S.  Snow,  LL.D 

Non-Sect ....  Charles  M.  Pratt 

Presbyterian  AlmonE. Spencer, B. A., M.A. 

Presbvterian  W.  M.  Paxton.  LL.D 

Non-S*ect...    F.  L.  Patton,  D.D.,  LL.D... 

Evangelical..  Rev.  D.  Irion 

Non-Sect ....  W.  E.  Stone,  Ph.D 

Prot.  Epis...  Henry  D.  Robinson.  M.A. . . 

Non-Sect Mrs.  Elizabeth  C.  Agassiz.. 

Meth.  Epis..  John  A.  Kern, D.D 

Meth.  Epis..|Rev.  E.  P.  Robertson,  A.M. 

Non-Sect 'John  Hudson  Peck,  LL  I).. 

Non-Sect.  ...|G.W.MacMillan,D.D.,  Ph.D. 

Baptist F.  W.  Boatwright,  M.A 

Congregat'l. .iRev.  Geo.  Hindley,  B.D 

Free  Bapt. .  .Rev.  J.  M.  Davis,  D.D 

Non-Sect ....  Rev.  Rufus  C.  Flagg,  D.D.. 

Non-Sect I.  D.  Dreher,  A.M.,  Ph.D... 

R.  Catholic. .  Rev.  Brother  Abraham 

Baptist Rev.  P.  B.  Guernsey,  A.M.. 

Nbn-Sect ....  Pev.G.M.Ward,  A.M..LL.B. 

Non-Sect C.  Leo  Mees,  Ph.D 

Dutch  Ref'd.  Austin  Scott,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Non-Sect ....  W.  E.  Abemethy,  AM 

Presbyterian  William  Alexander,  D.D... 

Meth.'Epis ..  J.  H.  Beal,  Ph.B 

Presbyterian  Rev.  D.  J.  Satterfield,  D.D. 
R.  Catholic.  Rev.  J.  J.  Synnott,  D.D.  ... 

Baptist Charles  F.Meserve,  A.M  — 

Baptist Austen  K.  de  Blois,  Ph.D... 

Meth.  Epis..  C.  E.  Shelton,  A.M 

Non-sect....  L.  Clark  Seelye,  D.D..LL.D. 
Non-Sect  ...  F.  C.  Woodward,  Litt.  D. .. 
Meth.  Epis..   Rev.  W.  I.  Graham.  D.D. .. 

Baptist E.  Y.  Mullins,  LL.D 

Meth.  Ep.  S..  J.  O.  Keener,  A.M.,  D.D.. .. 

Christian Saml.  S.  Woolwine 

Baptist James  Rice,  A.M 


18     100  6,000 

40     441  17,700 

40     200  20,000 

81      411  ;5,50O 

12  164  10,300 

13  203  3,000 
20  4H0  3,000 
24     SSS  6,457 

8      161  7,000 

7  68  22,383 
107  1,600  44,220 

17  205  9.000 

4  75  4.000 
10      175  1.500 1 

8  106  l,200l 

18  866  4.500 
222  2,019  38,582 

8     136  3.T08 

10i     177  9,100 

69  1,310  49,631 

5  82  3,000 
08  1,150  23,339' 
23  435  14,500 
98  1,311  30,000 
23      250  26,000 

19  503  3.500 

20  249  8,000 
23   328  3.0(H) 

163  5,000 

120  1,000: 

216  0,800 

369  12,000! 

210  5,000 

257  5.000 

268  24.000 

121  1.500 
293  12,400 
287  800 
116  1,000 
165  600 

20|  332  2.500 

49  700  11.000 

134  2,791  67,216 

6   5ii  1,400 

12  106  61,000 

84  1,103  131,500 

8,  10,-i  2,187 

750  10,000 

47  10,000 


550,000 

62,666 

161.719 
36  500 
10,000 


32,000 

800,000 

3,365,402 


15,000 

6.000 

5.000 

104,000 

3,041,612 

8,626 

1,028,345 
130,000 
553,893 

'  '728,032 
150,000 
80.000 
70,000 


10.000 

m.ooo 

200,000 
160,000 
25,000 
210,000 

'517,606 

'5,066 


110.(100 

2.250.00,1 

7,000 

1,300,000 


12 1  Ill 
8  135 
16  152 
100 


65 
7 
100J    424    12,000 
8,000 
2,700 
6.000  . 
3.000  . 
18     260   13.000 

7  130  3,000 

8  154   1,100 
17   180  10.0110 

11  191  21.000 
20  145  7,600  . 

15  220  5,000 . 

20  186  3.000 . 

21  110  9,000 
27 1  168  36,562  . 

7   106  5.000  . 

7  30  18.00(1 

16  410     2,600  • 
15      273      1,700  . 
15      150    25,000. 
24     362     1,500 
20      222      8,000 

17  545      8J2O0 
64  1.070      7,000 

12  185    30,000, 

13  264     2,000  , 
llj     280   25,000 

9  176  10,000 

8  190    600 
7!  113  1,200 


340,000 

'466.660 
34,000 
10,000 


275,000 
2,500 

70,000 
218,918 

65,000 


650,006 

'466,666 


31,000 
129,145 

48,5:54 
793,625 


465,000 
50,000 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  AND  FINE   ARTS. 


531 


Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  United  States — Continued. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


• 

~ 

2* 

—    7. 

a 

05   >>      1 
It       i 

-/.  z 

rs 

3.3 

-  -- 

PA 

CO 

> 

I|o' 
2-SS 

fag 


1845  Southw'n  Bap.  Un.t.. .  Jackson,  Tenn 

1875  Southw'n  Pres.  Univ..  Clarksville,  Tenn.. 
1872  Southwestern  Univ.t.  Georgetown, Tex.. 

1885  Southwest  Kansas  C.t  Winfield,  Kan 

1830  Spring  Hill  College. . .  Spring  Hill,  Ala.. . 

1847  State  L'niv.  Iowat Iowa  Citv,  Iowa. . . 

1879  State  Univ.  of  Kyt§. . .  .Louisville,  Ky 

1858  St.  Benedict's  College. 'Atchison,  Kan 

1848  St.  Charles  College. . . .  Ellicott  Citv,  Md.. 

1888  St. Edward's  College..  Austin, Tex 

1847  St.  Francis  Xavier  C. .  Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 

1871  Stevens  Inst,  of  Tech..  Hoboken.N.  J 

1789  St.  John's  College Annapolis,  Md 

1865  St.  John's  College Washington,  D.  C. 

1846  St.  John's  College Fordham,  N.  Y.  C. 

1857  St.  John's  University..  Collegeville,Minn. 

1856  St.  Lawrence  Univf*. .  Canton,  N.  Y 

1829  St.  Louis  University. .  St.  Louis,  Mo 

1869  St.  Marv's  College St.  Mary's  Kan 

1821  St.  Man's  College St.  Marv's,  Ky.... 

1874  St.  Olaf  College! Northfield,  Minn. . 

1889  St.  Paul's  Colleger....  St.  Paul  Park, Min. 
1860  St.  Stephen's  College.  Annandale,  N.  Y. . 

1865  St.  Vincent's  College.  Los  Angeles,  Cal. . 

1869  Swarthmore  Coll.t Swarthmore,  Pa.. . 

1871  Syracuse  University!.  Syracuse,  N.  Y 

1866  Tabor  Colleget Tabor,  Iowa 

1867  Talladega  Collegef(c). .  Talladega,  Ala.... 

1883  Tarkio  Colleget Tarkio.Mo 

1846  Tavlor  Universitvt ....  Upland,  Ind 

1889  Teachers'  College!^  ..  Manh'n  Boro,  N.Y. 

1870  Thiel  Colleget Greenville,  Pa 

1891  Throop  Pol  v.  Inst.!....  Pasadena,  Cal 

1854  Trinity  College Durham,  N.  C 

1823  Trinity  College Hartford,  Ct 

1869  Trinity  University! . . .  Tehuacana,  Tex. . . 

1855  Tufts  Colleget Tufts  Coll.,  Mass. . 

1834  Tulane  Universityt(n).  New  Orleans,  La. . 

1859  Union  Christ'n  Coll.!..  Merom,  Ind.   

1886  Union  Colleget Barbourville,  Kv . . 

1891  Union  Colleget College  View,  Neb. 

1795  Union  College Schenectady,  N.Y. 

1836  Union  Theo.  Sem Manh'n  Boro,  X.V. 

1881  University  Institute!.  Lockhart, Miss 

1831  Univ.  of  Alabama! Tuscaloosa,  Ala. %%. 

1891  Univ.  of  Arizona! Tucson,  Ariz 

1868  Univ.  of  California!...  Berkeley,  Cal 

1890  Univ.  of  Chicago! Chicago",  111 

1*74  Univ.  of  Cincinnati!. .  Cincinnati,  O 

1877  Univ.  of  Colorado! ....  Boulder,  Col 

1864  Univ.  of  Den ver! Denver,  Col 

1785  Univ.  of  Georgia Athens,  Ga 

1892  Univ.  of  Idaho! ... Moscow,  Idaho 

1868  Univ.  of  Illinois! Urbana.Ill.(r) I 

1855  Univ.  of  Iowa! Iowa  City,  Iowa. . . 

1866  Univ.  of  Kansas! Lawrence,  Kan 

1365  Univ.  of  Maine! Orono,  Me 

1837  Univ.  of  Michigan!. ..  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.. 

1869  Univ.  of  Minnesota!. .  Minneapolis,  Minn 

1848  Univ.  of  Mississippi!..  University,  Miss... 

1840  Univ.  of  Missouri! Columbia)  Mo.(k).. 

1895  Univ.  of  Montanat Missoula,  Mont 

1785  Univ.  of  Nashville!. . .  Nashville,  Tenn... 

1869  Univ.  of  Nebraska!...  Lincoln,  Neb 

1889  Univ.  of  N.  Mexico!. .  Albuquerque.N.M. 
1795  Univ.  of  N.  Carolina  v)  Chapel  Hill,  N.  C. . 

1884  Univ.  of  N.Dakota!..  Grand  Forks,  N.D. 
1842  Univ.  of  Notre  Dame..  Notre  Dame,  Ind. . 

1892  L'niv.  of  Oklahoma!. . .  Norman,  Okla 

18%  Univ.  of  Omaha! Omaha,  Xeb.(,).. . . 

1877  Univ.  of  Oregon! Eugene,  Ore 

1852  Univ.  of  the  Pacific!. .  College  Park,  Cal.. 
1740  Univ.  of  Pennsyl'nia!.  Philadelphia,  Pa... 
1850  Univ.  of  Rochester Rochester.  N.  V.... 

1880  Univ.of  S.Calif' nia!(r/)  Los  Angeles,  Cal.. 

1882  Univ.  of  S.  Dakota!. . .  Vermilion.  S.  Dak. 

1868  Univ.  of  the  South Sewanee.  Tenn 

1794  Univ.of  Tennessee !(c)  Knoxville,  Tenn... 

1881  Univ.  of  Texas! Austin,  Tex.(s) .... 


Baptist G.M.  Savage,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

Presbyterian  George  Summey,D.D 

Meth.  Ep.  S.  Roberts.  Hyer,  A.M 

Meth.  Epis .    Fred  C.  Demarest 

R.  Catholic.  Very  Rev.  M.Movnilian.S  .1 . 
Non-Sect ...    Rev.Geo. E.  Maclean.  LL.D. 

Baptist Rev.  Chas.  L.  Puree,  D.D... 

R.  Catholic.    Rt.  Rev.  I.  Wolf,  D.D 

R.  Catholic.  Rev.C.B.Schrantz,S.S.,A  M. 
R.  Catholic.    Rev.  John  T.  Boland,C.S.C. 

R.  Catholic.    Rev.  T.  E.  Murphv,  S.J 

Non-Sect Henry  Morton,  Ph.D.,LL.D. 

Non-Sect  ....  Thomas  Fell,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.. 

R.  Catholic. .  Rev.  Bro.  Abdas,  F.S.C 

R.  Catholic.  Rev.  T.  J.  Campbell,  A.M. . 
R.  Catholic.  Rt.  Rev.  Peter  Engel.Ph.D. 
Universalist    Rev.  Almon  Gunnison.D.D. 

R.  Catholic.    Rev.  W.  B.  Rogers,  S.J 

R.  Catholic.  Rev.  James  McCabe,  S.J. . . 
R.  Catholic.    Rev.  JohnFehrenbach,D.D. 

Lutheran....  Rev.  J.  N.  Kildahl 

Meth.  Epis..  W.  F.  Finke,  A.M 

Prot.  Epis  ..  Rev.Laureuce  T.  Cole.Ph.D. 

R.  Catholic. .  Rev.  J.  A.  Linn,  CM 

Friends Wm.  W.  Birdsall 

Meth.  Epis..  Rev.J.R.  Day,  S.T.D..LL.D. 
Congregat'l..  Rev.Rich'd  C.  Hughes.A.M. 
Congregat'l..  G.  W.  Andrews  (Act.  Pres.) 
Un.  Presb. ..  Rev.  J.  A.  Thompson.  D.D.. 
Meth.  Epis..  Rev.  T.  C.  Reade,  A.M.,D.D. 

Non-Sect . . .    Seth  Low,  LL.D 

Lutheran. . .  Theophilus  B.  Roth,  D.D. . . 
Non-Sect ...  Walter  A.  Edwards,  A.M.. 
Meth.  Ep.  S.  John  C.  Kilgo,  D.D.,A  M. . . 
Non-Sect . . .  Geo.  W.  Smith,  D.D..LL.D . 
Cumb.  Pres.  L.A.Johnson  (dim.  of  Fac.) 
Universalist.  Elmer  Hewitt  Capen.  D.D.. 

Non-Sect ...    E.  A.  Alderman,  LL.D 

Christian. . .    Rev. L.J.Aldrich,A.M.,D.D, 

Meth.  Epis.    James  P.  Faulkner 

Non-Sect  ...    Wm.  T.  Bland 

Non-Sect . . .  Rev.  A.V.V.  Raymond,  D.D. 
Presbvteriao  Rev.Chas.Cuthbert  Hall .... 
Xon-Sect ...    C.  A.  Huddleston,A.M..D.D. 

Xon-Sect . . .    James  K .  Powers,  LL.D 

Xon-Sect . . .    Millard  M.  Parker,  A.M 

Non-Sect  . . .    Benj.  I.  Wheeler,  LL.D 

Xon-Sect . . .    Wm.  R.  Harper,  Ph.D.,D.D. 

Xon-Sect Howard  Avers,  LL.D 

Xon-Sect ....  Jas.  H.  Baker,M.A.,LL.l). . . 

Meth.  Epis..  H.  A.  Buchtel,  D.D 

Xon-Sect . . . .  W.  B.  Hill,  A.M 

Non-Sect ....  J-  A.  Maclean,  Ph.D 

Non-Sect Andrew  S.  Draper,  LL.D. . . 

Non-Sect  A.  N.  Currier  (Act.  Pres.). . . 
Non-Sect . . . .  F.  H.  Snow,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. . . 

Non-Sect Abram  W.  Harris,  Sc.D 

Non-Sect . . .    James  B.  Angell,  LL.D 

Non-Sect . . .  i Cyrus  Northrop,  LL.D 

Non-Sect . . .    Robert  B.  Fulton,  LL.D 

Xon-Sect  .  Richard  Henry  Jesse, LL.D. 
Xon-Sect .' .' .'  Oscar  J.  Craig,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 
Xon-Sect ....  W.  H.  Payne,  LL.D.,  Ph.D. 

Xon-Sect ....  E.  B.  Andrews,  LL.D 

Non-Sect '.'.'.'.  C.  L.  Herrick,  M.S ; 

Non-Sect ....  F-  p-  Venable,  Ph.D 

Non-Sect....  Webster  Merrifield,  M.A... 

R.  Catholic.  Rev-  A-  Morrisey  ,C.S.C 

Non-Sect  -  -  -  David  R.  Boyd,  A.M 


8,000 
5,000 
3,000 

75.000 


20     270 

11     140; 

22     424 

16     304 

25      130 
101  1,331    25,000; 

in  141  .-.no 
147'  14,000 
2301  13,339 
150  3,000 
732  30.000 
214      9.500 

166     9,000 

150  2,500 
250,  40,000 
250  12,000 
1-14  11,70(1 
440;  40,000 
240     7,500; 

91; 
125 
100 

81 
160 


38 
M 

80 

27 

10 

12 
7 
8 

n; 

23 
121 

14 

88 

15 

21 
88 
in 
88 
18 
80 

17 

80 
T8 
13 


286,000 
4,000 
8,806 

235,666 


500.000 


407,497 


7,000 
15.000 
107,652 


59,000 

"  9^666 

62,000 

28,200 
332,750 
750,000 

34,503 


Presbvterian!David  R.  Kerr,  D.D.,  l'h.I>.      75 


Non-Sect . . . 
Meth.  Epis. 
Non-Sect . . . 

Baptist 

Meth.  Epis. 
Non-Sect... 
Prot.  Epis. 
Non-Sect ... 
Non-Sect . . . 


Frank  Strong,  Ph.D 

Kli  McCliah.  A.M..  D.D.   ... 

Charles  C.  Harrison, LL.D. 

Rev.  Rush  Rhees.  D.D 

George  F.  Bonard.  D.D 

Garrett  Droppers,  A.B 

B.  L.  Wiggins,  M.A. ,Vice-C. 
C.W.  Dabnev,  Ph.D. .LL.D. 
W.  L.  I'rather,  LL.D 


4,000 

2,500 

900 

1,450 

3,000  

186  18.500  420,000 
1,092]  55,000  1,399,506 
178  8,300  103,000 
600  5,000 
271  1,081 
222  2,000 

10,000 

125  7,000 

216   1,650 

192  13.000 

135  40.000 

245  3,000 

530  40,000  1,400,000 

856  20.000  1,477,000 

225  3,800;   63,000 

140   1.061    4,810 

21  342  2,000  

21   195  31.928  546,174 

12  125;  72,562  1,350,000 
6  103.  1,879  

34  318  15,000  300,000 

16     156     3,200    

271  2,196  76,000  11710,054 
200  2.500  336,740  7,438,450 
8)29  r>456    10,223  3,000,000 

80      700|  18.495 

99,     598    10,000 

40     470    28,960 

21      300     6,100 

214  1.750    50,000 
112  1,813   30,000 

58  1,064   30,000 
43     320    14,000  1,044,901 
17813,229122,000     830,000 

215  3.010,  53,000  1,307.219 
20 1  296  14.000!  540.000 
64;  818  25,000  1,135,000 
IS      203     3.000 

re  1,420  12.000 

185  1,915  40.000 

211     100 

47   670  36,008 

14   362  6.. 500 

66  645  60,000 

13  220  5.000 
300  5,000 

49  300  7,000 
20   210  6,000 


214,000 
382,500 
7,500 
501,992 
232,000 
142,000 


100,000 
175,000 


10.1,000 


160.000 
185,000 
30,000 


258  2,834  140.0001 2.748,93 


216  34.500 

400  4,000 

355  4.5(10 

427  41.000 

5;  ps  15.501 1 

800:  35.000 


,573 
150,000 

185,581 

425.000 
020,716 


532 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Universities  and  Colleges  of  the  United  States — Continued. 


Colleges. 


Location. 


Denomina- 
tional 
Control. 


President  or  Chairman 
of  Faculty. 


* 

a 

km 

03 

a 

o 

1    >a 

Is 

•i.  0 

•a 

p-fl 

Ph 

DC 

> 

1850 
1850 
18<>0 
1825 
1862 
1848 
1870 
1887 
1857 
1869 
1867 
1802 
1815 
1872 
1892 
1861 
1842 
1806 
1839 
1872 
1832 
1833 
1F65 
1802 
1749 
1783 
1795 
1853 
1875 
18«8 
1831 
1856 
1867 
1787; 
1886 
1865 
1853 
1852 
1867 
1860 
1859 
1856 
1873 
1844 
1693 
1849 
1785 
1870 
1870 
1845 
1854 
18C5 
1701 
1882 
1890 


Univ.  of  Urbana 

Univ.  of  Utahf 

Univ.  of  Vermontt 

Univ.  of  Virginia 

Univ.  of  Washingtonf. 
Univ.  of  Wisconsin! . . 

Univ.  of  Woosterf 

Univ.  of  Wyomingt. . 

Upper  Iowa  Univ.t 

Ursinus  Colleget 

U.  S.  Grant  Univ.t.... 
U.  S.  Military  Acad. . . 
U.  S.  Naval  Academy. 

Vanderbilt  Univ.f 

Vashon  Collegef 

Vassar  Collegef 

Villanova  College.   . . . 

Vincennes  Univ.t 

Virginia  Mil.  Inst 

Virginia  Poly.  Inst... 

Wabash  College 

Wake  Forest  College.. 
Washburn  Collegef. . . 
Wash.&  Jefferson  Col. 

Wash.  &  Lee  Univ 

Washington  Colleget. 
Washington  Colleget. 
Washington  Univ.t  . . 
Wellesley  Colleget  — 

Wells  Colleget 

Wesley  an  Univ.t 

Western  Colleget 

West.  Maryland  Col.f. 
West.  Un.  of  Penn.t. . 
West.Reserve  Univ.(o) 
Westiield  Colleget.... 

Westminster  Col 

Westminster  Col  .  f 

W.  Virginia  Univ.f. . . 

Wheaton  Collegef 

Whitman  College 

Wilberforce  Univ.f§.,. 
Wiley  Universityf§.'..„ 

Willamette  Univ.f 

William  &  Mary  Col... 

William  Jewell  Col 

Williams  College 

Wilmington  Collegef.. 

Wilson  Colleget 

Wittenberg  Coll.f(gr)... 

Wofford  Colleget 

Worcester  Poly.  Inst.. 

Yale  University  (v) 

Yankton  Colleget 

York  Colleget 


Urbana,  O 

Salt  Lake  City,  U. 

Burlington,  Vt 

Charlottesville,  Va 

Seattle,  Wash 

Madison,  Wis 

Wooster,  O 

Laramie,  Wyo 

Fayette,  Iowa 

Coilegeville,  Pa... 
Chattanooga.Tenn. 
West  Point,  N.  Y.. 
Annapolis,  Md  — 
Nashville,  Tenn... 

Burton,  Wash 

Poughkeep8ie,N.Y 

Villanova,  Pa 

Vincennes,  Ind 

Lexington,  Va 

Blacksburg,  Va 

Crawf'rdsville.Ind 
Wake  Forest,  N.  C. 

Topeka,  Kan 

Washington,  Pa.. . 

Lexington,  Va 

Chestertown,  Md. . 
Wash'n  Col.,  Tenn. 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Wellesley,  Mass. . . 

Aurora,  N.  Y 

Middletown,  Ct... 

Toledo,  Iowa 

Westminster,  Md.. 
Pittsburg,  Pa.(m).. 

Cleveland,  O 

Westfleld,  111 

Fulton,  Mo 

N.Wilmington,  Pa. 
Morgant'n,  W.  Va. 

Wheaton,  111 

Walla  Walla,  Wn.. 
Wilberforce,  O.... 

Marshall,  Tex 

Salem,  Ore 

Williamsburg,  Va. 

Liberty,  Mo 

Williamst'n,  Mass. 

Wilmington,  O 

Chambersburg.Pa. 

Springfield,  O 

Spartanburg,  S.  C. 
Worcester,  Mass... 

New  Haven,  Ct 

Yankton,  S.  Dak.. 
"York,  Neb 


Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect  — 
Presbyterian 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  Epis. . 
Ref.  inU.  S.. 
Meth.  Epis. . 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Meth.Ep.S.. 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

R.  Catholic. 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Congregat'l.. 
Non-Sect.  (i). 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect  .(i). 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

Meth.  Epis.. 
U.  Brethren. 
Meth.  Prot.. 

Non-Sect 

Non-Sect 

U.  Brethren. 
Presbyterian 
Unit.  Presb. . 

Non-Sect 

Congregat'l . 
Congregat'l . 
Meth.  Epis.. 
Meth.  Epis.. 
Meth.  Epis.. 

Non-Sect 

Baptist 

Non-Sect .... 

Friends 

PFesbyterian 

Lutheran 

Meth.Ep.S.. 
Non-Sect .... 
Congregat'l . 
Congregat'l . 
U.  Brethren. 


Rev.  John  Whitehead,  M. A. 
Jos.  T.  Kingsbury,  Ph.D. . . 

Mat.  H.  Buckham,  D.D 

P.  B.  Barringer,  M.D 

F.  P.  Graves,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.. 
Charles  K.  Adams,  LL.D. . . 
Rev.  Louis  E.  Holden,  D.D. 
Rev.  Elmer  E.  Sniilev,  A.B. 
Rev.  G.  P.  Benton,  A.M . . . . 
Rev.  H.  T.  Spangler,  D.D  .. 
Bishop  I.  W.  Joyce,  LL.D. . 
Col.A.L.  Mills,  U.S.A. .supt. 
Com.  R.Wainwright.U.S.N. 
J.  H.  Kirkland,LL.D.,Ph.D. 

A.  C.  Jones,  Ph.D 

Jas.  M.  Taylor,  D.D,  LL.D. 

Rev.  L.  A.  Delurey,  A.M 

W.H.  Hershman 

Scott  Shipp,  Supt 

J.  M.  McBryde,Ph.D.,LL.D. 

Rev.  W.  P.  Kane,  D.D 

C.  E.  Taylor,  D.D. , LL.D .... 

George  M.  Herrick,  A.M 

Rev.  Jas.  D.  Moffat.  D.D. . . 

H.  St.  G.  Tucker,  LL.D 

C.  W.  Reid,  Ph.D 

Mev.  Jas.  T.  Cooter,  M.A 

Winneld  S.  Chaplin,  LL.D. 
CarolineHazard,MA.,Litt.D 
J.  W.  Frelev 

B.  P.  Raymond,  D.I ).,LL. I) 
L.  Bookwalter,  A.M..  D.D.. 
Rev.  T.  H.  Lewis,D.D.,A.M 

Daniel  Carhart,  Dean 

Charles  F.  Thwing,  D.D.. . . 
William  S.  Reese,  Ph.M .... 
J.  H.  MacCracken,  Ph.D. . 
Kev.  R.  G.  Ferguson,  D.D. . 
Jerome  H.  Raymond,  Ph.D 
Charles  A.  Blanchard,  D.D. 
Rev.  S.  B.  L.  Penrose.  A.B. 
S.  T.  Mitchell.  A.M.,  LL.D 

Rev.  M.W.  Dogan,  A.M 

Willis  C.  Hawlev,  A.M 

Lvon  G.  Tyler.  M. A., LL.D. 
John  P.  Greene. D.D..LL.D. 
FranklinCarter,r'b.D.,LL.L 
James  B.  Un  thank,  M  .Sc. . . 

Rev.  S.  A.  Martin,  D.D 

J .  M.  Ruthrauff,  D.D 

James  H.  Carlisle,  LL.D .... 
T.C.Mendenhall,FhD.,LL.D 
Arthur  T.  Hadley ,  LL.l ) . . . . 
Rev.Henrv  K.  Warren.A.M. 
Wm.  E.  Schell,  A.M 


120 
667 

539 


43     600 

23  239 
120  1,707 1 

22     767, 

14  i     186! 

23!     412! 

28  200 
g)59  7)612 i 

53  325 
280 ! 
800 
127 
614 
135 
265 
2471 
333 


90 

i:; 
61 
14 
IS 

17 
32 

21 1     200 

14     254: 

16     248 

15!     340 

25i     140 

8>     110 

0     199 

170  1,669 

78      054 


95 

330: 

230 
250! 
800 
750, 
160 
100 
291 
845 
321 
209 
305 
353 
575 


11  171 

23  329 

30  388 

11  131 

28  290 

21  450 

8  161 

30  235 
252  2,500 

15  m 

10l     194 


15,000 
15,000: 
51,000, 
40,000 
8,000' 

54,000; 

17,000 

7,000 i 

5,000  J 

8,000 

6,000| 

41,938] 

37,891 

18,000 

1,138 

30,000 

2,000; 

7,805 

9,914 

3,000 

35,000 

13,000 

7,500 

15,000 

40,000 

2,500 

2,500 

5,000 

48,600 

7,0^0 

53.000 

3,000 

5,000 

16,000 

55,000 

3,000 

6,000 

4,000 

20,000 

3,000 

6,000 

6,500 

3,550 

4,513 

14,000 

12,000 

40,750 

2,500 

6,000 

12,000 

8,000 

5,200 

285,000 

6,255 

1,000 


185.000 
317.002 
376,600 

'  600,000 

350,001 
47.000 
47,000 

185,000 


1,250,000 

1,016,226 

"  51 '.666 

20,000 

344.312 

470.000 

208,866 

70,000 

263,098 

626,000 

25.000 

8,000 

4,000,000 

328.579 

200.000 

1,870,840 

'480,000 
1,113,718 

'209.066 
96,000 

114,250 
50,000 

190,000 
30,400 

"46,666 

127,900 

219.700 

1,100.000 

35,000 

260.000 

175,000 

63.000 

615,000 

5,000,000 

113,690 

50,000 


*  All  departments,  t  Co-education  of  the  sexes, 
t  Education  of  women  only.  §  For  the  education  of 
colored  students.  1[  Teachers'  College  is  now  part  of 
Columbia  University,  tt  Medical  Department  at  Mo- 
bile, Ala. 

(b)  Not  yet  organized  for  instruction.  Is  intended 
solely  for  post-graduate  work. 

fc)'No  restriction  as  to  color. 

(«/)  Barnard  College  (for  women),  annex  of  Columbia 
University,  with  use  of  library. 

(e)  Ladies  preparing  forforeign  missions  are  admitted 
to  class-room  work. 

(/)  Confined  strictly  to  post-graduate  work.  The  na- 
tional university  of  the  church. 

(ff)  Academic  and  Technical  Departments  at  Fayette- 
ville;  Law  and  Medical  Departments  at  Little  Rock; 
Normal  School  (for  negroes),  Pine  Bluff,  Ark. 

(i)  Presbyterian  in  sympathy. 

(j)  For  Indians  and  colored  youth,  both  sexes. 

0c)  Professors  take  Chairmanship  in  turn. 

(I)  Branch  at  Bellevue,  Neb.,  also. 

(m)  Located  in  Pittsburg  and  Alleghcin  . 

(n)  Separate  department  for  women  in  the  II.  Sophie 
Newcomb  Memorial  College. 


(o)  For  both  sexes,  except  that  Adelbert  College  Annex 
is  for  men  only. 

(p)  Dental  and  Law  Schools  at  Chicago. 

(q)  Report  at  close  of  1897. 

(r)  Schools  of  Pharmacy  and  Medicine  at  Chicago, 
111. 

(s)  Academic  and  Law  departments  at  Austin  ;  Medi- 
cal at  Galveston ;  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  Branch 
at  College  Station,  Tex. 

(0  Randolph -Macon  College  for  women  at  Lynch- 
burg, Va. 

(?«)  School  of  Mines  at  Rolla,  Mo. 

(v)  Co-education  in  graduate  courses  only. 

ho)  Co-education  in  law,  pedagogy,  and  graduate 
school.  The  University  proper  is  at  University  Heights, 
Bronx  Borough,  New  York  ;  the  University  Law  School 
is  at  Washington  Square,  Manhattan  Borough,  New 
York. 

(a  )  College  of  Liberal  Arts  at  St.  Paul,  Minn. ;  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  at  Minneapolis,  Minn. 

(y)  Medical  Department  located  in  Louisville.  Statis- 
tics are  exclusive  of  medical  students  and  those  in 
commercial  college. 

(2)  Statistics  are  for  Academic  Department  only. 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  PINE  ARTS. 


633 


Foreign  Universities. 


Date  of 
foun 
dation. 


Locality. 


Paris,  France 

Berlin,  Prussia,  Germany 

Vienna,  Austria 

Madrid,  Spain 

Naples,  Italy 

Moscow,  Russia 

Budapest,  Hungary 

Munich,  Bavaria,  Germany 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia 

Oxford,  England 

Athens,  Greece 

Leipzig,  Saxony,  Germany 

Manchester,  England  (about)   

Cambridge,  England 

Edinburgh,  Scotland 

Prague,  Austria  (Bohemian) 

Kijew,  Kieff,  Russia 

Turin,  Italy 

Lyons,  France 

Bordeaux,  France 

Helsingfors,  Finland,  Russia 

Copenhagen,  Denmark 

Glasgow,  Scotland 

Rome,  Italy  (Royal  University) 

Barcelona, Spa  iii .' 

Toulouse,  France 

Graz,  Styria,  Austria 

Bonn,  Prussia,  Germany 

Bucharest,  Roumania  .*. 

Lou  vain,  Belgium 

Halle,  Prussia,  Germany 

Bologna,  Italy 

Tokyo, Japan 

Padua,  Italy 

Charkow,  Russia 

Upsala,  Sweden 

Rennes,  France 

Wiirzburg,  Bavaria,  Germany 

Coimbra,  Portugal 

Breslau,  Prnssia,  Germany 

Prague  (German) 

Lemberg,  Galicia,  Austria 

Toronto,  Canada 

Pavia,  Italy 

Palermo,  Sicily,  Italy 

Montpellier,  France 

Brussels,  Belgium 

Krakow,  Galicia,  Austria 

TUbingen,  Wttrternberg,  Germany  . . . 

Lille,  France 

Liege,  Belgium 

Salamanca,  Spain 

Dorpat,  Russia 

Havana,  Cuba 

Amsterdam,  Holland 

Ohristiania,  Norway 

Giittingen,  Prussia,  Germany 

Manila,  Philippine  Islands 

Freiburg,  Baden, Germany 

Dublin,  Ireland 

Heidelberg,  Baden,  Germany 

Strassburg,  Alsace,  Germany 

Manchester,  England  (Owens  College) 
Warsaw,  Poland,  Russia 


Number 

Date  of 

of  stu- 

foun- 

dents. 

dation. 

11,090 

1821 

9,629 

1743 

7,02(5 

6,143 

1343 

5,108 

4,461 

1572 

4.407 

1812 

3,814 

1673 

3,392 

1743 

3,365 

1431 

3,258 

1527 

3,126 

1444 

3,000 

1559 

2,929 

18Q4 

2,850 

1575 

2,815 

1832 

2,565 

1456 

2,434 

1494 

2,198 

1558 

2,160 

1834 

2,015 

1409 

2,000 

1636 

1,924 

1665 

1,914 

1437 

1,887 

1772 

1,808 

1209 

1,761 

1544 

1,726 

1816 

1,680 

1853 

1.669 

1607 

1,645 

1666 

1,629 

1722 

1,620 

1,616 

1349 

1,576 

1865 

1,499 

1838 

1,477 

1339 

1,467 

1537 

1,429 

1422 

1,424 

1419 

1.424 

1460 

1,398 

1874 

1,353 

1,345 

1850 

1,343 

1614 

1,342 

1860 

1,316 

1683 

1.313 

1832 

1,289 

1875 

1,283 

1540 

1,267 

1.247 

1872 

1,233 

1266 

1,226 

1777 

1,218 

1,150 

1596 

1.149 

1411 

1,144 

1727 

1,143 

1808 

1,128 

1422 

1,115 

1556 

1,098 

1,092 

1,088 

1671 

Locality. 


Montreal,  Canada 

Erlangen,  Bavaria,  Germany 

Urbana 

Pisa,Italy 

Rome,  Italy  (University  Pont.). . 

Nancy,  France 

Genoa,  Italy 

Innsbruck,  Tyrol,  Austria 

Santiago  (Chile) 

Poitiers,  France 

Marburg,  Prussia,  Germany 

Catania,  Sicily 

Geneva,  Switzerland 

Kasan,  Russia 

Ley  den,  Holland 

Zurich,  Switzerland...  

Greifswald,  Prussia,  Germany  .. 

Aberdeen,  Scotland 

Jena,  Thuringia,  Germany 

Berne,  Switzerland '. 

Aix-en-Provence,  France 

Utrecht,  Holland 

Kiel,  Prussia,  Germany , 

Caen,  France 

Klausenburg,  Hungary 

Valencia,  Spain 

Konigsberg,  Prussia,  Germany.. 

Ghent,  Belgium , 

Melbourne,  Victoria,  Australia. . 

Giessen,  Hessia,  Germany 

Lund,  Sweden 

Dijon,  France 

Kingston 

Florence,  Italy 

Odessa,  Russia 

Messina,  Italy 

Grenoble,  France 

Lausanne,  Switzerland 

Parma,  Italy 

Rostock,  Mecklenburg,  Germany 

Basel,  Switzerland 

Agram,  Croatia,  Hungary 

Belgrade * , 

Sydney,  Australia 

Groningen,  Holland , 

Jassy ,  Roumania 

Modena,  Italy 

Durham,  England  (about) 

Czernowitz,  Bukowina,  Austria  . . 

Macerata,  Italy 

Freiburg,  Switzerland 

Adelaide,  Australia , 

Perugia,  Italy 

Siena,  Italy . ." 

Toronto  (Victoria  University) 

Cagliari,  Italy 

St.  Andrew's,  Scotland , 

Camerino,  Italy 

Clermont,  France 

Besancon,  France , 

Sassari,  Italy 

Amsterdam  (free  university) 

Ferrara 

Urbino,  Italy 


Humanities  are  those  branches  of  educa- 
tion or  study  which  are  included  in  what  are 
called  polite  or  elegant  learning,  as  languages, 
grammar,  philosophy,  and  poetry,  with  that 
pertaining  to  what  is  called  polite  literature, 
including  the  ancient  classics.  The  name  im- 
plies that  the  study  cf  these  branches,  in  op- 
position to  the  physical  sciences,  which  espe- 
cially develop  the  intellectual-faculties,  has  a 
tendency  to  humanize  man,  to  cultivate  par- 
ticularly those  faculties  which  distinguish  him 
as  man  in  all  liis  relations,  social  and  moral; 
that  is,  which  make  him  a  truly  cultured  man. 


Aniinal  Worship. —  Among  primitive 
peoples,  all  animals  are  supposed  to  be  en- 
dowed with  souls  which  in  many  cases  have 
formerly  animated  human  beings.  Hence  a 
likeness  is  often  recognized  between  an  animal 
and  some  deceased  friend,  and  the  animal  is 
addressed  as  the  person  would  have  been,  and 
honored  with  a  kind  of  worship.  Many  tribes 
call  themselves  by  the  name  of,  and  even  de- 
rive their  pedigree  from,  some  animal.  Its 
cries  become  the  omens  of  the  tribe  ;  and  thus 
originate  the  divination  and  augury  of  more 
civilized  nations.     In  the  modern   world   the 


584 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  TACTS. 


most  civilized  people  among  whom  animal- 
worship  vigorously  survives  lie  within  the 
range  of  Brahmanism.  Here  the  sacx*ed  cow 
is  not  merely  to  be  spared ;  she  is  as  a  deity 
worshiped  and  bowed  to  daily  by  the  pious  | 
Hindoo.  Siva  is  incarnate  in  Hanuman,  the 
monkey  god.  The  divine  king  of  birds,  Gar-  J 
uda,  is  Vishnu's  vehicle,  and  the  forms  of  fish 
and  boar  and  tortoise  assumed  in  the  avatar 
legends  of  Vishnu.  Perhaps  no  worship  has 
prevailed  more  widely  than  that  of  the  serpent. 
It  had  its  place  in  Egypt  and  among  the  He- 
brews ;  in  Greece  and  Rome  ;  among  the  Celts 
and  Scandinavians  in  Europe  ;  in  Persia  and  In- 
dia; in  China  and  Thibet;  in  Mexico  and  Peru  ; 
in  Africa,  where  it  still  nourishes  as  the  state 
religion  in  Dahomey ;  in  Java  and  Ceylon ; 
among  the  Fijian s  and  elsewhere  in  Oceanica  ; 
and  even  within  the  limits  of  Christianity  we 
find  the  sect  of  the  Ophites,  who  continued  or 
renewed  snake-worship,  blended  curiously  j 
with  purer  rites. 

Pyramids.  —  The  weight  of  authority  | 
among  modern  Egyptologists  inclines  to  the 
view  that  the  Pyramids  were  a  new  and  bold 
architectural  type,  invented  in  its  entirety  be-  ! 
tween  the  fifth  and  twelfth  dynasties,  in  Mid- 
dle Egypt,  and  not  the  development  from  \ 
earlier  forms  of  tomb-mounds.  "  Pyramid,"  j 
in  its  strict  geometrical  sense,  denotes  a  build- 
ing having  a  polygonal  base,  and  plain  triangu- 
lar sides  which  meet  in  an  apex.  There  are 
various  forms  of  ancient  tomb-mounds  of 
earth  and  stone  and  stepped  structures,  as  the 
nuMtaba  in  Egypt,  and  early  temples  and  mau- 
solea  in  Mexico  and  Assyria,  and  there  are 
also  some  inferior  imitations  of  later  date  ; 
but  the  true  pyramidal  construction  is  seen  I 
only  in  Egypt,  and  comprises  about  seventy 
structures  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  none  of 
which  are  later  than  the  twelfth  dynasty  (about 
2000  B.  C).  They  are  all  built  upon  a  square 
base,  with  the  four  sides  facing  the  four  cardi- 
nal points  of  the  compass,  and  in  the  earlier 
forms  are  composed  of  horizontal  layers  of 
rough-hewn  blocks  with  a  small  amount  of 
mortar  —  degenerating  in  the  buildings  of  the 
sixth  and  succeeding  dynasties  to  a  cellular 
system  of  retaining  walls  filled  with  loose 
chips,  and  finally,  in  the  twelfth  dynasty,  to  a 
mass  of  mud  bricks.  But  there  was,  in  all ! 
cases,  on  the  outside,  a  casing  of  fine  stone, 
beautifully  polished  and  jointed,  the  inner 
chambers  having  a  similar  finish.  These  casing 
stones  were  not  a  mere  veneer  or  film,  but  were 
massive  blocks,  usually  greater  in  thickness 
than  in  height.  Inside  of  each  pyramid,  al- 
ways low  down,  and  usually  beneath  the  level 
of  the  ground,  was  built  a  sepulchral  chamber, 
and  this  was  reached  by  a  downward  passage 


from  the  north  side.  This  passage  had  a 
lesser  chamber  in  its  course,  and  was  blocked 
once  or  of  tener  with  a  massive  stone  portcullis. 
The  interior  was  probably  in  every  case  acces- 
sible to  the  priests  for  the  purpose  of  making 
offerings,  the  passageway  being  closed  by  a 
stone  door  turning  on  a  horizontal  pivot,  the 
location  of  which  was  known  to  them.  The 
chambers  were  always  roofed  by  great  sloping 
cantalevers  of  stone  projecting  from  the  north 
and  south  sides,  on  which  they  rested  without 
pressing  on  each  other  along  the  central  ridge, 
so  that  there  was  no  thrust,  nor  indeed  any 
force  to  disturb  the  buildings  ;  and  now,  after 
a  lapse  of  four  thousand  years,  in  spite  of  the 
brutal  treatment  of  enemies  and  the  greed  of 
later  builders  (who  have  removed  almost  all  of 
the  casing  stones),  they  still  stand  as  colossal 
monuments  of  the  work  of  man.  Owing  to 
the  loss  of  the  casing  stones,  their  present  ap- 
pearance presents  a  series  of  huge,  rough  steps, 
and  their  height  has  been  considerably  dimin- 
ished by  the  encroachment  of  the  sand  of  the 
desert  around  their  bases.  Many  archaeolo- 
gists believe  these  vast  piles,  especially  the 
great  Pyramid  of  Cheops  at  Gizeh,  to  have 
been  constructed  under  divine  inspiration,  and 
to  embody  in  the  living  rock  great  astronom- 
ical facts  and  mathematical  principles,  and 
memorials  of  a  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures for  universal  use.  It  is  also  maintained 
that  Masonic  emblems  and  symbols  have  been 
found  within  them.  Whatever  the  builders 
embodied  in  the  details  of  their  construction, 
their  immediate  object  and  use  was  undoubt- 
edly to  serve  as  royal  mausolea.  As  for  these 
theories,  future  investigations  will  probably 
develop  or  explode  them  ;  but  that  there  is 
great  mathematical  knowledge  and  wonderful 
accuracy  of  measurement  displayed  in  them  is 
well  established.  In  the  great  Pyramid  at 
Gizeh,  the  four  sides  have  a  mean  error  of 
only  six  tenths  of  an  inch,  and  twelve  seconds 
in  angle  from  a  perfect  square.  This  pyramid 
is  the  largest  of  all,  and  by  far  the  most  re- 
markable in  its  construction.  It  is  somewhat 
different  from  the  others  in  its  internal  ar- 
rangement, having  the  subterranean  chamber, 
which  is  but  half  finished,  and  having  also  an 
upward  passage  leading  to  two  large  upper 
chambers,  highly  finished  with  great  slabs  of 
polished  red  granite.  Probably  both  of  these 
chambers  contained  originally  a  polished  sar- 
cophagus of  the  same  Syenitic  granite  ;  and 
the  larger  one  — the  "  King's  " —  although  in 
the  very  heart  of  this  huge  pile,  is  perfectly 
ventilated  by  two  air  passages  about  nine 
inches  square,  which  run  to  the  north  and 
south  faces  of  the  Pyramid.  It  was  built  by 
Cheops  or  Khufu  of  the  fifth  dynasty,  and  its 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


535 


construction  is  thought  to  have  employed 
100,000  men  for  thirty  years  or  more — prob- 
ably half  a  century.  The  masonry  consisted 
originally  of  89,028,000  cubic  feet,  and  still 
amounts  to  82,111,000.  The  height  is  at 
present  450  feet  (originally  479),  and  the 
length  of  the  sides  746  feet  (originally  764). 
The  King's  Chamber  is  19  feet  1  inch  in 
height,  and  in  area  34  feet  3  inches  by  17  feet 
1  inch  ;  the  Queen's  Chamber  is  20  feet  3 
iuches  in  height,  and  in  area  17  feet  by  18 
feet  9  inches.  It  is  now  generally  agreed  that 
there  were  no  inscriptions  on  the  external  sur- 
face of  any  of  the  pyramids,  the  casing-stones 
bearing  a  smooth  polish.  The  mechanical 
means  employed  by  the  builders  have  been 
partly  ascertained.  The  hard  stones,  granite, 
diorite,  and  basalt,  were,  in  all  fine  work, 
sawn  into  shape  by  bronze  saws  set  with  jewels 
(either  corundum  or  diamonds)  ;  hollows  were 
made  (as  in  sarcophagi)  by  tubular  drilling 
with  tools  like  our  modern  diamond  rock-drills, 
and  small  articles  were  turned  in  lathes  fitted 
with  mechanical  tool  rests  and  jewel  pointed 
tools.  The  questions  of  the  transport  and 
management  of  such  huge  stones,  weighing 
oftentimes  more  than  thirty  tons  apiece,  re- 
main still  to  be  answered. 

Septuag'int.  —  The  most   ancient   Greek 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  that  has  come 
down  to  us,  and  the  one  commonly  in  use  at 
the  time  of  Christ,  was  the  Septuagint.     Its 
origin   is  shrouded  in  deep  obscurity.     There 
are  a  number  of  myths  concerning  it,   but  the 
principal  one  is  that  it  was  made  during  the 
reign  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284-247  B.  C.  < 
This  king,  it  is  stated,  anxious  to  embody  in 
a  collection  of  laws  of  all  nations,  on  which  he 
was  engaged,  also  those  of  the  Jews,  invited 
72   men  of  learning  and  eminence  from  Pales- 
tine, who  performed  the  task  of  translation  in 
72  days.     The  facts  upon  which  this  legend,  ! 
now  rejected  as  a  piece  of  history,  rests,  can- 1 
not  well  be  ascertained.     It  seems  clear,  how- 
ever, that  Ptolemy,  aided  by   his   librarian,  i 
Demetrius  Phalereus,  did  cause  a  Greek  ver- 
sion of  the  Pentateuch  to  be  executed,  proba- 
bly during  the  time  of  his  being  co-regent  of 
Ptolemy  Lagi ;  but  the   translators  were  not ; 
Palestinian  but  Egyptian  Jews.     This  is  evi-  | 
denced  from  the  state  of  the  text  from  which 
the  translation  must  have  been  made,  and  from 
the  intimate  acquaintance  with  Egyptian  man- 
ners and  customs  which  it  evinces.     The  Sep-  j 
tuagint  was  held  in  the  very  highest  repute 
among  the   Alexandrine  Jews,  while  the  Pal- 
estinians looked  upon  it  as  a  dangerous  inno- 
vation, and  even  instituted  the  day  of  its  com- 
pletion   as    a    day  of  mourning.      Gradually, 
however,  it  also  found  its  way  into  Palestine. 


It  was  read  and  interpreted  in  the  synagogues 
for  some  centuries  after  Christ,  until  the  in- 
creasing knowledge  of  the  original,  fostered  by 
the  many  academies  and  schools,  and  the 
frequent  disputations  with  the  early  Christians, 
brought  other  and  more  faithful  and  literal 
translations. 

Holy  Coat,  a  garment  which  is  alleged  to 
be  the  seamless  coat  of  our  Saviour,  and  to 
have  been  discovered  in  the  fourth  century  by 
the  Empress  Helena  on  her  visit  to  Palestine. 
It  was  deposited  by  her  at  Treves,  where  it  is 
preserved  in  the  cathedral  of  that  city  with  the 
greatest  revere  nee.  The  Treves  relics  were  con- 
cealed from  the  Normans  in  the  ninth  century 
in  crypts ;  but  the  Holy  Coat  was  rediscov- 
ered in  1196,  and  then  solemnly  exhibited  to 
the  public  gaze,  which  did  not  take  place 
again  till  1512,  when  Leo  X.  appointed  it  to  be 
exhibited  every  seven  years.  In  1810  the  ex- 
hibition was  attended  by  227,000  people,  and 
in  1844  by  still  greater  multitudes.  The  ex- 
hibition of  the  Holy  Coat  in  this  latter  year 
led  to  the  secession'  of  the  German  Catholics 
from  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Portland  Vase. —  The  celebrated  Port- 
land Vase,  which  is  one  of  the  most  valued  relics 
of  antiquity  in  the  British  Museum,  was  made, 
it  is  believed,  to  hold  the  ashes  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Alexander  Servius,  and  was  discovered 
during  the  sixteenth  century  in  a  rich  sar- 
cophagus on  Monte  del  Grano,  where  it  had 
been  for  about  thirteen  hundred  years.  It  is 
an  urn,  ten  inches  high.  The  groundwork 
is  of  blue  glass,  enameled  with  white  glass  cut 
in  cameo,  to  represent  the  wedding  of  Thetis 
and  Peleus.  It  was  placed  in  the  museum  by 
the  Duke  of  Portland  in  1810,  and  in  1845  was 
maliciously  broken  by  a  man  named  Lloyd. 
The  pieces,  however,  were  collected  and  ce- 
mented together,  but  the  vase  has  not  been  on 
exhibition  since  that  date.  It  was  at  one  time 
known  as  the  Barberina  Vase,  and  was  owned 
by  Sir  William  Hamilton,  who  found  it  in  the 
Barberina  Palace,  and  purchased  it  in  1770. 
In  time  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  the 
Duchess  of  Portland,  and  was  disposed  of  as 
related. 

Shakers  is  the  popular  name  given  to  a 
religious  sect  who  call  themselves  the  "  United 
Society  of  Believers  in  Christ's  Second  Appear- 
ing." They  were  founded  in  England  about 
the  year  1770  by  an  Englishwoman  named 
Ann  Lee,  in  whose  person  they  believed  that 
Christ  has  appeared  a  second  time.  Shortly 
before  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary  War  a 
small  band  of  them,  with  Ann  Lee  at  their 
head,  emigrated  to  America,  and  penetrated 
far  into  the  wilderness  to  Niskenna,  and 
there  founded  the  settlement,  which  still  exists 


536 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


at  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  In  the  spring  of  1780, 
when  they  had  been  three  years  and  a  half 
at  Niskenna,  a  religious  revival  took  place 
at  Albany,  and  spread  through  the  surround- 
ing districts ;  and  from  Hancock  and  New 
Lebanon  a  deputation  was  sent  to  Niskenna, 
to  see  what  light  its  inhabitants,  enjoyed 
as  to  the  way  of  salvation.  The  deputation 
consisted  of  Joseph  Meacham  and  Lucy  Wright, 
subsequently  the  heads  of  the  Shaker  Society. 
These  persons  became  believers  in  Ann  Lee, 
and  through  their  agency  other  converts 
were  won,  and  a  Shaker  Society  established 
at  New  Lebanon.  Toward  the  close  of  1780, 
the  Revolutionary  War  being  then  in  progress, 
notoriety  was  given  to  Ann  Lee  through  an 
incident  seemingly  unfavorable.  On  suspi- 
cion of  being  a  British  spy  she  was  imprisoned 
for  some  time  at  Poughkeepsie,  and  before  she 
obtained  her  liberty,  in  December,  1780,  all 
the  colonies  had  heard  of  the  "  female  Christ," 
and  in  the  following  year  she  started  on  a  mis- 
sionary tour  through  New  England  and  the 
adjacent  colonies,  and  made  not  a  few  converts. 
She  died  in  1784,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
headship  of  the  society  by  Joseph  Meacham 
and  Lucy  Wright.  Her  death  was  a  surprise 
to  many  of  her  followers,  who  believed  that 
she  was  to  live  -with  them  forever.  Their  doc- 
trine has  been,  to  some  extent,  developed  as  well 
as  systematized  since  the  death  of  "  Mother 
Ann."  They  believe  that  the  Kingdom  of 
Heaven  has  come  ;  that  Christ  has  come  upon 
earth  a  second  time  in  the  form  of  "  Mother 
Ann,"  and  that  the  personal  rule  of  God  has 
been  restored.  Then  they  hold  that  the  old 
law  has  been  abolished  and  anew  dispensation 
begun  ;  that  Adam 's  sin  has  been  atoned  ;  that 
man  has  been  made  free  of  all  errors  except  his 
own  ;  that  the  curse  has  been  taken  away  from 
labor ;  that  the  earth  and  all  that  is  on  it  will 
be  redeemed.  Believers,  on  going  "into 
union,"  die  to  the  world  and  enter  upon  a  new 
life,  which  is  not  a  mere  change  of  life  but  a 
new  order  of  being.  For  them  there  is  neither 
death  nor  marriage  ;  what  seems  death  is  only 
a  change  of  form,  a  transfiguration,  which  does 
not  hide  them  from  the  purified  eyes  of  the 
saints;  and  in  union,  as  in  Heaven,  there  is 
no  marrying  nor  giving  in  marriage.  They 
believe  that  the  earth,  now  freed  from  the  curse 
of  Adam,  is  Heaven;  they  look  for  no  resur- 
rection besides  that  involved  in  living  with 
them  in  "  resurrection  order."  The  believer, 
upon  entering  into  union,  leaves  behind  all  his 
earthly  relationships  and  interests,  just  as  if  he 
had  been  severed  from  them  by  death.  And 
since  to  be  in  union  is  heaven,  the  Shakers 
hold  that  no  attempt  should  be  made  by  them 
to  draw  men  into  union.     They   believe  that 


they  live  in  daily  communion  with  the  spirits 
of  the  departed  believers.  The  Shaker  settle- 
ments are  composed  of  from  two  to  eight 
"  families, "  or  households.  A  large  house, 
divided  through  the  middle  by  wide  walls,  and 
capable  of  accommodating  from  30  to  150  in- 
mates, is  erected  by  each  family,  the  male 
members  occupying  one  end  and  the  female 
the  other.  Their  meals  are  taken  in  a  com- 
mon room,  and  in  silence.  They  possess  an 
average  of  seven  acres  of  land  to  the  member, 
and  are  very  industrious.  The  settlements  are 
at  New  Lebanon  and  Watervliet,  N.  Y. ;  Han- 
cock, Tyringham,  Harvard,  and  Shirley,  Mass.  ; 
Enfield,  Conn.  ;  Canterbury  and  Enfield,  N. 
H.  ;  Alfred  and  Gloucester,  Me.  ;  Union  Vil- 
lage, White  Water,  and  North  Union,  Ohio; 
and  at  Pleasant  Hill  and  South  Union,  Ky., 
and  number,  in  all,  2,400  members. 

Roman  Baths,  The,  were  among  the 
most  magnificent  and  extensive  architectural 
ornaments  of  the  city  in  the  time  of  the 
Empire.  They  were  erected  by  different  em- 
perors for  the  use  of  the  populace,  and  the 
vast  ruins  still  existing  testify  to  their  great 
size  and  the  unparalleled  luxury  of  their  ar- 
rangements. In  these  great  thermos,  as  they 
were  called,  the  primitive  object  of  bathing 
was  largely  lost  sight  of,  and  they  became 
favorite  places  of  general  resort  for  pleasure. 
The  most  famous  were  those  erected  by  the 
Emperors  Titus,  Caracalla,  and  Diocletian. 
Caracalla's  baths  were  1 ,500  feet  long  by  1,250 
feet  broad,  and  the  swimming  bath  or  natato- 
rinm  in  those  of  Diocletian  was  200  feet  long 
by  100  feet  wide  ;  and  it  is  calculated  that  in 
this  entire  establishment  18,000  people  could 
bathe  at  one  time.  There  were  separate  struc- 
tures for  the  exclusive  use  of  women,  and  in 
some  cases  separate  apartments  in  the  same 
building,  but  these  were  generally  inferior  to 
those  for  the  men.  They  were  built  entirely 
of  stone  and  polished  marble,  and  all  the 
apartments  were  beautifully  ornamented  with 
mosaic,  and  profusely  adorned  with  painting, 
stuccowork,  and  statuary.  The  public  baths 
of  Pompeii  were  uncovered  in  1824  and  the 
complete  internal  arrangement  disclosed, which 
is  probably  similar  to,  though  on  a  smaller 
scale  than,  those  in  Rome.  The  process  of 
bathing  was  this :  After  undressing  in  the 
apod yter in m,  or  "room  for  urfdressing, "  the 
bather  was  rubbed  and  anointed  with  some 
of  the  fragrant  oils  and  ointments  used  by  the 
ancients,  and  then  proceeded  to  a  spacious 
apartment  devoted  to  exercises  of  various 
kinds,  among  which  games  at  ball  held  a 
prominent  place.  After  exercise,  he  went  into 
the  ccddarivm,  either  merely  to  sweat  or  to 
take  the  hot  bath  ;  and  during  this  part  of  the 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


537 


process  the  body  was  scraped  with  strigiles 
(small  curved  instruments  usually  made  of 
bronze).  Being  now  dried  with  cloths,  and 
slightly  anointed  all  over  with  perfumed  oils, 
he  resumed  his  dress,  and  then  passed  a  short 
time,  successively,  in  the  tepidarium  and  the 
frigidarium,  or  temperate  and  cold  rooms, 
which  softened  the  transition  from  the  great 
heat  of  the  caldarium  into  the  open  air.  The 
artificial  bath  has  been  used  from  the  most 
ancient  times  of  which  we  have  any  record. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Homer,  the  vessel  for  bath- 
ing being  described  as  of  polished  marble  and 
the  warm  baths  referred  to  as  effeminate.  Pub- 
lic baths  were  common  in  Greece  during  the 
historic  period,  and  they  were  in  use  at  Rome 
from  early  times  ;  but  during  the  Republic  they 
continued  small,  dark,  and  inconvenient,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  Empire  that 
they  reached  their  great  size  and  splendor. 

Russia,  Religion  of. —  The  Established 
Church  of  Russia,  to  which  the  great  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  belong,  is  identical  in  doc- 
trine with,  and  is  a  branch  of,  the  Greek 
Church.  The  liturgy  used  is  the  same  as  that 
originally  used  by  the  Church  at  Constantino- 
ple, but  it  is  read,  not  in  Greek,  but  in  the 
Sclavonic  tongue.  Previous  to  the  time  of 
Alexander  II.,  dissent  in  all  its  forms  was  not 
only  discouraged  but  often  rigorously  repressed 
and  it  has  only  been  during  very  late  years  that 
general  toleration  has  been  permitted.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  been  the  object 
of  especial  severity  in  the  past,   particularly 


during  the  reign  of  the  Czar  Nicholas.  Under 
the  laws  of  Alexander  II.,  all  Catholics  and 
Protestants  enjoy  civil  rights  with  members  of 
the  Established  Church,  and  are  equally  ad- 
missible to  the  highest  offices  of  the  empire. 
Christianity  was  introduced  into  Russia  in  the 
ninth  century. 

Taj  Mahal  was  built  by  the  Shah  Jihan  of 
India  as  a  mausoleum  for  the  remains  of  his  wife 
Nourmahal,  and  is  situated  at  Agra.  It  is  of 
white  marble,  100  feet  in  diameter  and  200  feet 
in  height,  built  in  the  form  of  an  irregular  oc- 
tagon, and  rising  from  a  marble  terrace,  under 
which  is  a  second  terrace  of  red  sandstone. 
At  the  corners  of  the  marble  tei*race  are  lofty 
minarets,  and  in  the  center  of  the  main  build- 
ing rises  a  dome,  flanked  by  cupolas  of  similar 
form.  Every  part,  even  the  basement,  the 
dome,  and  the  upper  galleries  of  the  minarets, 
is  inlaid  with  ornamental  designs  in  marble  of 
different  colors,  principally  of  pale  brown  and 
bluish  violet.  Here  and  there,  also,  the  exte- 
rior and  interior  are  decorated  with  mosaics  of 
precious  stones.  The  whole  Koran  is  said  to 
be  written  in  mosaics  of  precious  stones  on  the 
interior  walls.  In  the  construction  of  this 
magnificent  building,  which,  as  Bayard  Taylor 
says,  alone  repays  a  visit  to  India,  20,000  men 
were  employed  twenty  years.  Although  the 
labor  cost  nothing,  over  $20,000,000  were  ex- 
pended in  its  construction.  The  doors  are  of 
solid  silver,  and  an  enormous  diamond  was 
placed  upon  the  tomb  itself. 


SUNDAY-SCHOOL  STATISTICS  OF  ALL  COUNTRIES. 


Countries. 


Europe: 

England  and  Wales. 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Belgium 

Austria 

Denmark 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece.." 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Portugal 

Russia 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

European  Turkey . . . 


Teachers. 


Asia  : 

India,  including  Ceylon 

Persia ". 


37.2011 

6,275] 

3,584i 

89 

212 

506 

6.853 

1.4o0 

5,000 

4 

403 

1.560 

550 

11 

83 

88 

5,750 

1.637 

35 


5,548 
li»7 


Scholars. 


Countries. 


585,457 

62,994 

27,740 

310 

513 

3,043 

11,534 

3,800 

34,983 

654 

4,600 

4,390 

56 

777 

180 

17,200 

6,916 

17." 


10,715 

44(1 


),97C,537 

694,860 

308,516 

4,112 

7,195 

55,316 

147.134 

60.000 

749,786 

180 

10,969 

163,000 

63,980 

1,066 

15,524 

3,230 

242,150 

113,382 

1,564 


197,754 
4,876 


Asia — Continued. 

Siam 

China 

Japan  

Central  Turkev. . 


Africa. 


North  Ajnerica : 

United  States 

Canada 

Newf  oundl'nd  and  Labrador 

West  Indies 

Central  Americaand  Mexico 

South  America 


Oceanica: 

Australasia 

Fiji  Islands 

Hawaiian  Islands. 
Other  Islands 


The  World 


—  c 

s  c      Teachers. 


16 
105 
150 
516 

4,246 


123.173 

8,386 

359 

2.185 

550 

350 


4,766 

1,474 

230 

210 


224,562 


Scholars. 


64 

1,053 

390 

2,450 


809 

5,264 

7,019 

25,833 


8,455        161,394 


1,305.939 

69,521 

2,275 

9,673 

1,300 

3,000 


54,211 

2,700 

1,413 

800 

2,239,728 


9,718,432 

576,064 

22,976 

110,233 

15,000 

150,000 


588,029 

42,909 
15.840 
10,000 


20,268,083 


The  total  number  of  teachers  and  scholars  in  the  world,  according  to  this  report,  was  22,508,661. 
The  table  does  not  include  the  schools  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Non-Evangelical  Protestant  churches, 
number  of  scholars  in  Roman  Catholic  Sunday  schools  in  the  United  States  is  estimated  by  clerics  at  800,000. 


The 


538 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


RELIGIOUS    STATISTICS. 

NUMBERS  IN  THE  WORLD  ACCORDING  TO  CREED. 
The  following  estimates,  by  M.  Fournier  de  Flaix,  are  the  latest  that  have  been  made  by  a  competent  authority. 


Creeds.                            No.  of  Followers.                             Creeds. 

No.  of  Followers. 

2    Worship  of  Ancestors  and  Con- 

477,080,158              5    Buddhism 

147,900,000 
43,000,000 

256,000,000              7    Shintoism 

14,000,000 
7,186.000 

190,000,000              8    Judaism 

176.834.372                 9     Polvtheism 

117,681,669 

CHRISTIANITY. 


Churches. 


Total  Followers. 


Catholic  Church 

Protestant  Churches 

Orthodox  Greek  Church. 

Church  of  Abyssinia 

Coptic  Church 


230,866.533 

143,237,625 

98,016,000 

3,000,000 

120,000 


Churches. 


Total  Followers. 


Armenian  Church. 

Nestorians 

Jacobites 


Total 


1,690,000 
80,000 
70,000 

477,080,158 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  SEMITIC  ARYAN  RACES. 


Christianity. 

(iKoGHAi'iniAi,  Divisions. 

Catholic 
Church. 

Protestant 
Churches. 

Orthodox 
Churches. 

Mohamme- 
danism. 

Judaism. 

160,165,000 
58,393,882 
6,574,481 
2,655,920 
3,007,250 

80,812,000 

57,294,014 

2,724.781 

1,744,080 

662,750 

89,190,000 
8,820,000 

6,629,000 

24,699,787 
36,000,000 
109,535,585 

176,834.:«7'J 

6,456,000 
•130,000 

400,000 
200,000 

Total  Followers 

230.866,633 

143,237,625 

98,016,000 

7,186,008 

RELIGIOUS  DIVISIONS  OF  EUROPE. 


Countries. 


lungary. 


Russia 

Germany.. 
Austria-  Hi 
France . 
United  Kingdom. 

Italy 

Spam 

Belgium 

Ron  mania 

Ottoman  Empire 

Netherlands 

Portugal 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Denmark 

Greece 

Servia 

Bulgaria 

Norway 

Roumelia 

Montenegro 

Luxembourg 

Malta 

Gibraltar 


Catholic 
Church. 


.600,000 

,100,000 

100,000 

,387,000 

500,000 

850.000 

,850.000 

,880,000 

100,000 

320,000 

,545.000 

,300,000 

1,000 

,172,000 

3.000 

10,000 

6,000 

29,000 

1,000 

30,000 

5,000 

200.000 

160,000 

16,000 


Protestant 
Churches. 


Orthodox 
Churches. 


Jews. 


3,400.000 

29,478.000 

3.900,000 

580,000 

30,100,000 

62,000 

29,000 

15,000 

15,000 

11,000 

2,750,000 

4,698.000 

1,710,000 

2,089,000 

10,000 

1,000 

1,958,000 


73,310,000 
3,100,000 


4.HO0.OOO 
1.700,000 


1.930,000 
1.973,000 
1,393,000 

700,000 
290,000 


Total  Followers |    160.165,000 


80,812,000     i        89,196,00 


3,400,000 

590,000 

1,700,000 

49,000 

100,000 

38,000 

5,000 

3,000 

400,000 

60,000 

83,000 

2,000 
8,000 
4.000 
5,000 
5,000 


4,000 


Mohamme- 
dans. 


Unclassified. 


3,000,000 


30,000 
2,708,000 


45,000 
15,000 
571,000 

240,000 


290.000 
32,000 

100,000 
84,000 

500,000 
50,000 

2,000 
55,000 
70.000 
16,000 

1.000 

1,000 
10,000 

4,000 


1,000 
2,000 
1,000 


6,456,000 


6,629,000 


1,219,000 


The  distinction  between  followers  and  actual  communicants  should  be  observed. 

ENGLISH-SPEAKING  RELIGIOUS  COMMUNITIES  OF  THE  WORLD. 


Episcopalians I  29,200,000 

Methodists  of  all  descriptions 18,650,000 

Roman  Catholics 15,500,000 

Presbyterians  of  all  descriptions 12,250,000 

Baptists  of  all  descriptions 9.230,000 

Congregationalists 6,150,000 

Free  Thinkers 5,250,000 


Lutherans,  etc 

Unitarians 

Minor  religious  sects 

Of  no  particular  religion. 


English-speaking  population. 


2,800,000 
2,600,000 
5,500,000 
17,000,000 


124,130,000 


A  very  large  number— more  than  18,000,000 — of  Hindoos,  Mohammedans,  Buddhists,  and  others  in  the  East 
also  speak  and  read  English. 

The  estimates  in  the  last  table  are  from  Whitaker's  (Xondon)  Almanack,  1895. 

The  Encyclopedia  BrUtuudea,  but  edition,  makes  a  rough  estimate  of  numbers  of  Protestants  in  the  world 
speaking  all  civilized  languages,  and  places  the  Lutherans  at  the  head,  with  over  42,000,000  members  (mostly  in 
Germany  and  Scandinavia),  and  the  Anglican  Church  second,  with  about  20,000,000  members. 

*  United  States  census  of  1890. 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


589 


RELIGIOUS  DENOMINATIONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Statistics  of  Churches  and  Communicants  or  Members,  compiled  originally  from  the  census  returns  of  1890, 
by  Dr.  Henry  K.  Carroll,  special  agent,  with  subsequent  revisions. 


Denominations. 


Cn2 
P 


Value  of 

Church  g  on  2 

Property,  £  a  S 

1890.  Sgg 


Denominations. 


Value  of 

Church 

Propertv, 

1890. 


Adventists '. 

Evangelical 30  $61,400 

Advent  Christians 000  465,605 

Seventh-Dav 1,015  645,075 

Church  of  God 29  1,400 

Life  and  Advent  L'nion 28  16,790 

Churches  of  God  in  Christ 

Jesus j  95  46,075! 


Church     Triumphant 
j    (Schweinfurth) 


Church  of  the  New  Jerusa- 
lemt 


All  Advent  Bodies 1 .797      $1,236,345 


Baptists : 

Regular,  North 

Regular,  South 

Regular,  Colored 

Six  Principles '. 

Seventh-Day 

Freewill  ..." 

Original  Freewill 

General 

United 

Separate 

Baptist  Church  of  Christ. . 

Primitive 

Old  Two  Seed  in  the  Spirit 
Predestinarians 


7,836 

17.S24 

12,462 

IS 

90 

1.536 

167 

420 

204 

24 

152 

3,500 

473 


49,524,504 

18,152,599 

9,082,587; 

19,500 

265,260 

3,115.642 

57,005; 

201,140 

80,150 

9,200 

56.755 

1,591,551 


1,147 

26,250 

33,169 

647 

1,018 

Communistic  Societies  :(a; 

2,872    Shakers 

Amana 

65,103   Harmony 

j  Separatists 

New  Icaria 

Altruists 

Adonai  Shomo 

Church  Triumphant  (Kore- 
shan  Ecclesia) 


12  $15,000 

102         1,386,455 


817,534 

1,387,060 

1,292,394 

937 

8,531 

84,381 

11,864 

22,000 

13,209 

1.599 

8254 

125.000 


36,800 
15,000 
10,000 
3,000 


6,000 
36,000 


All  Communistic  Societies 

Congregationalists 

Disciples  of  Christ 


32  $106,800 
5,400  43,335,437 
8,768       12.206,038 


172,230  12,851 


■J.", 


All  Baptist  Bodies 44.707 


Brethren  i  River) : 

Brethren  in  Christ 

Old  Order,  or  Yorker. 
United  Zion's  Children  . , 

Total  (River)  Brethren. 

Brethren  (Plymouth) : 

Brethren  (I.) 

Brethren  (II.) 

Brethren  (III.) 

Brethren  (IV.) 


$82,328,123     3,785,740 


73,050 



8,300 


2,688 
214 
525 


Dunkards : 

Dunkards  or  German  Bap- 
tists (Congregational) 

Dunkards  or  German  Bap- 
tists (Old  Order).. 

Dunkards  or  German  Bap- 
tists (Progressive) 

Seventh-Day  Baptists,  Ger. 

All  Dunkard  Bodies 


Ill 


.-.1 


$81,350 


1.265 
200 


3,427 


2.289 

2.419 

1,235 

718 


Total(Plymouth)Brethren        314 


Catholics : 

Roman  Catholic 

Greek  Catholic  (Uniates). 

Russian  Orthodox 

Greek  Orthodox 

Armenian 

Old  Catholic 

Reformed  Catholic 


$1,465 


12,293     118,069,746 
14  63.300 

12  220,000 

3  5,000 

6 

20  500,000 


6,661 


,474,850 

10,850 

13,504 

200 

3X5 

250,000 

1,000 


Episcopalians : 
Protestant  Episcopal. . 
Reformed  Episcopal. .. 

Total  Episcopalians. 

Evangelical  Bodies  (ft). 


Friends : 

Friends  (Orthodox). . 
Friends  (Hicksite).. . 
Friends  (Wilburite) . 
Friends  (Primitive) . 

Total  Friends 


720 
130 


130 
6 


1,121,541 
80,770 


145,770 
14,550 


1,016      $1,362,631 


5,803       81,220.317 
94         1,615.101 


5,897    $82,835,418 
2,945        4,785,680 


800  2.795.784 

201  1,661,850 

53  6,700 

9  16,700 


All  Catholic  Bodies , 
Catholic  Apostolic  . . . 

Chinese  Temples 

Christadelphians 


Christians: 

Christian  Connection 

Christian  Church  (South). . . 


Total  Christians. 


Christian  Missionary  Asso. 

Christian  Scientists 

Christian  Union 


12,356  $118,858,046 

8,000,739 

10 

66,050 

1,394 

47 

62,000 
2,700 

63 

1,277 1 1 

1,900 

157 

1,637.202 
138,000 

94  870 
14.951 

1,457 

$1,775,202 

109,821 

13 

3,900 

754 

221 

40.6C6 

8,724 

291 

234,450 

18,214 

Friends  of  the  Temple 

German  Evang.  Protestant 
German  Evang.  Synod 


Jewish  Congregations : 

Orthodox 

Reformed 


Total  Jewish  Bodies. 


Church  of  God  (Winnebren- 
arian) 


643,185  36,000 


Latter-Day  Saints : 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of 

Latter-Day  Saintst 

Reorg.  Ch.  of  Jesus  Christ 

of  Latter-Day  Saints  § . . . .' 

Total  Latter-Day  Saints. . 


Lutherans : 

(General  Bodies.) 

General  Synod 

United  Svnod  in  South. 
General  Council 


1,063 

44,541,334 

107, 

4 

15,300 

55 

1,187,453 

36, 

978 

4,614,490 

175, 

325 
217 

2,802.050 
6,952,225 

60, 

78, 

542 

$9,754,275 

188, 

552 

825,506 

201 

431 

226,285 

22 

983 

$1,051,791 

223 

1,465 
382 

1,720 

8,919.170 
1,114,065 
11,119,286 

169 

35 

302 

540 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Religious  Denominations  in  the  United  States — Continued. 


Denominations. 


Value  of 

Church 

Property, 

1890. 


c  c  fr* 

s  ~  8 
SiS'9 

Bflg 

5  ai  4) 

6°s 


Denominations. 


Value  of 

Church 

Property, 

1890. 


a  °  a> 
£5-2 
g  c  S 
Sg.2 


Lutherans— Continued. 

Synod  ical  Conference 

United  Norwegian 

(Independent  Synods.) 
Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  etc. . . 

German  of  Iowa 

Buffalo  Synod 

Hauge's  Synod 

Norwegian  Ch.  in  America. 
Danish  Church  in  America. 
German  Augshurg  Synod.. 
Danish  Church  Association 

Icelandic  Synod 

Immanuel  Synod 

Suomai  Synod 

Slavonian  Synod 

Independent  Congregations 

All  Lutheran  Bodies • 


Mennonites : 

Mennonite 

Bruederhoef(Communistic) 

Ami.sh 

Old  Amish 

Apostolic 

Reformed 

General  Conference 

Church  of  Cod  in  Christ. . . 

Old(Wister) 

Bundes  Conference 

Defenseless 

Brethren  in  Christy, 


2,234 
1,028 

648 

661 

31 

200 

581 

135 

24 

76 

23 

22 

35 

7 

112 


§7,804,313 


1,639,087 


84,410 
214,395 
806,825 
129,700 
111,060 

44,775 
7,200 

94.200 

12,898 


9,283    $33,810,609 


All  Mennonite  Bodies  — 

Methodists : 

Methodist  Episcopal 

Union  American  M.  E 

African  Meth.  Episcopal.. 
African  Union  Meth.  Prot. 

African  M.  E.  Zion 

Zion  Union  Apostolic 

Methodist  Protestant 

Wesleyan  Methodist 

Methodist  Episcopal,  South 
Colored  Meth.  Episcopal. .. 

Primitive  Methodist 

Congregational  Methodist. 

Congre.  Meth.  (Colored) 

New  Congregational  Meth. 

Free  Methodist 

Independent  Methodist 

Evangelist  Missionary 


246 

5 

97 

22 

2 
M 

45 
18 
15 
12 

9 

4.", 


55(1 


2.3,800 

115 

4,425 

41 

1,605 

32 

2,200 

565 

16,000 

3,672 

89 

150 

5 

24 

708 

15 

11 


317,045 

4,500 

76,450 

1,500 

1,200 

52,650 

119,350 

1,600 

8,015 

11,350 

10,540 

39,600 


456.883 
107,830  ■ 

71,768 

52,903 

3,823 

14,3101 

56,221; 

10,500, 

7,010 

5,503 

5.300 

6,500 

2,750 

500 

18,000 


Moravians. 


§643,800 


96,723,408 

187,600 

6,468,280 

54,440 

2,714,128 

15,000 

3,683,337 

393,250 

18,775,362 

1,713,366 

291.993 

41,680 

525 

3,750 

806,085 

266,975 

2,000 


1,327,134, 


17,078 

352 

10,101 

2,038 
209 

1,655 

5,670 
471 
610 

1,388 
856 

1,113 


All  Methodist  Bodies e53,457  $132,140,179     5,121,636 


41,541 


2,530,448 

7,031 

497,350 

3,500 

394,562 

2,346 

162,789 

16,492 

1,333,210 

128,817 

5,005 

12,150 

319 

1,059 

26,140 

2,569) 

951 


Presbyterians : 
Presb.  Ch.  in  the  U.  S.  of  A. 
Cumberland  Presbyterian. . 
Cumberland  Pres.  (Colored) 

Welsh  Calvinistic  Meth 

United  Presbyterian 

Pres.  Ch.  in  the  U.S.(South) 
Asso.  Ch.  of  No.  America.. 
Asso.  Ref .  Syn.  of  the  South 
Ref .  Pres.  in  the  U.  S.  (Syn.) 
Kef.Pres.in  N.A.(Gen.  Syn  ) 
Ref.  Presb.  (Covenanted).  . 
Ref.  Presb.  in  U.  S.  &  Can. 

All  Presbyterian  Bodies. 

Reformed : 

Ref.  Church  in  America. . . 
Ref.  Church  in  the  U.  S.. . . 
Christian  Reformed 


All  Reformed  Bodies. 


Salvation  Army 

Schwenkfeldians 

Social  Brethren 

Societv  for  Ethical  Cult. 


Spiritualists 

Theosophical  Society. 


United  Brethren : 
United  Brethren  in  Christ. 
United  Brethren  in  Christ 
(Old  Constitution) 


7,103 

2,881 

250 

188 

896 

2,816 

31 

127 

115 

41 

4 

1 


$681,250 


74,455,200 

3,515.510 

195,826 

625,875 

5,408,084 

21,120,000 

29,200 

211.850 

1,071,400 

469,000 

... 

75,000 


14,453  $107,770,945 


589 

1,658 

121 


12,535 


876,520 

184,138 

13,260 

13,000 

104,058 

211,694 

1,053 

9,793 

9,588 

5.000 

37 

600 


2,368 

642 

4 

20 

4 

334 


4,097 
800 


10,340,159 

7,975.583 

428,500 


$18,744,242 

38,150 

12,200 

8,700 

573,650 
600 

4,292,643 
644,940 


Total  United  Brethren. . 

Unitarians 

Universalists 

Waldenstromians , 

Independent  Congreg'ns. . , 

Grand  Total 177,481  $698,971,372 


4,897 
437 
792 
150 
156 


$4,937,583 
10,335,100 
8,054,333 

1,486,000 


1,428,731 

98,882 
221,473 

15.598 

335,953 

22,000 

306 

913 

1,064 

45,030 

2,500 

215,718 
30,000 

245,71s 

68,250 
46,188 
20,000 
14.1J»; 
23,467,728 


*  Or  organizations,    t  Swedenborgians.    +  Mormons.    §  Seceding  Mormons. 

(a)  The  Bruederhoef  Mennonites  also  observe  a  communal  life.  They  are  reported  in  connection  with  other 
Mennonite  branches,    (b)  Evangelical  Association  and  United  Evangelical  Churches,    (c)  Church  edifices. 

For  January,  1897,  The  Independent  published  statistics  of  churches  in  the  United  States  from  the  latest 
obtainable  returns.  The  aggregate  number  of  communicants  of  the  principal  denominations  were  then  as  fol- 
lows: Roman  Catholics,  8  271.309:  Methodist  bodies,  5.653.289;  Baptist  bodies,  4,153,857:  Presbyterian  bodies, 
1,460,345,  Lutheran  bodies.  1,420,905;  Disciples  of  Christ,  1,003,672 ;  Protestant  Episcopalians,  136,773;  Congrega- 
tionalists,  622,657;  Reformed  bodies,  348,471;  United  Brethren,  271,035;  Mormons,  234  000. 


Scriptural  Measures  of  Capacity. — 

The  measures  of  capacity  referred  to  in  the 
Scriptures,  with  their  English  equivalents,  are 
as  follows  :  The  Choraer  or  Homer  in  King 
James's  translation  was  75,625  gals,  liquid, 
and  32,125  pecks  dry.  The  Ephah  or  Bath 
was  7  gals.  4  pts.,  15  ins.  sol.     The  Seah=l-3 


of  Ephah,  2  gals.  4  pts.,  3  ins. sol.  The  Hin 
=1-6  of  Ephah,  1  gal.,  2  pts.,  1  in.  sol.  The 
Omer=l-10  of  Ephah,  5  pts.,  0.5  in.  sol. 
The  Cab=l-18  of  Ephah,  3  pts.,  10  ins.  sol. 
The  Log=7  1-72  of  Ephah,  }  pt.,  10  ins. 
sol.  The  Metretes  of  Syria  (John  ii,  6)= 
Cong.  Rom.  7£  pts.     The  Cotyla  Eastern=l- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


541 


100  of  Ephah,  $  pt.,  3  ins.  sol.  This  Cotyla 
contains  just  10  ozs.  avoirdupois  of  rain  water  ; 
Oiuer,  100  ;  Ephah,  1,000;  Chomer  or  Homer, 
10,000. 

Scriptural  Measures  of  Length. — 
The  measures  of  length  used  in  the  Scriptures, 
with  their  English  equivalents,  are  as  follows : 
The  great  Cubit  was  21.888  ins.=1.824  ft., 
and  the  less  18  ins.  A  span,  the  longer=^  a 
cubit=10.944  ins. =.912  ft.  A  span,  the  less 
=1-3  of  a  cubit=7.296  ins.=  .608  ft.  A 
hand's  breadth=l-6  of  a  cubit=3.684  ins.= 
.304  ft.  A  finger's  breadth=L-24  of  a  cubit 
=  .912  ins.=  .076  ft.  A  fathom=4  cubits= 
7.296  ft.  Ezekiel's  Reed=6  cubits=10.944 
feet.  Themile=4,000cubits=7,296ft.  The 
Stadium,  1-10  of  their  mile=400  cubits= 
729.6  ft.  The  Farasang,  3  of  their  miles= 
12,000  cubits,  or  4  English  miles  and  580  ft. 
33.164  miles  was  a  day's  journey  —  some  say 
24  miles  ;  and  3,500  ft.  a  Sabbath  day's  jour- 
ney ;  some  authorities  say  3,648  ft. 

Theosophy. —  The  name  "  theosophy  "  is 
from  the  Greek  word  theosophia,  divine  wisdom. 
The  object  of  theosophical  study  is  professedly 
to  understand  the  nature  of  divine  things.  It 
differs  from  both  philosophy  and  theology  in 
that  all  reasoning  processes  are  excluded  as  im- 
perfect, and  claims  to  derive  its  knowledge  from 
direct  communication  with  God.  It  does  not 
accept  the  truths  of  recorded  revelation  as  im- 
mutable, but  as  subject  to  modification  by  later 
direct  and  personal  revelations.  It  is  really 
but  another. name  for  mysticism,  although  the 
latter  name  implies  much  more  ;  and  the  direct 
and  immediate  knowledge  or  intuition  of  God 
to  which  the  Mystics  laid  claim  was,  in  fact, 
the  foundation  of  that  intimate  union  with' 
God,  and  consequent  abstraction  from  outer 
things,  which  they  make  the  basis  of  their 
moral  and  ascetical  system.  The  theosophic 
system  dates  from  a  very  high  antiquity.  Since 
the  Christian  era  we  may  class  among  theoso- 
phists  such  sects  as  Neoplatonists,  the  Hesy- 
chasts  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  in  later  times 
the  disciples  of  Paracelsus,  Thalhauser,  Bohme, 
and  Swedenborg. 

Bayeux  Tapestry,  The,  is  a  web  of  can- 
vas or  linen  cloth  upon  which  is  embroidered, 
in  woolen  threads  of  various  colors,  a  represen- 
tation of  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  England 
by  the  Normans.  The  canvas  is  214  feet  long 
by  20  inches  broad,  and  is  preserved  in  the 
public  library  at  Bayeux.  Tradition  asserts 
that  it  is  the  work  of  Matilda,  wife  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  it  is  believed  that  if  she 
did  not  actually  stitch  the  whole  of  it  with  her 
own  hands,  she  at  least  took  part  in  it,  and 
directed  the  execution  of  it  by  her  maids,  and 
afterwards   presented   it   to  the  Cathedral  of 


Bayeux  as  a  token  of  her  appreciation  of  the 
effective  assistance  which  its  bishop,  Odo, 
rendered  her  husband  at  the  battle  of  Hast- 
ings. Some  antiquarians  contend  that  it  was 
j  not  the  work  of  Queen  Matilda  (the  wife  of 
the  Conqueror),  who  died  in  1083,  but  of  the 
Empress  Matilda  (the  daughter  of  Henry  I.), 
who  died  in  1167.  The  tapestry  contains,  be- 
side the  figures  of  505  quadrupeds,  birds, 
sphinxes,  etc.,  the  figures  of  623  men,  202 
horses,  55  dogs,  37  buildings,  41  ships  and 
boats,  and  49  trees  —  in  all,  1,512  figures.  It 
is  divided  into  72  distinct  compartments,  each 
representing  one  particular  historical  occur- 
rence, and  bearing  an  explanatory  Latin  in- 
scription. A  tree  is  usually  chosen  to  divide 
the  principal  events  from  each  other.  This 
pictorial  history  —  for  so  it  may  be  called  — 
gives  an  exact  and  minute  portraiture  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  times  ;  and  it  has 
been  remarked  that  the  arms  and  habits  of  the 
Normans  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Danes 
as  they  appear  in  the  earlier  formative  periods 
of  the  English  people. 

Amen  is  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  "  Yes," 
"  Truly."  In  Jewish  synagogues  the  ameri 
is  pronounced  by  the  congregation  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  benediction.  Among  the  early 
Christians  the  prayer  offered  by  the  presbyter 
was  concluded  by  the  word  amen,  uttered  by 
the  congregation.  Justin  Martyr  is  the  earliest 
of  the  fathers  who  alludes  to  the  use  of  the  re- 
sponse. According  to  Tertullian,  none  but  the 
faithful  were  permitted  to  join  in  the  response. 
A  somewhat  noisy  and  irreverent  practice  pre- 
vailed in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
until  the  sixth  century,  after  which  it  was  dis- 
contimied.  "Upon  the  reception  both  of  the 
bread  and  of  the  wine,  each  person  uttered  a 
loud  'amen,'  and  at  the  close  of  the  conse- 
cration by  the  priest,  all  joined  in  shouting 
aloud  'amen.'"  The  same  custom  was  ob- 
served at  baptism,  when  the  sponsors  and  wit- 
nesses responded  vehemently.  In  the  Greek 
Church  the  amen  was  pronounced  after  the 
name  of  each  person  of  the  Trinity  ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  baptismal  formula  the  people 
responded.  At  the  conclusion  of  prayer  it 
signifies  (according  to  the  English  Church  Cat- 
echism) so  be  it;  after  the  repetition  of  the 
creed,  so  it  is. 

Shintuism  is  the  prevailing  religion  of 
Japan.  Its  characteristics  are  the  absence  of 
an  ethical  and  doctrinal  code,  of  idol  worship, 
of  priestcraft,  and  of  any  teachings  concerning 
a  future  state.  It  requires  pre-eminently  pu- 
rity of  heart  and  general  temperance.  The 
principal  divinity  is  the  sun-goddess  Amate- 
j  rasu,  whose  descendant  and  vice-regent  on 
1  earth   is   the  Mikado,  who   is  therefore  wor- 


542 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


shiped  as  a  demigod.  Their  temples  are 
singularly  devoid  of  ecclesiastical  parapherna- 
lia. A  metal  mirror  generally  stands  on  the 
altar  as  a  symbol  of  purity.  The  spirit  of  the 
enshrined  deity  is  supposed  to  be  in  a  case, 
which  is  exposed  to  view  only  on  the  day  of 
the  deity's  annual  festival.  The  worship  con- 
sists merely  in  washing  the  face  in  a  font, 
striking  a  bell,  throwing  a  few  cash  into  the 
money  box,  and  praying  silently  for  a  few  sec- 
onds. In  addition  to  the  chief  deity,  there 
are  a  legion  of  canonized  heroes  and  benefac- 
tors who  are  worshiped.  Many  Japanese 
temples  are  magnificent  specimens  of  archi- 
tecture in  wood,  and  are  remarkable  for  their 
vast  tent-like  roofs  and  their  exquisite  wood- 
carving. 

Arundel  Marbles  are  a  collection  of  an- 
cient sculptures  consisting  of  37  statues,  128 
busts,  and  250  inscribed  stones,  which  were 
found  on  the  island  of  Paros  about  1610. 
They  were  collected  by  Mr.  W.  Pefty,  pur- 
chased by  Lord  Arundel,  and  given  by  his 
grandson,  Henry  Howard  —  afterward  Duke 
of  Norfolk  —  to  the  University  of  Oxford  in 
1607.  These  sculptures  contain  inscriptions 
in  the  Greek  tongue.  In  their  perfect  state 
they  evidently  contained  a  chronological  table 
of  the  principal  events  of  Grecian  history  from 
the  time  of  Cecrops,  1582  B.  C,  to  the  archon- 
shlp  of  Diognetus,  264  B.C.  The  chronicle  of 
the  last  ninety  years  of  this  period,  however, 
is  lost,  and  the  portion  still  extant  is  much 
corroded  and  defaced. 

Babel,  Tower  of. —  The  distinction  of 
being  a  remnant  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  has 
been  claimed  for  three  different  masses,  but 
the  majority  of  opinions  are  in  favor  of  the 
Birs  Nimrud  in  Babylonia,  the  ruins  of  this 
temple  appearing  to  more  nearly  correspond 
with  the  conceived  notion  of  that  structure. 
It  is  of  an  oblong  form,  the  total  circumfer- 
ence being  762  yards.  At  the  eastern  side  it 
is  cloven  by  a  deep  furrow,  and  it  is  not  more 
than  50  or  60  feet  high  ;  but  on  the  western 
side  it  rises  in  a  conical  figure  to  the  elevation 
of  198  feet;  and  on  its  summit  is -a  solid  pile 
of  brick  37  feet  high  by  28  in  breadth,  dimin- 
ishing in  thickness  to  the  top,  which  is  broken 
and  irregular,  and  rent  by  a  large  fissure  ex- 
tending through  a  third  of  its  height.  The 
fire-burnt  bricks  of  which  it  is  built  have  in- 
scriptions on  them  ;  and  so  excellent  is  the  ce- 
ment, which  appears  to  be  lime-mortar,  that 
it  is  nearly  impossible  to  extract  a  whole  brick. 
The  other  parts  of  the  summit  of  the  hill  are 
occupied  by  immense  fragments  of  brickwork 
of  no  determinate  figure,  tumbled  together, 
and  converted  into  solid,  vitrified  masses,  as  if 
they  had  undergone  the  action  of  the  fiercest 


fire  or  had  been  blown  up  with  gunpowder. 
These  ruins  stand  on  a  prodigious  mound,  the 
whole  of  which  is  itself  in  ruins,  channeled  by 
the  weather,  and  strewed  with  fragments  of 
black  stone,  sandstone,  and  marble.  Taken 
in  connection  with  the  ancient  tradition  that 
the  Tower  of  Babel  was  rent  and  overthrown 
by  fire  from  heaven,  this  is  a  curious  circum- 
stance. 

Sunday. —  The  name  of  the  first  day  of 
the  week  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Sunnan 
dneg,  or  day  of  the  sun  ;  in  the  Roman  calen- 
dar, dies  Soils.  We  have  no  definite  informa- 
tion as  to  when  the  observance  of  the  first  day 
of  the  week  was  substituted  by  the  Christians 
for  that  of  the  seventh  day,  the  ancient  Jewish 
Sabbath.  It  undoubtedly  arose  among  the 
earliest  practices  of  the  Christian  Church,  and 
was  regarded  as  the  fittest  day  to  be  held  as 
sacred,  because,  in  the  words  of  one  of  the 
Fathers,  "It  is  the  first  day  in  which  God 
changed  darkness  and  matter,  and  made  the 
world ;  and  on  the  same  day,  also,  Jesus 
Christ,  our  Saviour,  rose  from  the  dead." 
Various  additional  reasons,  taken  from  the 
Old  Testament,  were  advanced  by  others  of 
the  early  Fathers  in  support  of  the  observance 
of  this  day.  The  first  law,  either  ecclesiastical 
or  civil,  by  which  the  sabbatical  observance  of 
Sunday  is  known  to  have  been  ordained,  is  an 
edict  of  Constantihe,  A.  D.  321,  forbidding  all 
work  but  necessary  husbandry  on  the  ' '  vener- 
able Sunday."  In  the  Theodosian  Code  it  is 
enjoined  that  "on  the  Sunday,  rightfully  desig- 
nated by  our  ancestors  as  the  Lord's  Day,  all 
lawsuits  and  public  businessshall  cease. "  Since 
the  ninth  century,  Sunday  has  been  a  thor- 
oughly established  institution  of  the  Christian 
Church  as  a  day  of  rest  and  religious  exer- 
cises, and  one  exempt  from  any  occupations  of 
a  purely  secular  character,  except  such  as  were 
absolutely  necessary. 

Peri. —  According  to  the  mythical  lore  of 
the  East,  a  Peri  is  a  being  begotten  by  fallen 
spirits,  which  spends  its  life  in  all  imaginary 
delights  ;  it  is  immortal,  but  is  forever  excluded 
from  the  joys  of  Paradise.  They  take  an  in- 
termediate place  between  angels  and  demons, 
and  are  either  male  or  female  ;  when  the  latter, 
they  are  of  surpassing  beauty.  One  of  the 
finest  compliments  to  be  paid  to  a  Persian  lady 
is  to  speak  of  her  as  Perizadeh  (born  of  a  Peri ; 
Greek,  Parisutis}.  They  belong  to  the  great 
family  of  genii,  or  jin,  a  belief  in  whom  is  en- 
joined in  the  Koran,  and  for  whose  conversion, 
as  well  as  for  that  of  man,  Mohammed  was 
sent. 

Peter-Pence,  the  name  given  to  a  tribute 

offered  to  the  Roman  pontiff  in  reverence  to 

;  the  memory  of  St.  Peter,  whose  successor  the 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,   FINE  ARTS.' 


543 


pope  is  believed  by  Roman  Catholics  to  be. 
The  first  idea  of  an  annual  tribute  appears  to 
have  come  from  England.  It  is  ascribed  by 
some  to  Ina  (A.  D.  721),  King  of  the  West 
Saxons,  who  went  as  a  pilgrim  to  Rome,  and 
there  founded  a  hospice  for  Anglo-Saxon  pil- 
grims, to  be  maintained  by  an  annual  contri- 
bution from  England  ;  by  others,  to  Offa  and 
Ethelwulf ,  at  least  in  the  sense  of  their  having 
extended  it  to  the  entire  Saxon  territory.  The 
tribute  consisted  in  the  payment  of  a  silver 
penny  by  every  family  possessing  land  or  cattle 
of  the  yearly  value  of  thirty  pence,  and  it  was 
collected  during  the  five  weeks  between  St. 
Peter's  and  St.  Paul's  day,  and  August  1. 
Since  the  total  annexation  of  the  Papal  states 
to  the  kingdom  of  Italy  the  tribute  has  been 
largely  increased  in  France,  Belgium,  England, 
and  Ireland. 

Public  Schools. —  The  origin  of  the  pub- 
lic school  system  of  America  dates  back  to  the 
time  of  the  settlement  of  Massachusetts  and 
Connecticut.  In  the  very  beginning  of  their 
history  these  colonists  made  provision  for  the 
establishment  of  schools  in  every  town,  and 
parents  were  required  to  send  their  children  to 
them  or  educate  them  otherwise.  At  first 
these  schools  were  not  entirely  free  ;  that  is, 
those  who  could  pay  were  required  to  do  so ; 
but  the  evil  of  separating  the  children  into 
paupers  and  rate-payers  in  time  became  appar- 
ent, and  shortly  after  the  colonies  became 
•  states  the  school  taxes  were  increased  and  the 
schools  were  made  free.  The  example  of 
these  colonists  was  quickly  followed  by  other 
New  England  colonies ;  but  in  other  sections 
of  the  country  schools  were  either  private  or 
parochial  for  many  years,  except  in  cases 
where  a  free  school  was  established  and  sup- 
ported by  private  beneficence.  When  the  vast 
territories  west  of  the  Allegheny  mountains 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  United  States, 
every  sixteenth  section  in  each  Congressional 
township  was  set  aside  by  the  government  as 
a  nucleus  of  a  public  school  fund  ;  later,  thi3 
was  increased  to  two  sections  for  the  benefit  of 
the  newer  states.  The  Southern  states  were 
the  last  to  embrace  the  free  school  system  in 
its  entirety,  having  done  so  only  since  the 
close  of  the  civil  war.  Maine,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Kansas,  Nevada,  Wis- 
consin, Ohio,  Michigan,  California,  Arizona, 
Wyoming,  and  Washington  Territory  have 
compulsory  educational  laws.  The  average 
age  up  to  which  school  attendance  is  required 
is,  in  the  United  States,  fourteen  and  one  half 
years,  which  is  older  than  that  in  any  other 
country. 

Colossus  of  Memuon. —  The  celebrated 


vocal  statue  of  Memuon,  on  the  plain  of  Thebes, 
was  originally  sixty  feet  high,  and  is  of  a 
coarse,  hard  gritstone  or  breccia.  The  peculiar 
characteristic  of  this  statue  was  its  giving  out 
at  various  times  a  sound  resembling  the  break- 
ing of  a  harp  string  or  a  metallic  ring.  Con- 
siderable difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  as 
to  the  reason  of  this  sound,  which  has  been 
heard  in  modern  times,  it  being  ascribed  to 
the  artifice  of  the  priests,  who  struck  the 
sonorous  stone  of  which  the  statue  is  com- 
posed, the  passage  of  light  draughts  of  air 
through  the  cracks,  or  the  sudden  expansion 
of  aqueous  particles  under  the  influence  of  the 
sun's  rays.  This  remarkable  quality  of  the 
statue  is  first  mentioned  by  Strabo,  who  visited 
it  in  company  with  iElius  Gallus,  about  18  B. 
C.  ;  and  upwards  of  100  inscriptions  of  Greek 
and  Roman  visitors,  incised  upon  its  legs, 
record  the  visits  of  ancient  travelers  to  witness 
the  phenomenon,  from  the  ninth  year  of  Nero, 
A.  1).  63,  to  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Severus, 
when  it  became  silent. 

Colossus  of  Rhodes.  —  The  gigantic 
Colossus  of  Rhodes  was  a  statue  of  Apollo,  so 
placed  as  to  bestride  the  entrance  to  the  har- 
bor. It  is  said  to  have  been  commenced  by 
Chares  of  Lindus,  a  famous  pupil  of  Lysippus, 
and  was  completed  by  Laches.  It  was  formed 
of  metal  which  was  cast  in  separate  pieces,  a 
process  which  lasted  for  twelve  years,  and  was 
finished  in  280  B.C.  The  Colossus  was  over 
100  feet  high,  and  its  thumb  was  so  large  that 
a  man  could  not  clasp  it  with  his  arms.  It 
cost  300  talents,  and  sixty  years  after  its  erec- 
tion it  was  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake. 
When,  after  lying  on  the  ground  for  centuries, 
it  was  removed,  the  metal  that  composed  it 
loaded  900  camels.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes 
ranks  as  one  of  the  Seven  Wonders  of  the 
World. 

Sanhedrim,  as  the  supreme  national  tri- 
bunal of  the  Jews  was  called,  was  established 
at  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  the 
court  before  which  Christ  was  tried  for  high 
treason  against  the  Roman  Emperor.  It  was 
presided  Qver  by  the  Nasi  (Prince),  at  whose 
side  was  the  Ab-Beth-Din  (Father  of  the 
Tribunal).  Its  members,  of  which  there  wrere 
seventy-one,  belonged  to  the  different  classes 
of  society  ;  there  were  priests,  elders  —  that  is, 
men  of  age  and  experience- — scribes,  or  doc- 
tors of  law,  and  others  exalted  by  eminent 
learning,  which  was  the  sole  condition  for 
admission.  The  limits  of  its  jurisdiction  are 
not  clearly  known,  but  it  is  believed  that  the 
supreme  decision  over  life  or  death  was  ex- 
clusively in  its  hands.  The  regulation  of  the 
sacred  times  and  seasons  was  vested  in  it.  It 
fixed   the  beginnings  of  the  new  moons ;  in- 


544 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


tercalated  the  years  when  necessary  ;  watched 
over  the  purity  of  the  priestly  families  by  care- 
fully examining  the  pedigrees  of  those  priests 
born  out  of  Palestine,  so  that  none  born  from 
a  suspicious  or  ill-famed  mother  should  be 
admitted  to  the  sacred  service.  The  mode  of 
procedure  was  extremely  complicated ;  and 
such  was  the  caution  of  the  court,  especially 
in  matters  of  life  and  death,  that  capital 
punishment  was  pronounced  in  the  rarest  in- 
stances only.  The  Nasi  had  the  supreme 
direction  of  the  court,  and  convoked  it  when 
necessary.  He  sat  at  the  head,  and  at  his 
right  hand  was  the  seat  of  the  Ab-Beth-Din; 
the  rest  of  the  seventy-one  took  their  places, 
according  to  their  dignity,  in  front  of  them, 
in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  so  that  they  could 
be  seen  by  both  the  chief  officers.  The  meet- 
ing place  of  the  court  was,  on  ordinary  oc- 
casions, in  a  hall  at  the  southeast  corner  of 
the  Temple,  but  on  extraordinary  occasions  it 
met  in  the  house  of  the  high  priest.  It  met 
daily,  with  the  exception  of  Sabbaths  and 
feast  days.  After  the  destruction  of  the 
Temple  and  Jerusalem,  the  Sanhedrim,  after 
many  emigrations,  was  finally  established  at 
Babylon. 

Host. —  In  conformity  with  the  doctrines 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  consecrated 
bread  of  Eucharist  is  called  the  Host.  In  the 
Latin  Church  it  is  a  thin  circular  disk  of  un- 
leavened bread,  made  of  the  finest  flour,  and 
generally  bearing  some  emblematic  device.  In 
the  Greek  and  other  Oriental  churches,  as  well 
as  in  the  various  Protestant  communities,  the 
Eucharist  is  celebrated  in  leavened  bread,  only 
differing  from  ordinary  bread  in  being  of  finer 
quality. 

Schoolmen  and  Scholastics  are  the 
terms  applied  to  the  class  of  learned  theolo- 
gians and  philosophers  who  flourished  in  Europe, 
mainly  in  France  and  England,  during  the 
middle  ages.  They  were  largely  given  to  hair- 
splitting logic  and  endless  argumentations  and 
speculations  on  points  of  the  most  unimpor- 
tant and  often  silly  nature.  Still,  in  their 
number  were  included  men  of  great  learning 
and  ability,  as  Duns  Scotus,  Thomas  Aquinas, 
and  Albertus  Magnus,  with  whom  this  system 
of  philosophical  theological  scholasticism  cul- 
minated in  the  fourteenth  century.  Johannes 
Erigena  Scotus  was  not  strictly  a  scholastic  ; 
he  lived  in  the  ninth  century,  in  the  prepara- 
tory period  of  scholasticism. 

Colosseum,  The. —  The  Flavian  amphi- 
theater at  Rome,  known  as  the  Colosseum,  was 
begun  by  the  Emperor  Vespasian,  and  was  fin- 
ished by  the  Emperor  Titus,  A.  D.  80.  It  cov- 
ers about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  contained 
seats  for  87,000  persons  and  standing  room  for 


15,000  more.  It  was  in  the  form  of  an  oval,  the 
longer  diameter  being  G12  feet  and  the  shorter 
diameter  515  feet,  and  the  height  of  the  walls 
from  1G0  to  180  feet.  The  arena  where  the 
gladiators  fought  and  the  deadly  conflicts  with 
Avild  beasts  took  place  was  281  by  178  feet. 
The  exterior  consists  of  three  rows  of  columns, 
Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  and  above,  a  row 
of  Corinthian  pilasters.  Between  the  col- 
umns there  are  arches  which  form  open  galler- 
ies throughout  the  whole  building,  and  be- 
tween each  alternate  pilaster  of  the  upper  tier 
there  is  a  window.  There  were  four  tiers  or 
stories  of  seats,  corresponding  to  the  four  ex- 
ternal stories.  The  first  of  these  is  supposed 
to  have  contained  twenty-four  rows  of  seats, 
and  the  second  sixteen.  These  were  separated 
by  a  lofty  wrall  from  the  third  story,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  contained  the  populace. 
Statues,  sculptures,  figures  of  chariots,  metal 
shields,  and  other  embellishments  adorned  the 
niches  and  salient  points.  On  the  occasion  of 
the  dedication  of  the  Colosseum  by  Titus, 
5,000  wild  beasts  were  slain  in  the  arena,  the 
games  having  lasted  for  nearly  100  days. 
There  were  means  by  which,  when  the  com- 
bats wrere  ended,  the  immense  arena  could  be 
filled  with  water  for  the  exhibition  of  sea- 
fights.  During  the  various  persecutions  of  the 
early  Christians  many  of  these  were  thrown  to 
the  wild  beasts  in  this  amphitheater.  One  of 
the  first  of  these  .was  St.  Ignatius,  who  was 
torn  to  pieces  by  lions.  In  the  sixth  century, 
when  Christianity  gained  the  ascendancy,  the 
Church  put  an  end  to  the  use  of  the  Colosseum. 
Tt  still  stood  entire  in  the  eighth  century,  but 
subsequently  large  quantities  of  the  marble 
was  used  in  the  construction  of  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings.  It  was  consecrated  as  a  mon- 
ument to  the  martyrs  who  had  suffered  within 
its  walls  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.,  who  erected 
crosses  and  oratorios  within  it,  and  so  put  an 
end  to  the  process  of  destruction. 

Parsees,  the  followers  of  the  ancient  Per- 
sian religion  as  reformed  by  Zerdusht,  or  Zo- 
roaster, as  he  is  commonly  called.  According 
to  Zerdusht  there  are  two  intellects,  as  there 
are  two  lives  —  one  mental  and  one  bodily; 
and,  again,  there  must  be  distinguished  an 
earthly  and  a  future  life.  There  are  two 
abodes  for  the  departed — Heaven  and  Hell. 
Between  the  two  there  is  the  Bridge  of  the 
Gatherer,  or  Judge,  which  the  souls  of  the 
pious  alone  can  pass.  There  will  be  a  general 
resurrection,  which  is  to  precede  the  last  judg- 
ment, to  foretell  which  Sosiosh,  the  son  of  Zer- 
dusht, spiritually  begotten,  willbe  sent  by  Ahu- 
ramazdao.  The  world,  which  by  that  time 
will  be  utterly  steeped  in  wretchedness,  dark- 
ness, and  sin,  will  then  be  renewed.     Death, 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


545 


the  arch  fiend  of  Creation,  will  be  slain,  and 
life  will  be  everlasting  and  holy.  The  Par- 
sees  do  not  eat  anything  cooked  by  a  person  of 
another  religion.  Marriages  can  only  be  con- 
tracted with  persons  of  their  own  caste  and 
creed.  Their  dead  are  not  buried,  but  exposed 
on  an  iron  grating  in  the  Dokhma,  or  Tower 
of  Silence,  to  the  fowls  of  the  air,  to  the  dew 
and  to  the  sun,  until  the  flesh  has  disappeared, 
and  the  bleaching  bones  fall  through  into  a 
pit  beneath,  from  which  they  are  afterward 
removed  to  a  subterranean  cavern.  The  tem- 
ples and  altars  must  forever  be  fed  with  the 
holy  fire,  brought  down,  according  to  tradi- 
tion, from  heaven,  and  the  sullying  of  whose 
flame  is  punishable  with  death.  The  priests 
themselves  approach  it  only  with  a  half-mask 
over  their  faces,  lest  their  breath  should  defile 
it,  and  never  touch  it  with  their  hands,  but 
with  holy  instruments.  The  fires  are  of  five 
kinds ;  but,  however  great  the  awe  felt  by 
Parsees  with  respect  to  fire  and  light,  they 
never  consider  these  as  anything  but  emblems 
of  Divinity.  There  are  also  five  kinds  of  ' '  sac- 
rifice," which  term,  however,  is  rather  to  be 
understood  in  the  sense  of  a  sacred  action. 

Koran,  the  sacred  book  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan religion.  According  to  that  belief  a  copy 
of  it,  in  a  book  bound  in  white  silk,  jewels,  and 
gold,  was  brought  down  to  the  lowest  heaven 
by  the  angel  Gabriel,  in  the  blissful  and  mys- 
terious night  of  Al-Khadr,  in  the  month  of 
Ramadan.  Poi'tions  of  it  were,  during  a  space 
of  twenty-three  years,  communicated  to  Mo- 
hammed, both  at  Mecca  and  Medina,  either  by 
Gabriel  in  human  shape,  "  with  the  sound  of 
bells,"  or  through  inspirations  from  the  Holy 
Ghost  "in  the  Prophet's  breast,"  or  by  God 
himself,  "veiled  and  unveiled,  in  waking  or 
in  the  dreams  of  night."  Mohammed  dic- 
tated his  inspirations  to  a  scribe,  not,  indeed, 
in  broken  verses,  but  in  finished  chapters,  and 
from  this  copy  the  followers  of  the  Prophet 
procured  other  copies.  The  chief  doctrine 
laid  down  in  the  Koran  is  the  unity  of  God 
and  the  existence  of  one  true  religion  with 
changeable  ceremonies.  When  mankind  turned 
from  it  at  different  times,  God  sent  prophets 
to  lead  them  back  to  truth  ;  Moses,  Christ,  and 
Mohammed  being  the  most  distinguished. 
Both  punishments  for  the  sinner  and  rewards 
for  the  pious  are  depicted  with  great  diffuse- 
ness,  and  exemplified  chiefly  by  stories  taken 
from  the  Bible,  the  Apocryphal  writings,  and 
the  Midrash.  Special  laws  and  directions,  ad- 
monitions to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  more 
particularly  to  a  complete  and  unconditional 
resignation  to  God's  will,  legends  principally 
relating  to  the  patriarchs,  and  almost  without 
exception  borrowed  from  the  Jewish  writings, 


form  the  bulk  of  the  book,  which  throughout 
bears  the  most  palpable  traces  of  Jewish  in- 
fluence. The  outward  reverence  in  which  the 
Koran  is  held  throughout  Mohammedanism  is 
exceedingly  great.  It  is  never  held  below  the 
girdle,  never  touched  without  previous  purifi- 
cation ;  and  an  injunction  to  that  effect  is  gen- 
erally found  on  the  cover.  It  is  consulted  on 
weighty  matters ;  sentences  from  it  are  in- 
scribed on  banners,  doors,  etc.  Great  lavish- 
ness  is  also  displayed  upon  the  material  and 
the  binding  of  the  sacred  volume.  The  copies 
for  the  wealthy  are  sometimes  written  in  gold, 
and  the  covers  blaze  with  gold  and  precious 
stones.  Nothing,  also,  is  more  hateful  in  the 
eyes  of  a  Moslem  than  to  see  the  book  in  the 
hands  of.  an  unbeliever. 

Palace  of  the  Cresars. —  The  palace  of 
Augustus,  built  upon  the  site  of  the  houses  of 
Cicero  and  Catiline,  was  the  beginning  of  the 
magnificent  pile  of  buildings  known  as  the 
Palace  of  the  Csesars,  and  each  succeeding 
Emperor  altered  and  improved  it.  Tiberius 
enlarged  it,  and  Caligula  brought  it  down  to 
the  verge  of  the  Forum,  connecting  it  with 
the  Temple  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  which  he 
converted  into  a  vestibule  for  the  imperial 
abode.  Nero  added  to  it  his  "Golden  House," 
which  extended  from  the  Palatine  to  the  Cselian 
Hill,  and  even  reached  as  far  as  the  Esquiline. 
This  latter  portion  was  afterward  used  by 
Titus  for  his  famous  baths.  The  ruins  of  the 
palace  extend  over  the  three  hills  of  Rome, 
and  cover  an  area  of  1,500  feet  in  length  and 
1,300  feet  in  width.  The  Golden  House,  as 
can  be  imagined  from  its  name,  was  a  build- 
ing of  extraordinary  magnificence.  It  was 
surrounded  by  a  triple  portico  a  mile  in  length, 
and  supported  by  a  thousand  columns ;  and 
within  this  lay  an  immense  lake,  whose  banks 
were  bordered  by  great  buildings,  each  repre- 
senting a  little  city,  about  which  lay  green 
pastures  and  groves,  where  sported  "  all  ani- 
mals, both  tame  and  wild."  The  ceilings  of 
the  banqueting  rooms  were  fretted  into  ivory 
coffers  made  to  turn,  that  flowers  might  be 
showered  down  upon  the  guests,  and  also 
furnished  with  pipes  for  discharging  perfumes. 
The  principal  banqueting  room  was  round, 
and  by  a  perpetual  motion,  day  and  night,  was 
made  to  revolve  after  the  manner  of  the  uni 
verse.  The  interior  walls  of  the  palace  were 
covered  with  gold  and  precious  stones,  and 
adorned  with  the  finest  paintings  that  the 
world  afforded.  In  the  vestibule  stood  a 
statue  of  Nero,  120  feet  in  height. 

Chinese  Burial  Customs. —  Immedi- 
ately upon  the  decease  of  a  person  in  China  a 
priest  is  called,  whose  prayers  are  supposed  to 
free  the  departed  spirit  from  the  necessity  of 


546 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


going  to  hell,  and  to  secure  his  admittance 
to  Paradise.  The  body  is  arrayed  in  the  most 
splendid  garments  that  the  family  can  afford. 
In  one  hand  is  placed  a  fan,  and  in  the  other 
a  prayer  written  on  a  piece  of  paper,  which  is 
a  letter  of  recommendation  to  open  the  gates 
of  Heaven.  The  coffin  is  a  very  solid,  sub- 
stantial case.  The  corpse  when  put  in  it,  is 
laid  in  a  bed  of  lime  or  cotton,  or  covered  with 
quicklime,  and  the  edges  of  the  lid  are  closed 
with  mortar  in  the  groove,  so  that  no  smell 
escapes.  The  nature  of  the  site  for  burial  is 
regarded  as  having  an  important  influence  on 
the  prosperity  of  the  living,  the  people  fearing 
ill  luck,  disease,  and  accident  if  the  dead  are 
not  satisfied  with  the  site  of  their  graves.  The 
selection  of  propitious  sites  is  made  by  geoman- 
cers,  a  class  of  quacks  who  pretend  to  super- 
natural wisdom.  When  the  day  of  burial 
arrives,  which  is — if  a  satisfactory  place  for 
the  tomb  has  been  found — the  nearest  lucky 
day  to  the  third  seventh  day  after  death,  the 
friends  assemble  at  the  house.  An  offering  of 
cooked  provisions  is  laid  out  near  the  coffin. 
This^is  intended  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the 
spirit  of  the  dead,  which  is  supposed  to  linger 
near  the  body,  or  any  other  vagrant  spirits  that 
may  be  hovering  around,  and  keep  them  from 
doing  any  mischief  or  harm  to  the  living.  All 
mourners  are  dressed  entirely  in  white,  and 
they  assemble  about  the  coffin  and  in  turn 
prostrate  themselves  before  it,  a  band  of  music 
playing  meanwhile.  The  procession  is  then 
formed,  the  coffin  going  first,  borne  on  an  un- 
wieldy bier  carried  by  sixty-four  men ,  or  even 
more.  A  man  goes  before  the  procession  and 
scatters  paper  money,  to  buy  the  good  will  of 
any  stray,  tricky  spirits  that  may  be  prowling 
about.  Immediately  after  the  coffin,  in  a  sep- 
arate sedan,  is  borne  the  ancestral  tablet  of  the 
deceased  with  the  offering  of  food.  Different 
figures,  banners,  and  tablets  are  also  carried, 
according  to  the  means  and  rank  of  the  family. 
When  the  grave  is  reached  the  coffin  is  let 
down,  and  lime  is  abundantly  mixed  with  the 
earth  thrown  in  upon  it.  Crackers  are  then 
fired,  libations  are  poured  out,  prayers  are  re- 
cited, and  finally  paper  molds  of  houses,  clothes, 
horses,  money,  and  everything  that  the  dead 
man  can  possibly  want  in  the  land  of  shadows, 
are  burned.  The  origin  of  this  latter  custom 
is  unquestionably  the  idea  that  everything  that 
had  been  enjoyed  or  used  in  this  life  would  be 
desired  in  the  other.  The  ancient  custom  was 
to  burn  a  man's  household  belongings,  to  kill 
upon  his  grave  his  favorite  horse,  hound,  or 
bird,  and  sometimes  his  chosen  servant,  that 
their  shadows  might  go  with  him  into  the  life 
beyond.  After  the  funeral  the  elaborate  dishes 
that  have  been  borne  to  the  grave  are  carried 


back,  and  the  mourners  feast  upon  them. 
Bodies  are  in  some  instances  kept  in  or  about 
the  house  for  many  years,  and  incense  is 
burned  before  them  morning  and  eveping. 

Delphi,  Temple  at. —  The  edifice  known 
to  have  existed  at  Delphi,  Greece,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  historic  period,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  work  of  two  architects  named  Tropho- 
nius  and  Agamedes.  In  548  B.  C,  this  temple 
having  been  destroyed,  the  Amphictyons  un- 
dertook to  build  another  for  the  sum  of  three 
hundred  talents,  of  which  the  Delphians  were 
to  pay  one  fourth,  and  the  remainder  was  to 
be  contributed  by  other  cities  of  Greece.  The 
temple  is  said  to  have  been  of  the  Doric  order 
without,  and  the  Ionic  within.  The  front 
was  built  of  Parian  marble,  and  the  sculptured 
decorations  were  rich  and  beautiful.  The 
arches  above  the  entrances  were  adorned  with 
representations  of  legends  of  mythology,  and 
similar  adornments  were  carved  on  the  panels 
of  the  walls.  Images  and  statues  in  brass 
and  marble  enriched  the  interior,  and  the 
golden  shields  taken  at  Marathon,  and  also  in 
battles  with  the  Gauls,  adorned  the  architraves. 
The  attempts  of  the  Persians,  in  480  B.  C, 
and  of  the  Gauls,  in  279  B.  C,to  rob  the  tem- 
ple, were  both,  it  was  said,  prevented  by  the 
miraculous  interference  of  Apollo,  and  the 
sacred  character  of  the  place  long  protected  it 
from  other  would-be  plunderers.  It  was,  how- 
ever, eventually  plundered  by  Sulla,  and  again 
by  Nero,  who  silenced  the  oracle.  It  was  re- 
stored by  Hadrian,  and  then  despoiled  of 
many  of  its  most  beautiful  works  of  art  by 
Constantine  the  Great,  and  finally  destroyed  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century. 

Sinai.  —  The  exact  position  of  Sinai,  the 
mount  on  which  God  gave  to  Moses  the  Ten 
Commandments  and  the  other  laws  by  which 
the  Israelites  were  bound,  is  a  matter  of  somo 
dispute,  but  it  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the 
mountains  occupying  the  greater  part  of  the 
Arabian  peninsula,  lying  between  the  Gulf  of 
Suez  and  Akabah.  This  mountain  mass  is  divis- 
ible into  three  groups  —  a  northwestern,  reach- 
ing, in  Mount  Serbel,  an  elevation  of  G,340 
feet ;  an  eastern  and  central,  attaining  in  Jebel 
Katherin  a  height  of  8,160  feet,  and  a  south- 
eastern, whose  highest  peak,  Urn  Shaumer,  is 
the  culminating  point  of  the  whole  Sinaitic 
range.  Serbal,  with  its  five  peaks,  looks  the 
most  magnificent  mountain  in  the  peninsula 
and  is  identified  with  Sinai  by  the  early  Church 
Fathers,  Eusebius,  Jerome,  Cosmas,  etc.  ;  but 
the  requirements  of  the  Hebrew  narrative  are 
not  met  by  it,  and  even  as  early  as  the  time  of 
Justinian,  the  opinion  that  the  Serbal  was  the 
Sinai  of  Moses  had  been  abandoned,  and  to  a 
ridge  of  the  second  or  eastern  range  that  honor 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


547 


had  been  transferred,  the  northern  summit  of 
which  is  termed  Horeb  ;  and  the  southern, 
Jebul-Musa,  or  Mount  of  Moses,  continues  to  be 
regarded  by  a  majority  of  scholars  as  the  true 
Sinai.  The  famous  monastery  of  Mount  Sinai 
stands  at  the  eastern  base  of  Jebul-Musa,  in 
solitary  peace.  There  were  numerous  other 
convents,  chapels,  and  hermitages  around  the 
mountain  in  earlier  times. 

Jesuits,  Society  of,  was  founded  by 
Ignatius  of  Loyola,  assisted  by  Peter  Le  Fevre, 
a  Savoyard ;  James  Lainez,  Francis  Xavier, 
Nicholas  Bobadilla,  Spaniards,  and  a  Portu- 
guese named  Rodriguez,  in  the  year  1534.  The 
society,  when  first  conceived,  had  for  its  ob- 
ject a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  and  the 
conversion  of  the  infidels.  This  purpose, 
however,  was  abandoned  owing  to  the  warfare 
existing  at  that  time  between  the  Turks  and 
the  Western  powers,  and  Loyola  and  his  as- 
sociates turned  their  attention  to  an  organiza- 
tion designed  to  labor  zealously  in  resisting 
the  spread  of  the  Reformation.  In  1539  the 
rule  of  the  proposed  order — "To  the  greater 
glory  of.  God  "  —  and  the  vow  by  which  they 
bound  themselves  to  go  as  missionaries  to  any 
country  which  the  Pope  might  indicate  was 
submitted  to  Paul  III.,  and  Loyola  was*  made 
the  first  general  of  the  order.  The  Society  of 
Jesuits  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  religious 
orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  its 
history  has  been  closely  identified  at  times 
with  that  of  several  of  the  leading  countries  of 
Europe.  Many  good  Roman  Catholics,  how- 
ever, denounce  this  order,  claiming  that  Jesu- 
itism is  the  synonym  of  craft  and  duplicity  — 
a  reputation  resulting  from  their  avowed  prin- 
ciple that  "the  end  justifies  the  means." 
However  that  may  be,  it  remains  a  fact  that 
the  Jesuits  have  been  driven  out  of  France, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  many  other  countries. 

Mosaics. —  The  origin  of  the  art  of  pro- 
ducing artistic  designs  by  setting  small  square 
pieces  of  stone  or  glass  of  different  colors,  so 
as  to  give  the  effect  of  painting,  is  obscure,  but 
it  was  much  practiced  by  the  Romans,  espe- 
cially for  ornamental  pavements,  specimens  of 
which  are  almost  always  found  wherever  the 
remains  of  an  old  Roman  villa  are  discovered. 
Under  the  Byzantine  empire  it  was  also  much 
used  for  the  ornamentation  of  churches,  in 
which  it  formed  a  large  portion  of  the  wall 
decoration.  Christian  mosaics  admit,  says  one 
writer,  of  two  general  divisions,  the  later 
Roman  and  the  Byzantine  styles,  the  material 
in  use  being,  in  general,  cubes  of  colored  glass, 
inlaid,  in  the  Roman  school,  on  a  ground  of 
blue  and  white,  although  in  the  latter  the  tes- 
serre  are  frequently  irregular  in  size  and  the 
workmanship  coarse.     The  former  style  flour- 


ished in  Italy  chiefly  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  cen- 
turies, the  most  splendid  specimens  being  found 
in  the  churches  of  Rome  and  Ravenna.  The 
Florentine  mosaic  dates  from  the  time  of  the 
Medici,  and  is  made  entirely  of  precious  or 
semi-precious  stones,  such  as  amethyst,  agate, 
jasper,  onyx,  and  others,  cut  and  inlaid  in 
forms  or  thin  veneers  best  suited  to  produce 
the  effects  desired.  The  objects  represented 
are  most  frequently  birds,  flowers,  fruits,  vases, 
sometimes  buildings,  and,  more  rarely,  por- 
traits and  landscapes.  In  reference  to  the  pres- 
ent Roman  mosaics,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
smalti  or  small  cubes  of  colored  glass  which 
compose  the  pictures  are  stuck  into  the  cement- 
ing paste,  or  mastic,  in  the  same  manner  as 
were  the  colored  glass,  stone,  and  marble  sec- 
tilia  and  tessera?  of  the  ancients.  Within 
quite  recent  years  mosaics  of  surpassing  beauty, 
both  in  design  and  material,  have  been  pro- 
duced by  Russian  artists  in  the  Imperial  Glass 
Manufactory  of  Russia. 

Trajan's  Column,  a  celebrated  column 
at  Rome,  which  was  reared  A.  D.  114,  by  the 
Roman  Senate  and  people,  in  honor  of  the  Em- 
peror Trajan.  It  is  considered  not  only  the 
greatest  work  of  its  architect,  Apollodorus,  but 
one  of  the  noblest  structures  of  its  kind  ever 
erected.  The  pedestal  is  covered  with  bas- 
reliefs  of  warlike  instruments,  shields,  and 
helmets  ;  and  a  very  remarkable  series  of  bas- 
reliefs,  forming  a  spiral  around  the  shaft, 
exhibits  a  continuous  history-  of  the  military 
achievements  of  Trajan.  These  are  in  excel- 
lent preservation,  and,  independently  of  their 
beauty  as  works  of  art,  they  are  invaluable  as 
records  of  ancient  costumes.  A  spiral  staircase 
in  the  interior  of  the  column  leads  to  its  sum- 
mit. The  height  of  the  entire  column  is  132 
feet.  It  stands  erect  in  all  its  ancient  beauty 
amjd  the  ruins  of  Trajan's  Forum.  The  sum- 
mit was  originally  crowned  by  a  colossal  statue 
of  the  emperor,  which  has  been  incongruously 
replaced  by  one  of  St.  Peter. 

Vulgate,  The,  the  Latin  translation  of 
the  Bible,  which  is  the  received  version  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  original  Vul- 
gate was  completed  in  A.  D.  405  by  Jerome, 
and  between  that  date  and  1540,  when  it  was 
first  declared  the  authorized  version  of  the 
Roman  Church,  it  underwent  several  revisions 
which  completely  changed  the  character  of  the 
work.  In  the  latter  year  the  Tridentine  Coun- 
cil decreed  the  preparation  of  an  authentic 
edition,  and  the  task  was  undertaken  by  the 
Papal  Chair;  but  it  was  not  until  1590  that 
Sixtus  V.  produced  the  work.  This,  however, 
turned  out  to  be  so  utterly  incorrect  and  faulty 
throughout  that  the  copies  were  speedily  sup- 
pressed, and  another  edition,  which  appeared 


548 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


in  1592,  was  prepared  under  Clement  VIII., 
to  which,  in  the  next  year  (1593),  that  x)ther 
edition  succeeded,  which  has  since  remained 
the  normal  edition  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  has  been  reprinted,  unchanged,  ever  since. 
The  Smithsonian  Institution  is  sit- 
uated in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  was  organ- 
ized by  act  of  Congress  in  August,  1846,  to 
carry  into  effect  the  provisions  of  the  will  of 
James  Smithson.  That  celebrated  English 
physician  bequeathed  to  his  nephew  £120,000, 
the  whole  of  his  property,  which,  in  the  event 
of  the  death  of  the  latter  without  heirs,  was  to 
revert  to  the  United  States,  to  found  at  Wash- 
ington an  establishment  for  "  the  increase  and 
diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men,"  and 
which  was  to  be  named  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution. The  conditions  on  which  the  bequest 
was  to  take  effect  in  the  United  States  occurred 
in  1835  by  the  death  of  the  nephew  without 
issue,  and  the  Hon.  Richard  Rush  was  sent  to 
London  to  prosecute  the  claim.  On  Septem- 
ber 1,  1838,  he  deposited  in  the  United  States 
Mint  $515,109,  being  the  proceeds  of  the  es- 
tate. The  Institute  is  governed  by  regents 
appointed  by  the  federal  government,  and  con- 
tains a  museum,  library,  cabinets  of  natural 
history,  and  lecture  rooms.  It  receives  copies 
of  all  copyrighted  books,  and  exchanges  with 
other  countries,  and  its  museum  is  enriched 
with  the  gatherings  of  national  exploring  ex- 
peditions. A  portion  of  its  funds  is  devoted 
to  scientific  researches  and  the  publication  of 
works  too  expensive  for  private  enterprise. 
There  are  departments  of  astronomy,  ethnol- 
ogy, meteorology,  and  terrestrial  magnetism. 
The  courses  of  public  lectures  by  eminent  sci- 
entific men  are  among  the  attractions  of  the 
capital. 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE  PRAC- 
TICE OF  LAW. 

Qualifications  as  to  citizenship,  personal 
character,  education,  and  professional  attain- 
ments required  by  the  several  states,  from 
those  who  are  admitted  to  the  practice  of  law. 

From  reports  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education. 

Alabama.  Actual,  bona  fide  citizenship.  High 
moral  character  as  testified  to  fay  a  member  of  the  pro- 
fession. Education  judged  from  examination.  If  the 
study  period  is  passed  in  a  law  office,  then  the  judges  of 
the  supreme  court  must  make  written  examination,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  those  graduating  from  Alabama  Uni- 
versity. 

Arkansas.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  state  and  of 
good  moral  character.  The  liberal  education  feature  is 
left  to  court  which  examines.  The  circuit  and  supreme 
courts  are  the  only  bodies  authorized  to'grant  license  to 
practice  law.  Applicant  must  stand  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  open  court,  by  the  supreme  court,  and  by 
a  committee  of  three  lawyers  appointed  by  circuit  court 
when  applicant  is  examined  by  that  court. 

Arizona.  A  declaration  of  "citizenship  and  prool  of 
good  moral  character  are  required,  but  there  is  no  dis- 


tinction between  liberal  and  professional  education. 
The  only  thing  necessary  for  admission  to  practice  here, 
if  notarmed  either  with  a  diploma  or  license  from  an- 
other jurisdiction,  is  to  stand  the  examination  in  open 
court,  and  by  that  show  such  familiarity  with  the  law 
as  will  satisfy  the  court  that  the  applicant  is  qualified  to 
take  care  of  a  practice. 

California.  A  declaration  of  citizenship  and  certif- 
icate from  two  attorneys  of  court  to  which  applicant 
has  applied  for  admission  that  he  possesses  the  charac- 
ter and  attainments  that  entitle  him  to  admission.  Ex- 
amination in  open  court  after  filing  certificate  from 
two  attorneys. 

Colorado.  Must  declare  intention  to  become  a  citizen 
three  months  before  applying;  must  have  certificate  of 
good  moral  character;  but  no  special  attention  paid  to 
liberal  education  feature.  If  not  a  member  of  the  bar 
of  another  state,  must  pass  an  examination  before  su- 
preme court  or  a  committee  appointed  by  it  in  each 
judicial  district. 

Connecticut.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States. 
21  years  old,  and  be  of  good  moral  character,  and  must 
have  graduated  from  a  college  or  secondary  school  or 
have  ln-en  admitted  to  a  college  or  preparatory  school, 
or  pawed  an  examination  before  committee,  for  which 
last  he  must  pay  a  fee  of  §5.00.  Must  have  studied  law 
after  arriving  a't  the  age  of  18  for  two  years,  if  a  college 
or  law  school  graduate:  otherwise,  for  three  years  in  a 
law  school  or  under  competent  professional  instruction 
in  the  office  of  a  practicing  attorney  or  with  the  judge 
of  the  superior  court  or  both,  of  which  period  one 
year,  at  least,  must  be  spent  in  this  state.  Applicants 
shall  be  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination, 
before  a  standing  committee  of  fifteen,  upon  the  law  of 
pleading,  practice,  and  evidence,  constitutional  law, 
the  law  of  real  and  personal  property,  contracts,  torts, 
equity,  criminal  law,  wills,  and  administration,  corpora- 
tions," partnership,  negotiable  paper,  agency,  bailments, 
domestic  relations,  and  such  additional "  subjects  as 
committee  shall  deem  advisable. 

Delaware.  Must  be  a  resident  of  the  state  and  of 
"  fair  "  character,  and  must  have  a  general  knowledge 
of  English  and  American  history,  mathematics,  English 
grammar, and  Latin.  A  legal  course  in  a  law  office  is 
not  necessary.  All  applicants  for  admission  except 
practicing  lawyers  of  other  states  are  required  to  study 
three  years  under  direction  of  a  lawyer  or  a  judge  of 
the  state.  Examination  is  made  by  a  "committee  of  the 
bar. 

Florida.  Must  satisfy  judge  that  he  is  21  years  of 
age,  and  of  good  moral  "character.  Shall  be  examined 
by  the  judge  to  whom  application  is  made  or  a  commit- 
tee of  two  appointed  by  judge. 

Georgia.  Must  be  a'citizenof  the  circuit  wherein  he 
makes  application  and  of  good  moral  character,  as 
shown  by  a  certificate  of  two  attorneys  known  to  court. 
Must  undergo  examination  before  committee  appointed 
by  court  oh  common  law,  pleading,  and  evidence, 
equity,  and  equity  pleading  and  practice,  Code  of 
Georgia,  United  States  and  State  Constitutions,  and  the 
rules  of  court.  Diplomas  of  certain  law  schools  in 
Georgia  will  obviate  necessity  of  examining  candi- 
date. 

Idaho.  Must  be  a  citizen  cf  the  United  States ;  noth- 
ing required  in  the  way  of  liberal  education.  He  must 
have  a  knowledge  of  the  law;  it  is  immaterial  how  he 
gets  it.  A  committee  appointed  by  court  ascertains 
fitness. 

Dlinois.  Must  make  affidavit  that  he  is  of  age,  a 
citizen  of  the  state,  and  a  certified  transcript  from  a 
court  of  record  in  this  state  showing  that  he  is  a  man 
of  good  moral  character.  Nothing  required  as  to 
liberal  education.  Every  applicant  to  practice  law,  ex- 
cept those  who  apply  for  admission  upon  a  license 
granted  in  another  state,  or  upon  a  diploma  issued  by  a 
law  school  in  the  state,  shall  present  to  one  of  the  ap- 
pellate courts  proof  that  he  has  studied  law  two  years, 
the  same  studies  prescribed  by  the  regularly  established 
law  schools  in  the  state,  or  a  course  equivalent  thereto, 
naming  the  books  studied,  under  the  direction  and 
Supervision  of  one  or  more  licensed  lawyers  or  firms  of 
lawyers,  anil  that  the  applicant  has  submitted  to  satis- 
factory examinations  by  such  lawyer  or  lawvers  at  con- 
venient intervals  during  such  period  of  study,  covering 
progressively  the  entire  course  studied,  such  proof  to 
consist  of  tlie  affidavit of  the  applicant  and  also  of  the 
certificate  or  certificates  of  the  lawyer.  Examination 
is  held  in  open  court. 

Indiana.  Every  person  of  good  moral  character, 
being  a  voter,  shall  be  entitled  to  admission  to  practice 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


549 


law  in  all  courts  of  justice.  (Constitution,  Art.  VII., 
sec.  21.)  From  the  letter  of  the  attorney-general,  Hon- 
orable William  A.  Ketchum  :  The  wortfs,  "being  a  vo- 
ter" has  been  held  by  the  courts  to  have  no  limitation 
in  excluding  those  who  are  not  voters,  and  women  are 
admitted  to  practice.  The  only  substantial  requirement 
is  that  the  applicant  shall  be  of  good  moral  character, 
and  at  times  this  may  not  be  very  rigidly  insisted  upon. 
It  seems  to  be  the  theory  that  it  is  not  very  important 
who  is  admitted  to  practice  law,  as  after  he  has  been  ad- 
mitted to  practice  if  he  does  not  know  enough  to  justify 
his  admission,  he  will  not  get  any  practice  anyhow. 

Iowa.  Must  be  a  citizen  (of  "the  state)  arid  of  good 
moral  character.  There  is  no  provision  regarding  a  lib- 
eral education,  but  the  want  of  it  is  considered  in  deter- 
mining the  applicant's  qualifications.  Must  pursue  a 
regular  course  in  the  study  of  law  for  at  least  two  years 
in  the  office  of  a  practicing  attorney  of  this  state,  or  a 
course  of  two  years  of  thirty-six  weeks  each  in  some 
reputable  law  school  in  the  United  States.  Examina- 
tion is  conducted  by  three  members  of  the  bar,  one  of 
whom  must  be  attorney-general.  The  written  questions 
are  prepared  by  the  supreme  court ;  the  oral  examina- 
tion is  conducted  in  open  court. 

Kansas.  Any  person  being  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  who  has  read  law  for  two  years,  the  last  of  which 
must  be  in  the  office  of  a  regularly  practicing  attorney, 
who  shall  certify  as  to  the  good  character  and  domicil 
of  the  applicant,  after  passing  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion before  any  district  court  of  the  state,  and  taking 
the  prescribed  oath,  shall  be  admitted  to  practice. 
Graduates  of  the  School  of  Law  of  the  University  of 
Kansas  are  admitted  to  practice  in  the  district  and 
inferior  courts  without  further  examination. 

Louisiana.  Must  be  citizen  of  state;  present  cer- 
tificate of  good  moral  character.  Must  present  certifi- 
cate that  twoyears  have  been  spent  in  study  of  law.  The 
court  will  not  be  satisfied  with  the  qualifications  of  a  can- 
didate in  point  of  legal  learning  unless  it  shall  appear 
that  he  is  well  read  in  the  following  course  of  studies  at 
least :  Constitution  (Story),  Law  of  Nations  (Vattel  or 
Wheaton),  History  of  the  Civil  Law  in  Louisiana,  Louis- 
iana Civil  Code,  Code  of  Practice,  General  Statutes,  In- 
stitutes of  Justinian,  Domat's  Civil  Law,  Pothier  on  Ob- 
ligations, Blackstone's  Commentaries  (fourth  book), 
Kent's  Commentaries,  Mercantile  Law  (Smith),  Insur- 
ance (Wood),  Negotiable  Paper  (Story,  or  Parsons  and 
Daniel),  Evidence  (Greenleaf,  Starkie  or  Phillips),  Crimes 
(Russell),  criminal  procedure  (Bishop),  and  the  Jurispru- 
dence of  Louisiana. 

Maine.  Nothing  in  the  way  of  citizenship  or  liberal 
education,  but  character  must  be  satisfactory  to  justice 
presiding  at  time  of  examination.  Must  have  studied 
law  two  years  in  a  lawyer's  office  or  law  school,  and  must 
be  vouched  for  by  the  member  of  bar  with  whom  the 
student  has  read.  The  examining  committee  is  com- 
posed of  three  members  of  the  bar  in  each  county. 

Maryland.  Must  have  been  a  citizen  two  years  (of 
state),  and  be  of  good  moral  character.  No  liberal  edu- 
cation required  by  law.  Must  have  been  a  student  of 
law  for  the  two  years  immediately  preceding  his  appli- 
cation, and  must  be  examined  by  court,  if  not  a  gradu- 
ate of  a  law  school  in  state.  The  court  selects  the  ex- 
amining committee. 

Massachusetts.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  state,  or 
have  declared  his  intention  to  become  such,  and  must 
be  of  good  moral  character.  Undoubtedly,  applicant's 
command  of  English,  as  shown  in  examination  .papers, 
is  of  weight.    Must  pass  a  thorough  examination. 

Michigan.  Must  be  a  resident  in  the  state,  a  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  and  of  good  moral  character  (affi- 
davit of  at  least  two  members  of  the  bar  of  the  state  in 
good  standing).  The  board  of  examiners  will  regard 
applicants  who  have  received  bachelors'  degrees  from 
any  reputable  college  or  university  as  having  prima 
facie  the  requisite  general  educational  qualifications 
fur  admission  to  the  bar.  So  also  as  to  graduates  of 
Michigan  normal  or  high  schools,  or  other  reputable  in- 
stitutions of  similar  character.  Recent  first  grade  teach- 
ers' certificate  will  also  be  accepted.  Otherwise  ap- 
plicant must  pass  examination,  especially  in  arithmetic, 
grammar,  elementary  algebra,  general  American  and 
English  history,  civil  government,  composition  and 
rhetoric,  and  English  literature.  If  the  professional 
examination  papers  of  a  college  or  other  graduate  show 
deficiencies  in  education,  the  writer  will  be  subject  to 
examination.  Graduates  from  law  department  of  ^Mich- 
igan University  or  Detroit  College  of  Law,  both  having 
a  three  years'  course,  are  admitted  to  bar  on  their  di- 
ploma. "Others  must  have  studied  law  for  three  years 


|  previous  to  applying  for  admission,  which  shall  be  coo- 
!  ditioned  on  the  applicant's  answering  correctly  seventy 
per  cent,  of  the  questions  asked  him  in  a  written  and 
oral  examination. 

Minnesota.  Applicant  must  present  hisaffidavit  that 
he  is  of  age  and  is  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  or  has 
declared  his  intention  to  become  such.  Also  affidavits 
from  two  practicing  attorneys  that  he  is  a  person  of 
good  moral  character.  Board" shall  examine  applicants 
in  such  branches  of  general  education  as  it  may  deem 
expedient.  Must  be  examined  by  state  board  "of  ex- 
aminers in  law  of  real  property,  conveyances  and 
trusts,  equity  jurisprudence,  pJea'ding  arid  practice, 
common  law,  statute  law,  code  pleading  and  practice, 
constitutional  law,  international  law,  criminal  law, 
contracts,  sales,  bailments  and  negotiable  instruments, 
landlord  and  tenant,  insurance,  partnership,  agency, 
suretyship,  frauds,  damages  and  liens,  torts,  domestic 
relations,  executors,  administrators,  and  wills.  Attor- 
neys of  five  years'  standing  from  any  other  state  or 
territory  of  the  United  States  or  District  of  Columbia 
may,  in  the  discretion  of  the  board,  be  admitted  with- 
out examination . 

Missouri.  Must  be  an  actual  resident  and  of  good 
character.  No  particular  qualification  as  to  liberal  edu- 
cation. Graduates  of  the  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  and 
Columbia  law  schools  are  exempted  from  examination. 
Others  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  in  open 
court. 

Montana.  Must  be  a  resident  of  the  United  States, 
or  have  made  a  bona  fide  declaration  of  his  intention  to 
become  such,  and  that  he  is  of  age ;  must  have  testimo- 
nials of  good  moral  character,  and  have  studied  law  for 
two  years,  as  certified  to  by  two  reputable  counselors 
at  law.    The  examination  is  conducted  in  open  court. 

Nebraska.  Must  be  a  resident,  of  age,  of  good  re- 
pute, and  have  studied  law  for  two  years.  Must  at  least 
have  a  good  common  school  education,  which  is  judged 
from  his  composition  and  spelling  at  examination. 
Graduates  of  the  College  of  Law  of  the  University  of 
Nebraska  shall  be  admitted,  as  far  as  professional  learn- 
ing is  concerned,  without  examination.  Others  are  ex- 
amined by  court. 

Nevada.  Resident  of  the  state  and  of  good  moral 
character.  A  general  education  only  required.  Famil- 
iarity with  the  various  branches  and  general  practice  of 
the  law  required,  and  to  this  end  study  in  law  office  is 
desirable,  although  not  required.  The  examination  is 
bv  court  or  committee. 

New  Jersey.  Must  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  be  of 
age,  and  of  good  moral  character.  Must  have  served  a 
clerkship  of  four  years  with  some  practicing  attorney 
6Y  the  state  unless  he  is  a  graduate  of  some  college  or 
university  in  the  United  States,  when  his  clerkship 
may  be  acquitted  in  three  years.  During  the  clerkship 
heinustnot  have  been  engaged  in  any  other  business 
incompatible  with  the  full  and  fair  bona  fide  service  of 
his  clerkship.  No  person  shall  be  recommended  for 
license  as  a  counselor  at  law  in  thi3  state,  unless  he  first 
submit  himself  to  examination  and  give  satisfactory 
evidence  of  his  knowledge  of  the  principles  and  doc- 
trines of  the  law,  and  of  his  abilities  as  a  pleader,  nor 
shall  anv  be  admitted  to  such  examination  until  he 
shall  have  practiced  as  an  attorney  for  three  years  at 
least.  The  examination  for  attorneys  and  counselors 
shall  be  both  written  and  oral.  The  examining  commit- 
tee is  composed  of  six  counselors,  two  going  out  each 
year. 

New  Mexico.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  or  have  declared  intention  to  become  such,  of 
rood  moral  character,  and  bona  fide  resident  of  New 
Mexico.    Must  undergo  an  examination  in  open  court. 

New  Tork.  Must  be  a  citizen  and  present  certificate 
of  good  moral  character.  Liberal  education  is  required. 
For  college  graduates  two  years'  study  of  law  is  re- 
quired (for  others,  three  years)  either  in  law  school  or  in 
office.    There  is  a  state  board  of  law  examiners. 

North  Carolina.  One  year  residence  in  the  state  re- 
quired, as  also  a  certificate  of  good  moral  character, 
signed  bv  two  members  of  the  bar.  All  must  undergo 
an  examination  and  must  have  read  law  in  a  law  office 
or  in  a  law  school  for  twelve  months  at  least.  Supreme 
court  conducts  examination. 

North  Dakota.  Must  be  a  resident,  of  good  moral 
character.  All  are  examined,  but  applicants  must  have 
read  law  in  an  office  or  studied  in  some  reputable  law 
school  for  two  years  (thirty-six  weeks  of  session  being 
taken  as  a  vear).    Supreme  court  examines  applicants. 

Ohio.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  or  have 
declared  intention,  have  resided  one  year  in  state,  and 


550 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


be  a  person  of  good  moral  character.  Nothing  in  the 
way  of  liberal  education.  All  must  pass  an  examina- 
tion, to  which  those  only  are  admitted  who  have  studied 
law  three  years  either'  in  an  office  or  in  a  law  school. 
Supreme  court  appoints  a  committee  of  nine  members 
to  examine  applicants. 

Oklahoma.  Must  possess  a  good  moral  character. 
Must  have  acquired  the  requisite  learning.  This  fact  is 
ascertained  through  examination  by  the  court.  Appli- 
cant is  examined  iu  open  court  by  committee. 

Pennsylvania.  He  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States  and  of  a  good  moral  character  as  certified  to  by 
two  persons.  He  must  have  a  good  English  education 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  Latin  as  evidenced 
by  examination.  In  most  counties  the  rules  of  court  re- 
quire a  two  or  three  years'  course  of  study  (prior  to  final 
examination,  by  a  committee)  in  the  office  of  a  member 
of  the  local  bar  and  require  at  least  one  year's  actual 
work  in  an  office,  even  for  students  of*  regular  law 
schools. 

South  Carolina.  Citizenship  required.  Must  be  of 
age  and  of  a  good  moral  character.  Graduates  at  the 
law  school  of  the  State  University  are  admitted  without 
examination;  others  must  undergo  the  examination 
upon  the  course  of  study  prescribed  by  supreme  court. 

South  Dakota.  Must  be  a  resident  of  the  state,  of 
age,  and  of  good  moral  character.  All  are  required  to 
pass  an  examination  in  open  court. 

Tennessee.  Must  be  of  age  and  of  good  moral  char- 
acter. No  other  req uirement.  The  professional  attain- 
ments of  the  applicant  are  ascertained  by  any  two 
judges. 

Texas.  Six  months'  residence  in  the  state  required. 
Applicant  must  be  of  age,  and  have  a  good  reputation. 
Graduates  from  the  University  of  Texas  are  admitted 
without  examination.  Others  are  examined  by  a  com- 
mittee on  Blackstone's  Commentaries,  Kent's  Com- 
mentaries, Stephenson  Pleading,  Story's  Equity  Plead- 
ing, fir.st  volume  of  Greenleaf ,  Story  on  Notes,  Story  on 
Partnership,  Story's  Equity  Jurisprudence,  or  book's  of 
like  character.  He  is  expected  to  have  some  knowledge 
of  the  Constitution  and  statutes  of  Texas  and  the 
practice  of  her  courts. 

Utah.  Citizen  of  United  States  or  one  having  de- 
clared intention  to  become  a  citizen.  Must  be  of  age 
and  of  good  moral  character.  All  applicants  are  strictly 
examined  in  open  court. 

Vermont.  Must  have  resided  in  Vermont  six 
months,  be  of  age,  and  of  good  moral  character.  All 
are  examined  in  open  court  by  a  committee  of  the  bar ; 
but  applicant  must  have  studied  three  years  in  the 
office  of  a  practicing  attorney,  though  not  more  than 
two  of  these  years  may  be  spent  in  attendance  at  a  law 
school  chartered  by  any  state  of  .the  United  States. 

Virginia.  Must  have  resided  in  state  six  months,  be 
of  age,  and  a  person  of  honest  demeanor.  It  appears 
that  all  are  subject  to  examination'  by  the  supreme 
court  of  appeals  on  common  law,  equity,  commercial 
law,  and  practice,  and  the  Code  of  Virginia,  but  the 
diploma  of  a  law  school  duly  incorporated  by  one  of  the 
United  States  "  is  considered." 

Washington.  Must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
have  resided  in  state  one  year,  have  a  good  moral  char- 
acter, and  be  21  years  of 'age.  The  supreme  court,  by 
two  of  its  judges,  satisfies  itself  that  the  applicant  has 
sufficient  general  learning,  but  an  attorney  of  the  state 
must  certify  that  applicant  has  studied  law  for  two 
years  previous  to  his  application  and  that  he  believes 
him  to  be  a  person  of  sufficient  legal  knowledge  and 
ability  to  discharge  the  duties  of  an  attorney  and  coun- 
selor at  law. 

West  Virginia.  Must  be  a  citizen,  one  year  a  resi- 
dent of  the  county,  and  have  a  good  moral  character. 
All  applicants  are  now  (1897)  examined  bv  the  law 
faculty  of  the  University  of  West  Virginia  for  the  su- 
preme court. 

Wisconsin.  Must  be  a  resident  of  the  state  and  be 
of  good  moral  character.  Graduates  of  the  law  deport- 
ment of  the  University  of  Wisconsin  are  admitted  on 
their  diplomas;  others  are  examined  by  state  board  of 
examiners,  if  they  have  studied  law  at  least  two  years 
prior  to  the  examination. 

Wyoming.  Must  be  a  citizen,  of  age,  of  good  moral 
character,  and  learned  in  the  law,  all  of  which  must  be 
passed  upon  by  the  standing  committee  on  admission  of 
each  court.  An  examination  is  made  into  the  private 
character  and  unprofessional  literary  attainments  of 
applicant. 


CHRISTIAN  SCIENCE. 

The  following  are  the  claims  of  Christian 
Science,  as  stated  by  Mrs.  Laura  Lathrop, 
C.  S.  D.,  New  York:— 

The  revelation  of  Christian  Science  came  to 
Rev.  Mary  Baker  G.  Eddy  in  the  year  1866, 
and  its  truth  and  power  were  immediately 
demonstrated  by  signs  following.  For  thirty- 
two  years  sinners  have  been  reclaimed,  de- 
praved appetites  for  opium  and  intoxicating 
drinks  have  been  destroyed,  the  sick  have  been 
healed  of  every  disease,  including  insanity  ; 
the  blind  have  received  their  sight,  the  deaf 
their  hearing,  shortened  limbs  have  been 
elongated,  crooked  spines  have  been  straight- 
ened, and  law  after  law  of  the  human  mind 
has  been  broken.  The  one  great  text-book  of 
this  science  is"  Science  and  Health,"  with 
key  to  the  Scriptures,  by  Mary  Baker  G.  Eddy, 
supplemented  by  another  book  by  the  same 
author  called  "Miscellaneous  Writings." 
"  Science  and  Health  "  is  now  in  its  one  hun- 
dred and  sixtieth  edition,  and  the  demand 
for  it  is  increasing  daily.  The  Christian 
Science  Publishing  House  is  at  95  Falmouth 
street,  Boston,  Mass.,  and  here  are  published, 
besides  the  two  books  above  mentioned,  other 
works  by  the  same  author,  also  The  Chris- 
tian Science  Monthly  Journal,  The  Christian 
Science  Weekly,  and  the  "Christian  Science 
Bible  Lessons."  In  the  October  Journal 
for  1898  there  were  mentioned  1,916  prac- 
titioners, 289  regularly  organized  churches, 
113  services  where  no  church  has  as  yet  been 
organized,  and  81  institutes.  One  hundred 
and  twenty  of  these  practitioners  are  in  Greater 
New  York,  and  sixty-seven  in  Manhattan 
Borough.  There  are  six  regularly  organized 
churches  of  this  denomination  in  New  York 
city,  three  of  which  own  church  buildings.  A 
beautiful  building  is  now  being  erected  at  the 
corner  of  Central  Park  West  and  Sixty-eighth 
street  by  the  Second  Church  of  Christ  Scientist, 
New  Y'ork  city. 

Flourishing  churches  have  been  organized  in 
London,  England ;  Paris,  France ;  Dresden 
and  Hanover,  Germany,  and  in  Canada,  Bra- 
zil, and  Scotland.  Many  handsome  church 
edifices  have  been  built  in  different  cities,  and 
many  others  are  in  process  of  erection.  The 
mother  church  is  located  in  Boston,  Mass., 
and  those  all  over  the  country  are  its  branches. 
Their  services  are  uniform,  consisting  of  two 
meetings  on  Sunday  and  one  on  Wednesday 
evening.  No  sermons  are  preached  by  a  per- 
sonal pastor,  but  a  sermon  made  up  of  selec- 
tions from  the  Bible  and  "Science  and 
Health,"  with  key  to  the  Scriptures,  is  read  by 
two  readers,  called  the  first  and  second  read- 
ers.    This  church   is   emphatically  a  healing 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


551 


church,  and  many  cases  of  restoration  to  health 
have  been  testified  to  during  the  past  few 
years,  brought  about  by  attendance  on  one  of 
these  meetings. 

Christian  Science  is  demonstrable  Christian- 
ity. Through  the  spiritual  understanding  of 
the  teachings  of  Christ  Jesus,  its  followers  are 
enabled  to  obey  his  command  to  "  heal  the 
sick  "  and  do  the  works  he  and  his  disciples 
did.  The  omnipotence,  omnipresence,  and 
omniscience  of  God  are  proved  to  be  true. 
Christian  Science  is  not  mind  cure,  as  that  is 
popularly  understood,  because  it  recognizes  but 
one  mind,  God.  It  is  not  faith  cure,  because  it 
does  not  perform  its  wonderful  works  through 
blind  faith  in  a  personal  God,  but  through  the 
understanding  of  man's  relation  to  God.  It  is 
not  mesmerism  nor  hypnotism,  because  it  de- 
nies absolutely  the  power  of  the  human  mind 
and  human  will,  and  claims  no  will  but  God's. 
Through  recognizing  the  one  mind  and  man  as 
the  reflection  of  that  mind,  it  forever  estab- 
lishes the  brotherhood  of  man.  It  is  the  per- 
fect salvation  from  sin,  disease,  and  death 
Christ  Jesus  came  to  bring.  In  "  Rudimental 
Divine  Science,"  Mrs.  Eddy  defines  Christian 
Science  "  as  the  law  of  God,  the  law  of  good, 
interpreting  and  demonstrating  the  principle 
and  rule  of  eternal  harmony." 

REQUIREMENTS  FOR  PRACTICE 
OF  MEDICINE. 

Qualifications  as  to  citizenship,  personal 
character,  education,  and  professional  attain- 
ments required  by  the  several  states  from  those 
who  are  licensed  to  practice  medicine.  From 
reports  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 

California.  No  qualifications  are  specified  except 
that  the  Individual  must  he  a  graduate  of  a  "  recog- 
nized "  college;  that  is,  one  recognized  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Medical  Colleges. 

Colorado.  Diploma  of  recognized  reputable  school, 
or  ten  years'  practice  of  medicine  as  a  business.  Anat- 
omy, chemistry,  physiology,  pathology,  surgery,  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  and  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  "women. 

Connecticut.  He  may  be  a  common  drunkard,  a  no- 
torious libertine,  or  a  criminal  abortionist  as  far  as  the 
letter  of  the  law  disqualifies  him.  Anatomy,  physiol- 
ogy, medical  chemistry,  obstetrics,  surgery,  pathology, 
diagnosis,  and  therapeutics,  including  practice  and 
materia  medica.    No  attention  paid  to  college  diplomas. 

Delaware.  Must  furnish  proof  of  good  moral  char- 
acter and  good  common  school  education.  Must  have 
studied  medicine  at  least  four  years,  including  three 
regular  courses  of  lectures  in  different  years  in  some 
legally  incorporated  college  or  colleges,  prior  to  his  hav- 
ing received  a  diploma. 

Florida.  Diploma  of  a  college  recognized  (by  the 
American  Medical  Association);  but  any  holder  of  a 
diploma  of  a  medical  college  may  demand  an  examina- 
tion, which  all  must  pass. 

Georjjia.  Three  courses  in  a  regular  medical  college 
and  successful  passage  of  examination  before  board. 

Idaho.  Citizen  of  1'nited  States  or  has  declared  in- 
tention of  becoming  such,  and  evidence  of  good  moral 
character.  But  said  board  may  also  refuse  a  license  for 
unprofessional  conduct,  etc.  *  The  words  "  unprofes- 
sional conduct,  etc.,"  is  declared  to  mean— First.  The 
procuring  or  aiding  or  abetting  in  procuring  a  crim- 


inal abortion.  Second.  The  employment  of  what  are 
popularly  known  as  '•cappers"  or ""  steerers  "  in  pro- 
curing practice.  Third.  The  obtaining  a  fee  on  the 
assurance  that  a  manifestly  incurable  disease  can  be 
permanently  cured.  Fourth.  The  willful  betrayal  of  a 
professional  secret  to  the  detriment  of  a  patient.  Fifth. 
All  advertisements  of  medical  business  in  which  un- 
truthful and  improbable  statements  are  made.  Sixth. 
All  advertisements  of  any  medicine  or  means  whereby 
the  monthly  periods  of  women  can  be  regulated  or  the 
menses  can  be  re-established  if  repressed.  Seventh. 
Conviction  of  any  offense  involving  moral  turpitude. 
Eighth.  Habitual  intemperance  in  the  use  of  ardent 
spirits,  narcotics,  or  stimulants.  Diploma  of  a  reputa- 
ble medical  college  and  an  examination. 

Illinois.  Good  moral  character.  A  diploma  or  certifi- 
cation of  graduation  from  a  high  school  or  evidence  of 
having  passed  the  matriculation  examination  to  a  recog- 
nized literary  or  scientific  college,  or  a  certificate  of  suc- 
cessful examination  by  the  faculty  of  any  reputable  uni- 
versity or  college,  or  by  the  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  the  following  branches:  English 
grammar,  arithmetic,  elementary  physics,  United  States 
history,  geography,  Latin  (equivalent  to  one  year  in  a 
high  school).  One  year  is  allowed  in  which  to  cure  de- 
fects in  Latin,  but  the  student  must  be  provided  with  a 
certificate  of  proficiency  in  this  branch  of  learning  from 
the  designated  authorities  before  he  can  be  accepted  as 
a  second  course  student. — (Medical  Practice  Act. )"Diplo- 
mas  of  colleges  recognized  by  the  state  board  of  health 
as  being  in  "good  standing."  Diplomas  from  condi- 
tional collegesare  recognized,  but  must  be  supplemented 
by  an  examination  in  medicine,  surgery,  gynecology, 
and  obstetrics,  a  percentage  of  80  being  required. 
Graduates  of  colleges  in  the  United  States  that  are  not 
recognized  by  the  board  are  required  to  pass  an  exami- 
nation in  all  the  branches  of  medicine.  Graduates  of 
Canadian  colleges  and  foreign  colleges  and  universities 
are  required  to  supplement  their  diplomas  with  an  ex- 
amination in  practice,  surgery,  gynecology,  and  ob- 
stetrics, unless  they  present  evidence  of  their  right  to 
practice  medicine  and  surgery  in  the  province  and 
country  in  which  the  college  is  located  from  which  they 
receive  their  diplomas. 

Indiana.  Must  reside  within  the  state  and  possess  a 
good  moral  character,  attested  by  two  freeholders  un- 
der oath.  After  July  1, 1899,  no  medical  college  will  be 
recognized  as  in  good  standing  which  does  not  require 
the  entrance  qualifications  "prescribed  by  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Medical  Colleges  as  a  prerequisite  for 
matriculation.  (Same  as  Illinois.)  Since  1899,  July  1,  no 
diploma  will  be  recognized  if  given  by  a  college  pos- 
sessing an  inadequate  equipment  for  teaching  medicine, 
which  has  not  clinical  and  hospital  facilities,  and  which 
does  not  have  an  active  and  competent  faculty,  embrac- 
ing the  departments  of  anatomy,  phvsiology,  chemistry, 
materia  medica,  therapeutics,  medicine,  surgery,  ob- 
stetrics, histology,  pathology,  bacteriology,  ophthalmol- 
ogy, otology,  gynecology,  laryngology,"  dermatology, 
hygiene,  and  state  medicine,  and  which  does  not  en- 
join attendance  upon  80  per  cent,  of  four  regular  courses 
of  instruction  of  not  less  than  twenty-six  weeks  each  in 
four  different  years,  and  which  does  not  exact  an  aver- 
age grade  of  75  per  cent,  on  an  examination  as  a  condi- 
tion of  graduation. 

Iowa.  Certificate  refused  to  one  who  is  incompetent, 
convicted  of  felony,  grossly  immoral,  or  is  an  habitual 
drunkard.  Good  character  must  be  certified  to  by  two 
physicians  of  the  state.  Literary  qualifications  same  as 
those  of  Illinois.  Diploma  of  recognized  medical  col- 
lege teaching  in  a  four  or  more  years'  course  anatomy, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  chemistry,  materia  medica  and 
therapeutics,  theory  and  practice  of  medicine,  pathol- 
ogy and  pathological  anatomy,  surgery,  obstetrics  and 
gynecology,  bacteriology  and  microscopy,  and  medical 
jurisprudence.  Each  course  shall  continue  for  twenty- 
six  weeks. 

Kansas.  Good  moral  character  is  required.  A  di- 
ploma of  a  recognized  medical  school. 

Louisiana.  A  good  moral  character,  average  educa- 
tion, as  shown  by  technical  examination  before  board. 
Must  have  diploma  from  medical  college  in^rood  repute, 
having  three  courses  of  six  months  each  in  different 
years.  An  examination  before  the  board  on  all  the 
branches  of  medicine. 

Maine.  Certificate  of  good  moral  character,  only  so 
far  as  the  board  may  take  it  upon  itself  to  decide.  All 
must  pass  an  examination  on  anatomy,  physiology,  pa- 
thology, materia  medica,  therapeutics,  surgery,  the  prin- 
ciples and  practice  of   medicine,  obstetrics,  or  such 


552 


THE    CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


branches  thereof  as  the  board  may  deem  necessary  that 
the  applicant  should  possess. 

Maryland.  Testimonials  to  moral  character.  The 
candidate  should  at  least  possess  a  high  school  educa- 
tion. Must  be  a  graduate  of  some  reputable  medical 
school  having  a  three  years'  course,  but  an  effort  is  be- 
ing made  to  extend  the  course  to  four  years.  Non- 
graduates  of  a  college  of  medicine  are  examined  in 
practice,  surgery,  anatomy,  materia  medica,  therapeu- 
tics, physiology,  chemistry,  jurisprudence,  obstetrics, 
gynecology,  hygiene,  and  pathology. 

Massachusetts.  Good  moral  character  and  twenty- 
one  years  old.  All  applicants  are  required  to  pass  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  surgery,  physiology,  pa- 
thology,  obstetrics,  and  practice  of  medicine.  College 
diplomas  not  a  factor  in  testing  an  applicant's  qualifi- 
cations for  practice. 

Michigan.  Every  graduate  of  any  legally  author- 
ized medical  college  in  the  state,  or  in  any  one  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  other  country,  shall  be  deemed 
qualified  to  practice  medicine  and  surgery  in  all  its  de- 
partments after  having  registered. 

Minnesota.  Good  moral  character.  Evidence  of  igno- 
rance in  ordinary  spelling  and  writing  count  against  a 
candidate,  at  option  of  examiner.  The  applicant  for 
license  must  present  evidence  of  having  attended  upon 
three  separate  courses  of  medical  study  at  a  college 
having  not  less  than  six  months'  duration  each.  Study 
with  physician  not  necessary.  [Other]  applicants  are 
required'to  pass  an  examination  in  anatomy,  physiology, 
histology,  pathology,  chemistry,  medical  jurisprudence, 
preventive  medicine,  obstetrics,  practice,  surgery,  dis- 
eases of  women  and  children,  materia  medical  eye  and 
ear  diseases,  toxicology. 

Missouri.  The  law'prescribes  no  qualifications ;  but 
in  regard  to  personal  character  and  citizenship  the  board 
lias  made  a  rule,  which  has  not  been  questioned, accord- 
ing to  which  an  applicant  must  present  two  letters  of 
recommendation  from  physicians  as  to  his  moral  and 
professional  character,  and  he  must  be  a  resident  of 
the  state  unless  he  makes  affidavit  that  he  resides  in 
a  county  of  another  state,  which  county  lies  upon  the 
border  of  Missouri.  Under  a  recent  decision  of  the 
supreme  court  it  is  necessary  only  to  be  the  possessor  of 
a  diploma  from  a  legally  chartered  medical  school  in 
good  standing  to  be  admitted  to  registration .  The  good 
standing  of  the  school  to  be  determined,  like  the  repu- 
tation of  an  individual,  by  testimony.  The  court  de- 
cided that  the  law  did  not  authorize  the  board  to  set  up 
a  standard. 

Montana.  None;  but  board  may  refuse  to  grant  li- 
cense on  moral  grounds.  Applicants  must  possess  a 
diploma  from  a  reputable  school  of  medicine,  whose 
professors  and  teachers  are  graduates  of  a  school  of  that 
kind,  and  which,  after  July  1, 1898,  requires  attendance 
upon  four  courses  of  lectures  of  at  least  six  months 
each,  no  two  terms  in  one  year.  No  credit  for  practice 
of  or  study  with  a  physician  is  given. 

Nevada.  A  medical  education  and  a  diploma  from 
some  regularly  chartered  medical  school,  said  Bchool  to 
have  a  bona  fide  existence  at  the  time  when  said  diploma 
was  granted. 

New  Hampshire.  Good  moral  character  and  twenty- 
one  years  of  age.  Must  have  graduated  from  a  registered 
college  or  satisfactorily  completed  a  full  course  in  a  reg- 
istered academy  or  high  school,  or  had  a  preliminary 
education  considered  and  accepted  by  the  regent  (state 
superintendent  of  education)  as  fully  equivalent.  Our 
state  pays  now  (1899)  no  attention  to  medical  college  di- 
plomas except  from  Dartmouth.  Since  1893  Dartmouth 
graduates  have  been  obliged  to  stand  examination.  Ap- 
plicant must  have  studied  medicine  not  less  than  four 
full  school  years  of  at  least  nine  months  each,  including 
four  satisfactory  courses  of  at  least  six  months  each,  In 
four  different  calendar  years,  in  a  medical  college  reg- 
istered as  maintaining  at  the  time  a  satisfactory  stand- 
ard. The  regent  shall  accept  as  the  equivalent  "for  any 
part  of  these  requirements  or  those  concerning  a  liter- 
ary education,  evidence  of  five  or  more  years  of  reputa- 
ble practice  provided  that  such  substitution  be  specified 
in  the  license,  or  has  either  received  the  degree  of  bach- 
elor or  doctor  of  medicine  from  some  registered  medi- 
cal school,  or  a  diploma  or  license  conferring  full  right 
to  practice  medicine  in  some  foreign  country.  (Recent 
law.) 

New  Jersey.  Nothing  as  to  citizenship,  but  at  least 
two  physicians,  one  of  New  Jersey,  must  vouch  for 
personal  character.  Candidates  must  be  graduates  from 
an  accredited  literary  or  scientific  college,  or  have  com- 
pleted satisfactorily  not  less  than  a  three  years' course 


in  an  accredited  high  school  or  academy,  or  have  re- 
ceived a  preparatory  education  covering"  the  following 
branches,  viz.,  orthography,  arithmetic,  English  grain- 
mar  and  composition,  geography,  history  of  the  united 
States,  algebra,  and  physics,  or' what  tliis  board  of  ex- 
aminers may  consider  their  equivalent.  Candidates 
must  have  received  a  diploma  conferring  the  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine  from  some  legally  incorporated  med- 
ical college  (which  in  the  opinion  of  the  board  was  in 
good  standing  at  the  time  of  issuing  said  diploma)  in 
the  United  States  or  a  diploma  or  license  conferring  the 
full  right  to  practice  all  the  branches  of  medicine  and 
surgery  in  some  foreign  country,  and  have  also  studied 
medicine  four  years,  including  three  courses  of  lectures 
in  different  years  in  some  legally  incorporated  Ameri- 
can or  foreign  medical  college  or  colleges  prior  to  the 
granting  of  said  diploma  or  foreign  license;  provided, 
however,  that  two  courses  of  medical  lectures,  both  of 
which  shall  be  either  begun  or  completed  within  the 
same  calendar  year,  shall  not  be  considered  as  satisfy- 
ing the  above  requirements.  All  examinations  shall  be 
written  in  the  English  language  and  the  questions 
shall  be,  except  in  materia  medica  and  therapeutics, 
such  as  can  be  answered  in  common  by  all  schools  of 
practice. 

New  Mexico.  Two  certificates  well  accredited  as 
to  personal  character  and  professional  standing.  Our 
board  disproves  of  medical  schools  doing  their  own  ex- 
amination of  candidates  for  matriculation.  It  requires 
that  each  candidate  for  admission  to  a  medical  school 
shall  furnish  as  a  minimum  a  high  school  certificate  — 
preferably  a  college  degree.  No  study  with  a  physician 
required.  As  to  professional  study  our  board  lias  not 
specified  at  length  its  requirements  except  as  to  time 
(four  years),  and  terms  of  lectures  [courses]  (four)  and 
conditions  for  matriculation.  [A  diploma  of  a  legally 
chartered  medical  institution  in  good  standing  will 
admit  to  practice— law.] 

New  York.  Certificate  of  good  moral  character 
from  not  fewer  than  two  physicians  in  good  standing; 
also  evidence  that  applicant  has  the  general  educa- 
tion required  preliminary  to  receiving  the  degree  of 
bachelor  or  doctor  of  medicine  in  this  state  (medical 
student  certificate),  or  graduation  from  a  registered 
college,  or  satisfactory  completion  of  a  full  course  in  a 
registered  academy  or  high  school,  or  had  a  preliminary 
education  considered  andaccepted  by  the  regents  of  the 
University  of  the  State  of  New  York  as  equivalent  to 
Such  high  school  course.  Evidence  that  applicant  has 
studied  medicine  not  less  than  four  full  years  of  at  least 
nine  months  each,  including  satisfactory  courses  of  at 
least  six  months  each,  in  four  different  calendar  years 
in  a  medical  school  registered  as  maintaining  at  the 
time  a  satisfactory  standard.  The  applicant  for  license 
to  practice  medicine  in  New  York  state  [not  a  grad- 
uate] must  pass  examinations  in  anatomy,  physiology, 
hygiene,  chemistry,  surgery,  obstetrics,  pathology,  ana 
diagnosis,  therapeutics,  practice,  and  materia  medica. 

North  Carolina.  Certificate  of  good  moral  charac- 
ter from  some  one  known  to  the  board.  Education 
decided  by  character  of  papers  handed  in  on  examina- 
tion. No  attention  paid  to  diplomas.  Satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  all  branches  of  medicine.  No  study  with 
physician  required.  Examinations  are  comprehensive 
but  are  liberal;  80  per  cent,  is  necessary  to  pass  how- 
ever. 

Ohio.  Good  moral  character  from  two  registered 
physicians  of  the  state.  All  medical  colleges  of  the 
United  States  requiring  a  minimum  of  three  years  of 
study  of  medicine  and  two  courses  of  lectures  for 
graduation  prior  to  1886,  and  possessing  proper  facili- 
ties for  teaching  and  a  faculty  embracing  the  chairs  of 
anatomy,  physiology,  chemistry,  materia  medica,  ther- 
apeutics, medicine,  surgery,  and  obstetrics,  shall  be 
recognized  as  in  good  standing,  and  diplomas  issued  by 
the  same  and  properly  verified  shall  entitle  the  holders 
thereof  to  register  as"  graduates  in  medicine.  For  the 
ten  years  ending  in  February,  1896,  all  medical  colleges 
exacting  the  foregoing  requirements  and  possessing 
facilities  and  a  faculty  as  specified  above  shall,  by  virtue 
of  such  facts,  be  recognized  as  In  good  standing  to  and 
including  the  year  1882,  but  that  n<>  medical  college 
shall  be  recognised  as  In  good  standing  which  has  not 
since  1802  possessed  the  foregoing  facilities  and  faculty, 
and  hi  addition  has  not  exacted  an  entrance qualifica- 
tion and  attendance  upon  three  regular  courses  of  lec- 
tures as  a  condition  of  graduation,  on  and  alter  July 
1, 1899,  no  medical  college  will  be  recognized  as  in  good 
standing  which  does  not  require  the  entrance  qualifica- 
tion prescribed  by  the  Association  of  American  Medical 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


553 


Colleges  as  a  prerequisite  for  matriculation,  which  does 
not  possess  an  adequate  equipment  for  teaching  medi- 
cine, which  has  not  clinical  and  hospital  facilities 
based  upon  a  minimum  municipal  population  of  50,000, 
ami  which  does  not  have  an  active  faculty  embracing  the 
departments  of  anatomy,  physiology,  "chemistry,  ma- 
teria inedica  and  therapeutics,  medicine,  surgery,  ob- 
stetrics, histology,  pathology,  bacteriology,  ophthalmol- 
ogy and  otology^ gynecology,  laryngology,  hygiene,  and 
state  medicine, "and  which  "does  "not  enjoin  "attendance 
upon  80  per  cent,  of  four  regular  courses  of  instruction 
of  not  less  than  twenty-six  weeks  each,  in  four  different 
years,  and  which  does  not  exact  an  average  grade  of  75 
per  cent,  on  an  examination  as  a  condition  of  gradua- 
tion, providing  that  the  rule  relative  to  population  as  a 
basis  for  clinical  and  hospital  facilities  shall  not  apply 
to  institutions  under  state  control  and  which  by  virtue 
of  such  control  receives  gratuitously  patients  from  all 
parts  of  the  state  in  which  such  colleges  are  located. 

Oklahoma.  Certificate  of  good  moral  character,  and 
that  holder  is  not  an  habitual  drunkard.  None,  if  a 
graduate  from  a  medical  college  in  good  standing;  if 
not  a  graduate,  applicant  must  have  Iieen  a  practicing 
physician  for  five  years,  and  pass  an  examination  before 
the  board  on  the  several  branches  of  medicine. 

Oregon,  (iood  moral  character  required.  No  atten- 
tion paid  to  college  diplomas.  All  must  stand  an  exami- 
nation before  state  medical  board  on  anatomy,  phys- 
iology, etc. 

Pennsylvania.  Applicant  must  be  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  of  good  moral  character,  and  have  acompetent 
•  ■oinmonschool  education.  Four>ears'study  of  medicine, 
including  three  years  in  some  legally  incorporated  medi- 
cal college  of  the  United  States,  or"a  diploma  or  license 
conferring  the  full  right  to  practice  all  the  branches  of 
medicine  and  surgery in  some  foreign  country.  Others 
must  stand  an  examination  before  board. 

Rhode  Island.  Citizenship  is  a  new  question,  and 
has  never  occurred  to  us  before,  but  will  now  receive 
attention.  Personal  character  has  not  been  required. 
It  is  difficult  to  establish  [true]  character  of  applicant, 
bat  we  do  not  issue  certificate  until  applicant  has  been 
in  practice  for  three  months  in  this  state,  and  if  he  turn 
out  an  advertising,  charlatanic  person  we  refuse  to  grant 
certificate.  A  high  school  or  academic  education  is  re- 
quired of  all  colleges  in  "good  standing."  Examina- 
tion on  eleven  branches  of  medicine  required.  Appli- 
cant [for  examination]  must  have  obtained  diploma 
from  a  school  having  a  four  years'  course  in  medicine 
during  the  year  of  graduation.  One  year  ata  veterinarv 
or  dental  school  will  not  pass  for  a  year  of  study  in  medi- 
cine. School  must  have  a  course" of  twenty-six  weeks, 
teach  all  main  and  supplementary  branches.  Study 
with  physician  not  required,  nor  is  it  accepted  as  a  part 
of  the  four  years.  Diplomas  of  schools  located  in  cities 
of  fewer  than  fifty  thousand  people  not  accepted. 

South  Carolina.  None  but  graduates  of  a  medical 
school  entitled  to  an  examination ;  and  the  state  board 
examines  on  all  the  branches  of  medicine. 

South  Dakota.  Good  moral  character, and  must  not 
be  an  habitual  drunkard.  Anyone  who  is  a  graduate  of 
a  lawful  medical  college,  who  has  attended  three  full 
courses  of  medical  lectures  of  six  months  each.  No  two 
full  courses  to  be  taken  within  the  same  year. 

Tennessee.  Must  be  a  bona  fide  resident  of  the  state, 
and  located  at  some  designated  place.  We  have  no  law 
allowing  us  to  examine  into  personal  character.  Ap- 
plicant must  have  a  fair  education,  of  which  the  board 
may  be  the  judge.  Law  pays  no  attention  to  diplomas, 
but  requires  all  applicants  to  Stand  an  examination  on 
anatomy,  physiology,  etc. 

Texas.  Must  have  an  education  equal  to  that  given 
in  a  high  school.  A  diploma  from  any  college  or  uiiiver- 
sitv  is  held  by  the  higher  courts  as  equal  to  a  certificate 
from  one  of  the  district  examining  boards. 

Utah.  No  special  requirements  other  than  a  diploma 
from  a  reputable  medical  college :  and  passing  an  exam- 
ination in  all  the  branches  of  medicine  and  surgery. 

Vermont.  Diploma  from  a  reputable  and  recognized 
school  and  passing  examination  before  a  state  board  of 
examiners  on  anatomy,  physiology,  surgery,  chemistry, 
materia  meilica,  practice,  obstetrics,  and  pathology. 

Washington.  Board  has  large  ] powers  of  discretion 
as  to  estimating  moral  character.  The  state  medical 
examining  board  does  not  regard  a  diploma  [of  a  school] 
of  any  state  as  sufficient  to  entitle  holder  of  same  to 
practice  in  this  state,  but  will  consider  such  diploma  in 
connection  with  the  examination  of  the  holder  of  the 
same  for  a  license.  All  applicants  are  examined  in 
nervous  diseases,  obstetric  diseases  of  women  and  cbil- 


I  dren,  anatomy,  practice,  histology,  surgery,  physiology, 
I  medical  jurisprudence,  materia  medica,  chemistry,  dis- 
eases of  the  eye  and  ear,  preventive  medicine. 

West  Virginia.  Good  moral  character  and  English 
education.  Diplomas  are  not  recognized.  All  must 
pass  examination  by  state  board. 

Wisconsin.  Must  not  have  been  convicted  of  crime 
in  course  of  professional  business.  All  are  examined 
save  those  who  possess  a  diploma  from  a  medical  col- 
lege having  three  or  more  courses  of  lectures  of  six 
•  months  each,  and  after  the  year  1904  at  least  four  courses 
!  of  not  less  than  six  months  each,  no  two  courses  to  be 
taken  during  the  same  year. 

Wyoming.  None.  'No  person  shall  be  allowed  to 
practice  medicine,  surgery,  or  obstetrics  who  has  not 
received  a  medical  education  and  a  diploma  from  some 
regularly  chartered  medical  school,  said  school  to  have 
a  bona  fide  existence  at  the  time  when  said  diploma  was 
granted. 

Windsor  Castle  is  situated  on  the  right 
I  bank  of  the  Thames,  twenty-three  miles  west 
of  London,  near  the  town  of  Windsor.  The 
royal  residence  and  the  buildings  connected 
with  it  cover  twelve  acres  of  ground,  and  stand 
in  the  midst  of  a  park  known  as  "  Little 
Park,"  which  is  four  miles  in  circumference, 
I  and  is  connected  by  a  long  avenue  of  trees, 
|  south  of  the  castle,  with  the  "Great  Park," 
which  is  eighteen  miles  in  circuit.  The  castle 
was  founded  by  William  the  Conqueror.  The 
original  plans  were  enlarged  upon  and  com- 
pleted by  Henry  I.,  and  the  castle  was  first 
used  as  a  royal  residence  about  1110.  The 
history  of  the  existing  edifice,  however,  begins 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  but  it  was  not  until 
the  time  of  Edward  III.  that  all  its  portions 
were  completed.  The  buildings  may  be  said 
to  be  grouped  in  three  portions  —  the  middle 
ward  containing  the  Round  Tower,  which  was 
built  by  Edward  III.,  in  the  eighteenth  year 
of  his  reign,  to  receive  the  Round  Table  of  the 
Knights  of  the  newly  formed  Order  of  the 
Garter  ;  the  lower  ward,  on  the  west,  contain- 
ing St.  George's  chapel,  which  was  begun  by 
Henry  III.,  completed  by  Edward  III.,  rebuilt 
by  Henry  VII.,  and  added  to  by  Cardinal 
AVolsey,  and  the  houses  of  the  military 
knights,  cloisters,  etc.  ;  and  the  upper  ward, 
on  the  east,  containing  the  sovereign's  private 
apartments.  Some  additions  were  made  to 
the  buildings  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  formed  the  terraces  and  built  the 
gate  now  called  by  her  name.  The  Star  build- 
ing was  erected  by  Charles  II.  In  1824-'28, 
the  castle  was  repaired  and  enlarged  ;  but  little 
alteration  has  since  been  made.  The  park  and 
forest  immediately  adjoining  contain  many 
historical  trees  —  such  as  Elizabeth's  Oak; 
Shakespeare's  Oak ;  the  Long  Walk,  made  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  II.  ;  and  Queen  Anne's 
Ride  of  Elms,  three  miles  long.  Heme's  Oak, 
rendered  so  famous  by  Shakespeare,  was  blown 
down  in  September,  1863,  and  a  stone  and  a 
young  tree  now  mark  the  spot.  The  oldest 
planted  timber  in  England  —  that  of  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth  —  is  also  in  Windsor  Park  ;  and 


554 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


there  are  many  oaks  of  which  it  is  well  estab- 
lished the  age  must  be  one  thousand  years.  In 
the  royal  vaults  connected  with  St  George's 
chapel  a  number  of  kings  and  queens  are 
buried. 

Vedas  and  Puranas,  as  the  great  body 
of  the  sacred  literature  of  the  Hindoos  is 
called,  are  written  in  poetry  in  the  most  ancient 
form  of  the  Sanskrit  language.  The  Yedas, 
which  were  believed  to  be  inspired,  treat  of  the 
thirty-three  gods  of  the  heavens,  of  the  air, 
and  of  the  earth  ;  of  the  creation  of  all  things, 
of  the  relation  of  the  gods  to  each  other,  and 
the  relations  and  duties  of  men  to  each  other 
and  to  the  gods  ;  of  surgery,  medicine,  music, 
dancing,  war,  architecture,  mechanical  arts, 
astronomy,  astrology,  grammar,  poetry,  etc. 
The  Puranas  are  eighteen  in  number,  and  are 
regarded  with  great  reverence  as  the  produc- 
tion of  holy  men.  They  treat  of  law,  theology, 
including  histories  of  their  gods,  logic,  and 
metaphysics  in  general,  but  are  filled  in  the 
main  with  superstitions  and  silly  and  disgust- 
ing narratives. 

Unitarians. —  The  Unitarians  of  the  pres- 
ent day,  like  almost  all  Christian  sects,  must 
be  divided  into  two  classes  —  a  conservative 
and  a  progressive  class — or,  as  they  are  often 
called,  an  old  and  new  school.  The  former 
adopt  the  old  rule  of  the  sufficiency  of  Scrip- 
ture, though  with  such  qualifications  as  the 
scientific  criticism  of  the  Bible  has  rendered 
indispensable.  The  most  conservative  Unita- 
rian, for  example,  would  not  contend  for  the 
literal  truth  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  nor 
for  the  doctrine  of  verbal  inspiration  in  any 
shape.  "  The  Bible  is  not,  but  it  contains,  the 
Word  of  God, "  is  the  form  which  best  expresses 
their  position  on  this  subject.  They  generally 
hold  the  simple  humanity  of  Christ,  and  even 
reject  the  supernatural  birth,  thinking  the  part 
of  the  gospels  which  record  that  event  to  be 
less  authentic  than  the  parts  referring  to  the 
ministry,  the  death,  and  resurrection  of  Christ. 
What,  however,  chiefly  distinguishes  the  Unita- 
rians of  this  school  from  those  of  the  new  or 
progressive  school  is  the  place  which  they  give 
to  the  miracles  as  supernatural  sanctions  of 
the  truth  of  Christianity.  Denying  that  man 
has  any  immediate  knowledge  of  the  intuition 
of  spiritual  things,  they  regard  Christianity  as 
a  system  of  moral  and  religious  truth  external 
to  man's  nature,  and  requiring,  in  proof  of  its 
divine  origin,  certain  evidences  beyond  its  in- 
herent credibility  and  adaptation  to  human 
wants.  This  evidence  they  find  in  the  mira- 
cles, which  they  accept  as  well-attested  facts, 
on  the  same  ground  on  which  all  historical 
facts  are  accepted.  The  Unitarians  of  the 
progressive  school,  so  far  from  regarding  man 


as  entirely  dependent  upon  his  reasoning  pow- 
ers for  his  knowledge  of  religion,  rather  look 
upon  him  as  standing  in  a  living  relationship 
with  the  one  infinite  source  of  all  truth,  and 
as  having  within  his  own  nature  the  germs  of 
the  highest  religious  faith.  To  this  view  of 
Christianity  the  miracles  are  not  felt  to  be 
essential  as  proofs.  Generally  speaking,  the 
Unitarians  of  this  school  are  disposed  to  regard 
with  favor  the  freest  criticism  of  the  Bible. 
Unitarians  of  all  shades  of  opinion  are  agreed 
in  rejecting  the  entire  orthodox  scheme  —  in- 
cluding the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity,  the  vica- 
rious atonement,  the  deity  of  Christ,  original 
sin,  and  everlasting  punishment — as  both 
unscriptural  and  irrational.  They  celebrate 
the  Lord's  Supper  in  their  churches,  not  as  a 
sacrament,  but  as  a  service  commemorative 
of  Christ's  death  and  expressive  of  spiritual 
communion  with  him. 

St.  Nicholas  and  Christmas. —  The 
origin  of  the  idea  that  presents  are  presented 
at  Christmas  time  by  St.  Nicholas,  or  Santa 
Clans,  probably  originated  from  the  following 
circumstance :  St.  Nicholas  is  said  to  have 
been  Bishop  of  Myra,  and  to  have  died  in  the 
year  326.  He  was  noted  for  his  fondness  for 
children,  and  became  their  patron  saint,  and 
the  young  were  universally  taught  to  revere 
him.  He  is  said  to  have  supplied  three  desti- 
tute widows  with  marriage  portions  by  secretly 
leaving  money  at  their  windows,  and  as  this 
occurred  just  before  Christinas,  he  thus  became 
the  purveyor  of  the  gifts  of  the  season  to  all 
children  in  Flanders  and  Holland,  who  hung 
up  their  shoes  and  stockings  in  the  confidence 
that  Knecht  Clobes,  as  they  called  him,  would 
put  in  a  prize  for  good  conduct.  Formerly, 
and  still,  in  some  parts  of  Germany,  the  prac- 
tice is  made  of  all  the  parents  in  a  small  village 
sending  the  presents  to  some  one  person,  who, 
in  high  buskins,  a  white  robe,  a  mask,  and  an 
enormous  flax  wig,  goes  from  house  to  house 
on  Christmas  eve,  and,  being  received  with 
great  pomp  and  reverence  by  the  parents,  calls 
for  the  children  and  bestows  the  intended 
gifts  upon  them,  after  first  severely  question- 
ing the  father  and  mother  as  to  the  character 
and  conduct  of  the  child.  As  this  custom  be- 
came less  frequent,  the  custom  of  children 
hanging  up  their  stockings  was  substituted ; 
and,  as  the  purveyor  no  longer  visited  the 
houses,  it  was  necessary  to  explain  it  by  tell- 
ing the  children  that  he  came  into  the  house 
at  night,  coming  down  the  chimney  and  leav- 
ing their  presents  and  departing.  The  custom 
of  decking  the  houses  and  churches  at  Christ- 
mas with  evergreens  is  derived  from  ancient 
Druidical  practices.  It  was  an  old  belief  that 
sylvan  spirits  flock  to  the  evergreens  and  re- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


555 


main  unnipped  by  frost  until  a  milder  season, 
and  it  was  probably  on  account  of  the  good 
omen  attached  to  the  evergreen  that  Christinas 
trees  came  into  use. 

Valeiitinians,  a,  Gnostic  sect  or  school 
[see  Gnostic]  founded  by  Valentinus,  "who 
went  from  Alexandria  to  Rome  about  A.  D. 
140.  The  distinguishing  feature  of  his  system 
lies,  in  the  first  place,  in  his  recognizing  hea- 
thenism as  a  preparatory  stage  of  Christianity, 
and  then  his  dividing  the  higher  spiritual 
world  into  fifteen  pairs  of  aeons,  each  consist- 
ing of  a  male  and  a  female.  The  first  pair, 
or  syzygy,  is  made  up  of  Bythos,  or  God  in 
himself,  and  Ennoia,  or  God  as  existing  in  his 
own  thoughts.  From  these  emanated,  next, 
Nous  (Intelligence)  and  Aletheia  (Truth), 
and  so  on.  As  the  last  aeon,  Sophia,  trans- 
gressed the  bounds  that  had  been  laid  down  by 
the  aeon  lleros,  and  apart  of  her  being  became 
lost  in  Chaos,  there  was  formed  a  crude  being 
called  Achanroth,  which,  through  the  Demiur- 
gos  that  emanated  from  it,  created  the  cor- 
poreal world.  Heros  now  imparted  to  the 
souls  of  men  (for  all  the  bodies  composing  the 
corporeal  world  are  possessed  of  souls)  a  pneu- 
matic, or  spiritual,  element ;  but  this  only 
attained  to  full  activity  when  Christ,  a  col- 
lective emanation  from  all  the  aeons,  appeared 
as  a  Saviour  and  united  himself  with  the  man 
Jesus.  In  the  end,  all  that  is  pneumatic,  and 
even  the  originally  psychic,  or  soul  element,  in 
as  far  as  it  has  assimilated  itself  to  the  psychic, 
will  return  into  the  Pleroma. 

Univcrsalists. — The  distinctive  peculiar- 
ity of  the  Universalist  faith  consists  in  the 
belief  that  "evil"  will  ultimately  be  erad- 
icated from  the  world,  and  that  all  erring 
creatures  will  be  brought  back  to  God  through 
the  irresistible  efficacy  of  Christ's  divine  love. 
They  argue  that  when  an  infinite,  wise,  holy, 
and  benevolent  God  resolved  to  create  man, 
it  could  only  be  with  a  view  to  his  everlast- 
ing good ;  that  if  he  did  allow  him  to  be 
tempted  and  to  fall,  it  must  have  been  because 
he  foresaw  that  through  sorrow  and  suffering 
man  could  rise  to  higher  degrees  of  perfection  ; 
that,  therefore,  all  punishment  is  of  necessity 
designed  as  a  remedial  agent,  and  not  intended 
to  satisfy  God's  indignation  as  a  sovereign  at 
the  disobedience  of  his  subjects  ;  that  no  other 
view  of  the  subject  is  compatible  with  the 
scriptural,  and  especially  the  New  Testament, 
representation  of  God  as  a  "Father,"  or  with 
the  oft-repeated  declaration  (in  various  terms) 
that  Jesus  Christ  was  a  propitiation  for  the  sins 
of  the  whole  world.  Universalism,  as  a  mode 
of  belief,  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  its 
modern  adherents,  beside  urging  its  congruity 
with  the  divine  plan  of  redemption  as  revealed 


in  Scripture,  point  to  the  earliest  Christian 
writings,  e.  g.,  the  Sibylline  oracles  of  Rome, 
and  cite  passages  in  favor  of  the  doctrine  from 
many  of  the  Church  fathers.  Universalism 
was  preached  in  the  United  States  as  early  as 
1741,  but  the  first  separate  Universalist 
church  was  not  established  until  1780,  when 
the  Rev.  John  Murray  started  one  at  Glouces- 
ter, Mass.  Since  his  time  an  important  body 
has  sprung  up  which  contains  many  able, 
learned,  and  pious  divines. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  name  gen- 
erally given  to  that  very  numerous  body  of  Chris- 
tians who  acknowledge  the  Pope,  or  Bishop  of 
Rome,  as  head  of  their  church.  This  name  also 
signifies  that  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is 
"  Roman  in  its  center  and  Catholic  in  its  cir- 
cumference." The  foundation  of  this  church 
is  uncertain.  St.  Peter  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  tradition  says 
that  he  was  martyred  there.  The  mighty  im- 
portance of  the  city  of  Rome  naturally  gave  its 
bishop  a  great  position,  but  the  fact  that  it 
became  for  a  while  the  arbiter  and  ruler  of 
all  Christendom  is  the  most  remarkable  fact  in 
the  history  of  Christianity.  The  controversy 
between  Rome  and  Protestantism  involves  two 
main  questions :  In  the  first  place,  Protes- 
tants deny  the  authority  of  a  pope  over  them 
at  all ;  and,  secondly,  a  large  portion  of  the 
doctrine  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  re- 
jected, as  being  a  corruption  of  Apostolic 
Christianity.  The  Roman  church  recognize 
seven  sacraments,  viz.  :  Baptism,  Confirma- 
tion, the  Holy  Eucharist,  Penance,  Extreme 
Unction,  Holy  Orders,  Matrimony.  One  of 
the  chief  characteristics  of  this  religion  is  that 
of  invoking  help  of  the  Virgin  and  Saints. 
With  regard  to  all  matters  relating  to  faith, 
Roman  Catholics  draw  a  sharp  line  between 
what  is  of  doctrine  and  what  of  discipline. 
Doctrine  is  what  was  taught  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles ;  discipline,  the  different  rules  laid 
down  by  the  various  councils  of  the  church, 
and  liable  to  change  at  any  time.  There  are 
various  religious  orders,  both  for  men  and 
women,  who  are  obliged  to  take  the  three 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience. 
Their  work  consists  in  superintending  charita- 
I  ble  institutions,  such  as  asylums,  orphanages, 
j  and  hospitals,  and  some  of  the  orders  have 
Large  schools  attached  to  them.  The  number 
!  of  Roman  Catholics  all  over  the  world  is  about 
two  hundred  and  twenty  million.  The  growth 
of  the  Roman  church  in  the  United  States  in 
recent  years  has  been  rapid,  owing  to  immigra- 
tion. The  church  has  over  eight  million  ad- 
herents in  this  country.  Since  the  Vatican 
Council  of  1870,  when  Pius  IX.  put  forth  the 
doctrine  of  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  ths 


556 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


utterances  of  the  pontiff  have  been  taken  as  the 
groundwork  of  the  faith  and  practice  of  the 
church.  His  pronouncements  are  regarded  as 
infallible  when  he  defines  a  doctrine  regarding 
faith  and  morals  to  be  held  by  the  whole  church. 
The  work  of  the  church  in  the  world  is  directed 
immediately  by  the  bishops,  who  receive  their 
jurisdiction  from  the  pope.  The  power  in- 
herent in  the  Episcopal  character  and  order  is 
received  from  God  directly  and  immediately. 
When  established  in  a  diocese  by  the  pope,  the 
bishop,  by  virtue  of  his  title,  receives  the  power 
of  governing  and  of  taking  cognizance  of  all 
spiritual  causes  which  regard  his  flock,  whether 
laymen  or  ecclesiastics,  with  the  exception  of 
what  is  specially  reserved  to  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  he  possesses  and  exercises  these 
prerogatives  under  the  jurisdiction  of  and  in 
dependence  on  the  pope. 

The  Reformation,  term  universally  ap- 
plied by  Protestants  denoting  change  from  Ro- 
man Catholic  to  the  Protestant  religion ,  which 
was  originated  in  Germany  by  Luther,  A.D.  151 7, 
but  had  been  begun  in  England  by  Wycliffe,  and 
was  afterwards  completed  by  Henry  VIII.,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  "  Head  of  the  Church." 

Luther's  conflict  with  the  Church  of  Rome 
began  when  he  boldly  attacked  the  doctrine 
of  indulgences.  The  proclamation  of  indul- 
gences was  not  new  in  Germany,  nor  was  oppo- 
sition to  it  on  the  part  of  the  people  and  of 
both  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities  new. 
The  struggle  was  precipitated,  however,  when 
Albert  of  Brandenburg  appointed  John  Tetzel, 
of  Leipsic,  a  learned  and  eloquent  Dominican, 
to  preach  the  indulgences  among  the  people. 
New  opposition  at  once  broke  out,  and  Luther 
took  the  lead.  He  drew  up  his  objections  in 
the  shape  of  ninety-five  propositions,  which 
he  fastened  to  the  door  of  the  Castle  church  at 
Wittenberg,  on  All  Saints'  Eve  (Oct.  31, 1517). 
In  these  he  attacked  the  abuse,  not  the  doc- 
trine, of  indulgences,  pronouncing  anathema  on 
whosoever  spoke  against  the  truth  of  papal 
indulgences.  Nevertheless  the  propositions 
contained  the  germs  of  his  future  heresy  and 
gave  rise  to  the  movement  known  as  the  Prot- 
estant Reformation.  He  at  once  gained  a 
number  of  adherents,  among  them  men  of 
influence  both  in  church  and  state.  A. vigor- 
ous and  oftentimes  exceedingly  discourteous 
controversy  followed  which  led  to  Luther's 
being  summoned  to  Rome  to  defend  himself. 
At  the  request  of  the  Elector  Frederick,  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  was  substituted  for  Rome  as 
the  place  of  the  trial,  and  Cardinal  Cajetan, 
papal  legate,  was  appointed  to  represent  the 
pope  at  the  Diet.  Luther  claimed  that  he  had 
said  naught  against  the  Scriptures,  the  doctrine 
of  the  church,  the  decrees  of  popes,  or  reason. 


In  short,  made  a  complete  retraction,  and  fled 
from  Augsburg  angry  at  heart.  In  1520  he 
launched  out  pamphlet  after  pamphlet  assail- 
ing in  virulent  terms  the  whole  office  and  dig- 
nity of  the  papacy,  setting  out  that  the  Bible 
was  the  only  source  of  faith.  These  doctrines 
caught  the  hearts  of  the  multitudes.  Luther 
appealed  strongly  to  the  spirit  of  nationality 
and  aggrandizement.  He  addressed  the  em- 
peror, the  nobles,  and  the  people.  He  urged 
the  emperor  to  overthrow  the  power  of  the 
pope,  confiscate  the  wealth  of  the  church, 
abolish  feasts  and  holidays  and  masses  for  the 
dead.  On  June  15,  1520,  the  pope  issued  a 
bull  specifically  condemning  Luther's  teach- 
ings, and  excommunicating  him  if  he  refused 
to  retract  within  sixty  days.  Luther  appealed 
from  the  authority  of  the  pope  to  a  general 
council,  and  publicly  burned  the  pope's  bull 
at  Wittenberg,  consigning  the  pope  himself  to 
"  fire  eternal."  The  Diet  of  Worms  placed 
him  under  the  ban  of  the  empire  as  a  heretic, 
but  the  circumstances  of  the  time  and  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  German  States  rendered  the  edict 
ineffective.  From  these  beginnings  the  Refor- 
mation spread  throughout  the  German  Em- 
pire and  thence  to  various  other  countries. 

Christianity  is  based  upon  a  new  and 
specific  revelation  in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Its  aim  is  to  restore  to  mankind  the  lost  fel- 
lowship with  God  in  an  eternal  kingdom,  set 
up  here  on  earth,  and  called  the  Church,  to  be 
brought  to  its  full  and  perfect  consummation 
in  the  world  to  come.  The  foundation  of  a 
Christian's  faith  and  practice  is  ultimate,  and, 
in  truth,  the  only  appeal  must  be  to  the  facts, 
the  doctrines,  and  the  precepts  of  the  Scriptures, 
especially  those  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
history  of  Christianity,  then,  is  the  record  of 
the  facts  pertaining  to  the  nature  and  growth 
of  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon  earth,  in  their 
external  and  internal  relations.  This  history 
falls  into  three  main  divisions :  Ancient, 
Mediaeval,  and  Modern.  The  Ancient  history 
of  Christianity  is  the  narrative  of  the  suprem- 
acy won  by  the  church  over  Greek  culture 
and  the  Roman  Empire.  It  closes  and  the 
Mediaeval  history  begins,  with  the  epoch  of 
the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  The  Mediaeval  com- 
prises the  victories  of  the  church  over  the 
Celtic,  Teutonic,  Slavonian,  and  Scandinavian 
tribes  in  the  center  and  north  of  Europe,  the 
conflicts  and  rupture  of  the  eastern  and  western 
branches  of  the  church,  and  the  contest  be- 
tween the  imperial  and  papal  powers  for  suprem- 
acy. This  period  closes  with  the  Reformation. 
The  Modern  history  recites  the  struggles 
between  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,  be- 
tween Christianity  and  philosophy,  and  the 
growth  of  Protestant  civilization. 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


557 


The  history  of  the  world  presents  no  phe- 
nomenon so  striking  as  the  rise  and  early 
progress  of  Christianity.  Originating  in  a 
country  not  remarkable  for  any  political,  com- 
mercial, or  literary  influence,  emanating  from 
One  who  occupied  an  humble  sphere  in  the 
community  amidst  which  he  appeared,  and 
announced  in  the  first  instance  by  men  of 
mean  extraction,  of  no  literary  culture,  and 
not  endowed  with  any  surpassing  gifts  of  in- 
tellect,—  it  nevertheless  spread  so  rapidly  that 
in  an  incredibly  short  time  it  had  been  diffused 
throughout  the  whole  civilized  world,  and  in 
the  fourth  century  of  its  existence  became 
recognized  as  the  established  religion  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  When  it  is  remembered  that 
this  result  was  achieved  not  only  without  the 
aid  of  any  worldly  influence,  but  in  the  face  of 
the  keenest  opposition  on  the  part  of  all  the 
learning,  wealth,  and  power  of  the  most  en- 
lightened and  mightiest  nations,  the  conclu- 
sion is  strongly  forced  upon  us  that  a  power 
beyond  that  of  man  was  concerned  in  its  suc- 
cess, and  that  its  early  and  unexampled  tri- 
umphs afford  an  incontestible  proof  of  its 
inherent  truth  and  its  divine  origin.  The 
continual  and  steady  growth  of  Christianity, 
its  vigorous  life  in  spite  of  various  seasons  of 
unavoidable  ebb,  and  notwithstanding  the 
presence  of  many  forms  of  corruption,  and  its 
continual  rejuvenescence,  are  no  ordinary 
proof  of  its  supreme  fitness  for  the  position  in 
the  world  which  it  claims  to  occupy. 

Harvard.  University,  the  oldest  school 
in  America,  was  founded  in  1636,  six  years 
after  the  first  settlement  of  Boston.  The 
Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  through  its 
General  Court,  in  that  year  made  a  grant  of 
400  pounds  "to  advance  learning  and  perpet- 
uate it  to  posterity,"  and  in  the  following  year 
appointed  twelve  of  the  principal  men  in  the 
colony  "to  take  order  for  a  college  at  New- 
town."  Two  years  afterward  the  Rev.  John 
Harvard,  a  Non-Conformist  clergyman  of 
Charlestown,  who  the  year  before  had  gradu- 
ated at  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity, England,  gave  by  his  will  the  sum  of 
779  pounds,  and  300  books,  more  than  half  of 
his  estate.  Nine  students  entered  the  first 
class.  All  of  these  distinguished  themselves 
in  after  life,  one  of  them,  Sir  George  Down- 
ing, achieving  the  unenviable  distinction  of 
serving  both  the  Commonwealth  and  the  king 
in  the  English  Revolution.  John  Harvard's 
bequest  was  followed  by  other  gifts,  such  as  a 
font  of  letters,  books,  silver  spoons,  cooking 
utensils,  garden  tools,  and  others,  varying  in 
value  from  3  shillings  to  £200.  The  first 
gift  of  real  estate  was  two  and  one  half  acres  of 
land  given  by  the  town  of  Cambridge,  thereby 


changing  the  nominal  location  from  Newtown 
to  Cambridge.  The  General  Court,  in  lieu  of 
the  money  it  had  promised,  granted  to  Har- 
vard College  the  right  of  ferry  between  Charles- 
town  and  Boston.  In  1642,  the  board  of 
overseers,  consisting  of  the  governor  and  dep- 
uty governor  of  the  colony,  the  magistrates 
then  in  jurisdiction,  the  president  of  the  col- 
lege, and  the  teaching  elders,  was  constituted. 
In  1643  the  present  seal  of  the  University  and 
its  motto,  "  Christoet  Ecclesiae,"  wasadopted. 
The  college  charter  was  granted  in  1650,  and 
the  college  corporation  created.  In  1653  Rev. 
Henry  Dunster,  the  first  president,  fell  under 
suspicion  of  favoring  the  Anti-paedo  Baptists 
and  as  a  consequence  was  indicted  by  the 
grand  jury  for  disturbing  the  ordinance  of  in- 

;  fant  baptism  in  the  Cambridge  church.  He 
was  tried,  convicted,  and  besides  being  com- 
pelled to  resign,  and  being  laid  under  bonds 
for  good  behavior,  was  sentenced  to  receive 
an  admonition  once  a  year.  Previous  to  this, 
Nathaniel  Eaton,  the  first  person  in  charge  of 
the  institution,  was  dismissed  for  beating  his 
usher.       The   presidents   in   succession,    with 

j  their  terms  of  office,  have  been  as  follows : 
Henry  Dunster,  1640-1654;  Charles  Chauncy, 

J  1654-1672;  Leonard  Hoar,  1672-1675  ;  Urian 

J  Oakes,  acting  president,  1675-1679  ;  president, 
1679-1681;  John  Rogers,  1682-1684  ;  Increase 
Mather,  acting  president,  1685-1686  ;  rector, 
1686-1692  ;  president,  1692-1701 ;  Charles 
Morton,  vice-president,  1697-1698 ;  Samuel 
Willard,  vice-president,  1700-1707 ;  John 
Leverett,  1707-1724 ;  Benjamin  Wadsworth, 
1725-1737;  Edward  Holyoke,  1737-1709; 
Samuel  Locke,  1770-1773  ;  Samuel  Langdon, 
1774-1780;  Joseph  Willard,  1781-1804  ;  Sam- 
uel  Webber,  1806-1810  ;  John  Thornton  Kirk- 
land,  1810-1828  ;  Josiah  Quincy,  1829-1845; 
Edward  Everett,  1846-1849 ;  Jared  Sparks, 
1849-1853;  James  Walker,  1853-1860;  Cor- 
nelius Conway  Felton,  1860-1862;  Thomas 
Hill,  1862-1868  ;  Charles  William  Eliot,  1869 
to  the  present  time. 

During  the  term  of  the  second  president,  a 
hall,  costing  £350,  was  erected,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  giving  instruction  to  Indians,  but 
one  Indian  only  applied  for  admittance  and  was 
graduated  by  the  college.  Before  this,  a  single 
building  had  served  all  the  purposes  of  the  col- 
lege. All  the  college  halls  that  were  erected  after 
this  during  the  seventeenth  century  were  sub- 
sequently razed  or  destroyed,  so  that  the  oldest 
building  now  standing  on  the  Harvard  yard  is 
Massachusetts  Hall,  erected  in  1720.  Harvard 
College,  from  that  time  on,  prospered,  and  now 
has  property  and  endowment  aggregating 
almost  fifteen  million  dollars.     The  University 

j  is  divided  into  the  following  departments,  with 


558 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


sepai  -ite  faculties  or  board  of  administration  : 
Harvard  College,  Lawrence  Scientific  School, 
Graduate  School,  Divinity  School,  Law  School, 
Medical  School,  Dental  School,  School  of  Veter- 
inary Medicine,  Bussey  Institution  (a  school  of 
agriculture),  Arnold  Arboretum,  University 
Library,  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology, 
University  Museum,  Botanic  Garden,  Herba- 
rium, Astronomical  Observatory,  Peabody  Mu- 
seum of  American  Archeology  and  Ethnology. 
Radcliffe  College,  formerly  known  as  the  Har- 
vard Annex  for  women,  though  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  University,  is  still  a  separate 
institution.  The  degrees  granted  by  the  Uni- 
versity are  :  Bachelor  of  arts,  of  agricultural 
science,  of  divinity,  of  laws,  of  science,  mas- 
ter of  arts,  and  doctor  of  philosophy,  science, 
laws,  medicine,  veterinary  medicine,  and  den- 
tistry. Since  the  foundation  of  Harvard  Col- 
lege, nearly  twenty  thousand  students,  in  all, 
have  been  graduated,  of  whom  some  eleven 
thousand  are  alive. 

Yale  University  was  founded  in  1701  by 
the  Revs.  John  Pierrepont,  Andrew,  and 
Russel,  of  Branford  and  Milford,  three  grad- 
uates of  Harvard,  assisted  by  Cotton  and 
Increase  Mather,  Eleazor  Kimberly,  John 
Eliot,  and  the  judges  of  the  General  Court 
then  in  session  at  New  Haven.  The  first  gift 
to  the  projected  school  consisted  of  books  from 
the  libraries  of  each  of  the  three  founders,  and 
of  637  acres  of  wild  land  given  by  Major  James 
Fitch,  who  also  agreed  to  furnish,  without 
cost,  the  glass  and  nails  for  the  college  house. 
The  trustees  first  placed  the  school  at  Saybrook, 
provided  for  a  baccalaureate  course  of  three 
years,  with  three  further  years  for  the  mas- 
ter's degree,  and  fixed  the  price  of  tuition  at 
thirty  shillings  for  undergraduates  and  ten 
shillings  for  graduates.  The  first  degree  was 
given  to  Nathaniel  Chauncy,  who  passed  all 
examinations,  after  mere  private  study.  In 
1717  the  college  was  removed  to  the  town  of 
New  Haven,  which  had  offered  £2,000  and 
eight  acres,  but,  owing  to  the  division  between 
the  trustees  concerning  the  best  site,  some  of 
the  students  went  to  Saybrook,  others  to  East 
Guilford,  others  to  Wethersfield  and  Hartford, 
and  others  again  to  New  Haven,  accord- 
ing to  their  preferences  and  those  of  their 
tutors.  As  a  consequence,  two  commence- 
ments were  held  in  1717,  one  at  Wethersfield 
and  one  at  New  Haven.  The  controversy  was 
ended  by  the  gift  of  Elihu  Yale,  the  former 
governor  of  Madras,  whose  official  conduct  and 
rapid  acquisition  of  wealth  had  led  to  his 
recall  to  England.  Cotton  Mather  wrote  to 
him  for  help,  promising  the  adoption  of  his 
name  by  the  new  college,  and  Governor 
Yale   accordingly  sent   to  New   Haven    three 


bales  of  goods,  a  portrait  of  George  I.,  the 
royal  coat  of  arms,  and  a  box  of  books.  In 
1721  Elihu  Yale  died,  leaving  £500  to  the 
school  that  bore  his  name  ;  but  for  certain  rea- 
sons the  will  could  not  be  probated,  and  the 
money  was  lost  to  the  college.  In  1722,  Rec- 
tor Cutler  and  several  of  the  tutors  changed 
their  faith  from  the  Congregational  church  to 
the  Episcopal  church,  which  led  to  their 
enforced  resignation.  Asa  consequence  there 
ensued  an  interregnum  of  three  years,  during 
which  the  college  was  without  rector  or  proper 
instruction.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the 
charter  was  amended.  In  1729  the  college 
received  valuable  gifts  from  Bishop  Berkeley, 
the  philosopher,  and  in  1752  Benjamin  Frank- 
lin added  a  collection  of  books.  By  a  new 
charter  of  1741,  the  Collegiate  School  became 
Yale  College.  During  the  War  of  the  Revo- 
lution, the  college  was  twice  suspended.  When 
Washington  came  to  New  Haven  the  students 
formed  a  company,  and,  with  Noah  Webster 
as  their  cornet,  gave  Washington  the  first  mil- 
itary escort  in  New  England.  Commencements 
were  not  resumed  until  1781.  Professional 
schools  were  added  during  the  presidency  of 
Day.  Advanced  instruction  for  graduates  was 
begun  in  1847.  The  first  degrees  in  philos- 
ophy were  given  three  years  later.  The  Shef- 
field Scientific  School  was  organized  in  1859. 
The  Art  School,  succeeding  the  Trumbull  Art 
Gallery,  was  erected  in  18(5-1,  with  the  Peabody 
Museum  and  Conservatory  of  Music  following 
shortly  afterward. 

The  rectors  and  presidents  —  all  clergymen, 
the  first  six  of  whom  were  Harvard  graduates, 
all  the  rest  graduating  from  Yale  —  have  been  : 
Abraham  Pierson,  1701-1707 ;  Samuel  An- 
drew, 1707-1719  ;  Timothy  Cutler,  1719-1722  ; 
Samuel  Andres,  1724-1725  :  Elisha  Williams. 
1725-1739;  Thomas  Clapp.  1789-1766;  Naph- 
tali  Daggett,  176(5-1777  ;  Ezra  Styles,  1777- 
1795  ;  Timothy  Dwight,  1795-1817*;  Jeremiah 
Day,  1817-1846  ;  Theodore  D.  Woolsev,  1846- 
1871;  Noah  Porter,  1871-1886;  Timothy 
Dwight,  1886-1899  ;  Arthur  T.  Iladley,  LL.I)!, 
1899-.  The  University  comprises  four  depart- 
ments, each  under  a  distinct  faculty,  to  wit  : 
Philosophy  and  art,  theology,  medicine,  and 
law.  The  first  embracer  the  academical  de- 
partment of  Yale  College,  with  the  Sheffield 
Scientific  School,  Graduate  School,  and  the 
School  of  Fine  Arts  and  Music,  each  with  its 
own  organization  and  corps  of  instructors.  The 
library,  Peabody  Museum,  and  observatory 
have  independent  organizations.  The  degrees 
are:  B.A..  U.S..  M.A.,  B.D.,  LL.B.,  Ph.B., 
C.E.,  M.K..  M.D.,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L., 
with  further  degrees  in  fine  arts  and  music. 
In  all  departments,  nearly  seventeen  thousand 


RELIGION",  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


550 


alumni  have    been  graduated,  of  whom  more 
than  ten  thousand  are  living. 

Princeton  University. —  The  first  char- 
ter was  granted  in  1746,  and  the  second,  mak- 
ing the  trustees  a  self-perpetuating  body,  iu 
1748.  The  college  was  opened  at  Elizabeth- 
town,  near  New  York,  with  Rev.  Jonathan  Dick- 
inson as  president,  and  was  removed  to  New- 
ark, and  soon  afterward,  in  1753,  to  Princeton. 
During  the  next  two  years  Nassau  Hall  was 
erected.  Though  this  hall  has  twice  been  dam- 
aged by  fires,  in  1802  and  1855,  it  still  stands. 
The  presidents  have  been  :  Jonathan  Dickin- 
son, 1747  ;  Aaron  Burr,  1748-1757  ;  Jonathan 
Edwards,  1757-1758;  Samuel  Davies,  1759- 
1761  ;  Samuel  Finley,  1761-1766  ;  John  With- 
erspoon,  1768-1794;  Samuel  Stanhope  Smith, 
1795-1812  ;  Ashbel  Green,  1812-1822  ;  James 
Carnahan,  1823-1854  ;  John  MacLean,  1854- 
1868  ;  James  McCosh,  1868-1888  ;  Francis  Lan- 
dey  Patton,  S.T.D.,  LL.D.,  1888.  to  the  pres- 
ent. The  Green  School  of  Science  was  added 
in  ls73.  and  a  department  of  engineering  in 
187").  The  sesqui  centennial  of  the  college 
was  celebrated  in  1896,  which  marked  a  mate- 
rial increase  of  the  endowment ;  the  trustees 
transformed  the  college  into  a  university, 
changing  its  name  from  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  to  Princeton  University.  The  degrees 
conferred  are:  A.B.,  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D., 
Litt.D.,  and  LL.D. 

University  of  Pennsylvania. — Through 
the  efforts  of  Benjamin  Franklin  a  fund  was 
raised  in  1749  to  change  Penn's  Charity  School, 
begun  in  1720,  into  an  academy.  It  was  opened 
in  1751,  and  four  years  later  received  a  college 
charter.  The  first  commencement  was  held  in 
1757.  The  school  languished  for  several  years 
so  that  Provost  Smith  had  to  be  sent  to  Eng- 
land to  raise  funds.  He  there  met  the  com- 
missioner of  King's  College,  now  Columbia 
University,  and  they  both  agreed  to  share  the 
proceeds  of  their  joint  efforts,  some  six  thou- 
sand pounds.  After  his  return  Provost  Smith 
sided  with  the  "War  Party,"  and  was  cast 
into  prison  for  publishing  an  alleged  libelous 
pamphlet  against  the  Assembly.  While  in 
jail  he  continued  to  give  lectures  to  his  classes, 
but  in  1759  was  compelled  to  flee  to  England, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  honor,  and 
made  a  doctor  by  Oxford  University.  He  re- 
turned after  a  peaceful  settlement  of  his  dif- 
ferences with  the  Assembly  with  twenty 
thousand  pounds  funds  for  the  college.  In  1791 
the  college  was  amalgamated  with  the  new 
school,  which  was  the  first  to  be  called  a  uni- 
versity in  this  country.  The  Medical  School 
dates  from  1765.  A  German  school  was  added 
in  1785,  and  a  law  school  in  1790.  The  col- 
lege  continued    as  an   old  fashioned  classical 


college  until  1868,  when  the  elective  system 
was  introduced.  In  1872  the  Department  of 
Arts  was  reorganized,  and  the  Department  of 
Science,  known  as  the  Towne  Scientific  School, 
was  established.  In  1877  a  department  of 
music,  and  in  1878  one  of  dentistry  were 
added.  The  provosts  and  presidents  have 
been  :  Benjamin  Franklin,  1749-1756  ;  Rich- 
aid  Peters,  1756-J764;  James  Hamilton,  1764; 
John  Penn,  1764-1771 ;  James  Hamilton, 
1771-1773  ;  Richard  Penn,  1773-1774  ;  John 
Penn,  1774-1779  ;  Benjamin  Franklin,  1789- 
1790;  William  White,  1790-1791;  John 
Ewing,  1791-1802;  John  McDowell,  1802- 
1810;  Dr.  Andrews,  1810-1813;  Frederick 
Beaseley,  1813-1828;  William  H.  DeLancey, 
1828-1833;  John  Ludlow,  1833-1853;  Henry 
Vethake,  1853-1860;  Daniel  R.  Goodwin, 
1860-1868;  Charles  J.  Stille,  1868-1880; 
Charles  C.  Harrison,  LL.D.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent. 

The  University  buildings,  twenty-two  in 
number,  are  situated  on  forty-eight  acres  of 
ground  in  West  Philadelphia.  The  General 
Library,  containing  more  than  150.000  vol- 
umes and  50,000  pamphlets,  contains  a  num- 
ber of  private  collections.  The  most  notable 
of  these  are  the  Colwell  collection,  one  of  the 
most  complete  finance  libraries  in  the  world, 
and  the  Bechstein  Library  containing  15,000 
books  on  German  philology  and  literature. 
The  Museum  of  Archaeology  and  Paleontology 
contains  collections  of  American,  Asiatic,  and 
Egyptian  antiquities  of  great  value.  Its 
Babylonia  collection  is  declared  to  rank  equal 
with  those  of  the  British  Museum  and  the 
Louvre.  Houston  Hall,  a  clubhouse  for  stu- 
dents, was  finished  iu  1896,  and  has  proved  a 
valuable  aid  to  college  discipline.  The  usual 
academic  and  technical  degrees  are  conferred. 

Cornell  University  was  incorporated  by 
the  Legislature  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
April  27,  1865,  and  opened  October  7,  1868. 
The  existence  of  the  University  is  due  to  the 
combined  bounty  of  the  United  States,  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  Ezra  Cornell.  Ezra 
Cornell's  wish  was  to  found  an  institution 
where  any  person  could  find  instruction  in  anj 
study  ;  while  the  state  stipulated  that  the  col- 
lege should  be  strictly  nou-sectarian,  and  that 
it  should  annually  receive  from  each  Assem- 
bly district  of  the  state,  one  student  free  of 
charge.  The  first  gift  of  Ezra  Cornell  was 
$500,000  with  200  acres  of  land.  The  first 
college  buildings  were  built  by  the  students; 
women  were  admitted,  and  a  large  dormitory 
known  as  Sage  College  was  erected  for  them 
in  1872.  There  are  no  other  dormitory  build- 
ings on  the  campus  proper,  the  situation  of 
which,  on  a  plateau  between  two    waterfalls, 


SCO 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


overlooking  Cayuga  Lake,  and  the  settled  val- 
ley at  its  head,  is  unique.  In  1890,  after  a 
long  lawsuit,  the  large  property  left  to  the  Uni- 
versity by  Mrs.  Jennie  McGraw  Fiske,  was 
withheld  from  it  by  a  ruling  of  the  supreme 
court  of  the  United  States.  To  make  up  for 
this,  Hemy  W.  Sage,  a  previous  benefactor  of 
Cornell,  gave  $560,000  for  the  cost  and  en- 
dowment of  the  new  University  Library.  In 
addition  to  this  the  University  has  received 
other  large  benefactions.  The  presidents  have 
been:  Andrew  D.  White,  1865-1885;  Charles 
K.  Adams,  1885-1890;  Jacob  Gould  Schur- 
man,  1890  to  the  present. 

Columbia  University.  King's  College, 
as  Columbia  University  was  formerly  called, 
was  founded  in  1754,  under  royal  charter. 
The  college  was  established  on  a  grant  of  land 
known  as  the  King's  Farm,  the  property  of 
Trinity  Church  overlooking  the  Hudson  river. 
It  was  then  declared  by  travelers  to  have  the 
finest  site  of  any  college  in  the  world.  In 
1857  it  was  removed  to  a  block  between  49th 
and  50th  streets,  New  York  city,  overlooking 
the  East  river.  From  the  beginning  this  loca- 
tion was  regarded  as  temporary.  The  present 
site  on  Morningside  Heights,  between  116th 
and  120th  streets,  was  the  field  of  the  battle 
of  Harlem.  It  overlooks  the  Hudson  river  on 
one  side,  and  north  New  York  on  the  other, 
and  is  once  more  declared  to  be  one  of  the 
finest  sites  in  the  world.  The  original  charter 
made  the  college  non-sectarian.  The  first 
class  was  graduated  in  1760  with  eight  stu- 
dents. During  the  Revolutionary  war  instruc- 
tion had  to  be  suspended,  the  president  of  the 
college,  a  royalist,  having  been  forced  to  flee  to 
England.  Names  and  terms  of  the  presidents 
are  as  follows :  Samuel  Johnson,  1754-1763; 
Myles  Cooper,  1763-1775  ;  Benjamin  Moore, 
1775-1776;  William  Samuel  Johnson,  1787- 
1800;  Charles  H.  Wharton,  1801  ;  Benjamin 
Moore,  1801-1811;  William  Harris,  1811- 
1829;  William  Alexander  Duer,  1829-1842; 
Nathaniel  F.  Moore,  1842-1849;  Charles 
King,  1849-1864;  Frederick  A.  P.  Barnard, 
1864-1889  ;  Seth  Low,  LL.D.,  1890-. 

A  medical  faculty  was  established  in  King's 
College  in  1767  and  consisted  at  first  of  six 
professors.  In  1860  the  College  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons  became  the  medical  department 
of  Columbia  University.  Instruction  in  law 
was  given  in  1793.  The  School  of  Mines,  now 
the  School  of  Applied  Science,  through  the 
efforts  of  Thomas  Eggleston,  was  founded  in 
1863.  In  1880  a  School  of  Political  Science 
was  opened.  Barnard  College,  where  instruc- 
tion is  given  to  women,  was  founded  in  1889. 
The  School  of  Philosophy  was  established  in 
1890,  and  that  of  Pure  Science  in  1892.     The 


degrees  conferred  in  the  various  schools  are, 
B.A.,  B.S.,  LL.B.,  M.D.,  M.A.,  Ph.D., 
L.H.D.,  and  LL.D. 

Catholic  University  of  America  was 

founded  in  1884  after  a  gift  by  Miss  Caldwell 
of  $300,000  to  the  American  Episcopate. 
From  1889  to  1895  its  educational  activity  was 
confined  to  the  School  of  Divinity.  In  1895, 
after  the  pope  had  expressed  a  hope  that  the 
University  might  be  able  to  adapt  its  work  to 
modern  educational  needs  in  a  wider  sense, 
schools  of  philosophy  and  the  social  sciences 
were  opened,  with  departments  of  philosophy, 
letters,  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  biol- 
ogy, technology,  sociology,  economics,  polit- 
ical science,  and  law.  During  the  last  few 
years  twelve  chairs  for  the  teaching  of  the  arts 
and  sciences  have  been  endowed  by  individuals. 
The  University  is  governed  by  seventeen  di- 
rectors and  a  chancellor,  who  is  at  present 
Cardinal  Gibbons  of  Baltimore.  With  the 
directors,  who  are  for  the  most  part  prom- 
inent members  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  are  as- 
sociated by  virtue  of  their  office  all  the 
Catholic  archbishops  in  the  country.  The 
School  of  Divinity  grants  baccalaureate,  licen- 
tiate, and  the  doctor's  degrees;  the  School  of 
Philosophy  confers  degrees  in  letters  and 
philosophy ;  the  School  of  Social  Science,  de- 
grees of  B.A.  and  M.A. ;  the  Law  School, 
degrees  of  LL.B.,  LL.M.,  D.C.L.,  J.C.D., 
J.U.D.,  and  LL.D. ;  while  in  the  Institute  of 
Technology,  degrees  in  civil,  electrical,  and 
mechanical  engineering,  with  corresponding 
master's  degrees  are  conferred.  The  present 
rector  is  Very  Reverend  Thos.  J.  Conaty, 
D.D.,  J.C.D. 

University  of  California  was  instituted 
by  a  law  which  received  the  approval  of  the 
governor,  March  23,  1868.  Instruction  was 
begun  in  Oakland  in  the  autumn  of  1869. 
The  commencement  exercises  of  1873  were 
held  at  Berkeley,  July  16,  when  the  University 
was  formally  transferred  to  its  permanent 
home.  Instruction  began  at  Berkeley  in  the 
autumn  of  1873.  The  new  constitution  of 
1879  made  the  existing  organization  of  the 
University  perpetual.  The  College  of  Califor- 
nia, which  had  been  organized  several  years 
before  the  University,  transferred  its  property 
and  students  upon  terms  which  were  mutually 
agreed  upon,  and  closed  its  work  of  instruction 
in  1869.  It  had  been  incorporated  in  1855, 
and  through  its  agency  a  part  of  the  Oakland 
property  of  the  University,  and  the  Berkeley 
site  now  owned  and  occupied  by  the  latter, 
were  secured  ;  a  domain  of  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  acres,  situated  on  the  slope  of  the 
Contra  Costa  hills,  about  five  miles  from  Oak- 
land, facing   the   Golden   Gate.     The  under- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,   FIXE  ARTS. 


561 


graduate  colleges  were  the  only  cues  actually 
iacluded  in  tlie  original  organization.  The 
professional  colleges  in  San  Francisco  have 
been  added  from  time  to  time.  The  Lick  Ob- 
servatory was  formally  transferred  to  the  Uni- 
versity in  June,  1888.  The  Mark  Hopkins 
Institute  of  Art.  in  1893.  The  University  com- 
prises the  following  departments  :  College  of 
Letters,  College  of  Social  Sciences,  College  of 
Natural  Sciences,  College  of  Agricu'ture,  Col- 
lege of  Mechanics,  College  of  Mining,  CoUege 
of  Civil  Engineering,  College  of  Chemistry, 
Lick  Astronomical  Department.  Mark  Hop- 
kins Institute  of  Art,  Hastings  College  of  Law, 
Medical  Department,  Post  Graduate  Medical 
Department,  College  of  Dentistry,  and  Cali- 
fornia College  of  Pharmacy.  The  curricula 
of  the  various  departments  lead  to  degrees  ot 
B.  A.,  B.L.,  B.S.,  M.A.,  C.E.,  D.D.S.,  D.V.S., 
LL.B.,  M.S..  M.E.,  M.D.,  Ph.G.,  Ph.B.,  and 
Ph.D.  The  president  is  Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler, 
Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

University  of  Chicago.  The  first  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  was  founded  in  1857,  by  *  le 
Baptist  Society  of  Chicago,  and  was  presided 
over  for  many  years  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bur- 
roughs; In  1880  its  doors  were  closed,  owing 
to  lack  of  funds.  Its  successor,  the  present 
University  of  Chicago,  was  founded  by  John 
D.  Rockefeller,  who  subscribed  $600,000  of  its 
original  endowment  fund  of  one  million  dol- 
lars, to  which  he  afterward  added  three  and  a 
half  million  dollars  in  bonds.  The  original 
site,  valued  at  $125,000,  was  given  by  Mar- 
shall Field,  who  also  gave  8100,000  in  money. 
More  than  one  million  dollars  for  new  schools 
and  buildings  have  since  been  donated  or  be- 
queathed to  the  University.  A  president  for 
the  University,  William  R.  Harper,  Ph.D., 
LL.D.,  was  elected  in  the  spring  of  1891. 
Work  on  the  new  buildings  began  in  the  au- 
tumn of  the  same  year.  On  October  1,  IS!):?, 
the  new  school  opened  its  doors  to  some  six 
hundred  students.  Cobb  Lecture  Hall  and 
two  dormitories  for  graduates  were  the  only 
buildings  then  ready  for  use.  Since  that  time 
fifteen  of  the  projected  forty-two  buildings 
have  been  erected,  while  the  Dumber  of  stu- 
dents has  risen  to  over  two  thousand.  The 
University  includes  five  divisions :  the  uni- 
versity proper;  the  university  extension  :  the 
university  libraries,  laboratories,  and  museums  ; 
the  university  press  ;  the  university  affiliations. 
The  university  proper  includes:  the  Gradu- 
ate School  of  Arts  and  Literature,  the  Ogden 
School  of  Science,  the  Divinity  School,  the 
School  of  Law,  School  of  Medicine,  the  School 
of  Technology,  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  and 
( he  School  of  Music  ;  the  colleges  of  arts,  lit- 
erature, and  science. 


Iceland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University  was 

founded  in  1884,  by  Leland  Stanford  and  Jane 
Lathrop  Stanford,  who  determined  to  found  a 
university  for  both  sexes,  and  with  all  colleges, 
schools,  seminaries,  institutes,  museums,  and 
collections  appropriate  thereto.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  the  Legislature  of  California  passed 
an  authorizing  act,  and  in  1885  the  grant  was 
made.  The  corner  stone  was  laid  in  1887,  at 
Palo  Alto,  some  three  miles  from  the  sea,  near 
the  Monte  Diable  Mountain,  thirty-three  miles 
from  San  Francisco.  David  Starr  Jordan,  the 
present  president,  was  installed  in  1891.  The 
suit  for  fifteen  million  dollars  or  the  original 
endowment,  between  the  University  and  the 
Federal  Government,  was  decided  in  the  Uni- 
versity's favor,  in  1895.  An  additional  en- 
dowment was  made  by  deed  of  Jane  Lathrop 
Stanford,  amounting  to  more  than  ten  million 
dollars,  in  1899.  In  the  same  year  the  num- 
ber of  women  to  be  admitted  to  the  University 
in  any  one  year  was  restricted  to  five  hundred. 
The  University  is  governed  by  twenty-four  trus- 
tees chosen  for  life.  The  various  courses  of 
instruction  lead  to  the  degrees  :  B. A.,  B.S., 
and  C.E.,  while  the  degrees  M.A.,  M.E.,  and 
Ph.D.  are  conferred  after  resident  post  gradu- 
ate work.  No  honorary  degrees  are  conferred. 
University  of  Virginia  was  the  first 
State  University  established  in  this  country. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  after  great  opposition  from 
all  other  Virginia  colleges,  founded  the  Uni- 
versity in  1819.  It  was  then  united  with  Cen- 
tral College,  and,  after  full  acceptance  of  Jeffer- 
son's original  plans,  opened  its  doors  to  students 
in  1825.  The  University  buildings  were  fin- 
ished by  Italian  sculptors,  whom  Jefferson  had 
imported.  Dr.  Thomas  Cooper,  the  first  pro- 
fessor of  the  new  university,  by  reason  of  his 
heterodox  views,  was  forced  to  resign  immedi- 
ately after  his  election,  to  Jefferson's  great 
chagrin.  The  founder  thereupon  turned  to 
Europe  for  new  material,  calling  no  less  than 
four  professors  from  England.  In  1824  the 
new  school  was  visited  by  George  Ticknor  of 
Harvard  College,  who  is  believed  to  have  there 
assimilated  the  reforms  in  regard  to  discipline 
and  elective  study,  which  were  afterward  intro- 
duced by  him  at  Harvard.  Two  years  later, 
Thomas  Jefferson  died,  after  having  had  sole 
charge  of  the  University  for  one  year  as  its  first 
rector.  He  was  buried  on  the  roadside  of  the 
highway  leading  from  his  house  to  the  Univer- 
sity, and  his  grave  is  marked  by  a  monument, 
erected  by  Congress,  bearing  the  inscription  : 
"  Here  was  buried  Thomas  Jefferson,  author 
of  the  declaration  of  American  independence, 
of  the  statute  of  Virginia  for  religious  free- 
dom, and  father  of  the  University  of  Virginia. 
Born  April  2, 1743,  o.  s.     Died  July  4, 1826." 


562 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  EACTS. 


After  Jefferson's  death,  the  University  be- 
came heavily  indebted,  until  the  state  legisla- 
lature  freed  its  annual  appropriation  from  all 
incumbrances.  A  medical  school  was  added 
in  1827,  which  has  since  been  enlarged  by 
schools  of  medical  jurisprudence,  of  surgery, 
and  anatomy.  In  1851  the  Law  School  was 
created,  followed  in  1856,  by  the  two  schools  of 
language  and  of  history,  the  last  of  which  was 
endowed  with  $50,000  by  W.  W.  Corcoran. 
A  school  of  technology  was  added  in  1867, 
followed  in  1870  by  the  establishment  of  a 
school  of  agriculture,  on  Samuel  Miller's  en- 
dowment of  $100,000.  An  astronomical  ob- 
servatory was  given  by  Leander  J.  McCormick 
in  1882.  Connected  with  it  was  Professor 
Sylvester,  the  famous  mathematician.  During 
the  war,  instruction  in  the  University  was  sus- 
pended. In  October,  1895,  the  Rotunda  and 
Annex  built  by  Jefferson  were  destroyed  by  fire, 
including  many  books  and  works  of  art.  Since 
that  time  sufficient  funds  have  been  raised 
among  the  alumni  to  restore  these  buildings, 
and  to  erect  a  public  hall,  physical  and  chemi- 
cal laboratories,  costing  in  all,  $250,000.  The 
Rotunda,  henceforth,  is  to  be  used  for  library 
purposes  only. 

Westminster  Palace  was  erected  in  1840 
on'  the  site  of  the  old  houses  of  Parliament, 
which  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  1834.  it  is 
900  feet  long  by  300  feet  wide,  is  built  of 
limestone  from  the  Yorkshire  quarries,  and 
cost  about  $8,000,000.  The  palace  contains 
the  House  of  Lords  and  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, which  are  separated  by  an  octagonal 
hall  with  a  diameter  of  70  feet. ,  The  House 
of  Lords  is  100  feet  long,  45  feet  wide,  and  45 
feet  high.  The  room  is  profusely  decorated, 
and  in  niches  between  the  windows  are  statues 
of  barons  who  signed  the  Magna  Charta  — 
eighteen  in  number.  The  gorgeous  gilt  and 
canopied  throne  which  is  occupied  by  the 
Queen  when  she  opens  Parliament  is  in  this 
room,  as  is  also  the  wool-sack  —  a  large,  square 
bag  of  wool  covered  with  red  cloth  —  of  the 
Chancellor  of  Great  Britain.  The  House  of 
Commons  is  not  as  handsome  as  the  House  of 
Lords  in  the  matter  of  decorations,  and  is  not 
so  long,  but  is  the  same  height  and  width. 
The  palace  also  contains  a  number  of  other 
rooms,  among  which  are  the  Queen's  robing 
room,  the  guard  room,  the  libraries,  commit- 
tee rooms,  etc.  In  the  center  of  the  edifice, 
above  what  is  known  as  the  Octagon  Hall,  is  a 
tower  300  feet  high.  At  the  southwest  corner 
is  the  Victoria  tower,  346  feet  high.  At  the 
northwest  corner  is  the  clock  tower,  which  is 
surmounted  by  a  belfry  spire  320  feet  high. 
In  this  tower  is  a  clock  with  four  faces,  each 
30  feet  in  diameter,  and  the  hours  are  struck 


on  a  bell  called  "  Big  Ben,"  which  weighs 
nine  tons.  At  the  southwestern  extremity  of 
the  building  is  the  state  entrance  of  the  Queen, 
which  communicates  directly  with  what  are 
known  as  the  royal  apartments.  The  entrance 
to  the  Octagon  Hall  is  by  a  passage  known  as 
Saint  Stephen's  Hall,  which  communicates 
also  with  Westminster  Hall,  a  much  older 
building,  on  the  north. 

West  Point  Academy. —  Each  Congres- 
sional District  and  Territory,  also  the  District 
of  Columbia,  is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet  at 
the  United  States  Military  Academy  at  West 
Point,  the  cadet  to  be  named  by  the  represent- 
ative in  Congress.  There  are  also  ten  ap- 
pointments at  large,  specially  conferred  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  The  number 
of  students  is  thus  limited  to  344.  The  course 
of  instruction,  which  is  quite  thorough,  re- 
quires four  years,  and  is  largely  mathematical 
and  professional.  The  discipline  is  very  strict 
—  even  more  so  than  in  the  army  —  and  the 
enforcement  of  penalties  for  offenses  is  inflexi- 
ble rather  than  severe.  Academic  duties  be- 
gin September  1st  and  continue  until  June  1st. 
From  the  middle  of  June  to  the  end  of  August 
cadets  live  in  camps,  engaged  only  in  military 
duties,  and  receiving  practical  military  instruc- 
tion. Cadets  are  allowed  but  one  leave  of 
absence  during  the  four  years'  course,  and  this 
is  granted  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year. 
The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  $540  a  year.  Upon 
graduation,  cadets  are  commissioned  as  second 
lieutenants  in  the  United  States  Army. 

Music. —  The  cradle  of  music  was  Egypt. 
The  Hebrews  took  with  them  to  Palestine  the 
songs  they  had  learned  there,  and  many  of 
the  hymns  of  the  early  Christian  Church  were 
necessarily  old  Temple  melodies.  Ambrose. 
Archbishop  of  Milan  (374),  and  after  him 
Pope  Gregory  the  Great  (590),  were  the  fathers 
of  music  in  the  Western  Church.  Harmonies 
were  introduced  in  the  ninth  century ;  the 
present  musical  notation  was  invented  by  Guido 
Aretino  (r/.  1055)  ;  counterpoint  was  perfected 
by  the  Belgian  Josquin  Despres  (<L  1521),  and 
the  Italian  Palestrina  (1555) ;  and  Italian 
opera  was  founded  in  1600.  The  influence  of 
the  Italian  school  spread  all  over  Europe  ;  but 
in  the  sixteenth  century  England  had  a  na- 
tional school  of  her  own,  comprising  such 
names  as  Tallis,  F  arrant,  and  Orlando  Gib- 
bons. Among  the  great  composers  of  the 
seventeenth  century  were  Monteverde  in  Italy, 
Lully  in  France,  and  Purcell  in  England.  In 
the  eighteenth  century  music  made  enormous 
advances,  especially  in  Germany.  Church 
music  attained  to  its  highest  development 
under  Bach,  the  oratorio  under  Handel  (1685- 
1759),  the  opera   under    Mozart   and   Gluck, 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FIXE  ARTS. 


563 


and  orchestral  music  under  Haydn  and  Bee- 
thoven (1770-1827).  The  nineteenth  century 
has  been  illustrated  by  such  names  as  Men- 
delssohn, Weber,  Meyerbeer,  Auber,  Schubert, 
Spohr,  Schumann,  Chopin,  Rossini,  Bellini, 
Verdi;  and  in  England,  Sterndale,  Bennett, 
and  Macfarren.     Of  the  later  German  school 


the  chief  exponents  have  been  Wagner 
(1813- '83)  and  Liszt  (d.  1886).  Other  lead- 
ing composers  are  Gounod,  in  France  ;  Boito, 
in  Italy ;  Rubinstein  and  Brahms,  in  Ger- 
many ;  Dvorak,  in  Bohemia  ;  Grieg,  in  Scan- 
dinavia, and  Sullivan,  Mackenzie,  Stanford, 
and  Cowen,  in  England. 


The  Name  of  God  in  Forty-Eight  Languages. 


Hebrew Eleah,  Jehovah 

C'haldaic Eiliah 

Assyrian Eleah 

Syrian  and  Turkish Alah 

Malay Alia 

Arabic Allah 

Languages  of  the  Magi Orsi 

Old  Egyptian Teut 

Armenian Teuti 

Modern  Egyptian Teun 

Greek '. Theos 

Cretan Thios 

.Edian  and  Dorian Ilos 

Latin Deus 

Low  Latin Diex 

Celtic  Gaelic Diu 


French Dieu 

Spanish Dios 

Portuguese Deos 

Old  German Diet 

Provincial Diou 

Low  Breton Done 

Italian Dio 

Irish Dia 

Olotu  tongue Deu 

German  and  Swiss Gott 

Flemish God 

Dutch God 

English God 

Teutonic Goth 

Danish  and  Swedish Gud 

Norwegian Gud 


Slav Buch 

Polish  ' Bog 

Polacca Bung 

Lapp Jubinal 

Finnish Jumala 

Runic As 

Zemblian Fetiza 

Pannonian Istu 

Hindoostanee Rain 

Coromandel Brahma 

Tartar Magatai 

Persian Sire 

Chinese Prussa 

Japanese Goezer 

Madagascar Zannar 

Peruvian Puchecammae 


The  Salvation  Army.  The  Salvation 
Army  is  a  missionary  organization  set  on  foot 
in  England  by  William  Booth,  who  was  called 
the  "General"  of  the  Army.  The  plan  of 
operation  is  for  a  company  to  march  about 
cities,  towns,  and  villages,  singing  popular 
sacred  songs  and  speaking  between  whiles  for 
about  five  minutes.  The  Army  has  also  a  large 
number  of  religious  periodicals  and  small  books. 
Air.  Booth  was  a  minister  of  the  Methodist  New 
Connexion,  which  he  left  in  1861  to  begin  "  re- 
vivalistic  services  "  in  a  tent  in  Whitechapel. 
In  1865  his  little  band  of  followers  called  them- 
selves "The  East  London  Christian  Revival 
Society,"  afterwards  changed  to  "  The  Chris- 
tian Mission."  In  1869  the  Mission  made  ex- 
peditions to  provincial  towns.  Lastly,  in  1873, 
the  name  was  changed  to  •  •  The  Salvation 
Army."  Its  literary  organ,  called  The  Christian 
Mission,  first  appeared  monthly  in  1874.  In 
1870  it  was  called  The  Salvationist  and  in  the 
same  year  its  title  was  changed  into  The  War 
Cry.  Its  flag  now  flies  in  thirty-four  countries 
or  colonies,  where,  under  the  leadership  of 
11,149  men  and  women,  whose  lives  are 
entirely  given  up  to  the  work,  49,800  religious 
meetings  are  held  every  week.  The  Army  has 
27  weekly  newspapers  and  15  magazines,  with 
a  total  annual  circulation  of  49,015,044.  It 
has  accumulated  §4,015,085  worth  of  property, 
pays  rentals  amounting  to  §1,100,000  per  an- 
num for  its  meeting  places,  and  has  a  total  in- 
come from  all  sources  of  §3,750,000.  The 
Army  literature  is  issued  in  15  languages  and 
services  are  held  in  29  languages.  The  num- 
ber of  local  officers,  bandsmen,  and  office  em- 
ployees is  23,540.  The  United  States  branch 
was  established  in  1880.     There  are  now  in 


this  country  536  corps  and  outposts  and  1,487 
officers,  and  15,000  adherents.  The  value  of 
the  property  held  by  the  United  States  wing  of 
the  Army  is  §175,000. 

United  States  Naval  Academy  at 
Annapolis. — -  There  are  allowed  at  the  Acad- 
emy one  naval  cadet  for  each  member  or 
delegate  of  the  United  States  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, one  for  the  District  of  Columbia, 
and  ten  at  large.  The  appointment  of  cadets 
at  large,  and  for  the  District  of  Columbia,  is 
made  by  the  President.  The  Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  as  soon  after  March  5  in  each  year  as 
possible,  must  notify  in  writing  each  member 
and  delegate  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
of  any  vacancy  that  may  exist  in  his  district. 
The  nomination  of  a  candidate  to  fill  the  vacancy 
is  made  on  the  recommendation  of  the  member 
or  delegate,  by  the  Secretary.  Candidates 
must  be  actual  residents  of  the  districts  from 
which  they  are  nominated. 

The  course  of  naval  cadets  is  six  years,  the 
last  two  of  which  are  spent  at  sea.  Candidates, 
at  the  time  of  their  examination  for  admission, 
must  not  be  under  fifteen  nor  over  twenty 
years  of  age,  and  physically  sound,  well  formed, 
and  of  robust  condition.  They  enter  the 
Academy  immediately  after  passing  the  pre- 
scribed examinations,  and  are  required  to  sign 
articles  binding  themselves  to  serve  in  the 
United  States  Navy  eight  years  (including  the 
time  of  probation  at  the  Naval  Academy),  un- 
less sooner  discharged.  The  pay  of  a  naval 
cadet  is  five  hundred  dollars  a  year,  beginning 
at  the  date  of  admission. 

Appointments  to  fill  all  vacancies  that  occur 
during  a  year  in  the  lower  grades  of  the  Line 
and  Engineer  Corps  of  the  Navy  and  of  the 


564 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


Marine  Corps  are  made  from  the  naval  cadets, 
graduates  of  the  year,  at  the  conclusion  of 
their  six  years'  course,  in  the  order  of  merit  as 
determined  by  the  Academic  Board  of  the 
Naval  Academy.  At  least  ten  appointments 
from  such  graduates  are  made  each  year. 
Surplus  graduates  who  do  not  receive  such 
appointments  are  given  a  certificate  of  gradua- 
tion, an  honorable  discharge,  and  one  year's 
sea  pay. 


The  Academy  was  founded  in  1845,  by  the 
Hon.  George  Bancroft,  Secretary  of  the  Navy 
in  the  administration  of  President  Polk.  It 
was  formally  opened  October  10th  of  that 
year,  with  Commander  Franklin  Buchanan  as 
superintendent.  During  the  civil  war  it  was 
removed  from  Annapolis,  Md.,  to  Newport, 
Pi.  I.,  but  was  returned  to  the  former  place  in 
1865.  It  is  under  the  direct  supervision  of 
the  Navy  Department. 


Royal  Academy. 


President  —  Sir  Edward  John  Poynter 
rick  A.  Eaton.    Registrar — C.  McLean 


Keeper — E.  Crofts.     Treasurer — J.  C.  Horsley.    Secretary  —  Frede- 


1808  Abbey,  Edwin  Austin. 

1898  Aitcliison,  George. 

1879  Alma-Tadema,  Lawrence. 

1879  Armstead,  Henry  Haugh. 

1896  Boughton,  George  Henry. 

1891  Brock,  Thomas. 

1P67  Cooper,  Thomas  Sidney. 

1896  Crofts,  Ernest. 

1877  Davis,  Henry  Wni.  Banks. 

1891  Dicksee,  Frank. 

1887  Fihles,  S.  Luke. 

1895  Ford,  Edward  Onslow. 

1893  Gilbert,  Alfred  M.  V.  O. 

1863  Goodall,  Frederick. 


ROYAL  ACADEMICIANS. 

1891  Gow,  Andrew  Carrick. 

1881  Graham,  Peter. 

1898  Gregory,  Edward  John. 

1890  Herkomer,  Hubert, 

1860  Hook,  James  Clarke. 

1896  Jackson,  Thomas  Graham. 

1898  Leader,  Benj.  Williams. 

1876  Leslie,  George  Dunlop. 
1898  Lucas,  John  Seymour. 
1893  Mac  W  h  i  r  ter,  J  oh  n . 

1877  Orchardson,  Wm.  Quilter. 
1881  Ouless,  Walter  William. 
1880  Pearson,  John  Lou'bor'ugh. 
1876  Poynter,  Sir  Edward  John. 


1894  Prinsep,  Valentine  C. 

1895  Richmond,  Sir  William  Blake, 

K.  C.  B. 

1881  Riviere,  Briton. 

1869  Sant,  James. 

1k;i7  Sargent,  John  Singer. 

1877  Shaw,  Richard  Norman. 

1887  Stone,  Marcus. 

1888  Thornvcroft,  Wm.  Hamo. 
1885  Waterhouse,  Alfred. 

1895  Waterhouse,  John  William. 

1870  Wells,  Henrv  Tanworth. 
1893  Woods,  Henry. 

1878  Yeames,  Wm.  Frederick. 


Honorary  Retired  Academicians  — 1853,  William  Powell  Frith  ;   1857,  Frederick  R.  Pickersgill ;  1864,  Thomas 


Faed  ;  1867,  George  F.  Watts ;  1864,  John  Calcott  Horsley 


ASSOCIATES. 
Hacker,  Arthur. 
Henry,  Charles  N. 
Hunter,  Colin. 
La  Thangue,  Henry  H. 
Macbeth,  Robert  Walker. 
Morris,  Philip  Richard. 
Murray,  David. 
North,  John  W. 


Bates,  Harry  (sculptor). 
Blomneld,  Sir  Arthur  William. 
Bodley,  George  Frederick. 
Bramley,  Frank 
Brett,  John. 
Clausen,  George. 
Crowe,  Eyre. 
Forbes,  Stanhope  A. 
Frampton,  George  James. 

Honorary  Retired  Associates  —  Henry  Le  Jeune,  Erskine  Nicol,  Frederic  Stacpoole. 

Presidents  of  the  Royal  Academy  —  1768,  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds;  1792,  Beniamin  West;  1805,  James  Wvatt: 
1806,  Benjamin  West ;  1820,  Sir  Thomas  Lawrence  ;  1830,  Sir  Martin  A.  Shee  ;  1850,  Sir  Charles  Eastlake  ;  1866.  Sir 
Edwin  La ndseer.  elected,  declined,  Sir  Francis  Grant;  1878,  Sir  Frederic  Leighton  (Lord  Leighton);  1886,  Sir 
John  Everett  Millais,  Bart ;  1896,  Sir  Edward  John  Poynter. 


Parsons,  Alfred. 
Shannon,  James  J. 
Smythe,  Lionel  1'. 
Solomon,  J.  Solomon. 
Storey,  George  Adolphus. 
Swan*  John  Mac  Allan. 
Waterlow,  Ernest  Albert. 
Wyllie,  W.  L. 


The  Se\en  Bibles  of  the  World  are 

the  Koran  of  the  Mohammedans,  the  Eddas  of 
the  Scandinavians,  the  Try  Pitikes  of  the 
Buddhists,  the  Five  Kings  of  the  Chinese,  the 
Three  Vedas  of  the  Hindoos,  the  Zendavesta, 
and  the  Scriptures  of  the  Christians.  The 
Koran  is  the  most  recent  of  these  seven  Bibles, 
and  not  older  than  the  seventh  century  of  our 
era.  It  is  a  compound  of  quotations  from  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  the  Talmud,  and 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Barnabas.  The  Eddas  of 
the  Scandinavians  were  first  published  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  The  Pitikes  of  the  Bud- 
dhists contain  sublime  morals  and  pure  aspira- 
tions, and  their  author  lived  and  died  in  the 
sixth  century  before  Christ.  There  is  nothing 
of  excellence  in  these  sacred  books  not  found 
in  the  Bible.  The  sacred  writings  of  the  Chi- 
nese are  called  the  Five  Kings,  king  meaning 
web  of  cloth,  or  the  warp  that  keeps  the 
threads  in  their  place.     They  contain  the  best 


sayings  of  the  best  sages  on  the  ethico-political 
duties  of  life.  These  sayings  cannot  be  traced 
to  a  period  higher  than  the  eleventh  century 
before  Christ.  The  Three  Vedas  are  the  most 
ancient  books  of  the  Hindoos,  and  it  is  the 
opinion  of  Max  Mailer,  Wilson,  Johnson,  and 
Whitney  that  they  are  not  older  than  the 
eleventh  century  before  Christ.  The  Zenda- 
vesta of  the  Persians  is  the  grandest  of  all  the 
sacred  books,  next  to  our  Bible.  Zoroaster, 
whose  sayings  it  contains,  was  born  in  the 
twelfth  century  before  Christ.  Moses  lived 
and  wrote  his  Pentateuch  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury before  Christ,  and  therefore  has  a  clear 
margin  of  three  hundred  years  older  than  the 
most  ancient  of  the  sacred  writings. 

Nationality  of  the  Popes. —  The  vari- 
ous nations  of  Europe  are  represented  in  the 
list  of  Popes  as  follows  :  English,  1  ;  Dutch,  1  ; 
Swiss,  1  ;  Portuguese,  1  ;  African,  2  ;  Aus- 
trian, 2  ;  Spanish,  5  ;  German,  6  ;  Syrian,  8  ; 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


565 


Greek,  11;  French,  15;  Italian,  197,  Eleven 
Popes  reigned  over  20  years ;  69,  from  10  to 
20;  57,  from  5  to  10;  and  the  reign  of  116 
was  less  than  5  years.  The  reign  of  Pius  IX. 
was  the  longest  of  all,  the  only  one  exceeding 
25  years.  Pope  Leo  XIII.  is  the  258th  Pontiff. 
The  full  number  of  the  sacred  college  is  70, 
namely  :  cardinal  bishops,  6  ;  cardinal  priests, 
50  ;  cardinal  deacons,  14.  At  present  there 
are  62  cardinals.  The  Roman  Catholic  hier- 
archy throughout  the  world,  according  to 
official  returns  published  at  Rome  in  1881, 
consisted  of  11  patriarchs,  and  1,153  arch- 
bishops and  bishops.  Including  12  coadjutor 
or  auxiliary  bishops,  the  number  of  Roman 
Catholic  archbishops  and  bishops  now  holding 
office  in  the  British  Empire  is  131.  The  num- 
bers of  the  clergy  are  approximate  only. 

William  and  Mary  College  was  es- 
tablished at  Williamsburg,  Va.,  in  1693,  and 
next  to  Harvard  College  is  the  oldest  institu- 
tion of  learning  in  America.  At  its  endow- 
ment it  was  placed  under  the  patronage  of  the 
King  and  Queen  of  Great  Britain.  The  trus- 
tees of  the  Hon.  R.  Doyle,  the  English  philoso- 
pher, who  left  his  personal  estate  for  "  char- 
itable and  pious  uses,"  presented  a  great  part 
of  it  to  this  college  for  the  education  of 
Indians.  During  the  Revolutionary  war  the 
college  lost  most  of  its  possessions,  and  its 
buildings  were  used  by  the  French  troops  as  a 
hospital.  Among  the  noted  men  who  were 
graduated  from  William  and  Mary,  were  Presi- 
dents Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Monroe,  Chief 
Justice  Marshall,  and  General  Scott. 

Sculpture,  the  art  of  giving  form  and  ex- 
pression, by  means  of  the  chisel  and  other  im- 
plements, to  masses  of  stone  or  other  hard 
substances,  so  as  to  represent  figures  of  every 
description,  animate  and  inanimate.  It  is 
generally  thought  that  sculpture  had  its  origin 
from  idolatry,  as  it  was  found  necessary  to 
place  before  the  people  the  images  of  their  gods 
to  enliven  the  fervor  of  their  devotion.  But 
to  form  conclusions  concerning  the  rise  and 
progress  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  without  the 
aid  of  historical  evidence,  by  analogies  which 
are  sometimes  accidental,  and  often  fanciful, 
is  a  mode  of  reasoning  which,  at  best,  must 
ever  be  liable  to  suspicion.  In  whatever  coun- 
try the  earliest  attempts  were  made,  the  Egyp- 
tians were  the  first  who  adopted  a  certain  style 
of  art.  Their  works  were  gloomy  and  grave, 
but  still  they  were  full  of  deep  sentiment,  and 
connected,  as  would  appear  by  the  hieroglyph- 
ics which  covered  them,  with  poetry  and  his- 
tory, and  by  the  mummies,  with  the  belief  of 
immortality.  Interesting  as  the  subject  would 
doubtless  prove,  it  is  far  beyond  our  limited 
means  to  trace  the  progress  of  this  beautiful 


art  through  all  its  stages  in  the  classic  days  of 
Greece,  till  its  decline  in  Rome,  where,  though 
all  the  treasures  of  the  Grecian  sculptors  had 
been  carried  to  deck  the  Roman  capital,  the  art 
never  became  naturalized.  During  the  long 
and  gloomy  interval  of  barbarism  that  suc- 
ceeded the  downfall  of  Imperial  Rome,  sculp- 
ture, with  the  sister  arts,  lay  dormant  and  for- 
gotten. At  length,  however,  through  the 
genius  of  Michael  Angelo  Buonarroti,  and  the 
skill  and  perseverance  of  some  of  his  dis- 
tinguished successors,  seconded  by  the  patron- 
age of  the  illustrious  house  of  Medici,  the 
treasures  of  antiquity  were  collected,  and 
modern  art  nobly  tried  to  rival  the  grace  and 
sublimity  which  existed  in  the  ancient  models. 
Though  till  within  the  last  century  it  could 
hardly  be  said  that  a  British  school  of  sculp- 
ture existed,  yet  the  talent  that  has  been  suc- 
cessfully called  into  action  has  produced  many 
works  of  sterling  merit.  The  names  of  Flax- 
man,  Chantrey,  Baily,  and  Westmacott,  are 
alone  sufficient  to  redeem  the  national  charac- 
ter in  this  department  of  art.  In  the  United 
States,  the  productions  of  Greenough,  Powers, 
and  other  distinguished  artists,  have  been  re- 
ceived with  admiration  by  the  most  fastidious 
connoisseurs.  The  very  essence  of  sculpture  is 
correctness ;  and  when  to  correct  and  perfect 
form  is  added  the  ornament  of  grace,  dignity 
of  character,  and  appropriate  expression,  as  in 
the  Apollo,  the  Venus,  the  Laocoon,  the  Moses 
of  Michael  Angelo,  and  many  others,  this  art 
may  be  said  to  have  accomplished  its  purpose. 

SCHOOLS  OF  ART. 

Certain  modes  of  drawing  and  painting,  fol- 
lowed by  pupils  of  a  great  master,  have  led  to 
the  foundation  of  well  defined  "  schools  "  of 
painters,  since  the  revival  of  the  Art  among 
the  Byzantine  and  Tuscan  painters  of  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  which 
diverged  into  the  Florentine  and  Genoese 
schools  (Cimabue  and  Giotto  taking  the  head 
of  the  former),  and  the  schools  of  Umbria  and 
Bologna.  The  fifteenth  century  was  the  great 
period  of  artistic  development,  whence  we  may 
trace  modern  excellence,  commencing  with  the 
Florentine  School,  at  the  head  of  which  w:ere 
Fiesole  and  Masaccio.  This  school  diverged 
into  the  different  styles,  consisting  of  —  1. 
Such  as  studied  exact  natural  truth,  and  whose 
first  exponent  was  Ghirlandajo ;  2.  Such  as 
combined  therewith  a  species  of  poetic  treat- 
ment, as  Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  Sandro  Botticelli, 
and  Benozzo  Gozzoli ;  3.  Such  as  adopted  a 
sculpturesque  treatment  of  the  figure,  as  seen 
in  works  of  Andrea  del  Castagno,  Antonio 
Pollajuolo,  and  Andrea  Veroccio.  During  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  this  school 


566 


THE  CEtfTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


was  adorned  by  the  genius  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci  and  Michael  Angelo. 

The  Roman  School  (into  which  that 
Bologna  Romagna  merged)  is  the  most  im- 
portant for  its  solid  and  legitimate  effect ;  a 
result  which  may  be  attributed  to  the  purity  of 
study  and  delicacy  of  feeling  engendered  by 
its  great  head,  Raffaelle  Sanzio  d'Urbino,  fol- 
lowed out  by  Giulio  Romano,  Mazzolina  di 
Ferrara,  Zucchero,  Baroccio,  Carlo  Maratti, 
and  others. 

The  Venetian  School  gloried  in  its 
color,  and  the  magic  pencil  of  Titian  gave  it  a 
position  for  which  Giorgione  and  Sebastian 
del  Piozbino  had  but  prepared  it.  The  pupils 
and  successors  of  him  who  "  dipped  his  pencil 
in  the  rainbow,"  viz.  Bonifazio,  Bordone,  Tin- 
toretto, Paul  Veronese,  Bassano,  Garofalo,  and 
others,  followed  in  his  footsteps,  and  gave  this 
school  a  European  renown. 

The  Lombard  School,  also  known  as 
that  of  the  Eclectics,  was  established  by  the 
Caracci,  the  principles  of  which  have  been  ex- 
plained by  Agostino  in  a  sonnet  of  his  own 
composing,  which  may  be  thus  translated : 
"Adopt  the  design  of  the  Romans,  with  the 
color  of  the  Lombard  school,  adding  the  mo- 
tion and  shade  of  that  of  Venice.  Join  the 
just  symmetry  of  Raphael  with  the  power  of 
Michael  Angelo,  the  purity  of  Correggio,  the 
truth  of  Titian,  the  decorum  and  solidity  of 
Tebaldi,  the  learned  invention  of  Primaticcio, 
and  a  little  of  Parmigiano's  grace."  To  this 
school  belong  Correggio  and  Parmigiano,  and 
such  were  the  painters  from  whom  the  Car- 
racci  were  induced  to  select  the  qualities  of 
the  Eclectic  style  ;  "  for  Agostino  and  Annibal 
were,  at  the  commencement  of  their  career, 
unacquainted  with  the  works  of  the  originators 
of  the  beauties  which  they  professed  to  imitate. 
Before  opening  their  celebrated  school,  however, 
they  visited  Parma  and  Venice,  and  became 
familiar  with  the  works  of  Correggio  and  Titian  ; 
but  it  was  only  mediately,  through  the  works 
of  the  masters  above  mentioned,  that  they  could 
demonstrate  their  principles  to  their  scholars. 
The  St.  Cecilia  of  Raphael  was  not,  and  could 
not  have  been,  taken  as  a  standard  of  that 
great  master.  Lodovico  is  the  real  founder 
of  the  Bolognese  school ;  he  was  the  guide 
and  instructor  of  his  cousins,  who  were  some 
years  his  juniors."  Their  style  of  proceeding 
in  "  making  up  "  a  painter  according  to  their 
own  recipe  above  given,  has  been  severely  com- 
mented upon  by  Fuseli  in  the  eleventh  lecture. 
Certainly  with  the  age  of  the  Macchinisti  be- 
gan the  decadence  of  that  great  and  pure  Art 
revived  again  by  the  genius  of  Raphael ;  and  a 
meretricious  and  untrue  style,  in  which  the 
dictum  of  the   school  took   the   place   of  the 


teachings  of  nature,  and  led  to  the  adoption  of 
individual  whims,  which,  following  so  rapidly 
one  upon  another,  caused  the  school  to  sink 
from  Guido  Reni,  and  Guercino,  to  Giordano. 
Nicolas  Poussin  endeavored  to  prop  its  fall  by 
a  reversion  to  the  purer  principles  of  classic 
Art ;  but  neither  his  genius,  nor  that  of  the 
men  who  had  ranked  themselves  as  opposers  of 
the  school  under  the  name  of  Naturalisti, 
could  prevent  the  decay  of  Italian  Art.  **  This 
decline  resulted  with  many  painters  from  a 
light  and  pleasing  but  superficial  invention, 
accompanied  by  a  corresponding  skillful  but 
decorative  treatment ;  in  others,  it  proceeded 
from  a  close  but  spiritless  adherence  to  a  set  of 
obsolete  rules,  which  destroyed  the  peculiarity 
of  individuals  as  well  as  of  schools.  With  few 
exceptions,  sound  technical  science,  as  the 
basis  of  manipulation  in  painting,  was  lost." 

The  German  School  may  be  said  to 
have  originated  with  the  versatile  genius  of 
Albert  Durer,  and  was  followed  by  Lucas 
van  Leyden,  Holbein,  Netscher,  Mengs  and 
others.  It  was  remarkable  for  a  strict  adher- 
ence to  nature,  and  for  much  power  of  draw- 
ing, qualifications  which  still  remain  the  chief 
characteristics  of  its  modern  disciples,  under 
Cornelius,  Kaulbach,  and  Overbeck. 

The  Flemish  School  combines  with  Ger- 
man after  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Its  early  history  begins  with  the  Van  Eycks, 
who  have  given  to  the  world  a  school  of  their 
own  in  Roger  of  Bruges,  Hans  Hemling,  Jan 
Mabuse,  and  Quentin  Matsys.  Its  great 
glories  center  in  Rubens  and  Vandyke  ;  their 
works  are  remarkable  for  brilliance  of  color, 
exactness  of  drawing,  and  great  command  of 
chiaro-oscuro :  but  Rubens  wants  grace,  and 
in  founding  his  style  on  nature,  relying  on  his 
power  of  exhibiting  her  as  he  saw  her,  he  fre- 
quently lacks  dignity.  Teniers  excelled  in 
arrangement  and  harmony,  though  he  very 
frequently  lost  his  proper  position  in  the  low- 
ness  of  his  subjects.  Steinwick,  Spranger, 
Snyders,  Neeffs,  and  others,  may  be  particular- 
ized as  among  the  remarkable  men  of  a  school 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  legitimate 
descendant  of  the  Venetian  school  of  colorists. 

The  Dutch  School  is  even  lower  in  refine- 
ment ;  but  the  great  genius  displayed  by  its 
principal  painter,  Rembrandt,  elevated  it  into 
importance.  His  marvelous  power  over  light 
and  shade  was  what  the  world  had  never  before 
seen,  and  it  has  died  with  him  who  first  exhib- 
ited it.  It  was  too  much  the  fault  of  this 
school  to  select  the  vulgarest  scenes  of  life  for 
the  employment  of  the  pencil ;  thus  we  find 
great  power  of  drawing,  coloring,  and  a  per- 
fect mastery  of  the  mechanism  of  Art,  com- 
bined with   high   artistic   feeling,  devoted  to 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


567 


some  unworthy  subject,  which  no  genius  can 
redeem,  and  which  but  excites  a  feeling  of 
regret  to  see  talent  so  misdirected.  Ostade, 
Gerard  Dow,  the  two  Breughels,  Karel  du 
Jardin,  Pieter  Laer  (called  Bamboccio),  Jan 
Lingelbach,  Nicolas  Maas,  Gabriel  Metzu, 
Frans  van  Mieris,  Eglon  van  der  Neer,  Gaspar 
Netscher,  Cornelius  Poelemburg,  Paul  Potter, 
Godfried  Schalken,  Pieter  van  Slingeland,  Jan 
Steen,  Gerard  Terburg,  and  Philip  Wouver- 
man  may  be  named  as  the  principal  exponents 
of  the  power  of  this  school.  Of  the  landscape 
and  marine  painters  of  the  same  period,  the 
following  were  the  principal :  Ludolph  Bak- 
huyzen,  Nicolas  Berghem,  Jan  and  Andries 
Both,  Albert  Cuyp,  Simon  van  der  Does,  Jan 
van  Goyen,  Aart  van  der  Neer,  Jacob  Ruis- 
dael,  Mindert  Hobbema,  Herman  Swanevelde, 
Adam  Pynacker,  Adrian,  and  the  two  Wil- 
liams Vandervelde,  and  Antony  Waterloo.  Of 
architectural  painters :  G.  Hoekgeest,  Jan  van 
der  Heyden,  Pieter  Neefs,  Hendrik  van  Yliet, 
and  Hendrik  van  Steenwyck.  Of  painters  of 
birds,  still  life,  fruit,  flowers,  etc.,  the  follow- 
ing:  Jan  Davidszde  Heem,  Melchiorde  Hon- 
dekoeter,  Jan  van  Huysum,  Rachel  Ruisch,  Jan 
Weenix,  Jan  Wynants,  Adrian  van  Utrecht, 
and  Willem  Kalf . 

The  Spanish  School,  while  it  possesses 
great  power,  has  for  its  characteristics  a  certain 
gloom  and  wildness  belonging  to  the  national 
mind.  This  peculiar  school  of  painting  ap- 
pears to  have  been  one  of  the  more  recently 
established  of  the  modern  schools  of  Europe  ; 
in  its  prevailing  characteristics,  it  exhibits  a 
close  connection  with  some  of  the  schools  of 
Italy,  especially  those  of  Venice  and  Naples. 
though  its  earlier  development  seems  to  have 
been  due  to  the  immigration  of  Flemish  artists 
into  Spain.  The  principal  works  undertaken 
in  Spain  date  from  the  time  of  Philip  II.  ; 
they  were  chiefly  executed  by  Italians,  and  the 
principal  Spanish  painters  studied  in  Italy. 
Titian  spent  a  few  years  in  Spain  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  V.  ;  but  the  works  he  executed 
were  oil  pictures,  and  chiefly  easel  pieces, 
which,  though  guides  in  coloring  to  the  Span- 
ish painters,  were  less  the  models  of  the  great 
masters  of  Spain  than  those  executed  in  Philip's 
time.  The  painters  of  Spain  have  been  classi- 
fied into  three  principal  schools,  but  these 
divisions  are  as  much  local  as  characteristic  ; 
they  are  those  of  Valencia,  Madrid,  and  Se- 
ville. The  following  are  the  principal  mas- 
ters of  these  several  schools,  with  the  names  of 
the  places  where  they  chiefly  resided,  and 
worked,  arranged  chronologically,  from  the 
sixteenth  century,  inclusive  ;  Of  the  sixteenth  : 
Antonio  del  Rincon.  Toledo;  Alonso  Berru- 
guete,   Castile   and  Toledo ;  Luis  de  Vargas, 


Seville  ;  Alonso  Sanchez  Coello,  Madrid  ;  Luis 
de  Morales,  el  Divino,  Badajoz  ;  Dominico  Theo- 
tocopuli,  el  Greco,  Toledo ;  Vicente  Joanes, 
Valencia ;  Miguel  Barrosa,  Escorial  and  To- 
ledo ;  and  Alonso  Vazquez,  Seville.  Of  the 
seventeenth  century  :  Pablo  de  Cespedes,  Cor- 
dova and  Seville  ;  Juan  de  las  Roelas,  Seville  ; 
Francisco  de  Ribalta,  Valencia ;  Juan  del  Cas- 
tillo,Seville  ;  Francisco  Pacheco,  Seville  ;  Alon- 
so Cano,  Andalusia  and  Madrid  ;  Antonia  de 
Pereda,  Madrid ;' Diego  Velasquez,  Madrid; 
Juan  de  Pereja,  Madrid  ;  Francisco  Zurbaran, 
Seville  and  Madrid  ;  Francisco  Rizi,  Madrid  ; 
Claudio  Coello,  Madrid  and  Zaragoza ;  Juan 
de  Valdes  Leal,  Madrid  ;  Antonio  Palomino  y 
Velasco  (the  Spanish  Vasari),  Cordova;  Bar- 
tolome  Esteban  Murillo,  Seville  ;  and  Francisco 
de  Herrera,  el  Mozo  (the  Young),  Madrid  and 
Seville.  This  list  comprises  all  the  great 
painters  of  Spain ;  there  were  no  very  distin- 
guished Spanish  masters  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  following  are  the  most  distinguished 
of  those  above  mentioned :  Antonio  del  Rin- 
con, Luis  de  Vargas,  Morales,  Joanes,  Cespe- 
des, Roelas,  Ribalta,  Pacheco,  Alonso  Cano, 
Velasquez,  Zurbaran,  and  Murillo. 

The  French  School  of  painting  was, 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
in  all  respects  a  branch  of  the  schools  of  Italy. 
The  earliest  mature  development  dates  from 
the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  who  employed  many 
distinguished  Italian  artists  in  France ;  and 
what  is  termed  the  French  school  arose  from 
the  examples  left  by  these  Italians  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  The  masters  who  engrafted  the  Italian 
principles  of  art  among  the  French  were  II 
Rosso,  Primaticcio,  and  Niccolo  dell'Abate. 
The  earliest  French  painters  of  distinction,  and 
the  only  two  who  cannot  be  said  to  belong  to 
this  Italianized  school  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
were  Jean  Cousin  and  Francois  Clouet,  called 
Jeannet,  who  belonged  to  what  is  termed  the 
Gothic  school,  and  painted  in  the  manner  of 
the  Italian  quattro-centisti.  The  three  great- 
est names  in  French  art  are  Claude  Lorraine, 
Nicolas  Poussin,  and  Anthony  Watteau.  Le 
Brun,  Le  Sueur,  Dufresnoy,  Jouvenet,  and 
others,  can  but  be  considered  as  the  people  of 
a  transition  period,  whose  works  picture  the 
taste  of  an  age,  rather  than  the  exposition  of 
true  art.  It  was  with  J.  L.  David  that  a  new 
era  commenced  in  art,  which  may  possibly 
have  been  generated  by  the  revived  classicali- 
ties  of  a  revolutionary  mania  which  convulsed 
France.  The  Greek  ideal  of  a  monumental 
kind  was  adopted  by  him  for  historic  painting, 
and  has  been  happily  characterized  as  "a 
morbid  imitation  of  the  antique."  He  was 
followed  in  his  stiff  insipidities  by  Gros,  Gi- 
rodet,  and  Guerin  ;  but  nature  again  appealed 


568 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


to  the  world  in  the  work  of  Guerin's  celebrated 
pupil,  Gericault,  whose  "Wreck  of  the  Me- 
dusa "  appalled  by  its  truth  to  nature  and  power 
in  art.  Leopold  Robert  followed  in  the  same 
track,  and  produced  some  remarkable  and  life- 
like scenes.  Paul  Delaroche,  took  up  his  won- 
drous pencil,  to  delineate  history  with  the 
power  of  a  genius  and  the  truthfulness  of  a 
historian,  and  nature  again  appeared  on  the 
walls  of  the  French  exhibition  rooms.  No 
painters  excel  the  modern  French  school  in 
history ;  but  in  landscape  they  are  inferior  to 
those  of  England  and  Belgium. 

The  English  School  is  the  youngest  of 
the  cycle  of  Arts ;  but  its  youthful  vigor  has 
given  it  a  wondrous  position  in  a  compara- 
tively short  time.  The  first  great  native  gen- 
ius, who  neither  copied  in  a  school  nor  followed 
its  rules,  — who  struck  out  his  own  path,  in 
which  he  has  hitherto  been  alone,  and  whose 
thoughts,  subjects,  and  sympathies  were  all 
essentially  English, — was  William  Hogarth. 
"  Hogarth,"  says  Walpole,  "  had  no  model  to 
follow  and  improve  upon.  He  created  his  art, 
and  used  colors  instead  of  language.  His 
place  is  between  the  Italians,  whom  we  con- 
sider as  epic  poets  and  tragedians,  and  the 
Flemish  painters,  who  are  as  writers  of  farce 
and  editors  of  burlesque  nature."  Hogarth's 
was  the  period  of  the  revival  of  painting  in 
England  in  every  department  of  the  art ;  the 
hitherto  brightest  names  in  the  annals  of 
English  painting  were  his  contemporaries  — 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Gainsborough,  Wilson, 
West,  Romney,  Cotes,  Cosway,  Barry,  and 
Mortimer ;  to  whom  may  be  added  the  for- 
eigners—  Ue  Loutherbourg,  Zoffany,  Cipri- 
ani, Moser,  and  Fuseli,  all  domiciliated  in 
England.  Toward  the  end  of  the  century,  the 
most  conspicuous  masters  in  the  department  of 
history  were  —  Opie,  Northcote,  Westall,  Cop- 
ley, Harlow,  Hilton,  and  others  ;  in  portrait  — 
Sir  T.  Lawrence,  Hoppner,  Jackson,  and  Rae- 
burn  ;  in  genre  —  Wilkie,  Bird,  Smirke,  and 
Newton;  and  in  landscape  — Constable,  Call- 
cott,  and  Collins. 

The  American  School  has  been  more  or 
less  influenced  by  the  French,  and  has  not  yet 
attained  to  the  distinction  of  independent  char- 
acteristics. The  most  noted  names  are : 
Malbone  (1777-1807),  Copley  (1738-1815),  C. 
W.  Peale  (1741-1827),  Gilbert  C.  Stuart 
(1756-1828),  J.  Trumbull  (1756-1843),  W. 
Allston  (1779-1843),  Thomas  Cole  (1801-48), 
Rembrandt  Peale  (1778-1860),  W.  M.  Hunt 
(1824-79),  W.  Page  (1811-85),  1).  Hunting- 
don (1816),  S.  R.  Gifford  (1823-80),  Eastman 
Johnson  (1821),  Elihu  Vedder  (1836),  Bier- 
stadt  (1830). 

Russian  art,   dormant  since    the    Byzantine 


period,  has  during  the  last  forty  years  produced 
Swedomsky  Verestchagin  (1842),  and  Kram- 
skoe. 

Scandinavian  art  has  been  represented  in 
modern  times  by  Uhde,  and  Edelfeldt. 

Pyramids. —  The  great  pyramid  of  Gizeh 
is  the  largest  structure  of  any  kind  ever 
erected  by  the  hand  of  man.  Its  original  di- 
mensions at  the  base  were  764  feet  square, 
and  its  perpendicular  height  in  the  highest 
point  is  488  feet ;  it  covers  four  acres,  one 
rood  and  twenty-two  perches  of  ground,  and 
has  been  estimated  by  an  eminent  English 
architect  to  have  cost  not  less  than  £30,000,000, 
which  in  United  States  currency  would  be 
about  #145,200,000.  Internal  evidences  prove 
that  the  great  pyramid  was  begun  about  the 
year  2170  B.  C.,  about  the  time  of  the  birth 
of  Abraham.  It  is  estimated  that  about 
5,000,000  tons  of  hewn  stones  were  used  in  its 
construction. 

Sphinx. —  The  word  sphinx  is  from  the 
Greek  and  means  the  strangler,  and  was  ap- 
plied to  a  fabled  creature  of  the  Egyptians, 
which  had  the  body  of  a  lion,  the  head  of  a 
man  or  an  animal,  and  two  wings  attached  to  its 
sides.  In  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs  the  sphinx 
symbolized  wisdom  and  power  united.  It  has 
been  supposed  that  the  fact  that  the  overflow 
of  the  Nile  occurred  when  the  sun  was  in  the 
constellations  Leo  and  Virgo  gave  the  idea  of 
the  combinations  of  form  in  the  sphinx,  but 
this  idea  seems  quite  unfounded.  In  Egypt 
the  reigning  monarch  was  usually  represented 
in  the  form  of  a  sphinx.  The  most  remarkable 
sphinx  is  that  near  the  pyramids  at  Gizeh.  It 
is  sculptured  from  the  rock,  masonry  having 
been  added  in  several  places  to  complete  the 
form.  It  is  172£  feet  long  by  53  feet  high, 
but  only  the  head  of  this  remarkable  sculpture 
can  now  be  seen,  the  rest  of  the  form  having 
been  concealed  by  the  heaped  up  sands  of  the 
desert. 

Obelisks. —  The  oldest  of  all  the  obelisks 
is  the  beautiful  one  of  rosy  granite  which 
stands  alone  among  the  green  fields  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  not  far  from  Cairo.  It  is 
the  gravestone  of  a  great  ancient  city  which 
has  vanished  and  left  only  this  relic  behind. 
The  city  was  the  Bethshemesh  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  famous  On,  which  is  memorable  to  all 
Bible  readers  as  the  residence  of  the  priest  of 
Potipherah,  whose  daughter,  Asenath,  Joseph 
married.     The  Greeks  called  it  Heliopolis. 

Cleopatra's  Needle. —  The  two  obelisks 
known  as  Cleopatra's  Needles  were  set  up  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  in 
Heliopolis,  Egypt,  by  Thothmes  III.,  about 
1831  B.  C.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing 
when   they   wrere  built,  or  by  whom,  except 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


569 


from  the  inscriptions  on  them,  which  indicate 
the  above  time.  The  material  of  which 
they  were  cut  is  granite,  brought  from  Syene, 
near  the  first  cataract  of  the  Nile.  Two  cen- 
turies after  their  erection  Rameses  II.  had  the 
stones  nearly  covered  with  carving  setting 
out  his  own  greatness  and  achievements. 
Twenty-three  years  before  Christ,  Augustus 
Caesar  moved  the  obelisks  from  Heliopolis  to 
Alexandria  and  set  them  up  in  the  Caesarium, 
a  palace,  which  now  stands,  a  mere  mass  of 
ruins,  near  the  station  of  the  railroad  to 
Cairo.  In  1819  one  of  these  obelisks  was  pre- 
sented by  the  Egyptian  government  to  Eng- 
land, but,  as  no  one  knew  how  to  move  them, 
it  was  not  taken  to  London  until  1878. 
Subsequently  the  other  obelisk  was  presented 
to  the  United  States. 

Parthenon,  a  celebrated  temple  at  Athens, 
on  the  summit  of  the  Acropolis,  and  sacred  to 
Minerva.  The  Parthenon  in  beauty  and 
grandeur  surpassed  all  other  buildings  of  the 
kind,  and  was  constructed  entirely  of  Pentelic 
marble.  It  was  built  during  the  splendid  era 
of  Pericles,  and  the  expense  of  its  erection  was 
estimated  at  8,000  talents.  It  contained  in- 
numerable statues  raised  upon  marble  pedes- 
tals, and  other  works  of  art.  The  colossal 
statue  of  Minerva,  which  was  in  the  eastern 
end  of  the  temple,  was  thirty-nine  feet  high, 
and  was  composed  of  ivory  and  gold,  the  value 
of  the  latter  being  forty-four  talents,  or  about 
9165,000.  The  temple  was  reduced  to  ruins 
in  1687.  A  part  of  the  matchless  friezes, 
statues,  etc.,  of  the  Parthenon  now  form  the 
most  valuable  and  interesting  portion  of  the 
British  Museum,  they  having  been  taken  from 
the  temple  by  Lord  Elgin  in  1800,  and  by  him 
sold  to  the  British  Government. 

German  Philosophers. —  Leibnitz,  the 
founder  of  modern  German  philosophy,  was  a 
marvelous  specimen  of  precocious  genius,  his 
first  philosophical  treatise  being  written  at  the 
age  of  seventeen.  His  system  of  philosophy 
supposed  the  mind  and  body  to  be  two  distinct 
machines,  acting  independently  of  but  in  har- 
mony with  each  other.  He  also  held  to  the 
theory  of  "  monads  "  —  that  is,  the  indestruc- 
tible entities  of  matter  and  of  mind  —  claiming 
the  Deity  to  be  the  prime  monad,  and  asserted 
that  all  ideas  were  innate.  He  lived  from 
1646  to  1716.  The  great  opponent  of  Leibnitz 
was  Christian  Wolf,  who  founded  all  his 
philosophy  on  logical  propositions,  and  set 
aside  those  very  doctrines  on  which  Leibnitz 
grounded  all  his  reasoning.  After  these  two 
philosophers  had  passed  away  there  was  a 
term  of  quiescence  in  German  philosophy, 
broken  by  the  teachings  of  Emanuel  Kant,  the 
philosopher  of  ' '  Pure  Reason , ' '  and  the  father 


of  modern  philosophical  criticism.  The  cen- 
tral point  of  his  system  lies  in  the  proposition 
that  before  we  can  know  anything  concerning 
objects  we  must  understand  how  we  perceive 
objects,  and  what  degree  of  knowledge  percep- 
tion can  give  us.  Fichte  was  a  disciple  of 
Kant,  but  went  beyond  his  master  in  trans- 
forming all  knowledge  into  pure  idealism. 
Schelling  was  the  next  writer  to  gain  a  general 
influence.  He  was  at  first  simply  an  ex- 
pounder of  Fichte,  but  gradually  developed  a 
philosophy  of  his  own,  founded  on  the  theory 
that  the  true  sources  of  knowledge  are  not 
experience  or  reflection,  but  intellectual  in- 
tuition. Hegel,  who  succeeded  Schelling  as 
the  leader  in  German  philosophy,  was  a  more 
vigorous  and  logical  thinker.  The  foundation 
of  his  system  is  that  the  union  of  assertion 
and  negation,  the  harmonizing  of  every  propo- 
sition with  its  contradictory,  is  the  source  of 
all  knowledge.  The  Hegelian  system  has  been 
modified  largely  by  the  speculations  of  Schleier- 
macher,  Schubert,  and  others,  but  it  still  re- 
mains the  most  powerful  school  of  German 
philosophy.  The  principal  opposing  system 
is  that  of  Schopenhauer,  whose  fundamental 
doctrine  is  that  the  only  essential  reality  in  the 
universe  is  trill,  all  phenomena  being  but 
manifestations  of  the  single  original  will. 

Classifieation  of  Mankind. —  In  re- 
gard to  religion,  mankind  maybe  divided  into 
two  general  classes :    Monotheistic,  those  who 

I  worship  one  god,  and  polytheistic,  those  who 
worship  more  than  one  god,  also  called  pagans, 
or  heathen.  Of  the  first  class  we  have  :  (1) 
the  Christian,  which  recognizes  the  Bible  as  the 
revealed  word  of  God,  and  Jesus  Christ  as 
the  Son  of  God  ;  (2)  the  Jewish,  which   rec- 

I  ognizes  the  Old  Testament  as  the  word  of 
God,  but  does  not  acknowledge  Christ ;  (3) 
the    Mohammedan,  or  the   religion    of   Islam, 

!  whose  two  articles  of  faith  are,  "  There  is  no 
god  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  prophet 
of  God." 

Of  the  second  class  there  are  :  (1)  Brah- 
minism,  or  Hindooism,  the  religion  of  the  peo- 
ple of  India,  a  very  ancient  religion  which  has 
many  good  moral  doctrines,  but  strange  ideas 
of  a  future  state  ;  (2)  Buddhism,  an  offshoot  of 
Brahminism,  now  practiced  by  the  people  of 
China  and  Japan,  founded  by  Sakya-Muni, 
who  adopted  the  title  of  Buddha  (the  enlight- 
ened), a  religion  which  has  been  more  en- 
thusiastic in  making  converts  than  any  other, 
except  Christianity,  and  has  many  good  moral 
precepts,  but  is  practically  atheistic  ;  (3)  Fetich- 
ism,  a  very  low  form  of  superstition,  which 
consists  in  the  worship  of  material  objects, 
either  living  or  dead,  as  animals  or  idols  of 
wood  or  stone. 


570 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


In  regard  to  general  culture  and  intelligence, 
mankind  may  be  divided  into:  (1)  Savages, 
those  who  are  scarcely  elevated  above  the 
brutes,  live  in  tribes,  and  subsist  by  hunting 
and  fishing;  (2)  Barbarians,  those  who  have 
possessions,  as  flocks  and  herds,  and  practice 
agriculture  to  some  extent,  yet  have  made  no 
progress  in  arts  and  sciences  ;  (3)  Half-civilized, 
those  who  have  made  some  progress  in  the  arts, 
have  towns  and  cities,  but  depend  chiefly  upon 
agriculture  ;  (4)  Civilized,  those  who  have  made 
considerable  progress  in  science  and  art,  engage 
in  commerce,  and  have  a  written  language  ;  (5) 
Enlightened,  those  who  stand  at  the  head  of 
the  scale,  have  a  division  of  labor,  systems  of 
education,  and  have  made  the  greatest  progress 
in  science,  art,  and  in  morality. 

The  Jewish  Religion. —  In  their  relig- 
ious observances  modern  Jews  adhere  to  the 
rules  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  Their  serv- 
ice consists  chiefly  in  reading  the  law  in  their 
synagogues,  together  with  a  variety  of  prayers. 
They  abstain  from  the  meats  prohibited  by  the 
Levitical  law,  and  they  continue  to  observe 
the  ceremonies  of  the  Passover,  as  nearly  as 
possible.  They  offer  prayers  for  the  dead, 
because  they  believe  that  the  souls  of  the 
wicked  go  to  a  place  of  temporary  punishment, 
where  they  remain  under  trial  a  year,  and 
they  think  that  very  few  will  be  condemned  to 
suffer  eternally.  We  give  a  summary  of  the 
confession  of  faith,  in  which  all  orthodox  Jews 
must  live  and  die.  It  is  made  up  of  thirteen 
articles,  and  was  drawn  up  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  a  celebrated  rabbi  named  Maimoni- 
des.  These  articles  declare  in  substance  :  (1) 
That  there  is  one  God,  creator  of  all  things, 
who  may  exist  without  any  part  of  the  uni- 
verse, but  without  whom  nothing  can  main- 
tain existence  ;  (2)  that  God  is  uncompounded 
and  indivisible,  but  different  from  all  other 
unities  ;  (3)  that  God  is  an  immaterial  being, 
without  any  admixture  of  corporeal  substance  ; 
(4)  that  God  is  eternal,  but  everything  else 
had  a  beginning  in  time  ;  (5)  that  God  alone 
ought  to  be  worshiped,  without  mediators  or 
intercessors  ;  (6)  that  there  have  been  inspired 
prophets,  and  may  be  more ;  (7)  that  Moses 
was  the  grandest  prophet  that  ever  appeared  ; 

(8)  that  the  law  of  Moses  was,  in  every  sylla- 
ble, dictated  by  the  Almighty,  not  only  in  its 
written  letter,  but  in  traditionary  exposition  ; 

(9)  that  this  law  is  immutable,  neither  to  be 
added  to  nor  diminished  ;  (10)  that  God 
knows  all  our  actions  and  governs  them  as  lie 
will;  (11)  that  the  observance  of  the  law  is 
rewarded  and  its  violation  punished  in  this 
world,  but  in  a  greater  degree  in  the  next ; 
(12)  that  a  Messiah  is  yet  to  appear,  the  time 
of   whose   coming  may  not   be  prescribed  or 


foretold;  and  (13)  that  God  will  raise  the 
dead  at  the  last  day  and  pass  judgment  upon 
all. 

Quakers.  —  The  Society  of  Friends  or 
Quakers  was  founded  in  1646,  by  George 
Fox,  a  shoemaker  of  Drayton,  in  Leicester- 
shire. They  believe  in  the  main  fundamental 
principles  of  what  is  called  "Orthodox  Chris- 
tianity," but  they  express  their  religious  creed 
in  the  very  words  of  the  New  Testament 
Scripture,  and  each  member  has  the  liberty  of 
interpreting  the  words.  Their  main  specialty 
is  the  belief  of  "  The  Light  of  Christ  in  man," 
and  hence  they  entertain  a  broader  view  of  the 
Spirit's  influence  than  other  Christians.  In 
morals,  propriety  of  conduct,  good  order,  and 
philanthropy,  the  Quakers  are  a  pattern  so- 
ciety. 

The  Peahody  Education  Fund. —  In 
1867  and  1869  George  Peabody  established  a 
fund  of  83,500,000  to  be  devoted  to  education 
in  the  Southern  states  of  the  Union.  Unfor- 
tunately, $1,380,000  of  this  amount  was  in 
Mississippi  and  Florida  bonds,  which  those 
states  have  repudiated.  The  fund  was  placed 
in  the  charge  and  control  of  fifteen  trustees,  of 
which  the  Hon.  Robert  C.  Winthrop  of  Massa- 
chusetts was  the  chairman.  Mr.  Peabody  died 
in  London  in  1869.  The  trustees  hold  meet- 
ings annually,  usually  in  New  York.  They 
fill  vacancies  caused  by  death  or  resignation. 
But  one  oi.  the  original  trustees  survives  —  Ex- 
Senator  Evarts.  The  present  trustees  are  : 
William  M.  Evarts,  who  is  president  of  the 
board;  Chief  Justice  Fuller,  first  vice-presi- 
dent; Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Whipple,  second  vice- 
president;  Hon.  Jabez  L.  M.  Curry,  LL.  D., 
general  agent;  Joseph  II.  Choate,  J.  Pier- 
pont  Moi'gan,  of  New  York ;  ex- President 
Grover  Cleveland,  of  New  Jersey;  Samuel  A. 
Green,  Richard  Olney,  and  George  F.  Hoar, 
of  Massachusetts ;  William  Wirt  Henry,  of 
Virginia ;  ex-Mayor  William  A.  Courtenay,  of 
South  Carolina;  James  D.  Porter,  of  Tennes- 
see; Henderson  M.  Somerville,  of  New  York  : 
President  D.  C.  Oilman,  of  Johns  Hopkins 
University ;  George  Peabody  AVetmore,  of 
Rhode  Island,  and  Charles  E.  Fenner,  of  Lou- 
isiana. Dr.  Curry  is  general  agent  of  the 
fund,  with  headquarters  at  Washington.  D.  C. 
and  has  charge  of  the  distribution  of  the  fund 
in  the  several  Southern  states.  In  its  earlier 
history  the  chief  aim  of  the  fund  was  to  en- 
courage and  secure  the  establishment  of  public 
school  systems  for  the  free  education  of  all 
children.  That  having  been  accomplished, 
the  income  of  the  fund  is  now  used  for  the 
training  of  teachers  through  normal  schools 
and  teachers'  institutes.  At  its  session  in 
October  ,  1896,  the  board  declared  it  to  be  in- 


RELIGION,  EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS, 


571 


expedient  to  close  the  Trust  in  February,  1897, 
the  power  to  do  which  was  left  to  its  discre- 
tion. In  the  thirty  years  since  the  organ- 
ization of  the  trust,  over  $2,500,509  have 
been  spent,  as  the  income  of  the  sum  left  by 
Mr.  Peabody.  Mr.  J.  Pierpont  Morgan  is  the 
treasurer. 

The  John  F.  Slater  Tund.—  In  1882 
Mr.  John  F.  Slater,  of  Connecticut,  placed  in 
the  hands  of  trustees  the  sum  of  $1,000,000, 
for  the  purpose  of  "  uplifting  the  lately  eman- 
cipated population  of  the  Southern  states 
and  their  posterity."  For  this  patriotic  and 
munificent  gift  the  thanks  of  Congress  were 
voted,  and  a  medal  was  presented.  Neither 
principal  nor  income  is  expended  for  land  or 
buildings.  Education  in  industries  and  the 
preparation  of  teachers  are  promoted  in  in- 
stitutions believed  to  be  on  a  permanent  basis. 


The  board  consists  of  D.  C.  Gilman,  of  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  as  president  ;  Chief 
Justice  Fuller,  as  vice-president ;  Morris  K. 
Jesup,  as  treasurer  ;  J.  L.  M.  Curry,  as  secre- 
tary and  general  manager,  and  Bishops  Potter 
and  Galloway,  and  Messrs.  William  E.  Dodge, 
William  A.  Slater,  John  A.  Stewart,  Alexander 
E.  Orr,  ex-Governor  Northen,  and  Win.  L. 
Wilson.  The  fund  is  a  potential  agency  in 
working  out  the  problem  of  the  education  of 
the  negro,  and  over  half  a  million  dollars 
has  already  been  expended.  Schools  es- 
tablished by  states,  denominations,  and  in- 
dividuals are  helped  by  annual  donations. 
Among  the  most  prominent  are  the  Hampton 
Normal  and  Industrial,  the  Spelman,  the 
Tuskegee,  and  schools  at  Orangeburg,  S.  C, 
Tougaloo,  Miss.,  Marshall,  Tex.,  the  Meharry 
Medical  College  at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  etc. 


National  Academy  of  Desig-n. 

COUNCIL,  1898-1899. 
President,  Thomas  W.  "Wood;    Vire-P resident,  James  M.  Hart;   Corresponding  Secretary,  H.  W.  Watrous; 
Recording  Secretary,  George  H.  Smillie  ;    Treasurer,  James  D.  Smillie  ;  J.  Carroll  Beekwith,  C.  D.  Weldon,  J.  C. 
Nicoll,  F.  S.  Church,  Frederick  Dielman,  H.  Bolton  Jones ;  Clerk  of  Academy,  H.  G.  Grannis. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMICIANS. 
Elected. 


Elected. 

1862.    Beard,  William  II.,  51  West  10th  St. 

Beekwith,  J.  Carroll.  58  West  57th  St. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  1271  Broadwa  v. 

Blashtield,  Edwin  H.,  58  West  57th  St. 

Blauvelt,  Charles  F.,  Annapolis,  Md. 

Blum,  Robert.  90  Grove  St. 

Boughton,  George  H.,  London.  Enp-. 

Brandt,  Carl  L.,"Hastings-on-Hudson,  N.  Y. 

Brevoort,  J.  R.,  52  East  23d  St. 
1881.    Bridgman,  Frederick  A.,  Paris,  France. 
1875.    Bristol,  John  B.,  52  East  23d  St. 

Brown,  J.  G.,  51  West  10th  St. 

Butler,  George  B.,  Century  Club. 

Calverlev,  Charles,  107  East  27th  St. 

Cha*e,  William  M.,  234  East  15th  St. 

Church,  Frederic  E.,  Hudson,  N.  Y. 

Church,  F.  S.,  1512  Broadway. 

Cline.lmst,  B.  West,  110  Fifth  Ave. 

Colman,  Samuel,  Newport,  R.  I. 

Cropsey.  J.  E.,  Hastings-on-Hudson,  X.  Y. 

Dana,  YY".  Y.  W.,  Paris,  France. 

Dewing,  Thos.  W.,  911  Seventh  Ave. 

Dielman,  Frederick,  1512  Broadway. 

Flagg,  Jared  B.,  37  West  22d  St. 

Gaul,  Gilbert,  170th  St.,  near  Tenth  Ave. 

Gilford,  R.  Swain,  152  West  57th  St. 

Griswold,  C.  C,  139  West  55th  St. 

Guy,  Seymour  Joseph,  51  West  10th  St. 

Hail,  George  Henry,  Rome,  Italy. 

Hamilton,  Hamilton,  Baldwin's',  L.  I. 

Hart,  James  M.,  11  East  14th  St. 

Hartley,  J.  S.,  145  West 55th  St. 

Hazeltine,  W.  Stanley,  Boston,  Mass. 

Hennessv,  W.  J.,  London,  Eng. 

Henry,  E.  L.,  Century  Club. 

Homer,  Winslow,  Scarboro,  Me. 

Howe,  Win.  H.,  Brorrxville,  N.  Y. 

Howland,  Alfred  C,  52  East  23d  St. 

Huntington,  Daniel.  49  East  20th  St. 


1894. 
1860. 
1888. 
1859. 
1893. 
1871. 
1872. 
1863. 


1863. 

1873. 

1875. 

1890. 

1849. 

1885. 

1898. 

1862. 

1851. 

1863. 

1888. 

1883. 

1849. 

1882. 

1878. 

1867. 

1S65. 

1868. 

1889. 

1859. 

1891. 

1861. 

1863. 

1869. 

1865. 

1897. 

1882. 

1840. 

1861.    Johnson,  David.  69  West  131st  St. 

1860.    Johnson,  Eastman,  65  West55th  St. 

1851.    Jones,  Alfred,  86  Trinity  Place. 

1894.    Jones,  Francis  C,  253  West  42d  St. 

1883.    Jones,  H.  Bolton,  253  West  4i'd  St. 

1869.    Lafarge,  John.  51  West  10th  St. 

1897.    Lippincott,  Wm.  H..  286  WTest  84th  St. 

1890.    Low,  Will  H.,  42  West  15th  St. 


1876.  Magrath,  William,  11  East  14th  St. 

1875.  Martin,  Homer  D.,  Century  Club. 

1885.  Mavnard,  Geo.  W.,  156  East  36th  St. 

1875.  Miller,  Charles  H.,  108  West  23d  St. 

1885.  Millet,  F.  D.,  Broadway,  Eng. 

1895.  Moeller,  Louis,  Mount  Vernon,  N.  Y. 

1884.  Moran,  Thomas,  37  West  22d  St. 

1891.  Mowbray,  H.  Siddons,  66  AVest  11th  St. 

1 887.  Murphy,"  J.  Francis,  222  W est  23d  St. 

1870.  Nehlig*  Victor.  Paris,  France. 

1885.  Nicolf;  J.  C,  51  West  10th  St. 

1897.  Palmer,  Walter  L.,  5  Lafavette  St.,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

1884.  Parton,  Arthur,  52  West  23d  St. 

1869.  Perry,  E.  Wood,  51  West  10th  St. 

1880.  Porter,  Benj.  C,  3  North  Washington  Sq. 

1851.  Richards,  T.  Addison,  National  Academy. 

1878.  Robbins,  Horace  Wolcott,  56  East  57th  St. 

1863.  Rogers,  John,  New  Canaan,  Ct. 

1897.  Sargent,  John  S.,  33  Tite  St.,  London,  Eng. 

1875.  Sellstedt,  L.  G.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
1861.  Shattuck,  Aaron  D.,  Granbv,  Ct. 

1888.  Shirlaw,  Walter,  3  North  Washington  Sq 

1890.  Shurtleff ,  R.  M. ,  44  West  22d  St, 

1882.  Smillie,  George  H.,  51  East  59th  St. 

1876.  Smillie,  James  D.,  156  East  36th  St. 
1861.  Sonntag,  William  L.,  120  East  22d  St. 

1889.  St.  Gaudens,  Augustus,  148  West  36th  St. 

1858.  Tait,  Arthur  F.,  82  Waring  Place,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. 

1880.  Tiffany,  Louis  C,  335  Fourth  Ave. 

1891.  Trvon,  D.  W.,  226  West  59th  St. 

1886.  Turner,  C.  Y.,  35  West  14th  St. 

1883.  Van  Elten.  Kruseman,  51  West  10th  St. 
1865.  Yedder,  Elihu,  Rome,  Italy. 

1891.  Vinton,  Frederic  P.,  Boston,  Mass. 

1891.  Walker,  Horatio,  51  AVest  10th  St. 

1883.  Ward,  Edgar  M..  51  Wrest  10th  St. 

1863.  Ward,  J.  Q.  A.,  119  West  52d  St. 

1895.  Watrous,  Harry  W.,  58  West  57th  St. 

1886.  Weir,  J.  Alden,  146  West  55th  St. 

1S66.  Weir,  John  F.,  New  Haven,  Ct. 

1861.  Whittredge,  Wrorthington,  Summit,  N.  J. 

1898.  Wiles,  Irving  R.,  106  West  55th  St. 

1873.  Wilmarth,  Lemuel  E.,  352  Adelplii  St.,  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y. 

1871.  Wood,  Thomas  Waterman,  51  West  10th  St. 
1880.  Yewell,  George  H.,  51  WTest  10th  St. 


The  addresses  of  members  of  the  Academy  given  in  the  list  refer  to  the  city  of  New  York  when  not  otherwise 
specified.    Th<*  National  Academy  was  founded  in  1826. 


572 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


University  Extension  has  for  its  object 
the  provision  of  "  the  means  of  higher  educa- 
tion for  persons  of  all  classes,  and  of  both 
sexes  engaged  in  the  regular  occupations  of 
life-  "^  This  movement  commenced  with  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1872,  and  was 
subsequently  taken  up  by  Oxford  University, 
the  London  Society  for  the  extension  of  Uni- 
versity Teaching,  Dublin  University,  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  the  Scottish  Universities, 
the  University  of  Sydney,  New  South  Wales, 
and  the  Chautauqua  Home  Reading  Club  in 
the  United  States.  In  1890  Cambridge,  Ox- 
ford, and  the  London  Society  had  two  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  centers,  seventy-nine  lec- 
turers, and  40,336  students  attending  lectures. 
The  lecture  study  system  was  organized  in  the 
United  States  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia. Other  institutions,  notably  the  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  and  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin, have  engaged  in  the  work,  and  many 
centers  for  lectures  and  study  in  history, 
science,  art,  and  literature  have  been  formed. 

Columbian  University,  Washington, 
D.  C,  originated  with  the  Rev.  Luther  Rice, 
who,  in  1819,  with  a  number  of  associates, 
paid  $7,000  for  a  tract  of  land  adjoining 
the  city  of  Washington,  with  the  understand- 
ing that  it  should  be  held  for  higher  educa- 
tional purposes.  John  Quincy  Adams,  John  C. 
Calhoun,  thirty-two  members  of  Congress,  and 
leading  citizens  of  Washington,  were  among 
the  contributors  to  this  fund.  A  charter  was 
procured  from  Congress  in  February,  1821, 
during  the  presidency  of  James  Monroe, 
"erecting  the  Columbian  College  in  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia."  The  construction  of  a 
college  building  had  been  commenced  in  1820, 
and  it  was  completed  in  1822,  at  a  cost  of 
$35,000.  Dr.  Stoughton,  a  native  of  England, 
and  an  eminent  pulpit  orator,  was  the  first 
president  of  the  institution.  Agents  were 
sent  to  Europe,  and  among  the  contributors  to 
the  founding  of  the  college  were  several  Eng- 
lishmen prominent  in  politics  and  literature, 
including  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  the  historian. 

The  first  commencement  of  the  college  was 
held  December  15,  1824,  and  was  attended  by 
the  President  of  the  United  States  and  mem- 
bers of  both  Houses  of  Congress  and  General 
Lafayette  ;  a  formal  address  of  welcome  being 
made  to  General  Lafayette  by  the  president  of 
the  college.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  ex- 
ercises, General  Lafayette  and  his  suite,  Secre- 
tary John  Quincy  Adams,  Secretary  John  C. 
Calhoun,  Henry  Clay,  and  other  distinguished 
citizens  dined  with  the  faculty  and  board  of 
trustees  at  the  house  of  President  Stoughton. 

Dr.   Stoughton  resigned   the   presidency  in 


:  1827,  after  a  rather  stormy  period,  during 
which  the  college  was  at  times  greatly  embar- 
rassed for  money,  and  in  1828  Rev.  Steven 
Chapin,  D.D.,  was  chosen  his  successor.  The 
presidents  since  that  time  have  been :  Rev. 
Joel  S.  Bacon,  D.D.,  elected  1843;  Rev. 
Joseph  G.  Binney,  D.D.,  elected  1855;  Rev. 
j  George  W.  Samson,  D.D.,  elected  1859  ;  James 
C.  Welling,  LL.D.,  elected  1871  ;  Benaiah  L. 
Whitman,  M.A.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  elected  1895. 

March  3,  1873,  Congress  passed  an  act  sup- 
plemental to  the  organic  act  of  1821,  provid- 
ing that  the  corporation  "shall  hereafter  be 
known  and  called  by  the  name  of  the  Columbian 
University."  In  1879  it  was  decided  to  remove 
all  departments  of  the  University  into  the  heart 
of  Washington,  and  in  1884  the  present  uni- 
versity buildings,  at  the  corner  of  loth  and  II 
streets,  were  occupied  by  the  academic,  law, 
and  scientific  schools  of  the  University. 

John  Quincy  Adams  was  among  the  earliest 
friends  of  the  college  to  lend  aid  during  its 
periods  of  financial  need.  He  loaned  it  $18,- 
000,  apart  of  which  debt  he  remitted.  From 
1835  to  1861  John  Withers  of  Virginia  made 
frequent  gifts  to  cancel  debts,  to  repair  build- 
ings, and  for  general  purposes,  amounting  in 
the  aggregate  to  nearly  $70,000.  In  1865 
William  W.  Corcoran  presented  the  college 
with  a  building  for  its  Medical  School,  valued 
at  $30,000.  His  subsequent  gifts  have  reached 
about  $150,000,  in  grateful  memory  of  which 
was  established,  in  1884,  the  Corcoran  Scientific 
School. 

The  University  comprises  the  following  divi- 
sions :  The  Columbian  College,  the  Corcoran 
Scientific  School,  the  School  of  Graduate 
Studies,  the  Law  School,  the  School  of  Juris- 
prudence and  Diplomacy,  the  Medical  School, 
the  Dental  School,  the  Graduate  Veterinary 
School,  and  the  Summer  School. 

In  1898,  as  an  organic  part  of  the  University, 
there  was  established  a  School  of  Comparative 
Jurisprudence  and  Diplomacy,  the  first  of  that 
character  in  the  United  States.  Such  a  school 
had  been  a  long  cherished  hope  of  the  Univer- 
sity authorities,  and  owed  its  germinal  concep- 
tion to  a  former  president  of  the  University, 
James  Clarke  Welling,  LL.D.  The  design  of 
the  school  is  to  afford  a  training  in  the  sub- 
jects of  higher  legal  knowledge,  comparative 
government,  applied  economics,  and  the  his- 
tory, science,  and  practice  of  diplomacy.  Two 
courses  are  now  given,  leading  respectively  to 
the  degrees  Doctor  of  Civil  Law  (D.  C.  L.)  and 
Master  of  Diplomacy  (M.  Dip.),  depending 
upon  the  emphasis  awarded  to  jurisprudence 
or  diplomatic  studies.  The  lecturers,  together 
with  their  assignment  of  subjects,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


RELIGION,    EDUCATION,  FINE  ARTS. 


573 


Benaiah  L.  Whitman,  D.U.,  LL.D..  Presi- 
dent :  Political  History  and  Science. 

Charles  W.  Needham,  LL.D.,  Dean;  The 
Common  Law;    Transportation  and  Commerce. 

Hon.  John  M.  Harlan,  LL.D.,  Conflict  of 
Laws  ;  Comparative  Constitutional  Law. 

Hon.  David  J.  Brewer,  LL.D.,  International 
Law. 

Hon.  John  W.  Foster,  LL.D.,  Diplomacy 
and  Treaties  of  the  United  States. 

Hon.  David  Jayne  Hill,  LL.D.,  European 
Diplomacy  and  Treaties. 

Hon.  William  Wirt  Howe,  LL.D.,  An- 
cient, Roman,  Mediaeval  Law;  Modern  Civil 
Lair. 

Hon.  Lyman  J.  Gage,  LL.D.,  Lecturer  on 
Public  Finance. 

Hon.  William  P.  Wilson,  Sc.D.,  Interna- 
tional Trade  and  Commercial  Geography. 

Joseph  French  Johnson,  B.A.,  Money, 
Credits,  and  Foreign  Exchange. 

Hon.  Edward  H.  Strobel,  M.A.,  LL.B., 
Lecturer  on  the  Jurisprudence  of  France  and 
Spain. 

Hon.  Martin  A.  Knapp,  LL.D.,  Lecturer  on 
Interstate  Commerce  Law. 

Hon.  Carroll  D.  Wright,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
Social  Economics  and  Statistics. 

Special  lecturers  are  provided  upon  the 
Jurisprudence  of  England,  France,  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy,  who  are  authori- 
ties in  their  respective  subjects. 

Greek  Church,  The,  taken  in  its  widest 
sense,  comprehends  ail  those  Christians  follow-  j 
ing  the  Greek,  or  Greco-Slavonic  rite,  who  re- 
ceive the  first  seven  General  Councils,  but  reject 
the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff  and  the  later 
councils  of  the  Western  church.      The  Greek 
Church  calls  itself  "  The  Holy  Orthodox  Cath- 
olic and  Apostolic  Church,"  and  includes  three 
distinct  branches  —  the  church  within  the  Otto- 
man empire,  subject  directly  to  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople :  the    church   in  the  kingdom ; 
of  Greece  ;  and  the  Russo-Greek  Church  in  the  I 
dominions  of  the  czar. 

The  proper  history  of  the  Greek  Church,  as  [ 
a  separate  body,  dates  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Greek  schism,  or,  rather,  from  the 
commencement  of  the  efforts  on  the  part  of 
the  Church  of  Constantinople  to  establish 
for  itself  a  distinct  jurisdiction  and  an  inde- 
pendent headship  in  the  eastern  division  of  the 
empire.  The  ecclesiastical  preeminence  of 
Constantinople  followed  upon  the  political  dis- 
tinction to  which  it  rose  as  the  seat  of  the 
imperial  residence  and  the  center  of  the  impe- 
rial government.  Originally  Byzantium  (called 
Constantinople  after  330  A.  D.)  was  but  a  sim- 
ple episcopal  see,  but  the  rank  rose  with  the 
fortunes  of  the  city  ;  and  before  the  close  of  the  j 


fourth  century  a  canon  of  the  first  council  of 
Constantinople,  held  in  381 ,  assures  to  it,  on 
the  ground  that  Constantinople  is  the  "new 
Rome,"  the  precedence  of  honor  next  after 
the  ancient  Rome.  The  present  total  number 
of  adherents  of  the  Greek  Church  is  about 
90,000,000. 

College  de  France,  founded  by  Francis 
I.,  1530,  is  now  a  very  important  educational 
institution,  giving  instruction  over  a  very  wide 
field  of  literature,  history,  and  science.  It  is 
independent  of  the  University  of  France, 
directly  under  the  Minister  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, and  is  supported  by  the  government.  As 
in  the  Sorbonne,  the  lectures  are  gratuitous, 
and  for  the  most  part  are  designed  to  attract 
auditors  older  than  ordinary  university  stu- 
dents. The  College  comprises  two  faculties, 
one  literary,  one  scientific;  each  has  about 
twenty  professors.  Among  the  professors  are 
some  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  and 
scientists  in  France.  The  subjects  mainly 
covered  are  political  economy,  Assyrian  and 
Egyptian  archaeology,  Arabic,  Slavonic  litera- 
ture, French  literature,  physiology,  anatomy, 
and  embryology. 

Escurial,  The,  is  a  famous  monastery  of 
New  Castile,  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Madrid. 
This  solitary  pile  of  granite  has  been  called 
the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world,  and  at  the  time 
of  its  erection  surpassed  every  building  of  the 
kind  in  size  and  magnificence.  It  owes  its 
origin,  it  is  said,  to  an  inspired  vow  made  by 
Philip  II.  during  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin. 
On  that  occasion  he  implored  the  aid  of  St. 
Lorenzo,  on  whose  day  the  battle  was  fought ; 
and  vowed  that  should  victory  be  granted  to 
him  he  would  dedicate  a  monastery  to  the 
saint.  The  Escurial  was  begun  in  1563  and 
finished  in  1584,  and  was  intended  to  serve  as 
a  palace,  mausoleum,  and  monastery.  It  has  a 
splendid  chapel,  with  three  naves.  The  Pan- 
theon, or  royal  tomb,  is  a  magnificently  dec- 
orated octagonal  chamber,  in  the  eight  sides 
of  which  are  numerous  black  marble  sar- 
cophagi. Something  of  the  immensity  of  the 
Escurial  may  be  conceived  when  it  is  stated 
that  it  has  14,000  doors,  and  11,000  windows, 
and  its  cost  was  6,000,000  ducats,  or  nearly 
$14,000,000.  Its  library,  previous  to  the  sack 
of  the  Escurial  by  the  French  in  1808,  con- 
tained 30,000  printed  and  4,300  manuscript 
volumes,  mainly  treasures  of  Arabic  literature. 
In  1872  the  Escurial  was  struck  by  lightning 
and  partially  destroyed. 

Jewish  Temple,  The,  at  Jerusalem,  was 
erected  by  Solomon,  and,  from  the  descriptions 
which  have  come  down  to  us,  probably 
equaled  in  magnificence  and  dimensions  any 
similar   building  in  the  ancient  world.     The 


574 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


influence  of  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  styles 
of  architecture  was  probably  exhibited  in  its 
construction,  and  at  no  time  did  the  Jews 
possess  a  style  which  might  be  called  their  own. 
It  was  consecrated  1004  B.  C;  pillaged  by 
Shishak,  971  ;  restored  by  Joash,  856  ;  polluted 
by  Ahaz,  740 ;  again  restored  by  Hezekiah, 
726  ;  pillaged  and  burned  by  Nebuchednezzar, 
588-587  ;  rebuilt,  536,  at  the  period  of  the 
return  from  captivity  ;  pillaged  by  Antiochus, 
168  ;  rebuilt  by  Herod,  18  ;  and  finally  de- 
stroyed by  Titus,  A.  D.  70.  Its  supposed  site 
is  now  covered  by  the  Mosque  of  Omar. 

GLOSSARY    OF    ART   AND   MUSI- 
CAL TERMS. 

Accompaniment,  A  secondary  part  added  to  the 
principal  for  the  improvement  of  the  general  effect. 

Acanthus.  A  plant,  the  ornamental  foliage  of  which 
is  largely  employed  for  architectural  decoration,  espe- 
cially on  the  Corinthian  capital.  There  are  two  princi- 
pal species,  acanthus  mollis  and  acanthus  spinosa,  the 
latter  somewhat  resembling  a  thistle. 

Acropolis.  A  fortified  city,  or  the  fortified  part  of  a 
city,  on  the  summit  of  a  hill. 

Adagio.    A  slow  movement. 

Ad  Libit  tun.  Implies  that  the  time  of  the  move- 
ment is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  performer. 

Allegretto.    With  cheerful  quickness. 

Ampliiprostyle.  A  Greek  temple,  having  two  open 
porticos  in  front  and  rear  projecting  beyond  the  side 
walls. 

Amphitheater.  A  building  for  gladiatorial  and 
other  shows,  generally  elliptical  in  form. 

Amphora.  A  wide  earthenware  jar  with  two  han- 
dles. 

Andante.    Somewhat  sedate ;  slowly. 

Animato,  Animaso,  or  Con  Animata.  Animated ; 
with  spirit. 

Angels.  In  mediaeval  art  divided  into  nine  degrees  : 
Serapnim,  Domination,  Princedom,  Cherubim,  Virtues, 
Archangels,  Thrones,  Powers,  Angels.  The  Cupid-like 
angels  were  only  introduced  in  the  time  of  the  Renas- 
cence. 

Antae.  Rectangular  pilasters  forming  the  ends  of 
the  walls  of  the  cella  of  a  Greek  temple,  and  supporting 
the  extremities  of  the  architrave.  A  temple  of  this 
form  was  called  a  temple  "  in  antis  " 

Annulus,  )     Rings  of  moldings  above  the  lower  part 

Annulet.  )     of  the  echinus  of  Doric  capitis. 

A  iit«'iix:i.  Terra  cotta  ornaments  placed  above  the 
cornice  and  on  the  ridge  of  the  roof  of  Greek  temples. 

Apse.  The  extremity  of  a  church,  generally  semicir- 
cular in  form  and  surmounted  by  a  semi-dome. 

Aquatint.  A  process  of  engraving  by  acid  laid  on  in 
even  washes  with  a  brush,  upon  a  broken  surface  formed 
by  a  crackled  film  of  resin  on  the  copper. 

Arahesque.  An  ornament  composed  of  stems,  foli- 
age, leafage  of  plants,  scrolls,  and  fantastic  animals. 
Not,  as  its  name  implies,  an  Arab  invention  but  found 
in  Greek  and  Roman  architecture. 

Arcade.    A  series  of  arches. 

Arch.  A  curved  structure,  generally  a  segment  or 
segments  of  the  circle.  Semicircular  arches  were  used 
by  the  Romans ;  horseshoe  arches  by  the  Byzantines  and 
Moors;  pointed  arches  formed  of  two  intersecting  seg- 
ments of  circles  by  the  Gothic  builders. 

Archaic.  The  early  period  of  art  when  forms  were 
stiff,  conventional,  and  symbolic. 

Architrave.  The  horizontal  part  of  a  structure  rest- 
ing immediately  on  the  capital  of  column  or  pilaster. 

Assai.    Very;  used  as  an  adverb  with  another  word. 

Astragal.  A  small  semicircular  molding  at  the  top 
of  a  column  beneath  the  capital,  also  used  to  divide  the 
architrave  horizontally  into  parts.  Named,  from  its 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  row  of  knucklebones. 

A  Temp.    In  regular  time. 

Atlantes.  Human  male  figures,  employed  instead  of 
columns  to  support  the  architrave. 

Atrium.  A  covered  court  in  a  Roman  house,  with  an 
opening  in  the  center  (compluvium)  and  roof  sloping  ia- 
wards. 


Baldachino.  A  canopy  over  seats  and  other  places 
of  honor. 

Barrel  Vault.    A  vault  of  cylindrical  form. 

Baroque.    Rococo. 

Base.  The  lower  division  of  a  column  on  which  the 
shaft  is  placed  ;  absent  in  the  Doric  order. 

Basilica.  A  rectangular  hall  divided  bv  rows  of  col- 
umns into  three  naves,  and  used  by  the  'Romans  as  a 
court  of  justice.  Adopted  as  the  typical  form  of  early 
Christian  churches. 

Bas  Relief.  (Basso  relievo.)  Figures  sculptured  on 
panel  projecting  less  than  half  their  proportions  from 
the  surface. 

Bastion.  A  projecting  polygonal  buttress  on  a  forti- 
fication. 

Battlement.  A  parapet  of  a  fortification,  consisting 
of  alternate  raised  portions  and  spaces,  the  latter  called 
crenels  or  embrasures. 

Bay.  A  portion  of  a  structure  marked  off  by  the  di- 
vision of  the  vaulting,  the  arches,  or  the  buttresses. 

Beat.    An  indication  of  a  certain  duration  of  time. 

Ben.    Implying  well,  as  ben  marcato. 

Body  Color.  In  water-color  painting,  color  made 
opaque  by  intermixture  with  white. 

Boss.  An  architectural  ornament  of  ceilings,  placed 
generally  where  the  ribs  of  the  vault  meet. 

Buttress.  A  piece  of  wall  built  at  right  angles  to  the 
wall  of  a  building  to  strengthen  the  structure,  either 
immediately  against  the  wall  or  connected  by  an  arch 
called  a  flying  buttress. 

Byzantine.  The  style  of  architecture  and  painting 
in  use  at  Constantinople  from  the  sixth  to  the  twelfth 
century 

Calando.    A  gradual  diminution  in  speed  and  tone. 

Caduceus.  A  wand  of  laurel  or  olive  on  which  two 
snakes  are  intertwined ;  the  emblem  of  Hermes. 

Capital.  The,  usually  ornamented,  member  Which 
crowns  the  top  of  a  column  or  pillar,  and  by  the  form  of 
which  the  different  orders  are  characterized. 

Caryatides.  Female  figure,  employed  instead  of  col- 
umns to  support  the  architrave. 

Cella.  The  internal  part  inclosed  by  the  walls  of  n 
Greek  temple. 

Chromatic.    Proceeding  or  formed  by  semi-tones. 

Chevron.  A  zigzag  molding  used  in  Romanesque 
architecture. 

Chevet.  A  form  of  apse  inclosed  by  an  arcade  with 
a  series  of  chapels  round  it,  common  in  Romanesque 
and  Gothic  churches  in  France. 

Chiaro-oscuro.    The  distribution  of  light  and  shade. 

Cinquefoil.  An  ornamental  foliation,  consisting  of 
five  projecting  cusps. 

Clerestory.  The  row  of  windows  forming  the  third 
or  upper  division  of  the  nave  wall  of  a  church,  rising 
above  the  roof  of  the  outer  portion  of  the  structure. 

Cloister.  A  quadrangular  covered  walk,  forming  a 
portion  of  a  monastic  building. 

Clustered  Column.  A  pier  formed  by  a  number  of 
shafts  clustered  together,  either  united,  or  separate. 

Con.    With ;  as  Con  expressions. 

Column.  A  column  consists  of  three  principal  parts  : 
base,  shaft,  and  capital. 

Composite.  The  last  of  the  Ave  Roman  architectural 
orders,  formed  by  the  combination  of  the  Ionic  volute 
with  the  foliage  capital  of  the  Corinthian. 

Corinthian.  The  third  order  in  tho  Roman  classifi- 
cation, of  Greek  origin.  Shaft  slender  and  smooth; 
capital  richlv  decorated  with  acanthus  leaf  ornaments. 

Cornice.  'The  horizontal  molded  projection  termi- 
nating a  building. 

Corona.  A  molding  forming  part  of  a  conical,  with 
lower  part  grooved  to  form  a  dripstone. 

Crescendo.    A  gradual  increase  in  tone. 

Crypt.    A  subterranean  chapel  beneath  a  church. 

Cupola.    A  concave  roof. 

Cusp.    Pointed  foliations  in  architectural  tracery. 

Cyma.  An  undulated  molding,  formed  of  a  concave 
and"  convex  arc.  When  the  upper  arc  is  convex  it  is 
called  cyma  reversa;  when  the  upper  is  hollow,  it  is 
called  cyma  recta. 

Da.    By. 

Dales,  or  Dal.    In  a  soft,  quiet  m?  nner. 

Damascened.  Metal  ornamente  1  by  inlaying  an- 
other metal. 

Delicato.    With  delicacy. 

Decorated.  The  second  of  the  pointed  or  Gothic 
Styles  of  architecture  in  England. 


RELIGION,  EDtCATlON/FIttE  ARTS. 


575 


Dentils.  Ornaments  in  the  form  of  small  cubes  or 
teeth. 

Diaper.    A  mode  of  decoration  by  a  repeated  pattern. 

Doloroso.    In  a  melancholy,  .sad  style. 

Doric.  The  oldest  and  simplest  of  the  Greek  orders 
of  architecture. 

Dormer.  A  gable  window  in  the  sloping  side  of  a 
roof. 

Dry-Point.  Direct  engraving  upon  copper  with  the 
etching  needle. 

Echinus.    The  ovolo  molding  of  a  capital. 

Elevation.    The  vertical  plan  of  a  building. 

Entablature.  The  horizontal  superstructure  which 
lies  upon  the  columns  in  classic  architecture. 

Entasis.    The  swelling  of  the  shaft  of  a  column. 

Epinaos.  The  portico  situated  at  the  back  of  a  tem- 
ple. 

Espressivo,  or  Con  Espressione.    With  expression. 

Etching.    Engraving  by  the  action  of  acid  on  acop- 

Cerplate  covered  with  a  wax  ground  on  which  lines  have 
een  scratched  by  the  etching  needle. 

Facade.    The  face  or  front  of  a  building. 

Fan  Tracery.  Elaborate  carved  work  spread  over  an 
arched  surface. 

Fine.    The  end. 

Fillet.  A  plain  band  used  in  architecture  to  separate 
ornaments  and  moldings. 

Finial.  An  ornament  of  carved  work  representing 
foliage  on  a  pinnacle  or  spire. 

Flamboyant.  The  style  of  French  architecture  pe- 
culiar to  the  fifteenth  century,  contemporary  with  per- 
pendicular in  England. 

Flutes.  Small  semicircular  grooves  or  channels  cut 
in  the  shafts  of  columns  or  pilasters. 

Forte,  or  For.    Strong,  loud. 

Fresco.  Painting  executed  on  a  freshly  laid  ground 
of  stucco. 

Fret.  An  angular,  interlaced  architectural  orna- 
ment. 

Frieze.  (1)  The  middle  division  of  an  entablature 
which  lies  between  the  architrave  and  cornice.  (1)  Any 
horizontal  sculptured  band. 

Furioso.    With  great  animation. 

Gable.  The  triangular  end  of  a  house  from  the  eaves 
to  the  top. 

Genre.    Scenes  from  domestic  life. 

Giusto.    In  perfect  time. 

Grave.    The  slowest  time  or  movement. 

Grisaille.  A  style  of  painting  in  gray  by  which  solid 
bodies  are  represented  as  if  in  relief. 

Groin.  The  angular  curve  formed  at  the  intersec- 
tions of  a  vaulted  roof. 

Gusto,  Con  Gusto.    With  style;  taste. 

Gymnasium.  A  large  building  used  by  the  Greeks 
in  which  gymnastics  were  taught  and  practiced. 

Helix.    A   small    volute    like    the  tendril  of  a  vine 
placed  under  the  Corinthian  abacus. 
Hypostyle.    A  roof  supported  by  columns. 

II.    The. 

Impetuoso.    Impetuously. 

Impasto.  The  thickness  of  the  body  of  pigment  laid 
on  to  a  pointing. 

In.    In  ;  as  in  tempo. 

Intrado,  or  1  nt  roduzione.  An  introduction  to  a 
piece  of  music. 

Intaglio.  A  stone  in  which  the  design  is  sunk  be- 
neath the  surface,  and  gives  impression  of  a  baa  relief. 

Ionic.  The  second  order  in  Greek  architecture.  Dis- 
tinguished by  the  rotated  ornaments  of  its  capital. 

Jamb.    The  side  of  any  opening  in  a  wall. 

Keystone.    The  top  stone  of  an  arch. 

Klaft.  A  royal  Egyptian  headdress  forming  a  kind 
of  hood  and  terminating  in  two  tlaps.  which  form  over 
the  breast. 

Largo.    A  slow  and  solemn  degree  of  time. 

Lancet.  A  pointed  arch,  obtuse  at  the  point,  resem- 
bling a  surgeon's  lancet. 

Lantern.  A  small  turret  above  the  roof  of  a  building 
having  windows  all  round  it. 

Legato.    In  a  smooth,  even  manner. 

Leggiando.    Lightly. 

Lintel.  The  stone  or  beam  placed  across  the  top  of  a 
door  or  window. 


Loggia.    The  gallery  or  corridor  of  a  palace. 
Lotus.    A  water  lily.    In  Egypt  and  India  held  sa- 
cred. 

Marcato.    In  a  marked  manner. 

Mansard.  A  roof  with  two  sets  of  rafters  of  which 
the  upper  part  is  less  steep  than  the  lower.  Named  af- 
ter a  French  architect. 

Marquetry.  Inlaid  work  of  ornamental  woods  and 
stones  of  various  colors. 

Mausoleum.  (1)  The  tomb  of  Mausolus,  king  of 
Caria.    (2)  Any  tomb  of  imposing  size  and  magnificence. 

Meme.    The  same. 

Mezzo.    In  a  medium  degree ;  as  mezzo  forte. 

Medallion.  A  circular  or  oval  tablet  oil  the  face  of  a 
building. 

Metope.  A  kind  of  panel  between  the  triglyphs  in 
the  Doric  frieze. 

Mezzo  Relievo.  Sculpture  in  relief  in  which  half  of 
the  figure  projects. 

Mezzo  Tinto.  A  method  of  engraving  by  smoothing 
away  the  lights  from  a  ground  mechanically  roughened. 

Moderato.     Moderately. 

Molto.    Very;  as  motto  forte. 

Movimento.    Movement;  time. 

Monolith.  An  object  formed  of  a  single  block  of 
stone. 

Mosaic.  An  imitation  of  painting  In-joining  together 
minute  pieces  of  bard  substances  of  different  colors. 

Mullioii.  The  slender  pieces  which  separate  a  win- 
dow into  compartments. 

Mutule.  An  architectural  ornament  of  the  Doric 
order,  consisting  of  a  square  block  placed  at  equal  in 
tervals  in  a  Doric  cornice. 

Naos.    The  interior  apartment  of  a  Greek  temple. 

Nave.  The  middle  part  or  body  of  a  church  from  the 
choir  to  principal  entrance  between  the  aisles. 

Nimbus.  A  halo  or  circular  disk  around  the  head  of 
sacred  personages.  After  the  eighth  century,  living 
persons  were  in  Italy  distinguished  by  a  square  nimbus, 
which  sometimes  assumes  the  form' of  a  scroll  partly 
unrolled.  The  heads  of  statues  of  gods  and  of  Roman 
emperors  were  decorated  with  a  crown  of  rays.  The 
same  is  found  in  the  Oriental  representation  of  Jsuddha. 

Obbligato.    An  essential  portion  of  a  composition. 

Ogee.  An  arch  described  with  four  centers  so  as  to 
be  concave  in  lower  and  convex  in  upper  part. 

Ogive.    A  pointed  arch. 

Order.  All,  in  architecture  consists  of  two  parts:  the 
one,  vertical,  consisting  of  a  column  and  its  base  and 
capital:  the  other,  a  horizontal  entablature,  consisting 
of  architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.  The  word  is  only  used 
when  the  order  is  one  of  the  five  whose  dimensions  and 
details  were  fixed  and  defined  by  Palladio  and  other  ar- 
chitects of  the  sixteenth  century;  these  are  the  Doric, 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  Tuscan  (supposed  to  be  a  simpler  form 
of  Doric),  and  Composite  (a  Roman  modification  of  Cor- 
inthian). 

Oriel.  A  projecting  angular  window,  generally  tri- 
angular or  pentagonals  shape. 

ottava,  or  8va.    An  octave. 

Ovolo.  A  convex  molding  much  used  in  classical 
architecture. 

Pagoda.    A  religious  building  of  the  Hindoos. 

Palaestra.  A  place  for  wrestling,  formerly  part  of 
the  gymnasium. 

Pedale,  or  Ped.  Signifies  that  performer  must  press 
down  pedal. 

Pen.    A  little. 

Pediment.  A  triangular  crowning  of  a  portico  usu- 
ally supported  by  a  row  of  columns. 

Pendentive.  "  The  part  of  a  vault  between  two  arches 
supporting  a  dome. 

Peripteral.  A  name  given  to  a  temple  which  had  a 
portico  of  six  columns  on  each  front  and  a  detached 
colonnade  of  11  on  each  side  of  the  cella. 

Peristyle.  A  building,  the  interior  of  which  is  sur- 
rounded with  columns. 

Perspective.  The  art  of  representing  on  a  flat  sur- 
face the  appearance  of  objects  from  one  given  point  of 
view. 

Piano,  or  P.    Soft. 

Pianissimo,  or  PP.    Very  soft. 

Pier.  Perpendicular  supports  from  which  arches 
spring. 

Pilaster.  Square  pillar  on  a  wall  partly  imbedded  in 
it,  less  than  one  fourth  of  its  thickness  projecting. 


576 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Pinnacle.    A  small  spire. 

Piscina.  A  stone  basin  usually  placed  in  a  niche  in 
the  wall  of  the  chancel  at  which  the  priest  might  wash 
his  hands. 

Plus.    More. 

Plinth.    The  lower  projecting  base  of  a  column. 

Poco  a  Poco.    Gradually ;  by  a  regular  gradation. 

Pomposo.    Pompously. 

Precipitato.    Very  quickly ;  hurriedly. 

Premiere.    First;  as  premiere  fois;  first  time. 

Presto.    "Very  quick. 

Primo.    First,  as  violino  primo,  first  violin. 

Pronaos.    The  portico  situated  in  front  of  a  temple. 

Propylaea.  Gateway  or  entrance  to  an  Egyptian 
temple. 

Quasi.    In  the  manner  of ;  like. 
Quieto.    With  repose,  quietly. 

Quatrefoil.  An  ornament  in  pointed  architecture, 
consisting  of  four  foils. 

Rapido.    Rapidly. 

Kinforzando.    Rinf.  or  Rf.,  with  increase. 

Ritenente,  Ritenato.    Decreasing  in  speed. 

Rococo.  A  style  of  decoration  distinguished  by  a 
superfluity  of  confused  and  discordant  detail. 

Romanesque.  The  debased  style  of  architecture  and 
ornament  adopted  in  the  later  Roman  empire,  and  the 
styles  founded  upon  it. 

Rose  Window.  A  large,  circular  window  divided 
into  compartments  by  curved  mullions. 

Rubble.  Rough  stones  and  broken  bricks,  used  to 
fill  up  between  walls. 

Rustication.  Hewn  stone  masonry,  the  joints  of 
which  are  rendered  conspicuous  by  grooves  or  channels. 

Sarcophagus.    A  stone  coffin. 

Scumbling.  The  process  of  going  over  a  painting 
with  a  brush,  nearly  dry,  to  soften  and  blend  the  tints. 

Segno.    Sign,  as  al  segno,  go  back  to  sign. 

Sempre.    Always,  as  sempre  piano. 

Serioso.    Seriously. 

Shaft.    The  body  of  a  column. 

Solo,  Sola.  Alone.  A  composition  rendered  by  one 
person. 

Sostenuto  or  Sost.    Prolonged,  sustained. 

Spirito.    With  spirit. 

Sphinx.  A  human  head  on  a  lion's  body,  typifying 
the  union  of  intellectual  and  physical  power.  An  Egyp- 
tian emblem,  signifying  the  religious  mystery. 

Staccato.    Each  note  to  be  distinctly  marked. 

Stesso.    The  same. 

Stylobate.    The  common  base  of  a  row  of  columns. 

Syncopation.    Connecting  the  last  note  of  a  bar  with 


the  first  note  of  the  following,  thus  forming  one  pro- 
longed note  with  a  duration  equal  to  the  two. 
Syncopate.    In  a  syncopated  style. 

Tanto  or  Ton.    Not  so  much. 

Tardo.    Slowly. 

Taenia.  A  band  which  separates  the  Doric  frieze 
from  the  architrave. 

Tempo  Comodo.    Conveniently. 

Tempera.  Painting  with  pigments  mixed  with  chalk 
or  clay,  and  diluted  with  size. 

Theme.     A  subject. 

Thalamus.     The  nuptial  chamber  in  a  Rome  house. 

Torso.    The  trunk  of  the  statue  of  a  human  figure. 

Tranquillo.     Tranquilly. 

Tremendi.    With  terrific  expression. 

Tremando,  Tremolo.  The  rapid  striking  of  a  note 
so  as  to  produce  a  tremulous  effect. 

Trille,  or  Trillo.     A  trill  or  shake. 

Trio.    A  composition  for  three  performers. 

Triplet.  A  group  of  three  notes  equal  in  duration  of 
time  to  two  notes  of  the  same  value. 

Tracery.    Geometrical  ornament. 

Transept.  A  transverse  nave,  passing  in  front  of 
the  choir,  and  crossing  the  longitudinal  nave  of  a  church. 

Transom.    The  horizontal  cross  bar  in  a  window. 

Trefoil.    An  ornament  of  three  foils. 

Triforium.  The  second  or  middle  story  of  the  nave 
wall  of  a  Gothic  church,  consisting  of  a  gallery  over  the 
ceiling  of  the  side  aisle  and  below  its  roof. 

Triglyph.  An  ornament,  consisting  of  three  flutings 
or  upright  groupings,  separating  the  metopes  in  a  Doric 
frieze. 

Triptych.    A  form  of  pictures  in  three  panels. 

Tympanum.  The  triangular  space  between  the 
horizontal  and  sloping  cornices.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  space  included  between  the  lintel  of  a  door 
and  the  arch  over  it. 

Un.    A,  as  un  poco,  a  little. 

Vault.    An  arched  ceiling  or  roof  of  stone. 

Veloce.    Rapidly. 

Velocissimo.    With  great  rapidity. 

Vigoroso.    With  vigor. 

Vivace.    Vivamented ;  briskly. 

Volti  Subito.    Turn  over  quickly. 

Volute.    A  spiral  scroll. 

Voussoirs.  The  wedge-shaped  stones  used  in  con- 
structing an  arch. 

(Lit.  bearing  animals.)  A  continuous 
frieze,  decorated  with  figures  of  ani- 
mals, conventional  and  real. 


Zoophorus, 
Zophorus. 


o 
o 

H 

O 

= 


a 

w 
pd 

o 

o 

O 
C 

SQ 


Book  VIII. 
Miscellaneous  Facts  *«<*  Figures. 


Miscellaneous  Facts  and  Figures. 


Signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 


Name. 


Adams,  John 

Adams,  Samuel 

Bartlett,  Josiah 

Braxton,  Carter 

Carroll,  Charles . . . 31 

Chase,  Samuel 41 

Clark,  Abraham 14 

Clymer,  George 38 

El'lerv,  William 22 

Floyd,  William  5 

Franklin,  Benjamin 46 

Gerry,  Elbridge |  8 

Gwinnett,  Button 40 

Hancock,  John I  1 

Hall,  Lyman 47 

Harrison,  Benj 54 

Hart,  John 13 

Hewes,  Joseph 35 

Hey  ward,  Jr.,  Thos 56 

Hooper,  Win 23 

Hopkins,  Steph 12 

Hopkinson,  Francis 29 

Huntington,  Sam'l 11 

Jefferson,  Thos 32 

Lee,  Richard  Henry 4* 

Lee,  Francis  Lightfoot. . .  55 

Lewis,  Francis j  7 

Livingston,  Philip 3 

Lynch,  Jr.,  Thos 43 

M'Kean,  Thos 39 

Middleton,  Arthur 50 

Morris,  Lewis 15 

Morris,  Robert 24 

Morton,  John 16 

Nelson.  Jr.,  Thos 49 

Paca,  William 28 

Pai  ne,  Robert  Treat 4 

Penn,John 18 

Read,  George 41 

Rodney,  Caesar 52 

Ross,  George 37 

Rush,  Benjamin 46 

Rutledge,  Edward 34 

Sherman,  Roger 19 

Smith,  James 36 

Stockton,  Richard 10 

Stone,  Thomas 30 

Taylor,  Geo 88 

Thornton.  Matthew 17 

Walton,  George 53 

Whipple,  William 20 

Williams,  William 26 

Wilson,  James 42 

Witherspoon,  John 21 

Wolcott,  Oliver 25 

Wythe,  George 45 


Colony. 


Occupation.1       Born.- 


Birthplace. 


Died. 


Massachusetts  Bay..  Lawyer Oct.  19,1735 

Massachusetts  Bay..  Merchant...  Sep.  22,1722 

New  Hampshire Physician  . .  Nov.,      1729 

Virginia Planter Sep.  10,1736 

Maryland Lawyer Sep.  20, 1737 

Maryland Lawyer Apr.  17,  1741 

New  Jersey Lawyer Feb.  15, 1726 

Pennsylvania (Merchant...  Jan.  21,1739 

R.I. and  Prov.  Plan.  Lawyer Dec. 22, 1727 

New  York Farmer  Deo.  17, 1734 

Pennsylvania Printer Jan.  17, 1706 

Massachusetts  Bay.    Merchant...  July  17,1744 

Georgia Merchant. . .' 1732 

Massachusetts  Bay. .  Merchant.. .  Jan.  12,1737 

Georgia '. . .  Physician  ..  1731 

Virginia Farmer ' 1710 

New  Jersey Farmer ' 1715 

North  Carolina Lawyer 1730 

South  Carolina Lawyer j 1746 

North  Carolina Lawyer June  17,  1742 

R.  Land  Prov.  Plan.  Farmer Mar.    7, 1707 


New  Jersey Lawyer. 

Connecticut Lawyer. 

Virginia Lawyer. 

Virginia Soldier. 

Virginia Farmer. 


Merchant.. 
Merchant.. 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Farmer 

Merchant. . 
Surveyor . . 
Statesman. 
Lawyer 


New  York 

New  York , 

South  Carolina 

Delaware 

South  Carolina 

New  York 

Pennsylvania . . 
Pennsylvania  . . 

Virginia 

Maryland 

Massachusetts  Bay. .  Lawyer 

North  Carolina Lawyer 

Delaware 

Delaware 

Pennsylvania  . . . 
Pennsylvania  . . . 
South  Carolina. , 

Connecticut. 

Pennsylvania  . . . 

New  Jersey , 

Maryland 

Pennsylvania  . . . 
New  Hampshire 

Georgia 'Lawyer    . 

Connecticut Sailor 

Connecticut Statesman 

Pennsylvania Lawyer. . . 

New  Jersey Minister. . 

Connecticut Physician 

Virginia Lawyer 1726 


Lawyer 

General. . . , 

Lawyer 

Physician  , 
Lawyer. 


Shoemaker. 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Lawyer 

Physician . . 
Physician  . . 


173 

Julv  3,  1732 
Apr.  13, 1743 
Jan.  20,  1732 
Oct.  14,1734 
March,  1713 
Jan.  15, 171C 
Aug.  5, 1749 
Mar.  19, 1734 

1743 

172() 

Jan.  20, 17.54 

1724 

Dec.  26, 1738 
Oct.  81, 1740 

1731 

May  17, 1741 

1734 

1730 

1730 

Dec.  24,  1745 
Nov.,  1749 
Apr.  19, 1721 

1710 

Oct.  1, 1730 

1742 

1716 

1714 

1740 

1730 

8, 1731 

...1742 

Feb.  5, 1722 

Nov.  26, 1726 


Apr. 


Braintree Mass.  July    4, 

Boston Mass.  Oct.    3. 

Amesbury Mass.  May  19, 

Newington Va.  Oct.  10, 

Annapolis M<l.  Nov.  h, 

Somerset  Co Md.  June  19, 

Blizabetbtown. ..N.J.  Sep., 

Philadelphia Pa.  Jan.  23, 

Newport R.  I.  Feb.  15, 

Setanket N.  Y.  Aug.   1, 

Boston Mass.  Apr.  17. 

Marblehead Mass.  Nov.  28, 

England  May  27, 

Braintree Mass.  Oct.    8, 

Conn. 

Berkeley Va. 

Hopewell N.  J. 

Kingston N.  J. 

St,  Luke's S.  C. 

Boston Mass. 

Seituate Mass. 

Philadelphia Pa. 

Windham Conn 

Shadwell  ..., Va. 

Stratford Va. 

Stratford Va . 

Llandaff Wales 

Albany N.  Y. 

Pr.  George's  Co..S.  C. 

New  London Pa. 

Middleton  PI S.  C. 

Morrisania N.  Y". 

Lancashire Eng. 

Uidlev Pa. 

York Va. 

Wye  Hall Md. 

Boston Mass.  May  11, 

Caroline  Co Va.  Sep., 

Cecil  Co Md. 

Dover Del 

Newcastle Del.  .lulv. 

Berberry Pa.  Apr.  19, 

Charleston B.C.  Jan.  23, 

Newton Mass.  July  23, 

Ireland  July  11, 

Princeton N.  J.  Feb,  28, 

PointoinManor...Md.  Oct.    5, 

Ireland  Feb.  23, 

Ireland  June  24, 

Frederick  Co Va.  Feb.    2, 

Kittery Me.  Nov.  28, 

Lebanon Conn.  Aug.  2, 

St.  Andrews Scot.  Aug.  28, 

Yester Scot.  Nov.  15, 

Windsor Conn.  Dec.    1, 

Elizabeth  Co Va.  June  8, 


April, 

Xov.10. 
March, 
Oct., 

July  13. 
May  B, 
Jan.  5. 
July  4. 
June  19, 
April, 
Dee.  30, 
J  une  12, 

June  24, 
Jan.  1, 
Jan.  22, 
May     8, 

April, 
Jan.    4, 


826  92 
803  81 
95  67 
7: 17  62 
832  90 
8U  71 
794  69 

813  75 

820  93 

821  87 

790  85 

814  71 

777  45 

793  57 
784  53 

791  51 

780  66 
779  49 
809  63 

790  49 
786  79 

791  54 

796  64 
826  83 

794  63 

797  63 
8(13  91 

778  63 

779  3C 
817  84 
788  44 

798  72 
806  73 
777  53 

89  61 

799  59 
814  84 

'88  48 
98  M 
83  53 
79  49 
813  68 

800  51 

93  7:; 
806  96 

781  61 
7s;  46 
781  65 
803  89 
sot  64 

85  55 

811  81 

98  56 

94  73 
97  72 

806  80 


•  Order  in  which  they  signed.       t  Age  at  death. 


Position  of  the  Center  of  Population. 

Ykars. 

North 
Latitude. 

West 
Longitude. 

Approximate  Location  by  Iijiportant  Towns. 

Westward  Movement 

During 

Preceding  Decade. 

1790 

39°  16.5' 
39    16.1 
39    11.6 
39      5.7 

38  57.9 

39  2.0 

38  59.0 

39  0.4 
39    12.0 
39      4.1 
39    11.9 

76°  11.2' 
75    56  5 

77  37.2 

78  33  (l 

79  16.9 

80  18.0 

81  19  0 

82  48.8 

83  35.7 

84  39  7 
86    32.9 

1808 

1810 

40  miles  northwest  by  west  of  Washington,  D.  C. .. 

36      " 

1820 

50      " 

1830 

39      " 

1840 

55      " 

1850 

55      " 

I860 

20  miles  south  of  Cbillieotlie.  <  )bio 

SI       " 

1870 

42 

1880 

68      •• 

1890 

48      " 

MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


579 


THE  ARMY    DURING   THE   CIVIL 
WAR. 

The  following  table  shows  the  dates  of  the 
President's  proclamations  for  men,  t lie  num- 
ber of  men  called  for,  and  the  number  secured. 


Date  o»  Pbbst- 

df.xt's   Proclama- 
tion. 

Number 
Called  for 

Period 

of 
Service. 

Number 
Obtained. 

April  US,  1881 

75,003 

3  months 

93,326 

May  3, 1861 

July  22 and  26, 1861.. 

82,748  i 
500,000) 

3  years 

714,231 

Hay  and  June,  1862. 

3  months 

15,007 

Julv2.1862 

300,000 

3  vears 

431,958 

August  4, 1862 

300.C00 

9  months 

87,688 

June  15, 1863 

100,000 

6  months 

16,361 

October  17,1863 

February  1.1*04 

300,060  i 
200.000 ) 

2  years 

374,807 

March  14, 1864 

200,000 

3  vears 

284.021 

April  23, 1864 

80,000 

100  (lays 

83,<  52 

July  18,1864 

600,000 

1,2,  3  years 

384.882 

December  19,1864... 

300,000 

1,2,  ;:  years 

204.C68 

Total 

2,942,748 

2,690,401 

NUMBEB  OF    MEN    IX    THE   UNION  ARMY    FUR- 
NISHED BY  EACH  STATE  AND  TERRITORY, 
FROM  APRIL  15,  18(51,  TO  CLOSE  OF  WAIL 


States  and  Tkrki- 

TORIES. 


Number  of 

Men 
Furnished. 


Aggregate 
Reduced    to    a 
1  Three  Years' 
Standing. 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana  

Iowa 

Kansas   

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Y'ork." 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

Tennessee 

Texas  

Vermont 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Dakota , 

District  of  Columbia. 

Indian  Territory 

Montana ' 

New  Mexico 

Utah 

Washington 

1".  S.  Army 

U«  S.  Volunteers 

U.  S.  Colored  Troops.. 


•_•.:.:.<; 

1,611 

8,289 

7.836 

15.725 

15.725 

4,903 

3,697 

05,864 

50,623 

12,284 

10,322 

1,290 

1,290 

259,092 

214,133 

196,363 

153,576 

76,242 

68.630 

20,149 

18,706 

75,760 

70,832 

5,224 

4.654 

7(i.ln7 

56.776 

46.638 

41.27.') 

146.730 

124.104 

87464 

80.1H 

24.020 

19,693 

545 

545 

109.111 

86,530 

3.157 

2.175 

1,080 

1,080 

33,937 

30,849 

76.814 

57. 9  8 

448,850 

392.270 

3.156 

3,156 

313,180 

210.514 

1,810 

1.77;; 

337,936 

23,236 

17.866 

31,092 

26,394 

1,965 

1.632 

332288 

29,068 

32,068 

27.714 

01,827 

79.260 

206 

206 

16,534 

1.506 

3,530 

3,530 

6,561 
964 


93,441 


i,i;;2 

'964 


91,789 


The  number  of  casualties  in  the  volunteer 
and  regular  armies -of  the  United  States,  dur- 
ing the  war  of  1861-*65,  according  to  a  state- 
ment prepared  hy  the  Adjutant-General's 
office,  was  as  follows  :  Killed  in  hattle,  67,058  ; 
died  of  wounds,  43,012 ;  died  of  disease, 
199,720;  other  causes,  such  as  accidents, 
murder,  Confederate  prisons,  etc.,  40,154; 
total  died,  349,914  ;  total  deserted,  199,105. 
Number  of  soldiers  in  the  Confederate  service 
who  died  of  wounds  or  disease  (partial  state- 
ment), 133,821.  Deserted  (partial  statement), 
101,428.  Number  of  United  States  troops 
captured  during  the  war,  212,008  ;  Confed- 
erate troops  captured,  476,169.  Number  of 
United  States  troops  paroled  on  the  field, 
16,431  ;  Confederate  troops  paroled  on  the 
field,  248,599.  Number  of  United  States 
troops  who  died  while  prisoners,  30,156  ;  Con- 
federate troops  who  died  while  prisoners, 
30,152. 

The  Strength  of  the  Federal  Army. 


Date. 


On  Dutv.       Absent. 


Total. 


January  1,1861 
July  1,"1861.... 
January  1,1862 
January  1, 1863 
January  1. 1*04 
January  1. 1865 
May  l,i865 


14,663 
is:;  >s 
527,204 
698,802 
611,250 
620,924 
797.807 


1,704 
3,1(3 
48.714 
219,389 
249,487 
338.636 


16,367 
186,751 
575.917 
918,181 
860,737 
959.460 


202,709        1,000,516 


Total. 


22326,168 


The  Union  losses  at  Bull  Run  (first  Ma- 
nassas), July  21,  1861,  were:  Killed,  470, 
wounded,  1,071  ;  captured  and  missing,  1,793  ; 
aggregate,  3,334. 

The  Confederate  losses  in  particular  engage- 
ments were  as  follows  :  Bull  Run  (first  Ma- 
nassas), July  21,  1861,  killed,  387;  wounded, 
1,582;  captured  and  missing,  13  ;  aggregate. 
1,982.  Fort  Donelson,  Tenn.,  February  14- 
16,  1862,  killed,  466  ;  wounded,  1,534;  cap- 
tured and  missing,  13,829 ;  aggregate,  15,- 
829.  Shiloh,  Tenn.,  April  6-7,  1862,  killed, 
1,723;  wounded,  8,012;  captured  and  miss- 
ing, 959 ;  aggregate,  10,694.  Seven  Days' 
Battle,  Virginia,  June  25-July  1,  1862,  killed, 
3,478;  wounded,  16,261;  captured  and  miss- 
ing, 875 ;  aggregate,  20,614.  Second  Ma- 
nassas, August  21-September  2,  1862,  killed, 
1,481;  wounded  and  missing,  7,627;  cap- 
tured and  missing,  89;  aggregate,  9.197. 
Antietam  campaign,  September  12-20,  1882, 
killed.  1,886;  wounded,  9,348;  captured  and 
missing,  1,367:  aggregate,  12,601.  Fred- 
ericksburg, December  13,  1862,  killed,  596  ; 
wounded,  4,068 ;  captured  and  missing,  651  ; 
aggregate,  5,315.  Stone  River,  Tenn.,  De- 
cember 31,  1862,  killed,  1,294;  wounded, 
7,945;    captured    and  missing,  1,027 ;    aggre- 


580 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


gate,  10,266.  Chancellorsville,  May  1-4, 
1863,  killed,  1,665;  wounded,  9,081;  cap- 
tured and  missing,  2,018  ;  aggregate,  12,764. 
Gettysburg,  July  1-3,  1863,  killed,  2,592; 
wounded,  12,706  ;  captured  and  missing,  5,- 
150  ; -aggregate,  20,448.  Chickamauga,  Sep- 
tember 19-20,  1863  ;  killed,  2,268  ;  wounded, 


13,613;    captured  and  missiug,  1,090;  aggre- 
gate, 16,971. 

"  Gettysburg  was  the  greatest  battle  of  the 
war ;  Antietam  the  bloodiest.  The  largest 
army  was  assembled  by  the  Confederates  at 
the  seven  days'  fight ;  by  the  Unionists  at  the 
Wilderness." 


THE  GREAT  BATTLES  OF  THE  CIVIL  WAR. 

As  to  the  loss  in  the  Union  armies,  the  greatest  battles  in  the  war  were :  ■ 


Date. 

Battle. 

Killed. 

Wounded.* 

Missing. 

Aggregate. 

July  1-3, 18C3 

May  8-18,1864 

May  5-7,1864 

September  17, 1862 

Mayl-3,  1863 

September  19,20, 1863. . . . 

Junel-4,1864 

December  11-14, 1862 

August  28-30, 1862 

3,070 
2,725 
2,246 
2,108 
1,606 
1,656 
1.844 
1 ,284 
1.747 
1.754 
1.730 
l.<>8 

14,497 
13,413 
12,037 
9.549 
9,762 
9,749 

5,434 
2,258 
3,383 
753 
5,919 

4  77.1 

23,001 
18,396 

16,179 

Cold  Harbor 

9,077                      1  «ifi 

9  600 
8.452 
8,408 
7.802 
8,613 

1,769 
4,263 
2,885 
3.717 
1,185 

12,653 
14,462 
13,047 
13,249 
11,386 

Shiloh 

December  31, 1862 

June  15-19, 1864 

*  Wounded  in  these  and  the  following  returns  includes  mortally  wounded, 
t  Not  including  South  Mountain  or  Crampton's  Gap. 

j  Including  Chantilly,  Rappahannock,  Bristol  Station,  and  Bull  Run  Bridge. 
§  Including  Knob  Gap  and  losses  on  January  1  and  2, 1863. 


Secession   and   Readmission  of   Con- 
federate States. 


Seceded.  Readmitted. 

South  Carolina Dec.   20,  I860.... June  11,1868 

Mississippi Jan.     9,  1861....  Feb.     3,1870 

Alabama Jan.  11,  1861...  June  11,1868 

Florida Jan.  11,  1861...  June  11,1868 

Georgia Jan.  19,  1861.... April  20,  1870 

Louisiana Jan,  26,  1861.... June  11,  1868 

Texas Feb.    1,  1861 . . .  .Mar.   15,  1870 

Virginia April  16,  1861....  Jan.    15,  1870 

Arkansas May     6,  1861. ...June  20,  1868 

North  Carolina May  21,  1861. ...June  11,  1868 

Tennessee June  24,  1861....July,        1866 

The  whole  number  of  men  obtained  by 
draft  was  168,649.  The  whole  number  of 
colored  troops  obtained  was  186,097.  The 
greatest  number  in  active  service  in  the  army 
at  any  one  time  was  797,807. 

The  Diplomatic  Service. — The  diplo- 
matic service  of  the  United  States,  all  of  which 
is  in  charge  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  consists 
of  Envoys  Extraordinary  and  Ministers  Pleni- 
potentiary, Ministers  Resident, Charges  d'Af- 
f aires,  Consuls-General,  Consuls  and  Commer- 
cial Agents. 

The  highest  class  of  ministers  are  those 
sent  to  France,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
Russia;  they  are  paid  $17,500  per  year.  The 
second  class  ($12,000  a  year)  are  sent  to  Aus- 
tria, Hungary,  Brazil,  China,  Italy,  Japan, 
Mexico,  and  Spain.  The  third  class  ($10,000 
a  year)  go  to  Chile,  Peru,  and  the  Central 
American  States.     Ministers  Resident  receive 


$7,500  (with  the  exception  of  the  one  in 
Bolivia,  $5,000,  and  the  one  in  Liberia, 
$1,000),  and  are  in  the  Argentine  Republic, 
Belgium,  Colombia,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Hayti, 
the  Netherlands,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Turkey 
and  Venezuela.  Charges d'  Affaires  have  $5,000 
a  year,  and  are  in  Denmark,  Portugal,  Swit- 
zerland, Uruguay,  and  Paraguay.  There  are 
five  Consuls-General  in  British  dominions,  at 
Calcutta,  Melbourne,  London,  Halifax,  and 
Montreal ;  two  in  Germany,  at  Berlin  and 
Frankfort ;  two  in  Turkey,  at  Cairo  and 
Constantinople ;  and  one  each  in  Paris,  Vi- 
enna, Rome,  St.  Petersburg,  Bucharest, 
Bangkok,  Shanghai,  Kanagawa,  and  Mex- 
ico. Their  salaries  range  from  $2,000  to 
$6,000.  There  are  the  following  ranks  of 
consulates:  Five  at  $6,000  a  year;  two  at 
$5,000  ;  one  at  $4,500  ;  six  at  $*4,000;  eight 
at  $3,500;  twenty-one  at  $3,000;  sixteen  at 
$2,500;  thirty-seven  at  $2,000;  forty-seven 
at  $1,500;  and  twenty  at  $1,000.  All  con- 
suls receiving  a  fixed  salary  pay  into  the 
treasury  all  fees  received  by  virtue  of  their 
office.  But  there  are  many  consuls  and 
agents  whose  only  compensation  comes  from 
fees.  Such  officers  are  usually  allowed  to  go 
into  business. 

Mason  and  Dixon's  Line. —  A  name 
given  to  the  southern  boundary  line  of  the 
free    state    of    Pennsylvania   which   formerly 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


581 


separated  it  from  the  slave  states  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia.  It  was  run  -■-  with  the  excep- 
tion of  about  twenty-two  miles  —  by  Charles 
Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  two  English 
mathematicians  and  surveyors,  between  Nov. 
15,  1763,  and  Dec.  26,  1767.  During  the  ex- 
cited debate  in  Congress,  in  1820,  on  the  ques- 
tion of  excluding  slavery  from  Missouri,  the 
eccentric  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke  made 
great  use  of  this  phrase,  which  was  caught  up 
and  re-echoed  by  every  newspaper  in  the  land, 
and  thus  gained  a  celebrity  which  it  still  re- 
tains. 

Famous  Giants  and  Dwarfs. —  The 
most  noted  giants  of  ancient  and  modern 
times  are  as  follows  :  — 

Height, 
Name.  Place.         Feet.         Period. 

Goliath Palestine..    11.0    B.  C.  1063. 

Galbara Rome 9.9    Claudius  Caesar. 

John  Middleton England. .      9.3    A.  D.  1578. 

Frederick's  Swede Sweden...      8.4    

Cujanus Finland...      7.9    

Gil'lv Tvrol 8.1    

Patrick  Cotter Cork 8.7    1806. 

Chang  Gow Pekiu 7.8    1880. 

Many  of  the  great  men  of  history  have  been 
rather  small  in  stature.  Napoleon  was  only 
about  5  ft.  4  in.,  while  Grant  was  5  ft.  7  in. 
One  of  the  greatest  of  American  statesmen, 
Alexander  H.  Stephens,  never  excelled  115 
pounds  in  weight,  and  in  his  old  age  his 
weight  was  less  than  100  pounds. 

The  more  notable  human  mites  are  named 
below  :  — ■ 

Height,  Date  of      Place  of 

Name.  Inches.  Birth.        Birth. 

Count  Borowlaski 39  1739      Warsaw. 

Tom  Thumb  (Chas.  S.  Stratton)    31  1837      New  York. 

Mrs.  Tom  Thumb 32  1842      New  York. 

Che-Mab 25  1838     China. 

Lucia  Zarate 20  1863      Mexico. 

General  Mite 21  1864      New  York. 

Summer  Heat  in  Various  Countries. 

—  The  following  figures  show  the  extreme 
summer  heat  in  the  various  countries  of  the 
world  :  Bengal  and  the  African  desert,  150° 
Fahrenheit ;  Senegal  and  Guadaloupe,  130°  ; 
Persia,  125°  ;  Calcutta  and  Central  America, 
120°  ;  Afghanistan  and  the  Arabian  desert, 
110°  ;  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Utah,  105°  ; 
Greece,  101°  ;  Arabia,  103  ;  Montreal,  103°  ; 
New  York,  102° ;  Spain,  India,  China, 
Jamaica,  100° ;  Sierra  Leone,  94° ;  France, 
Denmark,  St.  Petersburg,  Shanghai,  the  Bur- 
man  Empire,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  90°  ;  Great  Britain,  Siam,  and 
Peru,  85°  ;  Portugal,  Pekin,  and  Natal,  80°  ; 
Siberia,  77°  ;  Australia  and  Scotland,  75°  ; 
Italy,  Venezuela,  and  Madeira,  73°  ;  Prussia 
and  New  Zealand,  70°  ;  Switzerland  and  Hun- 
gary, 66°  ;  Bavaria,  Sweden,  Tasmania,  and 
Moscow,  65°  ;  Patagonia  and  the  Falkland 
Isles,  55°  ;  Iceland,  45°  :  Nova  Zembla,  34°. 


Curious  Misnomers. —  Arabic  figures 
were  not  invented  by  the  Arabs,  but  the  early 
scholars  of  India. 

Cleopatra's  needles  were  not  erected  by  that 
queen,  neither  do  they  commemorate  any  event 
in  her  history.  They  were  set  up  by  Rameses 
the  Great. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  has  no  connection 
whatever  with  the  holy  city  of  the  Jews.  It  is 
a  species  of  sunflower,  and  gets  its  name  from 
girasole,  one  of  the  scientific  names  of  that 
genus  of  plants. 

The  word  "pen  "  means  a  feather,  and  is 
from  the  Latin  penna,  a  wing.  Surely  the  ex- 
pression ' '  a  steel  pen  ' '  could  be  improved 
upon. 

Galvanized  iron  is  not  galvanized  at  all,  but 
is  coated  writh  zinc  by  being  plunged  into  a 
bath  of  that  metal  and  muriatic  acid. 

Pompey's  pillar  at  Alexandria  was  neither 
erected  by  Pompey  nor  to  his  memory. 

Common  salt  is  not  a  salt  and  has  long  since 
been  excluded  from  the  class  of  bodies  denom- 
inated "  salts." 

Rice  paper  is  not  made  from  either  rice  or 
straw,  but  from  a  pithy  plant  called  tungtsua, 
found  in  China,  Corea,  and  Japan. 

Brazil  grass  neither  comes  from  nor  grows 
in  Brazil.  It  is  strips  from  a  species  of  Cuban 
palm. 

Rare  United  States  Coins  and  their 
Value. —  The  rarest  of  the  Half-cents  are  as 
follows :  1793  valued  at  $  1  :  1796  valued  at 
$10 ;  1831,  1836,  1840  to  1849,  and  1852,  val- 
ued at  $4. 

The  rarest  of  the  Cents  are  as  follows  :  1793 
with  wreath  is  valued  at  #2.50  ;  1793  with 
chain  valued  at  $3.50  ;  1793  with  liberty  cap, 
valued  at  $4  ;  1799  valued  at  $25  ;  1804  valued 
at  $200;    1809  valued  at  $1. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Dollars  are  as  fol- 
lows:  1794  valued  at  $35;  1798,  with  small 
eagle,  valued  at  $2  ;  1799,  with  five  stars  fac- 
ing, valued  at  $2  ;  1804  valued  at  $800  ;  1836 
valued  at  $5;  1838  valued  at  $25;  1839  val- 
ued at  $15  ;  1851  valued  at  $20  ;  1852  valued 
at  $25  ;  1854  valued  at  $6  ;  1855  valued  at  $5  ; 
1856  valued  at  $2  ;  1858  valued  at  $20. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Half  Dollars  are  as  fol- 
lows :  1794  valued  at  $5  ;  1796  valued  at  $40  ; 
1797  valued  at  $30  ;  1801  valued  at  $2;  1802 
valued  at  $2;  1815  valued  at  $4  ;  1836  reeded, 
valued  at  $3;  1838  Orleans,  valued  at  $5; 
1852  valued  at  83  ;  1853,  no  arrows,  valued  at 
$15. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Quarter  Dollars  are 
as  follows  :  1796  valued  at  $3  ;  1804  valued  at 
$i ;  1823  valued  at  $50  ;  1853,  no  arrows,  val- 
ued at  $4. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Twenty-cent  pieces 


582 


THE    CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


are  as  follows  :  1874  proof,  valued  at  $10  ;  1877 
proof,  valued  at  $2  ;  1878  proof,  valued  at  $2. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Dimes,  or  Ten-cent 
pieces,  are  as  follows  :  1796  valued  at  $3  ;  1797, 
16  stars,  valued  at  $4  ;  1797,  13  stars,  valued 
at  14.50;  1798  valued  at  $2;  1800  valued  at 
$4;  1801  to  1804,  each  valued  at  $3;  1804 
valued  at  $5  ;  1805  to  1811,  each  valued  at  50 
cents  ;  1811  valued  at  75  cents  ;  1822  valued  at 
$3;  1846  valued  at  $1. 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Half- Dimes,  or  Five- 
cent  pieces,  are  as  follows  :  1794  valued  at  $3  ; 
1795  valued  at  75  cents;  1796  and  1797  val- 
ued at  $2  each  ;  1800  valued  at  75  cents  ;  1801 
valued  at  $1.50;  1802  valued  at  $50;  1803 
valued  at  $1.50  ;  1805  valued  at  $3  ;  1846  val- 
ued at  $1 . 

The  rarest  of  the  Silver  Three-cent  pieces 
are  as  follows  :  1851  to  1855  valued  at  15  cents 
each  ;  1855  valued  at  25  cents;  1856  to  1862 
valued  at  15  cents  each;  1863  to  1873  valued 
at  50  cents  each. 

Feminine  Height  and  Weight. —  It  is 
often  asked  how  heavy  a  woman  ought  to  be 
in  proportion  to  her  height.  A  very  young 
girl  may  becomingly  be  thinner  than  a  matron, 
but  the  following  table  gives  a  fair  indication 
of  proper  proportions  :  — 


Pounds. 
Five  ft.  in  height.about  100 
Five  ft.  one  inch  "  10(i 
Five  ft.  two  inches  "  113 
Five  ft.  three  in.  "  119 
Five  ft.  four  in.  "  130 
Five  ft.  five  inches  "  138 
Five  ft.  six  inches    "      144 


rounds. 
Five  ft.  seven  in., about  150 
Five  ft.  eight  in.  "  155 
Five  ft.  nine  in.  "  1G3 
Five  ft.  ten  inches  "  169 
Five  ft.  eleven  in.  "  176 
Six  feet  "       180 

Six  feet  one  inch      "      186 


Great  Financial  Panics. —  The  most 
remarkable  crises  since  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  have  been  as  follows  :  1814, 
England,  two  hundred  and  forty  banks  sus- 
pended ;  1825,  Manchester,  failures  two  mil- 
lions ;  1831,  Calcutta,  failures  fifteen  millions  ; 
1837,  United  States,  "Wild-cat"  crisis,  all 
banks  closed  ;  1839,  Bank  of  England  saved  by 
Bank  of  France  ;  severe  also  in  France,  where 
ninety-three  companies  failed  for  six  millions  ; 
1844,  England,  state  loans  to  merchants, 
Bank  of  England  reformed;  1847,  England, 
failures  twenty  millions,  discount  thirteen  per 
cent.;  1857,  United  States,  7,200  houses  fa  iled 
for  one  hundred  and  eleven  millions;  1866, 
London,  Overend-Gurney  crisis,  failures  ex- 
ceeded one  hundred  millions;  1869,  Black 
Friday  in  New  York  (Wall  street),  Septem- 
ber 24. 

Yankee-Doodle. —  The  air  known  as 
"  Yankee- Doodle  "  wa»  originally  "  Nankee- 
Doodle,"  and  is  as  old  as  the  time  of  Crom- 
well. It  was  known  in  New  England  before 
the  Revolution,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
played  by  the  English  troops  in  derisive  allu- 
sion to  the  then  popular  nickname  of  the  New 


Englanders  ;  and  afterwards  the  New  Engend- 
ers, saying  that  the  British  troops  had  been 
made  to  dance  to  "Yankee-Doodle,"  adopted 
the  air. 

Yankee,  Origin  of  the  Name. —  The 
theories  which  have  been  advanced  as  to  the 
origin  of  this  name  are  numerous.  According 
to  Thierny  it  was  a  corruption  of  Jankin,  a 
diminutive  of  John,  which  was  a  nickname  given 
by  the  Dutch  colonists  of  New  York  to  their 
neighbors  in  the  Connecticut  settlements.  In 
a  history  of  the  American  war,  written  by  Dr. 
William  Gordon,  and  published  in  1789,  was 
another  theory.  Dr.  Gordon  said  that  it  was 
a  cant  word  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  as  early  as 
1713,  used  to  denote  especial  excellence  —  as  a 
Yankee  good  horse,  Yankee  good  cider,  etc. 
He  supposed  that  it  was  originally  a  byword 
in  the  college,  and,  being  taken  by  the  students 
into  parts  of  the  country,  gradually  obtained 
general  currency  in  New  England,  and  at 
length  came  to  be  taken  up  in  other  parts  of 
the  country,  and  applied  to  New  Englanders 
as  a  term  of  slight  reproach.  Aubury,  an 
English  writer,  says  that  it  is  derived  from  a 
Cherokee  word  —  eankke  —  which  signifies  cow- 
ard and  slave.  This  epithet  was  bestowed  on 
the  inhabitants  of  New  England  by  the  Vir- 
ginians for  not  assisting  them  in  a  war  with 
the  Cherokees.  The  most  probable  theory, 
however,  is  that  advanced  by  Mr.  Heckewelder, 
that  the  Indians,  in  endeavoring  to  pronounce 
the  word  English,  or  Anglais,  made  it  Yen- 
gees,  or  Yangees,  and  this  originated  the  term. 

The  World's  Fairs. 


WHERE 

Held. 


London. 

Paris 

London 

Paris 

Vienna 

Philadelphia 

Paris 

Sydney * 

Melbourne  .. 

Fisheries  Ex- 
hibit ion, 
London..  - 

Health  Inhi- 
bition,Lon- 
don   

I  n  ve  ntions 
Exhibition, 
London 

Colonial  and 
I  n  d  i  a  n  , 
London.. .. 

Glasgow 

Paris  

Chicago 


1851 
1856 
1862 
1867 
is::; 
1870 
1878 
1879 

1SSII 


1883 
1884 
1885 


1886 
1888 
1889 
1893 


Area 

a* 

Cov- 

"Z - 

ered.* 

s- 

.Icrrs. 

21 

13,937 

24»4 

20,839 

23V2 

28,653 

37 

50,22(1 

40 

50,000 

CO 

30,864 

60 

40,366 

26 

9,846 

9 

3,000 

13 

::,., 
<;:;:; 

55,000 

*  d 

a  — 

3q 


6,039 
5,162 
6,211 
8,805 
6,740 
10,164 
16,032 
1,117 
1,330 


«.r 


in 

•_>oo 
171 
217 
186 
159 
194 


636    210 

,270    210 


2,703,051 
4,153,390 
3,760,581 


(1,780,000 

644.100 
1,614,260 

2.1li::. 675 

1,032,386 

3,813,724 

2,531,650 

200,000 


585,000 
892,545 
750,000 


5.550,745  164  1.025.000 

5,748,379  161  566,330 

28,149,353  185  8,310.000 

27,639,521  184  14,000. 000 


•  Buildings  and  covered  structures. 
\  The  largest  number  of  visitors  in  anv  one  day  was 
400.0110  in  1'aris,  and  716,881  in  Chicago. 

t  Receipts  lor  admission. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


583 


The  Average  Velocities  of  Various 
Bodies. —  A  man  walks  3  miles  per  hour  or 
4  feet  per  second.  A  horse  trots  7  miles  per 
hour  or  10  feet  per  second.  A  horse  runs  20 
miles  per  hour  or  29  feet  per  second.  Steam- 
boat runs  20  miles  per  hour  or  26  feet  per 
second.  Sailing  vessel  runs  10  miles  per  hour 
or  14  feet  per  second.  Rapid  rivers  flow  3 
miles  per  hour  or  4  feet  per  second.  A  mod- 
erate wind  blows  7  miles  per  hour  or  10  feet 
per  second.  A  storm  moves  36  miles  per  hour 
or  52  feet  per  second.  A  hurricane  moves  80 
miles  per  hour  or  117  feet  per  second.  A  rifle 
ball  moves  1,000  miles  per  hour  or  1,466  feet 
per  second.  Sound,  743  miles  per  hour  or 
1,142  feet  per  second.  Light,  192,000  miles 
per  second.  Electricity,  288,000  miles  per 
second. 

Table  of  the  Principal  Alloys. — A 
combination  of  copper  and  tin  makes  bath  metal. 

A  combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes 
bell  metal. 

A  combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes 
bronze  metal. 

A  combination  of  tin,  antimony,  copper, 
and  bismuth  makes  britannia  metal. 

A  combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes 
cannon  metal. 

A  combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes 
Dutch  gold. 

A  combination  of  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc, 
with  sometimes  a  little  iron  and  tin,  makes 
German  silver. 

A  combination  of  gold  and  copper  makes 
standard  gold. 

A  combination  of  gold,  copper,  and  silver 
makes  old  standard  gold. 

A  combination  of  tin  and  copper  makes  gun 
metal. 

A  combination  of  copper  and  zinc  makes 
mosaic  gold. 

A  combination  of  tin  and  lead  makes  pewter. 

A  combination  of  lead  and  a  little  arsenic 
makes  sheet  metal. 

A  combination  of  silver  and  copper  makes 
standard  silver. 

A  combination  of  tin  and  lead  makes  solder. 

A  combination  of  lead  and  antimony  makes 
type  metal. 

A  combination  of  copper  and  arsenic  makes 
white  copper. 

How  to  Mix  Printing-  Inks  and 
Paints  in  the  Preparation  of  Tints. 
—  The  first  named  color  always  predominates. 

Mixing  dark  green  and  purple  makes  bottle 
green. 

Mixing  white  and  medium  yellow  makes 
buff  tint, 

Mixing  red,  black,  and  blue  makes  dark 
brown .  I 


Mixing   bronze,   blue,    lemon   yellow,    and 
black  makes  dark  green. 

Mixing,   white,  medium  yellow,  and  black 
makes  drab  tint. 

Mixing  white,  lake,  and  lemon  yellow  makes 
flesh  tint. 

Mixing  lemon  yellow  and  bronze  blue  makes 
grass  green. 

Mixing  white  and  black  makes  gray  tint. 

Mixingwhite  and  purple  makes  lavender  tint. 

Mixing   red,    black,     and    medium    yellow 
makes  maroon. 

Mixing  lake  and  purple  makes  magenta. 

Mixing  medium  yellow  and  purple  makes 
olive  green. 

Mixing  medium  yellow  and  red  makes 
orange. 

Mixing  white,  ultramarine  blue,  and  black 
I  makes  pearl  tint. 

Mixing  white  and  lake  makes  pink. 

Mixing  ultramarine  blue  and  lake  makes 
|  purple. 

Mixing  orange,  lake,  and  purple  makes 
russet. 

Mixing  medium  yellow,  red,  and  "  white 
makes  sienna. 

Mixing  white  and  ultramarine  blue  makes 
sky  blue. 

Mixing  ultramarine  blue,  black,  and  white 
makes  slate. 

Mixing  vermilion  and  black  makes  Turkey 
red. 

Mixing  white,  yellow,  red,  and  black  makes 
umber. 

Durability  of  Different  Woods. — 
Experiments  have  been  lately  made  by  driving 
sticks,  made  of  different  woods,  each  two  feet 
long  and  one  and  one  half  inches  square,  into 
the  ground,  only  one  half  an  inch  projecting 
outward.  It  was  found  that  in  five  years  all 
those  made  of  oak,  elm,  ash,  fir,  soft  mahogany, 
and  nearly  every  variety  of  pine,  were  totally 
rotten.  Larch,  hard  pine,  and  teak  wood 
were  decayed  on  the  outside  only,  while  acacia, 
with  the  exception  of  being  also  slightly  at- 
tacked on  the  exterior,  was  otherwise  sound. 
Hard  mahogany  and  cedar  of  Lebanon  were 
in  tolerably  good  condition  ;  but  only  Virginia 
cedar  was  found  as  good  as  when  put  in  the 
ground.  This  is  of  some  importance  to  build- 
ers, showing  what  woods  should  be  avoided, 
and  what  others  used  by  preference  in  under- 
ground work. 

The  durability  of  wood  when  kept  dry  is 
very  great,  as  beams  still  exist  which  are 
known  to  be  nearly  1,100  years  old.  Piles 
driven  by  the  Romans  prior  to  the  Christian 
em  have  been  examined  of  late,  and  found  to 
be  perfectly  sound  after  an  immersion  of  nearly 
2,000  years. 


584 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  wood  of  some  tools  will  last  longer  than 
the  metals,  as  in  spades,  hoes,  and  plows.  In 
other  tools  the  wood  is  first  gone,  as  in  wagons, 
wheelbarrows,  and  machines.  Such  wood 
should  be  painted  or  oiled  ;  the  paint  not  only 
looks  well,  but  preserves  the  wood  ;  petroleum 
oil  is  as  good  as  any  other. 

Hard  wood  stumps  decay  in  five  or  six  years  ; 
spruce  stumps  decay  in  about  the  same  time  ; 
hemlock  stumps  in  eight  to  nine  years  ;  cedar, 
eight  to  nine  years  ;    pine  stumps,  never. 

Cedar,  oak,  yellow  pine,  and  chestnut  are 
the  most  durable  woods  iu  dry  places. 

Timber  intended  for  posts  is  rendered  almost 
proof  against  rot  by  thorough  seasoning,  char- 
ring, and  immersion  in  hot  coal  tar. 

Time  in  Which  Money  Doubles. 


2 

8 

3V2 

4 

4tf 


Simple 
Interest. 


Comi\ 
Interest. 


51  vears  35  years 
40  "years  28  yrs  26  da 
33  yrs  4  mo  23yrs  164  da 
28  yrs  208da  20  yrs  54  da 
25  years  17vrs24'ida 
22  vrs  81  da  15  vrs273da 


£  - 

-'_ 

5 

6 

7 


Simple 
Interest. 


Cojip. 
Interest. 


20  years  14  yrs  75  da 
16  vrs  8  mo  llyrs327da 
14  yrs  104da|  10  yrs  89  da 
12*4  years  9  vrs  2  days 
11  yrs  40  da  8  vrs  1G  da 
10  1 10  vears       |7vrs  loo  da 


"A  Dollar  Saved,  a  Dollar  Earned." 

— The  way  to  accumulate  money  is   to   save 

small   sums   with    regularity.     A   small    sum 

saved  daily  for  fifty  years  will  grow  at   the 

following  rate  : — 

Dailv  Savings.       Result.  Daily  Savings.       Result. 

One  cent $950    Sixty  cents $57,024 

Ten  cents 9,504    Seventy  cents 66,528 

Twenty  cents 19,006    Eighty  cents 76,032 

Thirty  cents 28,51*2    Ninety  cents 85,537 

Forty  cents 38,015    One  dollar 95,208 

Fifty  cents 47,520  | 

Pecuniary  Value    of    Metals. —  Few 

people  have  any  idea  of  the  value  of  precious 
metals  other  than  gold,  silver,  and  copper, 
which  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  most 
precious  of  all.  There  are  many  metals  more 
valuable  and  infinitely  rarer.  The  following 
table  gives  the  names  and  prices  of  all  the 
known  metals  of  pecuniary  worth  :  — 


Price,  Av.  Pound 

Gallium $68,600.00 

Vanadium 10  780.00 

Rubidium...:...  9,800.00 

Thori  um 8,330.00 

Glucinium 5,800.00 

Calcium 4,900.00 

Lanthanum 4,900.00 

Lithium 4.900.00 

Indium 4.410.00 

Tantalum 4,410.00 

Yttrium 4,410.00 

Didymium 4,410.00 

Strontium 4,200.00 

Arium 3.6T5.00 

Erbium 3,6T5.00 

Ruthenium 2,695.00 

Niobium 2,  ,50.00 

Rhodium 2,i50.00 

Barium 1,960  00 

Titanium 1.102.00 

Zirconium 1,040.00 

Osmium 1,040.00 

Uranium 980.00 

Palladium OfJQ.QQ 


Price,  Av.  Pound 

Tellurium $490.00 

Chromium 490.00 

Gold 300.00 

Molybdenum 245.00 

Platinum 141.00 

Thallium 122.50 

Iridium 112.00 

Tungsten 36.00 

Potassium 28.00 

Selenium 18.80 

Cobalt 8.00 

Magnesium 4.50 

Bismuth 2.75 

Sodium 2.50 

Cadmium 1.30 

Manganese 1.10 


Arsenic 
Aluminium. 

Tin 

Copper 

Antimony. . 

Zinc 

Lead 


VALUE  OF  METALS  AS  CONDUCTORS. 


Heat.  Electricity. 

Gold 100  94 

Platinum...  98  16 

Silver 97  74 

Copper 90  100 


Heat.  Electricity. 

Iron   37  16 

Zinc 36  29 

Tin 30  15 

Lead 18  8 


TENACITY  OF  METALS. 

A  wire,  0.84  of  a  line  in  diameter,  will  sustain  weights 

as  follows :  — 


Lead 28  lbs. 

Tin 35    " 

Zinc 110    " 

Gold 150    " 


Silver 187  lbs. 

Platinum 274    *' 

Copper 302    " 

Iron 549    " 


Zinc 
Iron. 
Tin.. 


FLUID  DENSITY  OF  METALS. 
6.48    Copper 8.22 


6.88 
7.03 


Silver 9.51 

Lead 10.37 


Mode  of  Execution  in  Every  Country. 

Country.  Mode.  Publicity. 

Austria Gallows Public. 

Bavaria Guillotine Private. 

Belgium Guillotine Public. 

Brunswick Ax Private. 

China Sword  or  cord Public. 

Denmark Guillotine Public. 

Ecuador Musket Public. 

France Guillotine Public. 

Great  Britain Gallows Private. 

Hanover Guillotine Private. 

Italy Sword  or  gallows* Public. 

Netherlands .... Gallows Public. 

Oldenberg Musket  Public. 

Portugal Gallows Public. 

Prussia Sword Private. 

Russia Musket,  gallows,  or  sword..  .Public. 

Saxony Guillotine Private. 

Spain  Garrote Public. 

Switzerland — 

Fifteen  cantons . .  Sword Public. 

Two  cantons Guillotine Public. 

Two  cantons Guillotine Private. 

United  States  (other 
than  New  York  and  (  Mostly 

Massachusetts) Gallows (  Private. 

New  York  and  Mass.  Electricity Private. 


*  Capital  punishment  abolished  in  1876. 

Great   Fires  and  Conflagrations. — 

London,  September  2-6,  1666. —  Eighty-nine 
churches,  many  public  buildings,  and  13,200 
houses  destroyed  ;  400  streets  laid  waste,  200,- 
000  persons  homeless.  The  ruins  covered  436 
acres. 

New  York,  Dec.  16,  1835.—  600  buildings; 
loss,  $20,000,000.  Sep.  6,  1839.—  $10,000,- 
000  worth  of  property. 

Pittsburg,  April  10,  1845 1,000  build- 
ings ;  loss,  $6,000,000. 

Philadelphia,  July  9, 1850.—  350  buildings  ; 
loss,  $1 ,500,000  ;  25  persons  killed  ;  9  drowned  ; 
120  wounded. 

St.  Louis,  May  4,  1851. —  Large  portion  of 
the  city  burned  ;  loss,  $15,000,000. 

San  Francisco,  May  3-5,  1851. — 2,500 
buildings;  loss,  $3,500,000;  many  lives  lost. 
June  22,  1851.— 500  buildings;  loss,  $3,000,- 
000. 

Santiago  (Spain),  Dec.  8,  1863. —  A  fire  in 
the  church  of  the  Campania,  beginning  amid 
combustible  ornaments  ;  2,000  persons  killed, 
mostly  women. 

Charleston,  S.  C-,  Feb.  \7t  1865.—  Almost 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


585 


totally    destroyed,    -with    large    quantities   of 
naval  and  military  stores. 

Richmond,  Va. ,  April  2  and  3, 1865. — In  great 
part  destroyed  by  fire  at  time  of  Confederate 
evacuation. 

Portland,  Me.,  July  4,  1866. —  Almost  en- 
tirely destroyed  ;  loss,  $15,000,000. 

Chicago,    Oct.  8  and  9,    1871 Three   and 

one    half    square    miles    laid   waste ;     17,450 
buildings  destroyed  ;  200  persons  killed  ;  98,500 

made    homeless.     July    14,     1874 Another 

great  fire  ;  loss,  84,000,000. 

Great  forest  fires  in  Michigan  and  Wiscon- 
sin, Oct.  8-14,  1871.-2,000  lives  lost. 

Boston,  Nov.  9-11,  1872 800  buildings; 

loss,  873,000,000  ;  15  killed. 

Fall  River,  Mass.,  Sept.   19,  1874 Great 

factory  fires  ;  60  persons  killed. 

St.   John,  N.    B.,   June  20,    1877 Loss, 

$12,500,000. 

Brooklyn  Theater  burned,  Dec.  5,  1876 

300  lives  'lost. 

Seattle  and  Spokane,  Wash.,  1889. —  About 
$10,000,000  each. 

Great  Floods  and  Inundations. — An 
inundation  in  Cheshire,  England,  A.  D.  353. 
—  3,000  persons  perished. 

Glasgow,  A.  D.  758 —  More  than  400  fami- 
lies drowned. 

Dort,  April  17,  1421.— 72  villages  sub- 
merged ;  100,000  people  drowned. 

Overflow  of  the  Severn,  A.  D.  1483,  lasting 
ten  days — Men,  women,  and  children  carried 
away  in  their  beds,  and  the  waters  covered  the 
tops  of  many  mountains. 

General  inundation  in  Holland,  A.  D. 
1530.— By  failure  of  dikes;  400,000  said  to 
have  been  drowned. 

At  Catalonia,  A.  D.  1617. —  50,000  drowned. 

Johnstown,  Pa.,  May  31,  1889— By  the 
bursting  of  a  huge  reservoir  on  the  mountains, 
the  town  was  almost  entirely  destroyed,  and 
about  6,000  persons  perished.  The  water  in 
its  passage  to  Johnstown  descended  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  theoretical  veloc- 
ity due  to  this  descent  would  be  about  one  hun-  | 
dred  and  twenty-seven  feet  per  second,  or 
between  eighty-six  and  eighty-seven  miles  an 
hour.  According  to  the  best  accounts  from 
fifteen  to  seventeen  minutes  were  occupied  in 
the  passage  to  Johnstown,  a  distance  of  about 
twelve  miles.  Thus  the  average  velocity  could 
not  have  been  far  short  of  fifty  miles  an  hour. 
The  impetus  of  such  a  mass  of  water  was 
irresistible.     As  the  flood  burst  through  the 


dam  it  cut  trees  away  as  if  they  were  stalks  of 
mullein. 
A  Woman's  Chance  of  Marrying. — 

Every  woman  has  some  chance  to  marry  ;  it  may 

be  one  to  fifty,  or  it  may  be  ten  to  one  that  she 

will.     Representing  her  entire  chance  at  one 

hundred  at  certain  points   of   her  progress  in 

time  it  is  found  to  be  in  the  following  ratio  : — 

Between  the  ages  of  15  and  20  years 14,/2  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  20  and  25  years 52  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  25  and  30  years 18  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  30  and  a5  years 15%  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  35  and  40  years 3^4  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  40  and  45  years 2%  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  45  and  50  years %  of  1  per  cent. 

Between  the  ages  of  50  and  56  years */4  of  1  per  cent. 

After  sixty  it  is  one  tenth  of  one  per  cent., 
or  one  chance  in  a  thousand. 

The  Great  Waterfalls. —  According  to 
a  recent  calculation,  the  highest  waterfalls  in 
the  world  are  the  1  osemite  Falls,  California, 
1,500  feet.  Krimbs  Falls  have  a  total  height 
of  1,148  feet.  The  three  falls  next  in  height 
are  found  in  Scandinavia  —  the  Verme  Fuss, 
in  Romsdal,  984  feet ;  the  Vettis  Foss,  on  the 
Sogne  Fiord,  853  feet  ;  the  Rjuken  Foss,  in 
Thelemarken,  804  feet.  With  a  decrease  in 
height  of  213  feet,  the  three  Velino  Falls,  591 
feet,  near  Zerni  (the  birthplace  of  Tacitus), 
follow  next  in  order,  and  they  are  succeeded  by 
the  three  Tessa  Falls,  in  the  Val  Formazza, 
541  feet.  The  Gastein  Falls,  in  the  Gastein 
Valley,  469  feet,  rank  between  the  Skjaggedal 
Foss,  in  the  Hardanger  Fiord,  424  feet,  and 
the  Boring  Foss,  in  the  same  fiord.  If  the 
width  of  the  falls  is  taken  into  consideration, 
the  most  imposing  are  those  of  the  Victoria 
Falls  of  the  Zambesi,  which  are  391  feet  high, 
with  a  width  of  3,200  feet.  A  long  way  behind 
these  falls  come  the  Niagara  Falls,  177  feet 
high  and  1,968  feet  wide. 

Weight  of  Eggs. — The  following  table 
of  the  weight  of  eggs  per  pound  of  various 
breeds  of  fowls  and  the  number  of  eggs  laid 
in  a  year  is  approximately  fair,  though  it  may 
vary  under  exceptionally  adverse  or  favorable 
conditions  :  — 

Eggs  per  No.  Eggs 

Varieties.  pound,    per  year. 

Lijrht  Brahmas 7  130 

Dark  Brahmas 8  130 

Partridge  Cochins 7  130 

Black,  White,  Buff  Cochins 7  120 

Plymouth  Rocks 8  150 

Houdans 8  155 

LaFleche 7  135 

Creve  Cceurs 8  145 

Black  Spanish 8  155 

Leghorns 8  160 

Hamburgs 9  150 

Dominiques 8  135 

Games : 9  140 

Bantams 16  90 


Life  Insurance. 


rnr«TPip.       1  Insurance  in  i         Year's 
countries.              Force.         1     Premiums. 

Year's          1      «-juii_jxili-         Insurance  in           Year's 
Losses.         1      ^ocj.tries.      i         K.Kt-         '     Premiums. 

Year's 
Losses. 

United  States    $14,125,548,072    $339,280,913 
Great  Britain        3,290,521,720 1     126,458,455 

Germany 1     1,320,163,6851       50,313,925 

France 1       695,231550|       40,351,080 

$165,718,804     Austria 1  $370,621,530  1  $14,613,420 

78,496,735     Scandinavia...!     128,213,755         4,365,360 

16,767,830     Russia 47,925,979  l       1,757,681 

10,647,060     Switzerland...!       70,390,250  1       3,025,100 

$4,098,025 

1,147,995 

584,707 

1,170,225 

586 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Wars  of   the  United  States. 

STATEMENT  OF   THE  NUMBER  OF   UNITED   STATES   TROOPS    ENGAGED. 


Waiss. 


War  of  the  Revolution 

Northwestern  Indian  Wars 

War  with  France 

War  with  Tripoli ' 

Greek  Indian  War 

War  of  1812  with  Great  Britain. . . 

Seminole  Indian  War 

Black  Hawk  Indian  War 

■Cherokee  disturbance  or  removal. 
•Creek  Indian  War  or  disturbance. 

Florida  Indian  War 

.Aroostook  disturbance 

War  with  Mexico 

Apache,  Navajo,  and  Utah  War. . . 

Seminole  Indian  War 

Civil  Wart 


From  — 


April  19, 1775 
Sept.  19, 1790 
July  9, 1798 
June  10, 1801 
July  27,1813 
June  18,1812 
Nov.  20,1817 
April  21,1831 

1836 
May      5, 1836 
Dec.    23,  1835 

1836 
April  24, 1846 

1849 

1856 

1861 


To  — 


April  11, 1783 
Aug.  3,1795 
Sept.  30, 1800 
June  4,  1805 
Aug.  9, 1814 
Feb.  17,1815 
Oct.  21,  1818 
Sept.  31,  1832 

1837 
Sept.  30,  18K7 
Aug.   14. 1843 

1839 
July     4, 1848 

1855 

1858 

1865 


Regulars. 


130,711 


600 

85,000 

1,000 

1,339 

"935 

11,11,9 

30*,954 
1,500 


Militia  and 
Volunteers. 


164,080 


13,181 

471,622 

6,!lll 

5,126 

9.494 

12,4s:; 

29,953 
1,500 

73,776 
1,061 
3,687 


309,781 

8,983 

t4,593 

t3,330 

13,781 

576,622 

7,911 

6.465 

9,494 

13,418 

41.122 

1.500 

112,230 

2,561 

3,687 

2,772,408 


*  Including  all  branches  of  the  service,    t  Naval  forces  engaged, 
side  was  about  600,000. 


t  The  number  of  troops  on  the  Confederate 


Percentage    of    Alcohol 
Liquors. 

Scotch  Whisky 54.53 

Irish  Whisky. . .   53.9 

Rum 53.68 

Gin 51.6 

Brandy 53.39 

Burgundy 14.57 

Cape  Muscat 18.25 

Champagne  (still) 13.80 

Champagne  (sp'rkl'ng  12.61 

Cider 5.2  to  9.8 

Constantia 19.75 

Gooseberry  Wine 11.48 


in    Various 


Currant  Wine 20.50 

Port 22.90 

Madeira 22.27 

Teneriffe 19.79 

Sherry 19.17 

Claret 15.1 

Elder 8.79 

Ale 6.87 

Porter 4.02 

Malaga 17.26 

Rhenish 12.8 

Small  Beer 1.28 


Quantity  of  Seeds  Required  per  Acre. 

lbs- 


Wheat 1V2  to2bu 

Rve iy2  " 

Oats 3  " 

Barley 2  " 

Peas 2    to  3    " 

White  beans 1%  " 

Buckwheat y2  " 

Corn,  hro'dc'st.4  " 

Corn,  in  drills.. 2    to  3    " 
Corn,  in  hills... 4    to  8  qts 

Broom  corn V>  bu 

Potatoes 10'to  15    " 


Beets 3 

Carrots 2 

Ruta-baga % 

Millet y2 

Clover,  white.. 4 

Clover,  red 8 

Timothy 6 

Orchard  grass. 2 

Red  top 1 

Blue  grass 2 

Mix'dlawn  gr.l 
Tobacco 2 


bu. 
qts. 


bu. 
to  2  pks. 

bu. 
to  2      " 

oz. 


Common  Sizes  of  Flat  Papers. 


Wood  for  Fuel. — In  regard  to  the  rela- 
tive values  of  woods  as  heat  producers,  different 
woods  vary  some  by  different  methods  of  exper- 
imenting. The  most  accurate  would  be  their 
value  as  steam  producers.  The  following  test 
was  made  from  a  fire  tubular  horizontal 
boiler :  — 


Shellbark  Hickory 100 

Pignut  Hickorv . .' 95 

White  Oak 84 

White  Ash 77 

Dogwood 75 

Scrub  Oak 73 

White  Hazel 72 

Apple  Tree 70 

Red  Oak 67 

White  Beech 65 

Yellow  Oak 60 


Hard  Maple 69 

White  Elm 58 

Red  Cedar 56 

Wild  Cherry 55 

Yellow  Pine 54 

Chestnut 52 

Yellow  Poplar 51 

Butternut 43 

White  Birch 43 

White  Pine 30 


These  figures  are  from  air-dried  wood.  No 
accurate  result  could  be  obtained  from  green 
wood,  as  it  is  not  in  a  proper  condition,  and 
would  vary  considerably  from  any  figures  that 
might  be  made. 


Name.  Size. 

Flat  Letter 10  x  16 

Small  Cap 13  x  16 

Flat  Cap 14  x  17 

Demy 16x21 

Folio 17x22 


Name.  Size. 

Medium 18x23 

Double  Small  Cap. . .  16  x  26 

Royal ifl  x  24 

Double  Cap 17  x  28 


Sizes  of  Newspapers. 

Term.  Size. 

Five-column  Folio 20  x  26  inches 

Six-column  Folio 22  x  31  inches 

Six-column  Folio,  extra  margin 22  x  32  inches 

Seven-column        Folio 24  x  35  inches 

Seven-column        Folio,  extra  margin 24  x  36  inches 

Eight-column        Folio 26x40  inches 

Nine-column  Folio 28x44  inches 

Four-column  Quarto 22  x  31  inches 

Five-column  Quarto  26  x  40  inches 

Six-column  Quarto 30  x  44  inches 

Seven-column        Quarto 35  x  48  inches 

The  Language  of  Flowers. 

SINGLE    FLOWERS. 

Arbor  Vitae  —  Unchanging  friendship. 
Camellia,  White  —  Loveliness. 
Candytuft  —  Indifference. 
Carnation,  White  —  Disdain. 
China  Aster — Variety. 
Clover,  Four-Leaf  —  Be  mine. 
Clover,  White  —  Think  of  me. 
Clover,  Red  —  Industry. 
Columbine  — ■  Folly. 
Daisy  —  Innocence. 
Daisy,  Colored  —  Beauty. 
Dead  Leaves  —  Sadness. 
Deadly  Nightshade  —  Falsehood. 
Fern —  Fascination. 
Forget-me-not. 
Fuchsia,  Scarlet  —  Taste. 
Geranium,  Horseshoe —  Stupidity. 
Geranium,  Scarlet  —  Consolation. 
Geranium,  Rose  —  Preference. 
Golden-rod  —  Be  cautious. 
Heliotrope —  Devotion. 
Hyacinth,  AVhite  —  Loveliness. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


587 


Hyacinth,  Purple  —  Sorrow. 

Ivy —  Friendship. 

Lily,  Day  —  Coquetry. 

Lily,  White  —  Sweetness. 

Lily,  Yellow  —  Gayety. 

Lily,  Water  —  Purity  of  heart ;  elegance. 

Lily  of  the  Valley —  Unconscious  sweetness. 

Mignonette  —  Your     qualities     surpass     your 

charms. 
Monkshead  —  Danger  is  near. 
Myrtle  —  Love. 
Oak  —  Hospitality. 
Orange  Blossoms — Chastity. 
Pansy —  Thoughts. 
Passion  Flower  —  Faith. 
Primrose  —  Inconstancy. 
Rose —  Love. 

Rose,  Damask  —  Beauty  ever  new. 
Rose,  Yellow  —  Jealousy. 
Rose,  White  —  I  am  worthy  of  you. 
Rosebud,  Moss  —  Confession  of  love. 
Smilax  —  Constancy. 
Straw  —  Agreement. 
Straw,  Broken  —  Broken  agreement. 
Sweet  Pea — Depart. 
Tuberose  —  Dangerous  pleasures. 
Thistle  —  Sternness. 
Verbena —  Pray  for  me. 
White  Jasmine  —  Amiability. 
Witch  Hazel  —  A  spell. 

IN    COMBINATIONS. 


Moss  Rosebud, 

Myrtle. 

Mignonette, 

Colored  Daisy. 

Lily  of  the  Valley, 

Ferns. 

Yellow  Rose, 

Broken  Straw, 

Ivy. 

Scarlet  Geranium, 

Passion  Flower, 

Purple  Hyacinth, 

Arbor  Vitse. 

Columbine, 
Day  Lily, 
Broken  Straw, 
Witch  Hazel, 
Colored  Daisy. 
White  Pink, 
Canary  Grass, 
Laurel. 
Golden-rod, 
Monkshead, 
Sweet  Pea, 
Forget-me-not. 


(  A  confession 

\  of  love. 

j  Your    qualities     surpass 

I  your  charms  of  beauty. 

(  Your   unconscious  sweet- 

(  ness  has  fascinated  me. 

Your  jealousy 

has  broken 

our  friendship. 

I  trust  you  will  find  con- 
solation, through  faith,  in 
^  your  sorrow  ; 

be  assured  of  my  unchang- 
ing friendship. 
f"  Your  folly  and 

coquetry  have 

broken 

the  spell  of  your 

beauty. 

Your  talent 

and  perseverance 

will  win  you  glory 
f  Be  cautious ; 

danger  is  near ; 

I  depart  soon  ; 
(^forget  me  not. 


Weights  and  Measures. 

MEASURES  OF   LENGTH. 


APalm 

A  Hand 

Foot 

Yard 

Rod,  pole,  or  perch 

Chain 792 

Furlong 7,920 

Mile 63,360 


In. 

3 

4 

12 

36 


Ft. 


3 

66 

660 

5,280 


Ys.    Pis.     Ch.    Fs. 


5ft 
22 
220 
1,760 


4 
40 
320 


PARTICULAR  MEASURES   OF   LENGTH. 


12  lines  1  inch. 

3  inches  1  palm. 

4  inches  1  hand. 
A  cubit  18  inches. 

A  pace,  military,  2  feet  6 

inches. 
A  pace,  geometrical,  5  feet. 


A  fathom  6  feet. 

A  cable's  length  240  yards. 

A  degree  69l/8  miles  =  60 
nautical  knots  or  geo- 
graphical miles. 

A  league  3  miles. 


SQUARE  OR  SURFACE  MEASURE. 


In. 

Square  foot 144 

Square  yard 1,296 

Rod,  pole,  or  perch.      39,204 

Square  chain 627,264 

Rood 1,568,160 

Acre 6,272,640 


Ft.      Yds. 
1 

9  1 

2721/4     301/, 
4,356       484 
10,890    1.210 


Pis.     Ch.  R. 


43,5i;0    4,840      160 


1 

2ft 
10 


A  square  mile  contains  610  acres,  2,560  roods,  6.400 
chains,  102,400  rods,  poles,  or  perches,  or  3,097,000  square 
yards. 

APOTHECARIES'  WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES    BY 
WHICH  MEDICINES  ARE  COMPOUNDED. 

20  Grains =1  Scruple  3 =    20  grs. 

3  Scruples =1  Drachm  3 =    60  " 

8  Drachms .'.=1  Ounce      3 =  480  " 

12  Ounces =1  Pound     lb =5750  ' ' 

Drugs  are  purchased  by  Avoirdupois  Weight. 

FLUID  MEASURE. 

Marked. 

60  Minims  tt\, =1  Fluid  Drachm f  3 

8  Drachms =1  Ounce f  3 

20  Ounces =1  Pint O 

8  Pints =1  Gallon gal. 

PARTICULAR  WEIGHTS. 

A  Stone,  Horseman's  weight =    14  lbs. 

=    56   " 
=    64    " 
=  112    " 
=  256    " 
=    I91/2  cwt. 
=    22y2      .. 
=    Sly,      " 
Flour, 


A  Firkin  of  Butter 

A  Firkin  of  Soft  Soap 

A  Barrel  of  Raisins 

A  Barrel  (or  pack)  of  Soft  Soap 

A  Fodder  of  Lead,  London  and  Hull 
"  "      Derby 

A  Sack  — Potatoes,  168  lbs.';    Coals,  224  lbs 
280  lbs. 

MEASURE   OF   TIME. 

60  Seconds =1  Minute. 

60  Minutes =1  Hour. 

24  Hours =1  Day. 

7  Days =1  Week. 

28  Days =1  Lunar  Month. 

28,  29,  30,  or  31  Davs =  1  Calendar  Month. 

12  Calendar  Months =1  Year. 

365  Days =1  Common  Year. 

366  Days =  1  Leap  Year. 

ANGULAR  MEASURE. 

60  Seconds.   .=  1  Minute.     I  4  Quadrants,  or  360° =1 

GO  Minutes...  =1  Degree,     j     Circumference,  or  Great 
30  Degrees...  =1  Sigh.         |     Circle. 
90  Degrees. . .  =  1  Quadrant. 

CUBIC  OR  SOLID  MEASURE. 

1728  Cubic  Inches =1  Cubic  Foot.. 

27  <  ubic  Feet =1  Cubic  Yard. 

40  Do.  of  Rough,  or  I  ,  T  T , 

50  Do.  of  Hewn  Timber   \ -  1  ion  or  i.oaa. 

42  Cubic  Feet  of  Timber =1  Shipping  Ton. 

108  Cubic  Feet =  1  Stack  of  Wood. 

128  Cubic  Feet =1  Cord  of  Wood. 

40  Cubic  Feet =1  Ton  Shipping. 


588 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Qts. 

Pts. 

1 

1 

2 

4 

8 

36 

72 

72 

144 

144 

288 

216 

432 

288 

576 

432 

864 

LIQUID   MEASURES. 
Gals. 

Four  Gills,  one  Pint 

Quart 

Gallon 1 

Firkin  or  Quarter  Barrel 9 

Kilderkin  or  Half  Barrel 18 

Barrel 36 

Hogshead  of  Ale  (iy2  barrel) 54 

Puncheon 72 

Butt  of  Ale  (3  barrels) 108 

Practically,  the  only  measures  in  use  are 
gallons  and  quarts,  the  others  are  merely  nom- 
inal;  e.  g.,  the  hogshead  of  54  gallons,  old 
measure,  contains  but  52  gallons,  1  quart,  1 
pint,  and  3.55  gills  imperial  measure,  and  of 
wine  six  nominal  quart  bottles  go  to  the  gal- 
lon. Of  imported  wines  the  following  are 
the  usual  measurements  :  — 

=115  Gallons. 

=109       " 


Pipe  of  Port  or  Masdeu 

"  Teneriffe 

"         Marsala 

"  Madeira  and  Cape... 

Butt  of  Lisbon  and  Bucellas. 

"  Sherry  and  Tent 

Aum  of  Hock  and  Rhenish... 
Hogshead  of  Claret 


93 
92 
117 
108 
30 
46 


DRY  OR  CORN  MEASURE. 
4  Quarts = 

2  Gallons = 

4  Pecks = 

3  Bushels  (four  of  corn) = 

12  Sacks = 

8  Bushels,  or  two  sacks = 

5  Quarters = 


=1  Gallon. 

=1  Peck. 

=  1  Bushel. 

=1  Sack. 

=1  Chaldron. 

=1  Quarter. 

=1  Load. 

MEASURES  OF  WEIGHT.— A  voirdupois. 

27YS  Grains =  1  Drachm  =       27»/3  ) 

16     Drachms =  1  Ounce      =      437l/2  >  Grains. 

16     Ounces =  1  Pound      =    7000     ) 

8     Pounds =1  Stone  of  Butcher's  Meat. 

14     Pounds. =1  Ordinary  Stone. 

28     Pounds =  1  Quarter  (qr.). 

4     Quarters =1  Hundredweight  (cwt.). 

20     Cwt =lTon. 

This  weight  is  used  in  almost  all  commer- 
cial transactions,  and  common  dealings. 

TROY  WEIGHT. 

3J  Grains =1  Carat. 

24   Grains =  1  Pennyweight. 

20   Pennyweights =  1  Ounce 480  grs. 

12   Ounces =1  Pound . . .  .5770  " 

HAY  AND  STRAW. 

Truss  of  Straw,  36  lb. 
Truss  of  Old  Hay,  56  lb. 
Truss  of  New  Hay,  60  lb. 

Load,  36  Trusses  =  Straw,  11  cwt.  2  qrs.  8  lb. ;  Old  Hav, 
18  cwt. ;  New  Hay,  19  cwt.  1  qr.  4  lb. 

WOOL. 

Cat.  Qr.  Lb. 

7     Pounds =1  Clove 0  0  7 

2     Cloves =  1  Stone 0  0  14 

2     Stones =  1  Tod 0  1  0 

6V2Tods =  1  Wey.: 1  2  14 

12     Sacks =lLast 39  0  0 

Boxes  of  Different  Measure. —  A  box 

24  inches  long  by  16  inches  wide,  and  28 
inches  deep,  will  contain  a  barrel  (3  bushels). 

A  box  24  inches  long  by  16  inches  wide, 
and  14  inches  deep,  will  contain  halt"  a  barrel. 

A  box  16  inches  square,  and  8  2-5  inches 
deep,  will  contain  one  bushel. 

A  box  16  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  wide,  and 
8  inches  deep,  will  contain  half  a  bushel. 


A  box  8  inches  by  8  2-5  inches  square,  and 
8  inches  deep,  will  contain  one  peck. 

A  box  8  inches  by  8  inches  square,  and  4  1-5 
inches  deep,  will  contain  one  gallon. 

A  box  7  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  4-5 
inches  deep,  will  contain  half  a  gallon. 

A  box  4  inches  by  4  inches  square,  and  4  1-5 
inches  deep,  will  contain  one  quart. 

In  purchasing  anthracite  coal,  20  bushels 
are  generally  allowed  for  a  ton. 

The  Longest  Tunnels.—  The  Mount  St. 
Gothard  Tunnel,  Italy,  is  48,840  feet  long,  or 
nearly  10  miles  long,  and  the  longest  in  the 
world. 

Mount  Cenis  Tunnel,  Italy,  is  39,840  feet 
long,  or  about  seven  and  one-half  miles  long. 

Hoosac  Tunnel,  Mass.,  is  25,080  feet  long, 
or  about  4|  miles. 

The  Nbchistongo  Tunnel,  is  21,659  feet  long, 
or  about  four  miles. 

The  Sutro  Tunnel  is  21,120  feet  long,  or 
four  miles. 

Thames  and  Medway,  Eng.,  is  11,880  feet 
long,  or  about  two  miles. 


Variations  in  Time. 


Washington,  D.  C,  12. 
Athens,  Greece,  6.43 
Auckland,  New 

Zealand,  4.51 

Augusta,  Me.,  12.29 
Austin,  Texas,  10.37 
Batavia,  Java,  12.15 
Bombay,  India,  10.00 
Boston*  Mass.,  12.24 
Berlin,  Germany.  6.0I 
Calcutta,  India,*  11.01 
Canton,  China,  12.41 
Charleston,  S.  C,  11.49 
11.18 


Chicago,  111., 
Constantinople, 

Turkey, 
Copenhagen, 

Denmark, 
Denver,  Col., 
Dublin,  Ireland, 
Gibraltar,  Spain,  4.51 
Glasgow,  Scot.,  4.51 
Halifax,  N.  8.,  12.54 
Harrisburg,  Pa.,  12.01 
Lima,  Peru,  12.no 
London,  Eng.,        5.07 


00  m. 
p.  m. 

a.  m. 
p.  m. 
a.  m. 
a.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
a.  m. 
a.  in. 
a.  m. 


7.04  p.  m. 


5.58 
10.07 
4.43 


p.  m. 
a.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
p.  m. 
m. 
p.  in. 


Madrid,  Spain, 
Mecca,  Arabia, 
Mexico,  .Mexico, 
New  Orleans, La. 
New  York.N.  Y., 
Olympia,  Wash- 
ington, 
Omaha.  Neb., 
Paris,  France, 
Pekin,  China, 
Philadelphia, 

Pa.. 
Pittsburg,  Pa., 
Rio  Janeiro,  Bra. 
Rome.  Italy, 
St.  Louis,  Mo., 
St.  Petersburg, 

Russia, 
Salt  Lake  City, 

Utah, 
San  Francisco, 

Cal.,         1 
Tallahassee,  Fla., 
Toronto,  Can., 
Valparaiso,  chile 
Yeddo,  Japan, 


4.53  p.  m. 

7.49  p.  in. 
10.27  a.  m. 
,11.08  a.  m. 

12.12  p.  m. 

8.57  a.  m. 
10.44  a.  m. 

5.42  p.  m. 
12.54  a.  m. 

12.13  p.  m. 
11.48  a.  m. 
,2.16  p.  m. 

5.58  p.  m. 
11.07  a.  m. 

7.09  p.  m. 

9.40  a.  m. 

8.58  a.  m. 
11.30  a.  m. 
11  61a.  111. 
,12.21  p.  m 

2.27  a.  in. 


Alcoholic  Liquors. — A  table  of  the 
comparative  consumption  of  alcoholic  liquors 
was  compiled  by  the  London  Times  recently, 
with  some  interesting  results.  The  average 
yearly  consumption  per  head  is  given  in  liters 
(a  liter  is  a  little  less  than  a  quart)  :  — 

Spirits.     Wine.  Beer. 

Liters.  Liters.  Liters. 

Canada 3.08  0.29  8.51 

Norway 3.90  1.00  15.30 

United  States 4.79  2.64  31.30 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 5.37  2.09  143.92 

Austria-Hungary 5.76  22.40  28.42 

France '. 7.28  119.20  21.10 

Russia 8.08    Unknown.     4.65 

Sweden s.14  0.36  11.00 

German  Zollverein 8.60  6.00  65.00 

Belgium 9.20  3.70  169.20 

Switzerland 15.30  55.00  37.50 

Netherlands 9.87  2.57  27.00 

Denmark 18.90  1.00  33.33 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


589 


Belgium,  it  seems,  contains  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  beer  drinkers,  with  Great  Britain  sec- 
ond in  this  list,  and  Germany,  contrary  to 
common  opinion,  only  third.  France  drinks 
the  most  wine,  and  Switzerland  comes  next, 
while  the  amount  accredited  to  the  United 
States,  though  comparatively  small,  yet  ex 
ceeds  that  of  Great  Britain 
most  moderate  drinker  of  all 


feet  high.  The  cost  of  building  was  nearly 
$15,000,000. 

The  cantalever  bridge,  over  the  Niagara,  is 
built  almost  entirely  of  steel.  Its  length  is 
910  feet ;  the  total  weight  is  3,000  tons,  and 
the  cost  was  $900,000. 

The  Niagara  suspension  bridge  was  built  by 

Canada  is  the  |  Roebling,  in   1852-55,  at  a  cost  of  $400,000. 

It  is  245  feet  above  water,  821  feet  long,  and 


Cost  of  the  British  Royal  Family. —   the  strength  is  estimated  at  1,200  tons. 


The  bridge  at  Havre  de  Grace,  over  the  Sus- 
quehanna, is  3,271  feet  long,  and  is  divided 
into  twelve  wooden  spans,  resting  on  granite 
piers. 

The    Britannia   bridge   crosses   the    Menai 

strait,  Wales,  at  an  elevation  of  103  feet  above 

high  water.     It  is  of  wrought  iron,  1,511  feet 

long,    and    was     finished    in     1850.       Cost, 

j  $3,008,000. 

The  new  London  bridge  is  constructed  of 
granite,  from  the  designs  of  L.  Rennier.  It 
was  commenced  in  1824,  and  completed  in 
about  seven  years,  at  a  cost  of  $7,291,000. 

The  old  London  bridge  was  the  first  stone 
bridge.     It  was  commenced  in  1176,  and  com- 


The  annuities  paid  by  the  British  people  to 
the  royal  family  for  its  support  are  as  follows : 
The  Queen,  $1,925,000;  Prince  of  Wales, 
$200,000  ;  Princess  of  Wales,  $50,000  ;  Dowager 
Empress  Frederick  of  Germany,  $40,000  ;  Duke 
of  Edinburgh,  $50,000 ;  Princess  Christian, 
$30,000;  Princess  Louise,  $30,000;  Duke  of 
Connaught,  $125,000  ;  Princess  Beatrice,  $30,- 

000  ;  Duke  of  Cambridge  (the  Queen's  cousin), 
$60,000  ;  Duchess  of  Albany,  $30,000  ;  Duchess 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz  (the  Queen's  cousin), 
$15,000  ;  children  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  $180,- 
000.  Total,  $2,765,000.  The  Queen  also  re- 
ceives the  revenues  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 
During  recent  years  these  have  amounted  to 

about  $250,000  per  annum.  When  the  royal  j  pleted  in  1209.  Its  founder,  Peter  of  Cole- 
children  marry,  dowries  are  usually  provided  church,  was  buried  in  the  crypt  of  the  chapel 
for  them.     The  last  of  the  Queen's  children  to    erected  on  the  center  pier. 

marry,  Princess  Beatrice,  received  $150,000  as  Coalbrookdale  bridge,  England,  is  the  first 
dowry  from  the  British  people  by  Parliamen-  cast  iron  bridge.  It  was  built  over  the  Severn 
tary  grant.     The  Duchess  of  Teck,  the  Queen's  j  in  17,79. 

cousin,  who  died  in  1897,  enjoyw>drait>annuity  j  The' -bridge  at  ..Burton,  over  the  Trent,  was 
of  825,000.  '    '  [(     .    !  ^lfor^^fflong^l^^  in  England,  being 

Ubrarv  of  Congress. — ■  The  new  build-    1.545ifeetj'f  It  isinow  pautny  rempif«d.      Built 
ing  for  the  Library; of  C^^rif|^^iffiii«J»h  ce«g^      _  ^^rV^o^ 
tor    by    an   act   of    Congress,  .Approved!. 'April         i  lie  Riaito,  at  Veiiifle^iJK  said  to,/»ai\ie*;he.^Jtea 
15.  1886;     The  library  was  opefi^^^ifc^built  from>e  des^rf  frMpchaellfitfMfe) ™JEg 
lie   in  the  new  building  in  Xovembe,r,.&ifcvfln;|>is  a  single  marble  arch,  98  1-2  'feet  long,  and 
vears  later.      The   actual  CfOsI  '<&  the  .building  ^vafei'e<rmp}e^d-iTi'*6©l^«  Hfia9bl»9l*±  9tTF 
\\as  sii. 032, l •_>.!.. :,\.  o,-  $2J^r443o40  less    fhan        The'feHta^totfSigliSOfW'V&nky,  4vdt  whittled 
the  limit  fixed 
231. (ISO  ruunii 
will  accommodate 

completely  filled,  the  library;  without  «t*tb  ^ne  Bndgie  b*':thei'Htl)yo^,*hir«ys  "felt  sFiwkg 
croaching  on  pavilions,  reading  rooms,  or  ex-  ence.  was:bWi1t'9h-l509t»J«ft'4s'':*fi&>''fe»t  *4tt^,iq 
hibition  hails,  will  accommodate  4.50(i.uoo  constructed  oi<  white-'  ^irb'tey  i«wdysta*id^faw-tq 
volumes,  occupying  a  little  less  than  l'oo  miles  rivaled  §ai^Saf§  t4^Bft*«tSfgaaaBam  svfl  ;  008, If 
of  shelving.  The  library  embraces  300,000  The  cove^e>d'*bH'^>**ti^Pstvi«V^vtey0ttjifT|wi5 
printed    books,  in   which  is   ineli  law    cino.waybiiiifeiiwfclfe  fc»i#ee*tfrbe*touT^}oT1ttot 

library  of  loo. 000  volumes.  Then-  are  also  ro«,f  is  held^yi^l|r«mi^eo4»YAiJJ&.tii-i3qo  ifqi5-r§ 
210.000  pamphlets,  25,00p  original  maun-  The  St:  ^«tfW^idgd,O^ei^h0')]yfc«si*ffij)^,  £ 
scripts,  60.000  graphic  arts.  210JMM)  pieces  of  is"l!,r324''-'feet'UoJtg.^8i9ch^«*  ©flmpjJM«c4)efelii5 
music,  45.000  bound  volumes  of  newspapers  There  are  i?htee"ar<ihe4  <&\>iin§m£r0&&®f(&6h;rtk&i 
and  ]K3riodicais.  Tliere  is  also  a .ptivilion  for  >centel<af<ihUe?ri'gfe@0iife^tt  wfth<*#ri8ettff  4?vfi2?.i 
the  blind,  open^iiy/wi^  sftds  $pkfs&m2,imt><&&<}tel  witHtiua 

1  >ooks  in- raised  letters.  ■  ■  ■    ■  •  kstfooM ",-.,'. , B<  i  eh toto-ise" ' 'of ' 46  :f4eU<  'The  widfefr  igmiitfrpTJltietoep ewf J 
;Sosf..'Notahle;  ;;;BrIdges;1,1^j$rb8klyn    rails,  is  50'.!feet;   Tto*  frte#giie6Uv*wfoh<§nU&d»rf 

bridge  was  commenced,  under  thei direction'  of  rock  Jof  ,;the'  river ,141361  f&ei '-tMow  dftfgH  wateam 
W.A.  Roebling,  in  1870,  and  completed  in  abOutlmatk1.1  '''C^^n^^aM0S>llBJb(Ei(igiltxnwI«itdKMl 
thirteen  years,    it  is- 3,475 ieet  -long Wm  136  f  eng$fiee*t  e*  000,51$  ,9euorfu99'rg  edi  iol  si 000,£$ 


590 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Rush  street  bridge,  Chicago,  111.,  erected  in 
1884,  at  a  cost  of  $132,000,  is  the  largest  general 
traffic  drawbridge  in  the  world.  Its  roadway 
will  accommodate  four  teams  abreast,  and  its 
footways  are  seven  feet  wide. 

The  Victoria  bridge,  Montreal,  one  of  the 
most  famous  in  the  world,  is  nearly  two  miles 
in  length. 

The  Cleveland  (O.)  viaduct  is  3,211  feet  in 
length,  64  feet  wide,  42  feet  of  which  is  road- 
way ;  the  drawbridge  is  332  feet  in  length,  46 
feet  wide,  and  is  68  feet  above  ordinary  stage 
of  water. 

Politics  of  the  Presidents. —  The  sub- 
joined table  will  be  found  interesting,  as  a 
reference,  to  many  of  our  readers.  Of  course 
the  name  of  Washington  heading  the  list  does 
not  mean  that  he  was  the  candidate  of  any 
party  or  faction,  but  is  placed  there  to  com- 
plete the  roll :  — 

NAME.  INAUGURATION.  POLITICS. 

George  Washington,  April  30, 1789,  Unanimous. 

John  Adams,  March  4,  1797,  Federal. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  March  4, 1801,  Democrat. 

James  Madison,  March  4, 1809,  Democrat. 

JamesMonroe,  March  4, 1817,  Democrat. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  March  4, 1820,  Federal. 

Andrew  Jackson,  March  4, 1829,  Democrat. 

Martin  Van  Buren,  March  4, 1837,  Democrat. 

Wm.  Henry  Harrison,  March  4, 1841,  Whig. 

John  Tyler,  April  0,1841,  Whig. 

James  K.  Polk,  March  4, 1845,  Democrat. 

Zachary  Taylor,  March  5,  1849,  Whig. 

Millard  Fillmore,  July  9, 1850,  Whig. 

Franklin  Pierce,  March  4, 1853,  Democrat. 

James  Buchanan,  March  4, 1857,  Democrat. 

Abraham  Lincoln,  March  4, 1861,  Republican. 

Andrew  Johnson,  April  16, 1865,  Republican. 

U.  S.  Grant,  March  4, 1869,  Republican. 

R.B.Hayes,  March  5,  1877,  Republican. 

James  A'.  Garfield,  March  4, 1881,  Republican. 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  Sept.  20, 1881,  Republican. 

Grover  Cleveland,  March  4, 1885,  Democrat. 

Benj.  Harrison,  March  4, 1889,  Republican. 

Grover  Cleveland,  March  4, 1893,  Democrat. 

William  McKinley,  March  4, 1896,  Republican. 

The  President's  Salary. —  Most  people 
believe  that  the  $50,000  a  year  which  the 
president  gets  as  his  salary  is  the  sum  total. 
This  is  a  mistake.  $36,064  is  given  him,  in 
addition  to  his  salary  of  $50,000,  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  his  subordinates  and  clerks.  His 
private  secretary  is  paid  $3,250,  his  assistant 
private  secretary,  $2,250  ;  his  stenographer, 
$i,800  ;  five  messengers,  each,  $1,200  ;  a  stew- 
ard, $1,800;  two  doorkeepers,  each,  $1,200; 
four  other  clerks,  at  good  salaries ;  one  tele- 
graph operator,  two  ushers,  $1 ,200  and  $1 ,400  ; 
a  night  usher,  $1,200;  a  watchman,  $900; 
and  a  man  who  takes  care  of  the  fires,  who 
receives  $864  a  year.  In  addition  to  this,  there 
is  given  him  $8,000  for  incidental  expenses, 
such  as  stationery,  carpets,  and  the  care  of 
the  presidential  stables.  And  under  another 
heading  there  is  given  him  nearly  $40,000 
more.  Of  this,  $12,500  is  for  repairs  and  re- 
furnishing the  White  House  ;  $2,500  is  for  fuel ; 
$4,000  is  for  the  greenhouse,  $15,000  is  for  gas, 


matches,  and  the  stable.  The  White  House,  all 
told,  costs  the  country,  in  connection  with  the 
president,  considerably  over  $125. 000  a  year. 

Insanity. —  It  is  estimated  that  the  number 
of  insane  persons  in  the  United  States  is  168,- 
900  ;  inGermanv,  108,100  ;  in  France,  93,900  ; 
in  England,  81,600  ;  in  Russia,  80,000  ;  Italy, 
44,100;  Austria,  35,000;  Ireland,  19,500; 
Scandinavia,  18,100;  Spain  and  Portugal,  13,- 
000  ;  Scotland,  11,600  ;  Belgium  and  Holland, 
10,400;  Canada,  7,300;  Australia,  4,900; 
Switzerland,  3,100. 

Causes  of  Insanity. —  Hereditary,  24  per 
cent.  ;  drink,  14  per  cent.  ;  business,  12  per 
cent.;  loss  of  friends,  11  per  cent.;  sickness, 
10  per  cent.  ;  various,  29  per  cent. 

The  above  result  is  the  medium  average  ar- 
rived at  on  comparing  the  returns  for  the 
United  States,  England,  France,  and  Denmark. 

Height  of  noted  cathedrals,  monuments, 
buildings,  etc.  :  — 

FEET. 

Eiffel  Tower,  Paris 990 

Washington  Monument 555 

Pyramid,  Cheops,  Egypt 543 

Cathedral,  Cologne 511 

"  Antwerp 476 

"  Strasburg 474 

Tower,  Utrecht 464 

Steeple,  St.  Stephen's,  Vienna 460 

Pyramid,  Khaf  ras,  Egypt 456 

St.  Martin's  Church,  Bava  ria 456 

Chimnev.Port  Dundas,  Glasgow 454 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 448 

Notre  Dame,  Amiens 422 

Salisbury  Spire,  England 406 

Cathedral,  Florence 380 

"  Cremona 372 

»«  Freiburg 367 

St.  Paul's,  London 365 

Cathedral,  Seville 360 

l'vramid,  Sakkarah,  Egypt 356 

Cathedral,  Milan 355 

Notre  Dame,  Munich 348 

Invalides,  Paris 347 

Parliament  House,  London 340 

Cathedral,  Magdeburg 337 

St.  Patrick's,  New  York 328 

St.  Mark's,  Venice 328 

Cathedral,  Bologna 321 

"  Norwich,  England 309 

"  World  "  Building,  New  York 309 

statue  of  Liberty,  New  York 305 

Cathedral,  Chichester,  England 300 

"  Lincoln,  England 300 

Capitol,  Washington 300 

st.  James'  Cathedral,  Toronto 316 

Trinitv  Church,  New  York 283 

Cathedral,  Mexico 280 

"  Montreal 280 

Brooklyn  Bridge 278 

Campanile  Tower,  Florence 276 

Masonic  Temple,  Chicago 265 

Column,  Delhi 260 

Cathedral.  Dantzic 250 

Porcelain  Tower,  Nankin 24* 

Custom  House,  St.  Louis 240 

Canterbury  Tower,  England 235 

Notre  Dame,  Paris 232 

Chicago  Board  of  Trade 230 

St.  Patrick's,  Dublin 226 

Cathedral,  Glasgow ' 225 

Bunker  Hill  Monument 220 

Notre  Dame,  Montreal 220 

Cathedral,  Lima 220 

"  Reims 220 

"  Garden  Citv,  L.  1 219 

Sts.  Peter  and  Paul,  Philadelphia 210 

Washington  Monument,  Baltimore 210 

Yendome  Monument,  Paris 153 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND   FIGURES. 


591 


Largest  Cities  of  the  Earth. 

POPULATION  ACCORDING  TO  THE  LATEST  OFFICIAL  CENSUSES. 


Cities. 


(V"-     Papu- 
ans    latiun. 
Year. 


Cities. 


Cen- 
sus 
Year. 


London 1*:U 

New  York 1900 

Paris 1896 

Chicago 1900 

Berlin 1896 

Canton est. 

Vienna 1891 

Philadelphia 1900 

Tokio,  Japan 1895 

St.  Petersburg 1897 

Peking est. 

Moscow 1897 

Constantinople 1885 

Calcutta 1891 

Bombay 1891 

Buenos"  Ay  res 1897 

Hamburg 1895 

Glasgow. ls9i 

Warsaw 1897 

St.  Louis 1900 

Cairo,  Egypt 1897 

Boston I860 

Brussels 1896 

Naples 1896 

Rio  de  Janeiro 1892 

Liverpool 1891 

Baltimore 'i960 

Buda-Pesth 1891 

Manchester 1891 

Amsterdam 1896 

Melbourne 1891 

Osaka,  Japan 1895 

Rome 1896 

Madrid 1887 

Lyons 1896 

Milan   1896 

Madras 1891 

Marseilles 1896 

Birmingham,  England  1891 

Haidarabad ". 

Munich 1895 

Odessa 18<7 

Leipzig 1895 

Svdney 1891 

Cleveland 1900 

Shanghai est. 

Breslau 1*95 

Leeds 1891 

Buffalo 19(10 

Turin 1896 

Mexico  City 1898 

San  Francisco 1900 

Kioto,  Japan 1895 

Dresden 1895 

Cincinnati 1900 

Sheffield 1.H91 

Pittsburg 1900 

Cologne 1895 

Alexandria 1897 

Lodz,  Poland 1897 

Copenhagen 1890 

Lisbon.. . 1*90 

Stockholm 1896 

New  Orleans 1900 

Rotterdam 1896 

Detroit 1900 

Milwaukee 1900 

Palermo 1896 

Riga 1897 

Washington 1900 

Lucknow 1891 

Barcelona 1897 

Antwerp 1896 

Edinburgh 1891 

Bordeaux 1898 


4.231.431 
3,437,202 

1,698,575 
1,677,351 
1,600,000 
1,364,548 
1,293,697 
1,268,950 
1,267,023 
1,000,000 
98«,610 
873,560 
840,130 
821,764 
726,917 
625,552 
618,470 
614.752 
575,238 
570,062 
560,892 
531,011 
529,490 
522,651 
517,950 
508.957 
506,380 
503.340 
494,189 
490.900 
487.184 
474.000 
472,230 
466,028 
456,700 
452,518 
442,239 
429,170 
415,039 
407,174 
404,651 
399,963 
383,390 
381,768 
380,000 
373.206 
367,510 
352.219 
348.000 
341.377 
342.782 
:*4<i.l01 
336.440 
325,90* 
324  240 
321.616 
32 1.4: 11 
319,766 
314,780 
312,859 
301,206 
237,860 
287.104 
286,105 
285,704 
286,315 
2*3,700 
282.943 
278,718 
273,090 
272.480 
267.902 
264.800 
256,906 


Santiago 

Belfast 

Kief 

Newark 

Dublin 

Bucharest 

Frankfort-on-Main. . . 

Montevideo 

Genoa 

Benares 

Bristol.  England 

Hong  Kong 

Montreal 

Bradford,  England 

Lille 

Nagoya,  Japan 

Magdeburg 

Nottingham 

Teheran . 

Hanover 

•Florence 

Jersey  City 

Louisville 

Minneapolis 

Bahia 

Bangkok,  Siam 

Damascus 

Seoul,  Korea 

Smyrna 

Hull 

Havana 

Salford,  England 

Delhi 

The  Hague 

Pernambuco 

Cawnpore 

Mandelay 

Newcastle 

Prague 

Toronto 

Rangoon 

Bagdad 

Tabriz,  Persia 

Bangalore 

Allahabad 

Lahore 

Dusseldorf 

Providence  

Konigsberg 

Valencia 

Kharkoff,  Russia 

Y'okohama 

Indianapolis 

Agra 

1'atna 

Liege 

Kansas  Citv 

St.  Paul..." 

Rochester 

Nuremberg 

Kobe.  J.i  pan 

Chemnitz 

Vilna 

Portsmouth,  England. 

Ghent 

Trieste 

Stuttgart 

Dundee 

Venice 

Tunis 

Zurich 

Christiania 

Bologna 

Messina 

Salonica,  Turkey 


Popu- 
lation. 


1895 
1891 
1897 
1900 
1891 
1894 
1895 
1893 
1896 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1896 
1895 
1895 
1891 
1881 
1895 
1896 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1892 
est. 
est. 

1885 
1891 
1887 
1891 
1891 
1896 
1892 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1885 
1881 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1895 
1900 
1895 
1887 
1897 
1895 
1900 
1891 
1891 
1896 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1895 
1895 
1895 
1897 
1891 
1896 
1891 
1895 
1891 
1896 

1897 
1891 
1896 
1896 

est. 


256,403 
255,950 
248,750 
246,070 
245,000 
232,000 
229,299 
225,662 
225,000 
222,520 
221,670 
221,440 
216,650 
216,360 
216,276 
215,083 
214,397 
211,981 
210,000 
209,560 
207,100 
206,433 
204,731 
202,718 
200,000 
200,000 
200,000 
200,000 
200,009 
199,990 
198,270 
198,140 
193,580 
191,530 
193,000 
188,712 
187,910 
186.350 
186,110 
181,220 
181,210 
180,000 
180,000 
179,670 
176,870 
176,720 
176,024 
175,597 
172.391 
170,760 
170,682 
170,252 
169.164 
168,710 
167,510 
165,404 
163,752 
163,632 
162.435 
162,380 
161,130 
160,991 
159,568 
159.260 
159.218 
158.340 
157,700 
155.680 
153.800 
153,000 
151,994 
151,239 
151.200 
150,800 
150.000 


Cities. 


Cen-     t, 

ras  fie- 

Year. 


lation. 


Toulouse 

Altona 

Ahmadabad 

Seville 

Leicester 

Bremen 

Stettin 

Fez,  Morocco 

Oporto 

Elberfeld 

Amritsar,  India 

St.  Etienne 

Strasburg 

Malaga 

Denver 

Adelaide. 

Saratoff,  Russia 

Charlottenburg, 

J     Prussia 

Toledo 

1  Kazan 

Oldham 

Sunderland 

Allegheny 

Cardiff..* 

Lemberg 

:  Catania 

'Barmen 

;  Colombo 

Danzig 

Columbus 

Roubaix 

Nantes 

,  Aberdeen 

Valparaiso 

Bareilly,  India 

Srinagar,  India 

Blackburn 

Aleppo  

Bogota 

Havre 

Meerut 

Worcester 

Nagpur 

. Goteborg,  Sweden.. 

Howrah,  India 

Baroda 

Halle-on-Saal 

Brighton 

Brunswick,  German} 

Bolton ". 

Gratz 

Rouen  

Athens 

Dortmund,  Germany 

Aachen 

Kishineff 

Syracuse 

New  Haven 

Surat 

Reims 

Preston 

Krefeld 

Paterson 

Fall  River 

Leghorn 

Lima 

St.  Joseph 

Omaha 

Los  Angeles 

i  Memphis 

Scranton  


1*96 
1895 
1  1891 
1887 
1891 
1895 
1895 
est. 
1890 
1895 
1891 
1896 
1895 
1**7 
1900 
1891 
1897 

1895 
1900 
1897 
1891 
1891 
1900 
1891 
1891 
1896 
1895 
1891 
1895 
1900 
1896 
1896 
1891 
1895 
1891 
1891 
1891 
1885 
1886 
1896 
1891 
1900 
1891 
1896 
1891 
1891 
1895 
1891 
1895 
1891 
1891 
1896 
1896 
1895 
1895 
1897 
1900 
1900 
1*91 
1896 
1891 
1895 
1900 
1900 
1896 
1891 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 
1900 


149,963 
148  944 
145,990 
143,180 
142,050 
141,937 
140,731 
140,000 
139,856 
139,168 
136,500 
136,030 
135,315 
134,0t0 
133,859 
133,220 
133,116 

132,393 
131,822 
131.508 
131.460 
130,920 
129,896 
128,850 
128,420 
127,100 
127.002 
126,930 
125,639 
125,560 
124,661 
123,902 
123,330 
122,447 
121.870 
120,340 
120,060 
120,000 
120,000 
119,470 
118.760 
118,421 
117,910 
117,350 
116,606 
116,460 
116,304 
116,400 
115,138 
115,003 
113.540 
113.219 
111,486 
111.232 
110.489 
108.f06 
108,377 
108,024 
108,000 
107,963 
107.570 
107,278 
105.171 
104,863 
104,300 
103.956 
102.979 
102,555 
102.479 
102,320 
102,020 


Note.— The  population  of  Chinese  cities  other  than  Canton.  Peking,  and  Shanghai  is  omitted,  because  re- 
ports respecting  it  are  utterly  untrustworthy.  There  are  forty  or  more  Chinese  cities  whose  inhabitants  are 
numbered  by  rumor  at  from  200,000  to  1,000,000  each,  but  no  official  censuses  have  ever  been  taken  ;  and  setting 
aside  consideration  of  the  Oriental  tendency  to  exaggeration,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  estimates  of 
population  in  many  instances  covered  districts  of  country  bearing  the  same  names  as  the  cities,  instead  of  def- 
inite municipalities. 


5S2 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OP  PACTS. 


Arizona 16,740 

California 15,283 

Colorado 1,034 

Connecticut 24 

Florida 215 

Georgia 2 

Idaho 3,909 

Illinois 1 

Indiana 71 

Indian  Territory  ....  8,708 
Five  Civilized  Tribes  66,289 

Iowa 397 


The  American  Indian. 

(Population  in  1890,  as  Reported  by  the  Census.) 

Kansas 1,437  j  New  Mexico 20,521 

Louisiana 132    Pueblos 8,278 

New  York 28 

Six  Nations 5,304 

North  Carolina 231 

Cherokees 2.885 

North  Dakota 7.952 

Oklahoma 5,689 

Oregon 4,288 

South  Dakota 19,845 

Tennessee 10 


Maine 140 

Massachusetts 145 

Michigan 6,!i9l 

Minnesota 7\065 

Mississippi :...  1,404 

Missouri •     14 

Montana 10,573 

Nebraska 3.864 

Nevada 4,956 


Texas 

258 

Utah 

2,489 

Washington 

10,837 
8,896 

Wyoming 

War  Department 
Apaches,  Mt.  Ver- 
non Barracks 

Indians  in  prison 

1,806 

384 
184 

Total...   249,273 


INDIAN  POPULATION  IN  DETAIL. 

The  total  Indian  population  of  the  United  States,  exclusive  of  Alaska,  but  including  32,567  counted  in  the 
general  census,  being  the  taxed  or  taxable  Indians,  numbers  249,273.  The  following  table  gives  the  division  of 
the  Indians  in  detail :  — 

Indians  on  reservations  or  at  school,  under  control  of  the  Indian  office  (not  taxed  or  taxable) 133,382 

Indians  incidentally  under  the  Indian  office,  and  self-supporting:  — 

Theflve  civilized  tribes,  Indians  and  colored — Cherokees,  29,599 ;  Ohickasaws,  7.182;  Choctaws,  14,397; 
Creeks,  14,632;  Seminoles,  2,561 ;  total,  68,371.    Total  Indians,  52,065 ;  total  colored  Indian  citizens 

and  claimants,  14,224;  grand  total 66,289 

Pueblos  of  New  Mexico 8,278 

Six  Nations,  Saint  Regis,  and  other  Indians  of  New  York 5,304 

Eastern  Cherokees  of  North  Carolina 2,885 

Indians  taxed  or  taxable,  and  self-sustaining  citizens,  counted  in  the  general  census  (98  per  cent,  not  on 

reservations) 32,567 

Indians  under  control  of  the  War  Department,  prisoners  of  war  (Apaches  at  Mount  Vernon  Barracks) 384 

Indians  in  State  or  Territorial  prisons : 184 


Total 249, 273 


"  Uncle  Sam." — The  practice  of  calling 
the  United  States  Government  "  Uncle  Sam  " 
is  believed  to  have  originated  in  the  following 
manner  :  During  the  Revolutionary  war  a  man 
named  Samuel  Wilson  was  a  beef  inspector  at 
Troy,  N.  Y.,  and  was  very  popular  with  the 
men  in  his  employ,  who  always  called  him 
Uncle  Sam.  After  the  inspection  of  the  beef, 
it  was  shipped  by  him  to  a  contractor  named 
Elbert  Anderson,  and  was  always  marked 
"  E.  A.  U.  S."  A  joking  workman,  being 
asked  what  those  letters  were  the  abbreviations 
of,  replied  that  he  did  not  know,  unless  they 
were  for  filbert  Anderson  and  "  Uncle  Sam." 
The  joke  was  kept  up  and  spread,  until  it 
became  common  to  refer  to  all  packages  marked 
"  U.  S."  as  belonging  to  '«  Uncle  Sam." 


Expectation  of 

Life. 

6 

«  a  ^ 

<D 

Sa  . 
o~2 

a> 

a""  2 

6 

-1 

SB* 

-i 

$  a  « 

Ml 

2S  <a 

MB 

£a  S 

M 

S  a  a 

4 

< 

< 

—  o  <s 

■< 

x-2  >, 

-< 

ftgg 

8* 

^•~ 

«w 

W~ 

W" 

0 

28.15 

20 

34.22 

■10 

26.04 

60 

15.45 

80 

5.85 

1 

36  78 

21 

33.84 

41 

25.61 

(11 

14.86 

81 

5.50 

2 

38.74 

22 

33.46 

42 

25.19 

62 

14.26 

62 

5.16 

3 

40.01 

23 

33.08 

43 

24.77 

88 

13.66 

83 

4.87 

4 

40.73 

24 

32.70 

44 

24.35 

64 

13.05 

84 

4.66 

5 

40.88 

25 

32.33 

45 

23.92 

66 

12.43 

S5 

4.57 

6 

40.69 

26 

31.93 

40 

23.37 

66 

11.96 

86 

4.21 

7 

40.47 

27 

31.50 

47 

22.83 

67 

11.48 

87 

3.90 

8 

40.14 

28 

31.08 

4* 

22.27 

68 

11.01 

88 

3.07 

9 

39  72 

29 

S0.66 

49 

21.72 

69 

10.50 

SO 

3.56 

10 

39.23 

SO 

30.25 

50 

21.17 

70 

10.06 

90 

3.43 

11 

38.64 

81 

29.83 

:,1 

20.61 

71 

9.60 

:il 

3.32 

12 

38.02 

83 

29.43 

52 

20.05 

72 

9.14 

92 

3.12 

i:t 

37.41 

88 

29.02 

53 

19.49 

7:i 

8.69 

98 

2.40 

11 

36.79 

34 

28.62 

54 

18.92 

74 

8.25 

01 

1.98 

15 

36.17 

80 

28.22 

55 

18.35 

75 

7.83 

90 

1.62 

16     35.76 

36 

27.78 

56 

17.78 

7t; 

7.40 

17 

35.37 

37 

27.34 

57 

17.20 

77 

6.99 

18 

34.98 

81 

26.91 

M 

16.63 

7* 

6.59 

19 

34.59 

N 

26.47 

59 

16.04 

7U 

6.21 

Rubicon,  the  ancient  name  of  a  small 
stream — thought  to  be  the  modern  Fiumicino — 
which  formed  the  boundary  between  Italy  and 
Cisalpine  Gaul.  It  is  celebrated  from  Caesar's 
having  hesitated  about  crossing  it  with  his 
army,  and  initiating  civil  war,  in  the  year  19 
B.C.  When  he  came  to  the  river  he  paused 
upon  the  brink,  but  finally,  saying,  "  The  die 
is  cast !  "  he  spurred  on  his  horse,  and  dashed 
into  the  water.  Hence,  "  To  pass  the  Rubi- 
con "  has  become  a  proverbial  phrase,  todeifote 
the  taking  of  the  first  step  in  a  momentous 
undertaking,  from  which  one  cannot  or  will 
not  recede. 

Illegitimacy. —  The  percentage  of  illegiti- 
mate births  for  various  countries,  as  stated  by 
Mulhall,  is  asfollows  :  Austria,  12.9  ;  Denmark, 
11.2;  Sweden.  10.2;  Scotland,  8.9;  Norway. 
8.05;  Germany,  8.04;  France,  7.02;  Bel- 
gium, 7.0  ;  United  States,  7.0  ;  Italy,  6.8  ; 
Spain  and  Portugal,  5.5  ;  Canada,  5.0;  Switz- 
erland, 4.6;  Holland,  3.5;  Russia,  3.1;  Ire- 
land, 2.3;  Greece,  1.6. 

Positivism. —  The  system  of  philosophy 
known  as  positivism,  taught  by  Auguste  Comte 
(1799-1 857) ,  discarding  the  possibility  of  kno  wr- 
ing the  beginning  and  the  end  of  anything, 
concerns  itself  only  with  what  lies  between. 
It  accepts  neither  atheism,  theism,  nor  panthe- 
ism. It  may  be  divided  into  two  parts:  The 
historic  conception  and  the  co-ordination  of 
the  sciences.  The  former  is  this :  That  the 
human  mind  passes  through  three  stages,  viz., 
the  theological,  the  metaphysical,  and  the 
positive.  In  all  subjects  capable  of  experi- 
ment it  passes  from  metaphysics  to  experi- 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


593 


mental  verification  or  exact  science.  In  re- 
gard to  the  co-ordination  of  the  sciences  the 
basis  is  mathematics  ;  then  follow  astronomy, 
physics,  chemistry,  biology,  and  sociology. 
Take  the  last :  The  science  of  society  is  im- 
possible without  the  science  of  life.  The 
science  of  life  is  impossible  without  chemistry. 
Chemistry  presupposes  physics,  physics  as- 
tronomy, and  astronomy  mathematics. 

Executive  Civil  List. 

Department,  Burean,  Office,  or  Commission.  .Number. 

Executive  Office 21 

Civil  Service  Commission 62 

State  Department 122 

Treasury  Department 15,163 

War  Department 14,967 

Department  of  Justice 704 

Post  Office  Department 8.465 

Xavy  Department 1,252 

Positions  registered  under  Navy  Department 

regulations 5,063 

Interior  Department 9,713 

Pension  Examining  Surgeons 4,120 

Department  of  Agriculture 2,241 

Department  of  Labor 95 

Commission  of  Fish  and  Fisheries 183 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission 142 

Smithsonian  Institution 292 

Library  of  Congress 39 

Superintendent  State,  War,  and  Xavy  Building.  25 

Total  Departmental  Service 62,669 

General  Statement. 

Departmental  Service 62,669 

Post  Office  Service 104,811 

Government  Printing  Office 2,852 

Custom  House  Service 5,103 

Internal  Revenue  Service 3,282 

Total  Executive  Civil  List,  United  States  . . .  178,717 

The  Defective  Classes. —  The  Insane. 
—  The  total  number  of  insane  in  the  United 
States  on  June  1,  1890  (census  of  the  United 
States),  was  106,485  —  whites,  99,719;  ne- 
groes, 6,535  ;  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  civilized 
Indians,  231.  The  number  of  insane  males 
was  53,473,  and  of  insane  females  53,012. 
The  total  number  of  insane  reported  in  1880 
was  91,959.  The  number  of  insane  in  each 
100,000  of  the  population  in  18!)0  was  387.0 
for  the  foreign  whites,  140.5  for  the  native 
whites,  and  88.6  for  the  colored.  In  1880  the 
corresponding  figures  were  398.8,  161.9,  and 
91.2. 

The  proportion  of  insanity  was  much  greater 
among  the  whites  than  among  the  negroes,  and 
very  much  greater  among  the  foreign  born  than 
among  the  native  born. 

The  number  of  insane  in  asylums  in  1890 
was  71,028— whites,  69,729;  negroes,  4,299. 
The  number  of  insane  in  asylums  in  each  1,000 
of  insane  was  :   whites,  699  ;   negroes,  658. 

The  number  of  insane  admitted  to  public 
institutions  from  1881  to  1889,  inclusive,  was 
190,458.  The  number  admitted  to  private  in- 
stitutions in  the  same  period,  3  3,833. 

Reports  from  thirty  states  to  the  Committee 
on  States  of  the  National  Conference  of  Chari- 


ties and  Correction  showed  102,000  insane  per- 
sons in  1896.  At  this  rate  the  whole  United 
States  would  have  145,000  insane. 

The  Feeble  Minded. —  The  total  number  of 
feeble  minded  in  the  United  States  on  June  1, 
1890,  was  95,609 — whites,  84,997;  negroes, 
10,574  ;  males,  52,962  ;  females,  42,647  ;  na- 
tive born  whites,  75,910  ;  foreign  born  whites, 
9,087. 

The  Deaf  and  Dumb The  total  number  of 

deaf  mutes  in  the  United  States  on  June  1, 
1890,  was  40,592  —  whites,  37,447  ;  negroes, 
3,115;  others,  30;  males, '22,429  ;  females, 
18,163;  native  born  whites,  33,278;  foreign 
born  whites,  4,169. 

The  number  of  persons  so  deaf  as  to  be 
unable  to  hear  loud  conversation  on  June  1, 
1890,  was  121,178,  of  whom  80,611  were  able 
to  speak.  The  latter  were  49,278  males,  3,1,- 
338  females,  77,308  whites,  3,308  negroes. 

The  Blind. —  The  total  number  of  blind  in 
the  United  States  on  June  1,  1890,  was  50,568 
—  whites,  43,351  ;  negroes,  7,060 ;  others, 
157;  males,  28,080;  females,  22,488  ;  native 
born  whites,  34,205 ;  foreign  born  whites, 
9,146.  The  number  of  blind  in  one  eye  only 
was  93,988. 

The  number  of  insane  persons  in  England 
in  1889,  according  to  Mulhall,  was  84,345,  or 
2,907  per  million  population ;  in  Scotland, 
11,954,  or  2,890  per  million.  The  number 
of  insane  in  Germany  in  1884  was  108,100  ; 
France,  93,900;  Russia,  80,000;  Austria, 
44,500. 

Holidays.  —  The  legal  holidays  in  the 
United  States  are  as  follows  : — 

New  Year's  Day,  January  1.  In  all  states 
and  territories,  except  Arkansas,  Delaware, 
Georgia,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massachusetts, 
New  Hampshire,  North  Carolina^South  Caro- 
lina, and  Rhode  Island. 

Anniversary  of  the  Battle  of  New  Orleans, 
January  8.     In  Louisiana. 

Lincoln's  Birthday,  February  12.  In  Louis- 
iana. 

Washington's  Birthday,  February  22.  In  all 
states  and  territories  except  Alabama,  Arkan- 
sas, Florida,  Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana,  Kansas, 
Maine,  Missouri,  North  Carolina,  Ohio,  Texas, 
Oregon,  and  Tennessee. 

Shrove  Tuesday,  March  1.  In  Louisiana, 
and  cities  of  Mobile,  Montgomery,  and  Selma, 
Ala. 

Anniversary  of  Texan  Independence,  March 
2.     In  Texas. 

Firemen's  Anniversary,  March  4.  In  Louis- 
iana. 

Good  Friday,  April  15.  In  Florida,  Louis- 
iana, Minnesota,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Memorial  Day,  April  26.     In  Georgia. 


S94 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


Battle  of  San  Jacinto,  April  21.     In  Texas. 

Decoration  Day,  May  80.  In  Colorado, 
Maine,  Vermont,  Connecticut,  Michigan,  New 
Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  District  of  Columbia. 

Fourth  of  July.  In  all  states  and  terri- 
tories. 

General  Election  Day,  generally  on  Tuesday 
after  first  Monday  in  November.  In  Califor- 
nia, Maine,  Missouri,  New  Jersey,  New  York, 
Oregon,  South  Carolina,  and  Wisconsin. 

Thanksgiving  Day,  usually  last  Thursday  in 
November,  and  Fast  days  whenever  appointed 
by  the  president  are  legal  holidays  in  all  states 
and  territories. 

Christmas  Day.  In  all  the  states  and  ter- 
ritories. 

Labor  Day,  first  Monday  in  September.  All 
states. 

Weight  and  Specific  Gravities  of 
Liquids. 


Liquids  at  32°  Fahr. 


Mercury 

Bromine 

Sulphuric  acid,  max.  concen- 
tration   

Nitrous  acid 

Chloroform 

Water  of  the  Dead  Sea 

Nitric  acid ,  of  commerce  — 

Acetic  acid,  maximum  con- 
centration  

Milk 

Sea  water,  ordinary 

Pure  water  ( distld.)  at  39°  1  F. 

Wine  of  Bordeaux 

Wine  of  Burgundy 

Linseed  oil 

Poppy  oil 

Rape  seed  oil 

Whale  oil 

Olive  oil 

Turpentine  oil 

Potato  oil 

Petroleum 

Naphtha , .   

Ether,  nitric 

Ether,  sulphurous 

Ether,  nitrous 

Ether,  acetic 

Ether,  hydrochloric 

Ether,  sulphuric 

Alcohol,  proof  spirit 

Alcohol,  pure 

Benzine 

Wood  spirit 


ft" 


£§ 


Pounds. 
848.7 
185.1 

114.9 
96.8 
95.5 

77.4 
76.2 

67.4 

64.3 

64.05 

62.425 

62.1 

61.9 

58.7 

58.1 

57.4 

57.4 

57.1 

54.3 

51.2 

54.9 

53.1 

69.3 

67.4 

55.6 

55.6 

54.3 

44.9 

57.4 

49.3 

53.1 

49.9 


Pounds. 
136.0 
29  7 

18.4 
15.5 
15.3 
12.4 
12.2 

10.8 

10.3 

10.3 

10.0 

9.9 

9.9 

9.4 

9.3 

9.2 

9.2 

9.15 

8.7 

8.2 

8.8 

8.5 

11.1 

10.8 

8.9 

8.9 

8.7 

7.2 

9.2 

7.9 

8.5 

8.0 


*3 


Water=l. 

13.596 
2.966 

1.84 
1.55 
1.53 
124 
1.22 

1.08 

1.03 

1.026 

1.000 

0.994 

0.991 

0.94 

0.93 

0.92 

0.92 

0.915 

0.87 

0  82 

0.88 

0.85 

1.11 

1.08 

0.89 

0.89 

0.87 

0.72 

0.92 

0.79 

0.85 

0.80 


The  World's  Seven  Wonders.  —  The 

seven  wonders  of  the  world  are  :  The  Pyramids, 
the  Colossus  of  Rhodes,  Diana's  Temple  at 
Ephesus,  the  Pharos  of  Alexandria,  the  Hang- 
ing Gardens  at  Babylon,  the  Statue  of  the 
Olympian  Jove,  and  the  Mausoleum  by  A  it  - 
temisia  at  Halicarnassus.  The  Pyramids  are 
numerous,  and  space  forbids  anything  like 
even  a  list  of   them.     The   great   piles   were 


constructed  of  blocks  of  red  orsyenitic  granite, 
and  of  a  hard  calcareous  stone.  These  blocks 
j  were  of  extraordinary  dimensions,  and  their 
transportation  to  the  sites  of  the  pyramids  and 
their  adjustment  in  their  places,  indicate  a 
surprising  degree  of  mechanical  skill.  The 
Great  Pyramid  covers  an  area  of  between 
twelve  and  thirteen  acres.  The  masonry  con- 
sisted originally  of  89,028,000  cubic  feet,  and 
still  amounts  to  about  82,111,000  feet.  The 
present  vertical  height  is  450  feet,  against  479 
feet  originally,  and  the  present  length  of  the 
sides  is  746  feet,  against  764  feet  originally. 
The  total  weight  of  the  stone  is  estimated  at 
6,316,000,000  tons.  The  city  of  Rhodes  was 
besieged  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  King  of 
Macedon,  but,  aided  by  Ptolomy  Soter,  King 
of  Egypt,  the  enemy  were  repulsed.  To  ex- 
press their  gratitude  to  their  allies  and  to  their 
tutelary  deity,  they  erected  a  brazen  statue  to 
Apollo.  It  was  105  feet  high,  and  hollow, 
with  a  winding  staircase  that  ascended  to  the 
head.  After  standing  fifty-six  years,  it  was 
overthrown  by  an  earthquake,  224  years  before 
Christ,  and  lay  nine  centuries  on  the  ground, 
and  then  was  sold  to  a  Jew  by  the  Saracens, 
who  had  captured  Rhodes,  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century.  It  is  said  to  have  re- 
quired nine  hundred  camels  to  remove  the  metal, 
and  from  this  statement  it  has  been  calculated 
its  weight  was  720,000  pounds.  The  Temple 
of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  was  built  at  the  com- 
mon charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  States.  The  chief 
architect  was  Chersiphon,  and  Pliny  says  that 
220  years  were  employed  in  completing  the 
temple,  whose  riches  were  immense.  It  was 
425  feet  long,  225  broad,  and  was  supported 
by  125  columns  of  Parian  marble  (sixty  feet 
high,  each  weighing  150  tons),  furnished  by 
as  many  kings.  It  was  set  on  fire  on  the  night 
of  Alexander's  birth  by  an  obscure  person 
named  Erostratus,  who  confessed  on  the  rack 
that  the  sole  motive  which  prompted  him  was 
the  desire  to  transmit  his  name  to  future  ages. 
The  temple  was  again  built,  and  once  more 
burned  by  the  Goths  in  their  naval  invasion,  A. 
D.  256.  The  colossal  statue  of  Jupiter  in  the 
temple  of  Olympia,  at  Elis,  was  by  Phidias. 
It  was  in  gold  and  ivory,  and  sat  enthroned 
in  the  temple  for  800  years,  and  was  finally 
destroyed  by  fire  about  A.  I).  475.  From  the 
best  information,  it  is  believed  that  the  Mau- 
soleum at  Halicarnassus  was  a  rectangular 
building  surrounded  by  an  Ionic  portico  of 
thirty-six  columns,  and  surmounted  by  a  pyra- 
mid, rising  in  twenty-four  steps,  upon  the 
summit  of  which  was  a  colossal  marble  quad- 
riga with  a  statue  of  Mausolus.  The  magnif- 
icent structure  was  erected  by  Artemisia,  who 
was  the  sister,  wife,  and  successor  of  Mausolus. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


595 


The  Blarney  Stone. —  Blarney  is  a  vil- 
lage in  Ireland,  in  the  County  of  Cork,  about 
five  miles  from  the  far  famed  city  of  that 
name.  It  is  chiefly  celebrated  as  giving  the 
name  to  a  peculiar  kind  of  eloquence  which  i» 
said  to  be  characteristic  of  the  light-hearted 
natives  of  the  Emerald  Isle.  The  old  castle 
at  Blarney  contains  the  identical  stone,  the 
kissing  of  which  is  believed  to  give  the  person 
peculiar  skill  in  speech.  It  is  one  of  those 
superstitions  which  can  be  traced  back  until 
the  mind  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary. 

The  Coal  Area  of  the  World The 

coal  area  of  the  world  is  distributed  as  fol- 
lows :  — 


Sq.  Miles. 

United  States 192,000 

British  America 18,000 

Great  Britain 12,000 

Spain 4,000 

France 2,000 


Sq.  Miles. 

Germany 1,800 

Belgium 518 

Rest  of  Europe 100,000 

China 2,000 

Japan 5,000 


Salaries  Paid  to  Heads  of  Govern- 
ments.—  Various  governments  pay  their 
chiefs  as  follows  :  The  United  States,  $50,000 
a  year;  Persia,  $30,000,000  ;  Russia,  $10,000,- 
000;  Siam,  $10,000,000;  Spain,  $3,900,000; 
Italy,  $3,000,000  ;  Great  Britain,  $3,000,000  ; 
Morocco,  $2,500,000;  Japan,  $2,300,000; 
Egypt,  $1,575,000;  Germany,  $1,000,000; 
Saxony,  $700,000  ;  Portugal,  Sweden,  and 
Brazil,  each  $600,000;  France,  $200,000; 
Hayti,  $240,000  ;  Switzerland,  $3,000. 

Train  Management. — Standard  Code. 
—  A  train  wrhile  running  must  display  two 
green  flags  by  day  and  two  green  lights  by 
night,  one  on  each  side  of  the  rear  of  the  train. 

After  sunset,  or  when  obscured  by  fog  or 
other  cause,  must  display  headlight  in  front, 
and  two  red  lights  in  rear. 

Two  green  flags  by  day  and  two  green  lights 
by  night,  displayed  in  the  places  provided  for 
that  purpose  on  the  front  of  an  engine,  denote 
that  the  train  is  followed  by  another  train  run- 
ning on  the  same  schedule,  and  entitled  to  the 
same  time-table  rights  as  the  train  carrying  the 
signals. 

Two  white  flags  by  day  or  two  white  lights 
by  night,  carried  in  the  same  manner,  denote 
that  the  train  is  an  extra. 

A  blue  flag  by  day  and  a  blue  light  by  night, 
placed  on  the  end  of  a  car,  denotes  that  car 
inspectors  are  at  work  under  or  about  the  car 
or  train,  and  that  it  must  not  be  coupled  to  or 
moved  until  the  blue  signal  is  removed. 

Colored  Flag  or  Lantern  Signals —  Torpedoes. 
Standard  Code.— Red  signifies  danger. 

Green  signifies  caution,  go  slowly. 

White  signifies  safety. 

Green  and  white  signifies  stop  at  flag  sta- 
tions for  passengers  or  freight. 

One  cap  or  torpedo  on  rail  means  stop  im- 
mediately. 


Two  caps  or  torpedoes  on  rail  means  reduce 
speed  immediately,  and  look  out  for  danger 
signal. 

Telescopes. —  The  largest  refracting  tele- 
scope in  the  world  was  presented  by  Charles 
T.  Yerkes  to  the  University  of  Chicago,  in 
1893.  It  has  a  lens  40  inches  in  diameter. 
The  column  and  head  of  cast  iron  rise  to  a 
height  of  43  feet,  and  weigh  50  tons.  The 
tube  is  of  steel,  64  feet  long,  and  52  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  center,  tapering  towards 
the  ends.  Its  weight  is  6  tons.  The  total 
weight  of  the  telescope  is  75  tons.  Cost  $250,- 
000.  The  lens  of  the  telescope  at  Lick  Obser- 
vatory is  36  inches  in  diameter.  The  largest 
reflector  is  that  of  Lord  Ross  in  England,  72 
inches. 

Divorces  in  Different  Countries. — 
In  Australia  divorces  have  never  been  sanc- 
tioned. 

Divorces  are  scarcely  ever  known  to  occur 
in  modern  Greece. 

In  Hindostan  either  party,  for  a  slight  cause, 
may  leave  the  other  party  and  marry. 

In  the  olden  times  the  Jews  had  a  discre- 
tionary power  of  divorcing  their  wives. 

Divorces  are  scarcely  allowed  in  Thibet,  un- 
less with  the  consent  of  both  parties.  Re- 
marriage is  forbidden . 

In  Cochin  China  the  parties  desiring  divorce 
break  a  pair  of  chopsticks  in  the  presence  of 
witnesses,  and  the  thing  is  done. 

Two  kinds  of  divorces  are  granted  in  Cir- 
cassia.  By  the  first,  the  parties  can  immedi- 
ately marry  again ;  by  the  second,  not  for  a 
year. 

Among  some  tribes  of  American  Indians  the 
sticks  given  witnesses  of  the  marriage  are 
broken  as  a  sign  of  divorce. 

If  the  wife  of  a  Turkoman  asks  his  permis- 
sion to  go  out,  and  he  says  "  Go,"  without 
adding,  "  Come  back  again,"  they  are  di- 
vorced. 

In  Siberia,  if  a  man  is  dissatisfied  with  the 
most  trifling  acts  of  his  wife,  he  tears  a  cap  or 
veil  from  her  face,  and  that  constitutes  a  di- 
vorce. 

In  Siam  the  first  wife  may  be  divorced,  but 
not  sold  as  the  others  maybe.  She  may  claim 
the  first  child.  The  others  belong  to  the  hus- 
band. 

Among  the  Moors,  if  the  wife  does  not  be- 
come the  mother  of  a  boy,  she  may  be  divorced 
with  the  consent  of  the  tribe,  and  can  marry 
again. 

In  the  Arctic  regions  a  man  who  wants  a  di- 
vorce leaves  home  in  anger,  and  does  not  return 
for  several  days.  The  wife  takes  the  hint,  and 
departs. 

In  China  divorces  are  allowed  in  all  cases  of 


596 


THE  CENTUBY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


criminality,  mutual  dislike,  jealousy,  incom- 
patibility of  temperament,  or  too  much  lo- 
quacity on  the  part  of  the  wife. 

Among  the  Tartars,  if  the  wife  is  ill-treated, 
she  complains  to  the  magistrate,  who,  attended 
by  the  principal  people,  accompanies  her  to 
the  house  and  pronounces  a  divorce. 

.Books  were  originally  made  of  boards,  or 
the  inner  bark  of  trees;  afterwards  of  skins 
and  parchment.  Papyrus,  an  indigenous 
plant,  was  adopted  in  Egypt.  Books  with 
leaves  of  vellum  were  invented  by  Attalus, 
king  of  Pergamus,  about  198  B.  C,  at  which 
time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls.  The 
MSS.  in  Herculaneum  consists  of  papyrus, 
rolled  and  charred  and  matted  together  by  the 
fire,  and  are  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one, 
two,  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  each 
being  a  separate  treatise.  The  first  printed 
books  were  printed  on  one  side  only,  the 
leaves  being  pasted  back  to  back. 

Title  pages  to  printed  books  in  England 
were  not  introduced  until  shortly  before  1490  ; 
they  were  used  by  Wynkyn  de  Worde,  but 
not  by  Caxton  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  prices  of  ancient  books  were  enormous. 
Jerome  (who  died  420  A.  D.)  states  that  he 
had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy  of  the 
works  of  Origen.  A  large  estate  was  given 
by  Alfred  the  Great  for  a  book  on  cosmogra- 
phy, about  872.  The  Roman  de  la  Rose  was 
sold  for  about  £80 ;  and  a  homily  was 
exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  quarters  of 


wheat.  Books  frequently  brought  double  or 
treble  their  weight  in  gold.  In  1400  they 
sold  at  prices  varying  from  SJ 10  to  £40  each. 

Bookbinding  is  supposed  to  have  begun 
about  650  A.  I).,  the  earliest  to  be  bound 
being  the  book  of  St.  Cutlibert.  A  Latin 
Psalter  was  bound  in  oak  hoards  in  the  ninth 
century.  Velvet  was  the  covering  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  and  silk  soon  after.  Vellum 
was  introduced  early  in  the  fifteenth  century; 
and  leather  came  into  use  about  the  same  time. 

Minimum  Weights  of  Produce. — 
The  following  are  minimum  weights  of  certain 
articles  of  produce,  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  United  States  :  — 


Per 

Bushel. 

Per  Bushel 

Wheat, 

60  ll>8. 

Dried  Apples, 

26  lbs 

Corn,  in  the  ear, 

70    " 

Clover  Seed, 

60    " 

Corn,  shelled, 

5C    " 

Flax  Seed, 

56    " 

Rye, 

56    " 

Millet  Seed, 

50     " 

Buckwheat, 

48    " 

Hungarian  Grass 

Barley, 

48    " 

Seed, 

50    " 

Oats, 

32    " 

Timothy  Seed, 

45    " 

Pease, 

CO    " 

Blue  Grass  Seed, 

44    " 

White  Beans, 

60    " 

Hemp  Seed, 

44    " 

Castor  Beans, 

46    " 

Salt  (see  note  below). 

White  Potatoes, 

CO     " 

Corn  Meal, 

48    •' 

Sweet  Potatoes, 

55    " 

(i round  Pease, 

24    " 

Onions, 

57     " 

Malt, 

38    " 

Turnips, 

55    " 

Bran, 

20    " 

Dried  Peaches, 

33    " 

Salt. —  Weight  per  bushel  as  adopted  by  dif- 
ferent states  ranges  from  50  to  80  pounds. 
Coarse  salt  in  Pennsylvania  is  reckoned  at  80 
pounds,  and  in  Illinois  at  50  pounds  per  bushel. 
Fine  salt  in  Pennsylvania  is  reckoned  at  G2 
pounds,  in  Kentucky  and  Illinois  at  55  pounds 
per  bushel. 


Railroad  Statistics  for  Year  Ending  1898. 


Mileage  of  Railroads 179,692.57 

Side  Tracks  and  Sidings 57,218.95! 

Total  Track  (exclusive  of  elevated  railroads 

in  Stateof  New  York) 236,911.52 

Steel  Rails  in  Track 211,928.31, 

Iron  Rails  in  Track 24.9P3.21 

Locomotive  Engines,  Number 35,810 

Cars,  Passenger 25,275 

"      Baggage,  Mail,  etc 8,133 

"      Freight 1,229,535 

Total  Cars 1,262,743 

Liabilities. 

Capital  Stock $5,453,782,046 

Bonded  Debt 5,411,058,525 

Unfunded  Debt 374,389,673 

Current  Accounts 882.481,496 

Total  Liabilities $11 ,631 ,711,740 

Assets. 

Cost  of  Railroad  and  Equipment §10,029,151,607 

Real  Estate,  Stocks,  Bonds,  ami  Other  In- 
vestments       1,509,841,062 

Other  Assets 222,089,700 

Current  Accounts _Jl  70,531 .284 

Total  Assets $11>31,613.653 

Excess  of  Assets  over  Liabilities §299,901,913 


Miles  of  Railroad  Operated  (exclusive  of 

elevated  railroads) 181.132,700 

Passenger  Train  Mileage — 342,464,408 

Freight        "            "        500,326,372 

Mixed            "            "        15,'j:ir>,ii4'.i 

Total 858,025.829 

Passengers  Carried 604,106.525 

Passenger  Mileage 12,494,958  000 

Tons  of  Freight  Moved 788,385,448 

Freight  Mileage 97,842,569,150 

Traffic  Earnings. 

Passengers $253,557,936 

Freight 780,351,939 

Miscellaneous 69,636,791 

Total  Traffic  Revenue $1,123,546,666 

Net  Earnings $338,170,195 

Receipts  from  Other  Sources 95,013,907 

Total  Available  Revenue 1483,184462 

Payments  from  Available  Revexfk. 

Rentals,  Tolls,  etc $58,600,768 

Interest  on  Bonds 231,046,819 

Other  Interest 5,633.298 

Dividends  on  Stock 82,630.989 

Miscellaneous 28,124,474 

Total  Payments ]|T0M36^348 

Surplus 927,147,764 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


597 


The  Public  Lands  of  the  United  States. 

The  following  is  a  tabular  statement  showing  the  number  of  acres  of  public  lands  surveyed  in  the  following 
land  States  and  Territories  up  to  June  30, 1898 ;  also  the  total  area  of  the  public  domain  remaining  unsurveyed 
within  the  same,  etc. 


Land  States 
AMU 

Terkitokies. 


Square 
Miles. 


T-7.JZ 


■=3  is 

HP  «-? 


i»fi 


2  2.2  -*>'-> 


Land  States 

and 
Territories. 


Square 
Miles. 


°  =  s 


2*2 


.2.2  £  *S 
3  =  73" 

s«c3~ 


Sail 


Alabama 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Florida 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Idaho  

Kansas 

Louisiana 

Michigan 

Minnesota .. . 
Mississippi... 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska  — 


32,462,115 
33,410,063 
1  10,992,640 
66,880,000 
87,931,620 
86  465,093 
21,63r,760 
35,228,800 
55,228,1G0 
51,770,240 
28,731,090 
36,128.640 
63,489,840 
30,179,840 
41,836,931 
92,016,340 
47,468,800 


50,722 
52,203 
157, S01 
104,500 
59,268 
55,414 
33,809 
55,045 
86,294 
80,891 
44,893 
56,451 
83,531 
47,156 
65,370 
143,776 
74,170 


32,462,115 
33,410,063 
76,263,293! 
61.391,497! 
30,832,485 
35,463,093 
21,637,760' 
35,228,800 | 
15,447,631: 
51,770,240 
27,174,005' 
36,128,640 
46,505,728: 
30,179,840 
41,836,931 
28,945,456 
47,368,404' 


24,540,370 
5,364,836 
7,098,836 


Nevada , 

N.Dakota... 

Ohio 

Oregon , 

S.  Dakota 

Wisconsin  . . 
Washington. 
Wyoming 

38,632,121  I  Alaska 

|  (Arizona 

1,555,878  Indian  Ter.. 

|  |New  Mexico. 

6,467,459  Oklahoma... 
Utah 


62,616,304 
100,396i 


71,737,600 
45,561,600 
25,581,976 
60,975.360 
50,643,200 
34,511,3(0 
44,796,160 
62,645,120 
369,529,600 
72,906,240 
19,575,040 
77,568,640 
24,599,680 
54,064,640 


112.090 
71,190 

39,972 
95,274 
79,130 
53,924 
69,994 
97,883 
577,390 
113,916 
30,586 
121,201 
38,437 
84,476 


36,172,204 
31,880,426 
25,581,976 
43,867,232 
39,692,951 
34,511,360 
25,511,597 
51,890,201 
1,145 
17,248,889 
10,800,(40 
50,378,119 
24  599,680 
16,891,242 


35,505,396 
12,792,723 


16,498,213 
10,073,171 


18,870,800 
10,161.313 
369.528,455 
55,610,015 
8,774,400 
27,035,470 

"36,925,128 


Total 1,815,524,388 


2,836,757 


1,061,075,643  *748,211,374 


*  This  estimate  is  of  a  very  general  nature,  and  affords  no  index  to  the  disposable  volume  of  land  remaining 
nor  the  amount  available  for  agricultural  purposes.  It  includes  Indian  and  other  public  reservations,  unsurveyed 
private  land  claims,  as  well  as  surveyed  private  land  claims,  in  the  districts  of  Arizona,  California,  Colorado,  and 
New  Mexico ;  the  sixteenth  and  thirty-sixth  sections  reserved  for  common  schools ;  unsurveyed  lands  embraced 
in  railroad,  swamp  land,  anil  other  giants ;  the  great  mountain  areas ;  the  areas  of  unsurveyed  rivers  and  lakes, 
and  large  areas  wholly  unproductive  and  unavailable  for  ordinary  purposes. 

Present  Population  of  the  States  and  Territories. 

CENSUS  OF  1900* 


Statics   and 
Territories. 

Population. 

Status  and 
Territories. 

Population. 

States  and 
Territories. 

Population. 

1,828,697 

63,592 

122,931 

1,311,564 

1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184,735 

1,188,044 

Rhode  Island 

428,556 
1,340,316 

401,570 
2.020,616 
3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 

Massachusetts.:::'.:::::: 

2,805,346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 
1,551,270 
3,106,665 

247,829 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 
1,883,669 

195,310 
7,268,894 
1,8)3.810 

319,116 
4,157,545 

398,331 

413,536 
6,302,115 

Utah 

1,854,184 

518,103 

958,800 

2,069,042 

92,531 

154,001 

392,060 

134,476 

91,219 

278,718 

528,542 
2,216,331 

161,772 
4,821,550 
2. 6 16, 462 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,381,625 

694,466 

Florida 

Indian  Territorv 

Indian  Reservations  ... 
In  Mil.  &  Nav.  service.. 

Ohio 

Louisiana .* 

76,303,387 

*  The  United  States  census  of  1890  is  tabulated  on  page  (i.'!3. 


The  Language  of  Gems.— Amethyst. — 

Peace  of  mind.  Regarded  by  the  ancients  as 
having  the  power  to  dispel  drunkenness. 

Bloodstone I  mourn  your  absence.      Worn 

by  the  ancients  as  an  amulet  or  charm,  on  ac- 
count of  the  medicinal  and  magical  virtues  it 
was  supposed  to  possess. 

Diamond. — Pride.       Awarded    supernatural 


qualities  from  the  most  remote  period  down  to 
the  middle  ages.  Has  the  power  of  making 
men  courageous  and  magnanimous.  Protects 
from  evil  spirits.  Influences  the  gods  to  take 
pity  upon  mortals.  Maintains  concord  be- 
tween husband  and  wife,  and  for  this  reason 
was  held  as  the  most  appropriate  stone  for  the 
espousal  ring. 


598 


THE    CENTURY   BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Emerald. — Success  in  love.  Mentioned  in 
the  Bible  as  worn  in  the  breastplate  of  the 
High  Priest  as  an  emblem  of  chastity. 

Ruby A  cheerful  mind.    An  amulet  against 

poison,  sadness,  evil  thoughts.  A  preserva- 
tive of  health.  Admonishes  the  wearer  of  im- 
pending danger  by  changing  color. 

Sapphire. — Chastity.  Procures  favor  with 
princes.  Frees  from  enchantment.  Prevents 
impure  thoughts. 

Topaz. —  Fidelity.     Calms  the  passions. 

Turquoise. —  Success  and  happiness.  Pre- 
serves from  contagion. 

Garnet. — Fidelity  in  every  engagement. 

Onyx. —  Reciprocal  love. 

Opal. —  Pure  thoughts. 

Pearl. —  Purity  and  innocence. 

Public  Lands  Vacant,  July  1,  1898. 


States 

AND 

Territories. 

Surveyed 
Land. 

Unsur- 
veyed 
Land. 

Total  Area. 

522,373 

11,930,820 

3,696,990 

34,272,434 

35,273,705 

1,592,893 

11,268,786 

1,060,883 

690,527 

705,895 

3,246,498 

383,950 

445,911 

16,932,837 

10,548,450 

29,179,480 

42,960,',  93 

11,717,178 

7,004  ,S62 

24,095,763 

10,890,284 

9,816,110 

5,319,428 

413,799 

42,946,064 

42,438,203 

8,230,589 

4,434.846 

164.382 

32,939,163 

'  65,018 

2,473,828 

64,674,779 

32,179,129 
13,917,042 

8,857,336 

2,860 

11,802,106 

2,092,542 
31,121,786 

8,123,154 

6,135,209 

522,373 

54,309,023 

3,696,990 

42,503.023 

39,708.551 

1,757,275 

44,207,949 
1,060,883 

755,545 
605,895 

5,720,326 
383,950 

445,911 

71,607,616 
10,548,450 

61,368.609 
66,877,835 
20,574,613 
7,007  222 

35,897. 8«9 
12,982.826 

43,937,896 
13,442,582 

413,799 

49,081,263 

South  Dakota 

Utah 

Grand  total,  acres. 

310,716,303 

262,651,971  [  *579,368,274 

♦This  aggregate  is  exclusive  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois,  in  which,  if  any  public  land  remains,  it  consists 
of  a  few  small  isolated  tracts.  It  is  exclusive  of  Alaska, 
containing  577,390  square  miles,  or  369,529,6ro  acres.  It 
is  also  exclusive  of  military  and  Indian  reservations, 
reservoir  sites,  and  timber  reservations,  and  tracts  cov- 
ered by  selections,  filings,  railroad  grants, and  claims  as 
yet  11  nail  indicated.  ;i  part  of  which  may  in  the  future 
be  added  to  the  public  domain. 

Railroad  selections  made  during  the  fiscal 
year  ended  June  30,  1897,  were,  in  acres: 
Arizona,  91,518.95;  Arkansas,  7,024.14  ;  Cali- 
fornia, 42,579.52;  Colorado,  108,877.71; 
Florida,  281.29;  Idaho,  86,526.60 ;  Kansas, 
55,770.65;  Louisiana,  165.84;  Minnesota, 
52,698.93;  Mississippi,  42,371.55  ;  Montana, 
46,318.85;  Nebraska,  639.92;  Nevada,  647,- 
898.54;  North  Dakota,  1,313.81;  Oregon, 
13.766.86;  Utah,  46,657.62;  Washington, 
114,868.55;  Wisconsin,  29,552.21  ;  Wyoming. 
149,632.69;     Total,  1,538,464.23. 


Indebtedness  of  tbe  States  and  Ter- 
ritories in  1890. 

COMPILED    FROM     THE    ELEVENTH    UNITED 
STATES   CENSUS. 


Geographical 
Divisions. 


North  Atlantic , 

Maine , 

New  Hampshire.. 

Vermont , 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island , 

Connecticut , 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania 


South  Atlantic 

Delaware 

Maryland 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

Virginia 

.  West  Virginia 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina... 

Georgia 

Florida 


Total  Com- 
bined   Debt* 
Less  Sinking 
Fund. 


North  Central. . . 

Ohio 

Indiana  

Illinois 

Michigan 

"Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

North  Dakota. 
South  Dakota. 

Nebraska 

Kansas 


South  Central. 

Kentucky  . . . 
Tennessee. .. 
Alabama 
Mississippi . . 
Louisiana . . . 

Texas 

Arkansas 


Western 

Montana 
Wyoming  . . . 

Colorado 

New  Mexico. 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington. 

Oregon  

California. .. 


Total 81,135,210,442 


1890. 


$467,968,615 


§15,600,777 
8,148.362 
3,785,373 
81,550,027 
13,042,117 
23,703,478 
201,763,217 
49,333,589 
71,041,675 

165,107,113 


§2,919,084 
42,175,408 
19,781,050 
60,837,315 

2,532,460 
11,117,445 
13,295.637 
20.272,095 

2,176,619 

320,238,281 

$71,0657386" 

24,442,631 

41,841,649 

16,941,928 

10,440,580 

26,050,929 

11,275,319 

51,557,568 

3,842.790 

6,613,707 

15,536.772 

40,629,022 

i.'{s.2.v..:ui 

919,432,886 

29,543,843 
18,930,867 
6,011,347 
33,335.497 
20,172,063 
10,828,809 


122 
893 

,381 
,027 
,538 
,971 
.501 
,501 
333 
658 
,860 
459 


Per  Capita  of  Com- 
bined Debt. 


1890 


1880. 


$26.89 


§23.60 
21.64 
11.39 
36.42 
37.75 
31.76 
33.64 
34.14 
13.51 

18.64 


sl7.:J2 

40.46 

85.86 

30.70 

3.32 

6.87 

1155 

11.03 

5.56 

_14.32 

§19.35 

11.15 

10.94 

8.09 

6.19 

20  01 

5.90 

19.24 

21.03 

20.11 

14.67 

28.47 

12.60 
§10.46 

16.71 

12.51 
4.66 

29.80 
9.02 
9.60 

14.41 

$22.09 

27.14 

20.41 

18.44 

49.28 

3.69 

29.23 

18.89 

9.08 

7.90 

'  12.89 


$37.28 

$36.81 

31.10 
13.54 
51.55 
46.91 
35.33 
43.06 
43.66 
25.03 

22.10 


§16.17 
44.31 
136.68 

30.09 
2.65 
12.83 
14.25 
12.74 
19.89 

14.17 


$16.69 

9.28 
15.07 
7.36 
9.19 
14.51 
5.01 
27.79 
3.57 
8.82 
16.56 
15.97 

1644 
$9.69 

26.42 
14.26 

4.38 
45.60 

7.34 
13.37 

13.85 

§111.54 

9.88 

18.67 

.71 

9.33 

.81 

22.48 

7.05 

3.19 

4.86 

19.18 


§18.13     i     §22.40 


Bartboldi's  Statne  of  Liberty.— The 

figure  of  this  statue,  which  is  made  of  repousse, 
01  hammered  work  —  that  is,  thin  sheets  of 
copper  beaten  into  shape  and  fastened  about 
sii  iron  skeleton — is  110  1-2  feet  high  and 
veighs  100,000  pounds.  The  uplifted  torch, 
however,  is  raised  26  feet,  and  adding  to  this 
xhe  pedestal,  the  tip  of  the  torch  is  raised  220 
feet   from    the   ground.      The    pedestal   is  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACT8  AND  FIGURES. 


599 


stone,  82  feet  high.  Some  idea  of  the  enor- 
mous proportions  of  the  statue  may  be  given 
from  the  fact  that  the  forefinger  is  8  feet  long 
and  4  feet  in  circumference  at  the  second  joint. 
The  head  is  14  feet  high,  and  40  persons  can 
stand  in  it. 

The  Great  Wall  of  China  runs  from  a 
point  of  the  Gulf  of  Liantung,  an  arm  of  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  Northeastern  China,  west- 
erly to  the  Yellow  river,  thence  makes  a  great 
bend  to  the  south  for  nearly  one  hundred  miles, 
and  then  runs  to  the  northwest  for  several 
hundred  miles  to  the  Desert  of  Gobi.  Its 
length  is  1,500  miles.  For  the  most  of  this 
distance  it  runs  through  a  mountainous  coun- 
try, keeping  on  the  ridges,  and  winding  over 
many  of  the  highest  peaks.  In  some  places  it 
is  only  a  formidable  rampart,  but  most  of  the 
way  it  is  composed  of  lofty  walls  of  masonry 
and  concrete,  or  impacted  lime  and  clay,  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  feet  in  thickness,  and  from 
fifteen  to  thirty  or  thirty-five  feet  in  height. 
The  top  of  this  wall  is  paved  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  and  crowned  with  crenelated  battle- 
ments and  towers  thirty  to  forty  feet  high.  In 
numerous  places  the  wall  climbs  such  steep 
declivities  that  its  top  ascends  from  height  to 
height  in  flights  of  granite  steps.  An  army 
could  march  on  the  top  of  the  wall  for  weeks 
and  even  months,  moving  in  some  places  ten 
men  abreast. 

Most  Northern  Point  Reached  hy 
Arctic  Explorers. —  The  following  table 
shows  the  furthest  points  of  north  latitude 
reached  by  Arctic  explorers  up  to  and  includ- 
ing the  Nansen  expedition  :  — 


resting  as  many  days  as  they  had  before  trav- 
eled miles  in  a  single  day,  debarred  by  the 
obstacles  that  thev  had  encountered. 


Year 

Explorers. 

North  Latitude. 

1607. 

Hudson. 

80(1. 

23m. 

00s. 

1773. 

Phipps  (Lord  Musgrove). 

80d. 

48m. 

00s. 

1806. 

Scoresbv. 

81d. 

12m. 

42s. 

1827. 

I'arrv. 

82d. 

45m. 

30s. 

1X74. 

Meyer  (on  land). 

82d. 

09m. 

00s. 

1S75. 

Markham  (Nare's  expedition). 

83d. 

20m. 

26s. 

1876. 

Payer. 

83d. 

07m. 

00s. 

1884. 

Loekwood  (Greelv's  party). 

83d. 

24m. 

00s. 

1X93-' 

>6.    Nansen. 

86d. 

13m. 

36s. 

The  distance  from  the  farthest  point  of  polar 
discovery  to  the  pole  itself  is  3  deg.  46  min.  24 
sec,  or  in  round  numbers,  260  miles,  which  is 
only  about  thirty  miles  greater  than  the  distance 
from  New  York  to  Washington,  by  the  line  of 
the  Pennsylvania  railroad,  over  which  the 
traveler  rides  in  about  five  hours'.  But  this 
polar  radius,  though  only  260  miles  in  extent, 
is  covered  by  ice  gorges  and  precipices  of 
incredible  difficulty  ;  and  frost  is  so  severe  that 
no  instrument  of  human  invention  can  meas- 
ure its  intensity,  and  it  blisters  the  skin  like 
extreme  heat. 

The  greatest  progress  that  has  ever  been 
made  across  these  wildernesses  of  storm,  of  fury 
and  desolation,  was  at  the  rate  of  five  or  six 
miles  in  a  day,  the  explorers  often  naoessarily 


Feet. 

29,002 

28,278 

28,156 

20,380 

22,422 

21,780 

21,420 

20,320 

19,600 

19,500 

18,880 

18,526 

18,500 

18,069 

18,045 

18,010 

17,784 

17,380 

17,260 

16,000 

15,810 

15,700 

15,208 

14,898 

14,444 

14,440 

14,271 

14,147 

13,600 

13,576 

12,066 

12,000 

11,934 

11,542 

11,400 

11.000 

11,000 

9,745 

9,652 

9,080 

8,593 

8.543 

7,874 

7,176 

7,013 

6,711 

6,288 

5,740 

5,467 

5,385 

5,000 

4,368 

3,948 

Height  of  Loftiest  Volcanoes  of  the 
AVorld. 

Height 
Name  of  Volcano.       in  feet.  Where  Located. 

Sahama 23,000 Peru. 

Llullaillac 21,000 Chile. 

Arequipa 20,500 Peru. 

Cayambi 19,813 Ecuador. 

( lotOTMXi 19,500 Peru. 

Antisana 19,200 Ecuador. 

San  Jose 18,150 Chile. 

Mt.  St.  Elias .17,900 Alaska. 

Popocatepetl 17,884 Mexico. 

Orizaba 17,370 Mexico. 

Altar 17,126 Ecuador. 

Sangai 17,120 Ecuador. 

Klintcheoskaia 16.-512 Kamtschatka. 

Iztacihuatl 15,700 Mexico. 

Toluco 15,500 Mex  ico. 

Shasta 14,400 United  States. 

Fujiyama 14,000 Japan. 

Ifatma  Kea 13,953 Sandwich  Islands. 

Manna  Loa 13,760 Sandwich  Islands. 

Teneriffe 12,236 Canary  Islands. 

Mt.  St.  Helen's 12,000 United  States. 

Mt.  Hood 11,225 United  States. 

Peak  of  Tahiti 10,895    Friendly  Islands. 

Mt.  Etna 10,874 Sicily. 


The  Highest  Mountains. 

Mount  Everest,  India 

Dapsang,  Thibet 

Kuchin-Junga,  India 

Sorata,  Andes 

Aconcagua,  Chile 

Illimam,  Bolivia 

Chimborazo,  Ecuador 

Arequipa,  Peru 

Kilirna-Njaro,  East  Africa 

Mt.  Logan,  Canada 

Cotopaxi,  Ecuador 

Elbruz,  Russia 

Demavend,  Persia 

Tolima,  Columbia 

Kenia,  East  Africa 

Mt.  St.  Elias,  Alaska 

Popocatepetl,  Mexico 

Orizaba,  Mexico 

Ararat,  Turkey 

Mt.  Brown,  Canada 

Mt.  Blanc,  France  

Mt.  Hooker,  Canada 

Monte  Rosa,  Italy 

Mt.  Whitney,  California 

Mt.  Ranier,  Washington  

Mt.  Shasta,  California . .   

Long's  Peak,  Colorado 

Pike's  Peak,  Colorado 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaii 

Fremont's  Peak,  Wyoming 

Mt.  Wrangel,  Alaska 

Teneriffe,  Canaries 

Mt.  Hood,  Oregon 

Simplon,  Alps 

Mt.  Miltseen,  Morocco 

Mt.  Hermon,  Palestine 

Mt.  Lebanon,  Syria 

Olympus,  Turkey 

Etna,  Sicily 

St.  G-othard,  Alps 

Mt.  Sinai,  Turkey , 

Ymestield,  Norway 

Roraima.  Venezuela 

Mt.  Kosciusko,  Australia. 

Peak  of  Pico,  Azores 

Mt.  Mitchell,  North  Carolina  

Mt.  Washington,  New  Hampshire 

Itacolumi,  Brazil 

Mt.  Marcy,  New  York 

Mt.  Katahdin,  Maine 

Mt.  Hecla,  Iceland 

Ben  Nevis.  Scotland 

Vesuvius,  Italy 


600 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Three  of  the  best  known  volcanoes  of  the 
world,  Vesuvius,  3,978  feet;  Hecla,  3,970 
feet,  and  Stromboli,  3,000  feet,  are  of  much 
less  elevation  than  many  others  altogether 
unfamiliar. 

Capacity    of    the    Largest    Churches 
and    Halls. 


St.  Peter's  Cathedral Rome 54 

Cathedral  of  Milan Milan 37 


.Rome 32 

.London 25 

.Bologna 24 

.Florence 24 

.  Antwerp 24 


St.  Paul's  Church 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral. . . . 
Church  of  St.  Petronio 
Cathedral  of  Florence. 
Cathedral  of  Antwerp. 

Mosque  of  St.  Sophia Constantinople 23 

St.  John's  Lateran Rome 22 

Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame...  Paris 21 

Cathedral  of  Pisa Pisa 13 

Church  of  St.  Stephen Vienna 12 

Church  of  St.  Dominic Bologna 12 

Church  of  St.  Peter Bologna 11, 

Cathedral  of  Vienna Vienna 11 

St.  Peter's  Cathedral Montreal    10, 

Madison  Square  Garden New  York 8, 

Auditorium Chicago 8 

Academy  of  Music Philadelphia 2 

Theater  Carlo  Felice Genoa 2 

Boston  Theater Boston 2 

Covent  Garden London 2, 

Academy  of  Music New  York 2 

Music  Hall ". Boston 2 

Alexander  Theater St.  Petersburg 2 

Opera  House Munich 2 

San  Carlos  Theater Naples 2 

Imperial  Theater St.  Petersburg 2 

Grand  Opera Paris. 

La  Scala Milan 2 

St.  Charles  Theater New  Orleans 2 

Opera  House New  Orleans 2 

Grand  Opera  House New  York 1 

Booth's  Theater New  York 1 

McVickar's  Theater Chicago 1 

Ford's  Opera  House Baltimore 1 

Opera  House Berlin 1 


(Mill 
,11(1(1 

000 
,000 
,000 

,0(1(1 
(HID 
,001) 

ooo 
000 

(100 

ooo 

000 
400 

000 

0011 

483 

000 

862 
M0 

972 
684 
526 
,686 

,:;:;2 
,307 
,240 
,160 
000 
,113 
,178 
052 
.ss:; 
.so; 
790 
,720 

,686 


Foreign-horn  Population. —  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  origin  of  the  foreign- 
born  population  at  the  census  of  1890  :  — 


England* 

Wales 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Total  United 
Kingdom 

Germany 

Canada  and  New- 
foundland.,  

Sweden 

Norway 

Russia 

Italy 

Poland 

Denmark 

Austria 

Bohemia 

•Includes 


909,092 

100,079 

242,231 

1,871,509 


3.122,911 
2,784,894 


France 

China  

Switzerland 

Holland 

Mexico 

Cuba     and    West 

Indies 

Hungary 

Belgium 

Portugal 

Spain 

South  America.... 
Other       Foreign 

Countries 


980,938 
478,041 
322,665 
182,644 
182,580 
147,440 
132,513 
123,271 
118,106 
Great  Britain,  not  specified 


113,174 
106,688 
104,069 
81.828 
77,853 

23.256 
62,435 
22,639 
15,996 
6,185 
5,006 

54,385 


Total 9,249,547 


The  Five  Wits. —  An  old  and  curious 
standard  of  mentality  is  that  which  credits 
mankind  with  having  "  five  wits":  common 
wit,  imagination,  fantasy,  estimation,  and 
memory. 

1.  Common  wit  is  that  inward  sense  which 
judges  what  the  five  senses  simply  discern  : 
thus  the  eye  sees,  the  nose  smells,  the  ear  hears, 
and  so  on,  but  it  is  "common  wit"  that  in- 
forms the  brain  and  passes  judgment  on  the 
goodness  or  badness  of  these  external  matters. 


2.  Imagination  works  on  the  mind,  causing 
it  to  realize  what  has  been  presented  to  it. 

3.  Fantasy  energizes  the  mind  to  act  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  judgment  thus  pronounced. 

4.  Estimation  decides  on  all  matters  per- 
taining to  time,  space,  locality,  relation,  and 
so  on. 

5.  Memory  enables  the  mind  to  retain  the 
recollection  of  what  has  been  imparted. 

Bell  Time  on  Shiphoard. 


Time,  a 

m.              Time,  a 

M. 

Time, 

A.  M. 

1  Bell, 

12.3°  1  Bell, 

4.30  1  Bell, 

8.30 

2  Bells, 

1.00  2  Bells, 

5.00  2  Bells, 

9.00 

3      " 

1.30  3      " 

5.80  3 

" 

9.30 

4      " 

2.004      " 

6.00  4 

" 

10.00 

5      " 

2.30  5      " 

6.30  5 

" 

10.30 

6      " 

3.00  6      " 

7.00  6 

" 

11. 00 

7      " 

3.30  7      " 

7.30  7 

" 

11.30 

8      " 

4.00J8      " 

8.oo;8 

" 

Noon 

Time,  i\ 

m.               Time,  p. 

M. 

Time 

l.M. 

1  Bell, 

12.3o'l  Beil, 

4.30  1  Bell, 

8.30 

2  Bells, 

1.00  2  Bells, 

5.00  2  Bells, 

9.00 

3      " 

1.30  3      •' 

5.30 

8 

" 

9.30 

4      " 

2.06 14      " 

6.00 

4 

" 

10.00 

5      " 

2.30  1  Bell, 

6.30 

5 

" 

10.30 

6      " 

3.00  2  Bells, 

7.00 

6 

" 

11.00 

7      " 

3.303      " 

7.30 

7 

" 

11.30 

8      " 

4.0014      " 

S.00 

s 

"       Midnight 

On  shipboard,  for  purpose  of  discipline  and 
to  divide  the  watch  fairly,  the  crew  is  mus- 
tered in  two  divisions;  the  Starboard  (riglit 
side,  looking  toward  the  head)  and  the  Port 
(left).  The  day  commences  at  noon,  and  is 
thus  divided  :  Afternoon  Watch,  noon  to  4  p. 
M.  ;  First  Dog  Watch,  4  p.  m.  to  6  p.  m.  ; 
Second  Dog  Watch,  6  p.  m.  to  8  p.  m.;  First 
Watch,  8  p.  m.  to  Midnight;  Middle  Watch, 
Midnight  to  4  A.  m.  ;  Morning  Watch,  4  a.  m. 
to  8  a.  m.  ;  Forenoon  Watch,  8  a.  m.  to  noon. 
This  makes  seven  Watches,  which  enables  the 
crew  to  keep  them  alternately,  as  the  Watch 
which  comes  on  duty  at  noon  one  day  has  the 
afternoon  next  day,  and  the  men  who  have 
only  four  hours'  rest  one  night  have  eight  hours 
the  next.  This  is  the  reason  for  having  Dog 
Watches,  which  are  made  by  dividing  the 
hours  between  4  p.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  into  two 
Watches.  Time  is  kept  by  means  of  "  Hells  " 
although  sometimes  there  is  but  one  Bell  on 
the  ship. 

Pawnbroker's  Sign,  Origin  of. —  It 
is  generally  held  that  the  three  golden  balls 
used  by  pawnbrokers  as  a  sign  were  adopted 
from  the  armorial  bearings  of  the  Medici  fam- 
ily of  Italy  by  the  Lombard  merchants,  among 
whom  were  several  representatives  of  that  fam- 
ily. This  sign  was  used  in  London  in  very 
early  times  by  some  of  those  merchants  who 
had  emigrated  from  Italy  and  established  the 
first  money-lending  establishments  in  England. 

Indian  Folklore, —  As  a  specimen  of  the 
folklore  of  our  own  aborigines  none  can  sur- 
pass in  interest  the   story  of   Hiawatha,   the 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


eoi 


prophet-teacher,  son  of  Mudjekeewis  {the  wot 
wind)  and  Wenonah,  daughter  of  Nokomis. 
He  represents  tlie  progress  of  civilization 
among  the  North  American  Indians.  Hiawa- 
tha first  wrestled  with  Mondamin  {maize),  and, 
having  subdued  it,  gave  it  to  man  for  food. 
He  then  taught  man  navigation;  then  he  sub- 
dued Mishe  Nab  ma  {(!,<■  sturgeon),  and  taught 
the  Indians  how  to  make  oil  therefrom  for 
winter.  His  next  exploit  was  against  the  ma- 
gician Megissognon,  the  author  of  disease  and 
death;  having  slain  this  monster,  he  taught 
men  the  science  of  medicine.  He  then  mar- 
ried Minnehaha  (laughing  u-ater),  and  taught 
man  to  be  the  husband  of  one  wife,  and  the 
comforts  of  domestic  peace.  Lastly,  he  taught 
man  picture-writing.  When  the  white  man 
came  with  the  gospel,  Hiawatha  ascended  to 
the  kingdom  of  Ponemah,  the  land  of  the 
hereafter.  Among  many  other  accomplish- 
ments, when  Hiawatha  put  on  his  moccasins, 
he  could  measure  a  mile  at  a  single  stride. 

He  had  moccasins  enchanted, 
Magic  moccasins  of  deer-skin  ; 
"When  lie  bound  them  round  his  ankles 
At  each  stride  a  mile  he  measured ! 

—  Longfellow,  Hiawatha,  iv. 

Barber's  Pole. —  The  spiral  red  stripe  on 
a  barber's  pole  is  said  to  symbolize  the  winding 
of  a  ribbon  or  bandage  around  the  arm  of  a 
patient  upon  whom  the  barber  had  operated  in 
the  capacity  of  surgeon.  In  former  times, 
when  the  operation  of  bleeding  was  extensively 
practiced,  blood-letting  formed  a  part  of  the 
duties  of  a  barber. 

Caste  Among  the  Hindoos. —  Caste  is 
a  term  applied  to  the  division  into  social  classes 
in  India.  To  each  of  these  classes  certain  pur- 
suits are  limited  by  the  Laws  of  Mann,  B.C. 
960.  1;  The  Brahman*  or  sacerdotal  class, 
which  "  issued  from  the  mouth  of  Brahma." 

2.  The  C/mttree  or  military  class,  which 
'•  sprang  from  the  arm  of  Brahma." 

3.  The  Bats  or  mercantile  class,  which 
"  sprang  from  the  thigh  of  Brahma." 

4.  The  Sudras  or  servile  class,  which 
"  sprang  from  the  foot  of  Brahma." 

The  Pariah*  and  ChandaUu  are  nobodies,  or 
worse,  for  it  is  pollution  to  be  touched  by  such 
"  scum  of  the  earth." 

American  Flags. —  It  is  related  that  the 
flag  which  was  raised  at  Cambridge,  January 
2,  1776,  by  Washington,  was  composed  of  thir- 
teen red  and  white  stripes,  with  the  crosses  of 
St.  George  and  St.  Andrew  emblazoned  on  the 
blue  canton  in  place  of  the  stars.  This  flag 
was  also  carried  by  the  fleet  under  command  of 
Commander  Esek  Hopkins,  when  it  sailed  from 
the  Delaware  Capes,  February  17,  1776.  In 
the  following  year,  June  14,  1777,  the  Conti- 


nental Congress  passed  a  resolution  "  That  the 
flag  of  the  United  States  be  thirteen  stripes, 
alternate  red  and  white  ;  that  the  Union  be 
thirteen  stars,  white  on  a  blue  field,  represent- 
ing anew  constellation."  How  or  by  whom 
the  idea  of  the  star  was  first  suggested  is  un- 
certain, although  there  are  some  who  ascribe 
it  to  John  Adams,  while  others  claim  the  en- 
tire flag  was  borrowed  from  the  coat  of  arms  of 
the  Washington  family.  In  this  flag  the  stars 
were  arranged  in  a  circle,  although  no  form 
was  officially  prescribed.  It  is  supposed  that 
the  first  display  of  the  National  flag  at  a  mili- 
tary post  was  at  Fort  Schuyler,  on  the  site 
of  the  village  of  Rome,  Oneida  county,  N.  Y. 
The  fort  was  besieged  early  in  the  month  of 
August,  1777,  and  the  garrison  were  without  a 
flag.  So  they  made  one  according  to  the  pre- 
scription of  Congress,  by  cutting  up  sheets  to 
form  the  white  stripes,  bits  of  scarlet  cloth  for 
the  red  stripes,  and  the  blue  ground  for  the 
stars  was  composed  of  portions  of  a  cloth  cloak 
belonging  to  Capt.  Abraham  Swarthout,  of 
Dutchess  count}7,  N.  Y.,  and  the  flag  was  un- 
furled August  3,  1777.  Paul  Jones,  as  com- 
mander of  the  "Ranger,"  to  which  he  was 
appointed,  June  14,  1777,  claimed  that  he  was 
the  first  to  display  the  stars  and  stripes  on  a 
naval  vessel.  It  is  probable  that  the  flag  was 
first  unfurled  in  battle  on  the  banks  of  the 
Brandywine,  September  11, 1777,  the  first  bat- 
tle after  its  adoption.  It  first  appeared  over  a 
foreign  stronghold,  June  28,  1778,  when  Cap- 
tain Rathbone,  of  the  American  sloop  of  war 
"Providence,"  captured  Fort  Nassau,  New 
Providence,  Bahama  Islands.  John  Singleton 
Copley,  the  American  painter,  claimed  to  be 
the  first  to  display  the  flag  in  Great  Britain. 
On  the  day  when  George  III.  acknowledged 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  (De- 
cember 5,  1782),  he  painted  the  flag  in  the 
background  of  a  portrait  of  Elkanah  Watson. 
To  Captain  Mooers,  of  the  whaling  ship  "  Bed- 
ford," of  Nantucket,  is  doubtless  due  the 
honor  of  first  displaying  the  stars  and  stripes 
in  a  port  of  Great  Britain.  He  arrived  in  the 
Downs  with  it  flying  at  the  fore,  February  3, 
1783.  When  Vermont  and  Kentucky  were 
added  to  the  Union  of  States,  the  flag  was 
altered,  the  number  of  stripes  and  stars  being 
increased  from  thirteen  to  fifteen.  In  1818  a 
new  flag,  having  thirteen  stripes  and  a  star  for 
every  state,  twenty  at  that  time,  was  devised  by 
Capt.  Samuel  C.  Reed,  and  this  has  remained 
the  form  of  the  United  States  flag. 

Harbors. —  San  Francisco  may  fairly  claim 
to  have  the  most  capacious  natural  harbor  of 
any  of  the  "world's  great  trading  marts.  It  is 
also  one  of  the  very  safest.  It  is  entered 
through  the  Golden  Gate,  a  passage  a  mile  wide, 


602 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


and  thirty-five  feet  deep  at  low  tide  —  admit- 
ting the  largest  ships  afloat  without  danger  of 
grounding.  The  landlocked  bay,  of  which  this 
harbor  is  part,  is  fifty  miles  long,  and  averages 
five  miles  in  width.  There  all  the  shipping  of 
the  entire  globe  could  anchor  in  perfect  safety. 
Port  Philip  Bay,  the  chief  harbor  of  ATictoria, 
Australia,  is  larger  than  the  bay  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, being  about  thirty-eight  miles  long  by 
thirty- three  broad,  but  its  very  breadth,  with 
its  surroundings,  leaves  it  exposed  to  storms 
from  certain  quarters.  Port  Jackson,  on  which 
Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  Australia,  is  lo- 
cated, is  a  magnificent  harbor,  completely  land- 
locked, extending  inland  in  some  places  fully 
twenty  miles,  and  having  ample  depth  of  water 
for  vessels  of  the  heaviest  burden.  The  har- 
bors of  New  York  city,  Rio  Janeiro,  Brazil, 
and  Havana,  Cuba,  are  capacious  and  secure. 
Next  come  those  of  Boston,  Norfolk,  Va.,  Port- 
land, Me.,  Halifax,  N.  S.,  Copenhagen,  Con- 
stantinople, Hong  Kong,  Yokohama,  and  Na- 
gasaki. The  great  ports  situated  on  the  banks 
of  rivers,  such  as  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow, 
Lisbon,  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  Quebec, 
Shanghai,  Canton,  Calcutta,  etc.,  are  not  in- 
cluded in  the  definition  of  harbors  as  here  con- 
sidered. 

Bunker  Hill  Monument. —  The  corner 
stone  of  this  monument  was  laid  on  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  June 
17,  1825,  by  Lafayette,  and  the  oration  was 
pronounced  by  Daniel  Webster.  It  is  a  square 
shaft  of  Quincy  granite,  221  feet  high,  31  feet 
square  at  the  base,  and  15  feet  at  the  top. 
Inside  the  shaft  is  a  round,  hollow  cone,  7  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  and  4  feet  2  inches  at  the 
top,  encircled  by  a  winding  staircase  containing 
224  stone  steps,  which  leads  to  a  chamber  11 
feet  in  diameter  immediately  under  the  apex. 
The  chamber  has  four  windows,  and  contains 
two  cannons,  named  Hancock  and  Adams,  re- 
spectively, which  were  used  in  the  war.  The 
monument  was  completed  and  was  dedicated 
June  17,  1843. 

Commune,  Paris,  was  an  organized  band 
of  Socialists,  who  attempted  to  establish  a  rev- 
olutionary government  in  Paris  in  1871.  Be- 
fore they  were  suppressed  by  the  army  of  the 
republic,  they  became  absolute  masters  of  Paris, 
and  committed  astrocious  acts  of  cruelty  and 
vandalism.  They  arrested  the  Bishop  of  Paris 
and  other  prominent  citizens,  and  imprisoned 
them.  They  set  fire  to  the  public  buildings, 
and  endeavored  to  destroy  the  ancient  monu- 
ments and  treasures  of  art.  Among  the  build- 
ings which  were  destroyed  were  the  Tuileries, 
the  Palais  de  Justice,  the  Palais  Royal,  and  the 
Hotel  de  Ville,  and  the  Louvre  Gallery  was 
partly  burned.     The  Column  Vendome,  erected 


in  honor  of  Napoleon,  was  one  of  the  first  mon- 
uments to  fall.  Darboy,  the  Archbishop  of 
Paris,  Bonjean,  President  of  the  Court  of  Cas- 
sation, and  others  whom  they  held  as  hostages, 
were  shot.  In  short,  they  seemed  to  be  pos- 
sessed with  a  very  frenzy  of  hatred  against  all 
government  and  all  order,  and  wantonly  de- 
stroyed property  and  human  life.  The  revo- 
lution was  finally  suppressed  on  May  27,  and 
25,000  of  the  Communists  were  taken  prisoners, 
some  of  whom  were  put  to  death,  while  a  large 
number  were  banished.  In  justice  it  must  be 
said  that  the  more  intelligent  and  honest  lead- 
ers of  the  Commune  were  discarded  before  the 
most  astrocious  acts  were  committed. 

Alien  Holders  of  Our  Lands. —  The 
following  is  a  table  of  the  leading  alien  hold- 
ers of  lands  in  the  United  States,  with  amount 
of  holdings  in  acres  :  — 

An  English  syndicate,  No.  3,  in  Texas 3,000,000 

The  Holland  Land  Company,  New  Mexico 4,500,000 

Sir  Edw.  Reid  and  a  syndicate,  Florida 2,000,000 

English  syndicate  in  Mississippi 1,800,000 

Marquis  of  Tweedale 1,750,000 

Phillips,  Marshall  &  Co.,  London 1,300,000 

German-American  syndicate,  London 750,000 

Bryan  H.  Evans,  of  London 700,000 

Duke  of  Sutherland 425,000 

British  Land  Company  in  Kansas 320,000 

Wm.  Wharley,  M.P.,  Peterboro,  England 310,000 

Missouri  Land  Company,  Edinburgh,  Scotland     300,000 

Robert  Tennent,  of  London 230,000 

Dundee  Land  Company,  Scotland 247,000 

Lord  Dunmore 120,000 

Benjamin  Neugas,  Liverpool 100,000 

Lord  Houghton  in  Florida 60,000 

Lord  Dunraven  in  Colorado 60,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Florida 50,000 

English  Land  Company  in  Arkansas 50,000 

Albert  Peel,  M.P.,  Leicestershire,  England 10,000 

Sir  J.  L.  Kay,  Yorkshire,  England 5,000 

Alexander  Grant,  of  London,  in  Kansas 35,000 

English  syndicate,  Wisconsin 110,000 

M.  Ellerhauser,  of  Halifax,  in  West  Virginia..      600,000 

A  Scotch  syndicate  in  Florida 500,000 

A.  Boysen,  Danish  consul  in  Milwaukee 50,000 

Missouri  Land  Company,  of  Edinburgh 165,000 


Total 20,647,000 

To  these  syndicate  holdings,  should  be  added 
the  following :  The  Arkansas  Valley  Com- 
pany in  Colorado,  a  foreign  corporation,  whose 
inclosures  embrace  upwards  of  1,000,000  acres  ; 
the  Prairie  Cattle  Company  (Scotch)  in  Col- 
orado, upwards  of  1,000,000;  11.  II.  Metcalf, 
River  Bend,  Colorado,  200,000;  John  W. 
Powers,  Colorado,  200,000  ;  McUaniel  &  Davis, 
Colorado,  75,000 ;  Routchler  &  Lamb,  Colo- 
rado, 40,000  ;  J.  W.  Frank,  Colorado,  40,000  ; 
Garnett  &  Langford,  Colorado,  30,000;  E.  C. 
Tane,  Colorado,  50,000  ;  Leivesy  Brothers,  Col- 
orado, 150,000  ;  Vrooman  &  McFife,  Colorado, 
50,000;  Beatty  Brothers,  Colorado,  40,000; 
Chick,  Brown  &  Company,  Colorado,  30,000; 
Reynolds  Cattle  Company,  Colorado,  50,000 ; 
several  other  cases  in  Colorado,  embracing 
from  10,000  to  30,000;  Coe  &  Carter,  Ne- 
braska, fifty  miles  of  fence  ;  J.  W.  Wilson, 
Nebraska,  forty  miles ;  J.   \V.  Boster,  twenty 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


603 


miles ;  "William  Humphrey,  Nevada,  thirty 
miles ;  Nelson  &  Son,  Nevada,  twenty-two 
miles;  Kennebec  Ranch,  Nebraska,  from  20,- 
000  to  50,000  acres. 

Largest  Islands  in  the  AVorld. 

Area.  Popula- 

Sq.  miles.  tion. 

New  Guinea 325,000  690,000 

Borneo 290,000  1,846,000 

Madagascar 228.570  3,000,000 

Sumatra 168.000  5,000,000 

Great  Britain 83,826  29,710,000 

Celebes 66,750  4,000,000 

Java 50,260  17,500,000 

Saghalien  (used  as  a  penal  settlement 

only) .- 47,500  13,500 

New  Zealand,  North  Island 44,750)  K7n  nnn 

South  Island 55.224  J  5/o,ouu 

Cuba 45,700  2,000,000 

Niphon  (Japan) 42,000  27,250,000 

Newfoundland 40,200  180,000 

Luzon  (Philippines) 40,000  4,500,000 

Iceland 40,000  72,438 

Jesso 35,000  163,355 

Ireland 31,874  5.174,830 

Havti  or  San  Domingo 29,830  393,200 

TaMinuiia 26,215  130,541 

Cevlon 25,635  3,000,000 

Tierra  del  Fuego 21,260  2,000 

Government  Salary  List. —  The  salary 
of  the  president  of  the  United  States  is  §50,000 
a  year  ;  the  vice-president,  $8,000  ;  cabinet  offi- 
cers, $8,000.  Senators  receive  $5,000  and 
mileage.  Congressmen,  $5,000  and  mileage. 
The  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  re- 
ceives $10,500;  Associate  Justices,  $10,000. 
The  diplomats  get  good  pay :  Ministers  to 
Germany,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Russia, 
$17,500  :  Ministers  to  Brazil,  China,  Austro- 
Hungary,  Italy,  Mexico,  Japan,  and  Spain, 
$1*2,000  ;  Ministers  to  Chile,  Peru,  and  Central 
America,  $10,000 ;  Ministers  to  the  Argen- 
tine Confederation,  Belgium,  Hayti,  Colom- 
bia, Netherlands,  Sweden,  Turkey,  and 
Venezuela,  $7,500 ;  Ministers  to  Switzerland, 
Denmark,  Paraguay,  Bolivia,  and  Portugal. 
$5,000 ;  Ministers  to  Liberia,  $4,000.  The 
heads  of  the  government  departments  receive  : 
Superintendent  of  Bureau  of  Engraving  and 
Printing,  $4,500  ;  Public  Printer,  $4,500  ;  Su- 
perintendent of  Census,  $5,000  ;  Superinten- 
dent of  Naval  Observatory.  $5,000  ;  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Signal  Service,  $4,000  ;  Director 
of  Geological  Surveys.  96,000;  Directorof  the 
Mint,  $4,500  ;  Commissioner  of  General  Land 
Office,  $4,000  :  Commissioner  of  Pensioi 
600;  Commissioner  of  Agriculture,  $3,000; 
Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  $3,000  ;  Com- 
missioner of  Education,  $3,000;  Commander 
of  Marine  Corps,  $3,500  ;  Superintendent  of 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  $6,000. 

In  1893  the  Ministers  to  Great  Britain,  Ger- 
many, and  France,  were  made  Ambassadors 
without  increase  of  pay. 

The  pay  of  army  officers  is  fixed  as  follows  : 
General,  $13,500  :  lieutenant  general,  $11,000  ; 
major  general,  $7,500  ;  brigadier  general,  $5,- 


500 ;  colonel,  $3,500 ;  lieutenant  colonel, 
$3,000;  major,  $2,500;  captain,  mounted, 
$2,000;  captain,  not  mounted,  $1,800;  regi- 
mental adjutant,  $1,800;  regimental  quarter- 
master, $1,800;  first  lieutenant,  mounted, 
$1,600  ;  first  lieutenant,  not  mounted,  $1,500  ; 
second  lieutenant,  mounted,  $1,500;  second 
lieutenant,  not  mounted,  $1,400;  chaplain, 
$1 ,500.  The  navy  salaries  are  :  Admiral,  $13,- 
000  ;  vice-admiral,  $9,000  ;  rear  admiral,  $6,- 
000;  commodore,  $5,000;  captain,  $4,500; 
commander,  $3,500 ;  lieutenant  commander, 
$2,800;  lieutenant,  $2,400;  master,  $1,800; 
ensign,  $1,200;  midshipman,  $1,000;  cadet 
midshipman,  $500  ;  mate,  $900  ;  medical  and 
pay  director,  and  medical  and  pay  inspector, 
and  chief  engineer,  $4,400  ;  fleet  surgeon,  fleet 
paymaster,  and  fleet  engineer,  $4,400 ;  sur- 
geon and  paymaster,  $2,800  ;  chaplain,  $2,500. 

The  White  House. —  The  residence  of 
the  president  of  the  United  States  is  officially 
known  as  the  Executive  Mansion,  which  means 
that  it  is  the  residence  of  the  head  of  the 
executive  branch  of  the  government ;  but  it  is 
seldom  called,  in  ordinary  talk,  either  by  those 
who  live  in  it,  or  by  the  American  people  in 
general,  anything  but  the  White  House.  This 
is  a  very  unpretentious  title,  and  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  how  the  residence  of  the  president, 
in  a  country  which  is  full  of  white  houses, 
came  to  bear  this  simple  name  as  its  special 
property. 

The  explanation  is  easily  found.  The  first 
Executive  Mansion  at  Washington  was  occu- 
pied in  1800.  It  was  built  of  freestone,  and 
was  unpainted  ;  but  in  1814  the  British  army 
occupied  Washington,  and  burned,  with  other 
public  buildings,  the  president's  house,  leav- 
ing it  a  blackened  ruin. 

The  house  was  rebuilt  on  the  same  site,  and 
the  same  walls  were  used  in  its  construction  ; 
but  they  were  so  discolored  by  smoke  that,  on 
the  suggestion  of  General  Jackson,  they  were 
painted  white,  not  only  to  improve  their  ap- 
pearance, but  in  token  of  the  successful  defiance 
of  British  fire  by  the  American  Republic. 

The  mansion  soon  became  the  "  White 
House"  in  the  mouths  of  the  people,  on  ac- 
count of  its  dazzling  color,  and  from  that  day 
to  this  it  has  been  repainted  white  every  ten 
years.  Its  name  commemorates  a  patriotic  feel- 
ing, therefore,  as  well  as  serves  to  describe  the 
appearance  of  the  mansion,  for  the  original 
coat  of  white  paint  was  a  sort  of  protest  against 
the  vandalism  of  the  British,  and  every  subse- 
quent coat  has  served  to  perpetuate  the  protest. 

Eagle  as  an  Emhlem. —  In  ancient  my- 
thology the  eagle  was  believed  to  carry  the 
souls  of  the  dying  to  their  abode  on  Mount 
Olympus,  and  was  called   the  Bird  of   Jove. 


604 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


The  eagle  was  first  taken  as  a  symbol  of  royal 
power  by  the  ancient  Etruscans,  who  bore  its 
image  upon  their  standards.  In  the  year  87 
B.  C.  a  silver  eagle,  with  expanded  wings, 
poised  on  the  top  of  a  spear,  with  a  thunder- 
bolt held  in  its  claws,  was  adopted  as  the  mili- 
tary standard  to  be  borne  at  the  head  of  their 
legions  by  the  Romans.  At  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian a  golden  eagle  was  substituted  for  the  sil- 
ver one.  A  two-headed  eagle  was  adopted  by 
the  Byzantine  emperors  as  a  symbol  of  their 
control  of  both  the  East  and  the  West.  The 
double-headed  eagle  of  Russia  was  adopted  on 
the  marriage  of  Ivan  I.  with  a  Grecian  princess 
of  the  Eastern  empire  ;  that  of  Austria  was 
first  used  when  the  Emperor  of  Germany  took 
the  title  of  the  Roman  Emperor.  The  national 
standard  of  Prussia  bears  a  black  eagle,  that 
of  Poland  a  white  one.  Napoleon  I.  took  a 
golden  eagle  for  his  standard,  modeled  of  pure 
gold,  and  bearing  a  thunderbolt,  after  the  pat- 
tern of  the  eagle  of  the  Romans.  This  stand- 
ard was  disused  under  the  Bourbons,  but  was 
restored  by  a  decree  of  Louis  Napoleon  in  1852. 
The  eagle  was  first  used  on  American  coins  in 
1788,  on  cents  and  half-cents  issued  from  the 
Massachusetts  mint.  It  was  adopted  in  the 
plan  of  a  national  coinage  as  a  design  upon  all 
gold  coins,  and  on  the  silver  dollar,  half  dollar, 
and  quarter  dollar.  The  design  of  an  eagle 
was  at  one  time  suggested  for  the  national  flag, 
but  was  abandoned. 

Knighthood,  originally  a  military  dis- 
tinction, came,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to  be 
occasionally  conferred  on  civilians,  as  a  re- 
ward for  valuable  services  rendered  to  the 
crown  or  community.  The  first  civil  knight  in 
England  was  Sir  William  Walworth,  Lord 
Mayor  of  London,  who  won  that  distinction  by 
slaying  the  rebel,  Wat  Tyler,  in  the  presence  of 
the  king.  The  ceremonies  practiced  in  con- 
ferring knighthood  have  varied  at  different 
periods.  In  general,  fasting  and  bathing  were 
in  early  times  necessary  preparatives.  In  the 
eleventh  century,  the  creation  of  a  knight  was 
preceded  by  solemn  confession  and  a  midnight 
vigil  in  the  church  and  followed  by  the  recep- 
tion of  the  Eucharist.  The  new  knight  offered 
his  sword  on  the  altar,  to  signify  his  devotion 
to  the  Church  and  determination  to  lead  a 
holy  life.  The  sword  was  redeemed  in  a  sum 
of  money,  had  a  benediction  pronounced  over 
it,  and  was  girded  on  by  the  highest  ecclesias- 
tic present.  The  title  was  conferred  by  bind- 
ing the  sword  and  spurs  on  the  candidate,  after 
which  a  blow  was  dealt  him  on  the  cheek  or 
shoulder,  as  the  last  affront  which  he  was  to 
receive  unrequited.  He  then  took  an  oath  to 
protect  the  distressed,  maintain  right  against 
might,  and  never  by  word  or  deed  to  stain  his 


character  as  a  knight  or  a  Christian.  Upon 
the  infringement  of  any  part  of  his  oath  a 
knight  could  be  degraded,  in  which  case  his 
spurs  were  chopped  off  with  a  hatchet,  his 
sword  broken,  his  escutcheon  reversed,  and 
some  religious  observances  were  added  during 
which  each  piece  of  armor  was  taken  off  in 
succession  and  cast  from  the  recreant  knight. 
Knighthood  is  now  generally  bestowed  by  a 
verbal  declaration  of  the  sovereign,  accom- 
panied with  a  simple  ceremony  of  imposition 
of  the  sword. 

Latin  Union  was  formed  in  1865  and  orig- 
inally embraced  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and 
Switzerland,  but  was  joined  by  Greece  in  1868, 
Spain  in  1871,  and  subsequently  Servia  and 
Roumania.  The  object  of  this  combination 
was  to  regulate  the  amount  of  silver  to  be 
coined  yearly  in  each  country,  aud  to  secure  a 
uniform  coinage  which  would  be  received  with- 
out discount  throughout  the  Union.  The  unit 
of  coinage  in  the  Latin  Union  is  the  franc,  and 
although  it  is  known  in  other  countries  under 
different  names  the  value  is  always  the  same. 
The  perfect  decimal  system  of  France  is  also 
used.  The  convenience  of  this  coinage  system 
has  led  to  its  adoption  by  about  148,000,000 
people.  In  1874  the  States,  by  mutual  con- 
sent, practically  suspended  the  coinage  of  sil- 
ver. 

Blue  Stockings. —  The  term  "  blue  stock- 
ing "  originated  in  England  about  a  century 
ago.  Its  invention  is  traced  to  the  days  of 
Doctor  Johnson  and  was  applied  then  as  now 
to  ladies  who  cultivated  learned  conversation, 
and  found  enjoyment  in  the  discussion  of  ques- 
tions which  had  been  monopolized  by  men.  It 
is  said  by  Dr.  John  Doran,  who,  in  his  work 
"  A  Lady  of  the  Last  Century,"  gave  an  ac- 
count of  Mrs.  Montagu  and  the  "blue  stock- 
ings "  of  her  time,  that  in  1757  it  was  quite 
the  thing  for  ladies  to  form  evening  assem- 
blies, when  they  might  participate  in  talk  with 
literary  and  ingenious  men.  One  of  the  best 
known  and  most  popular  members  of  one  of 
these  societies  was  said  to  have  been  a  Mr. 
Stillingfleet,  who  always  wore  blue  stockings, 
and  when  at  any  time  he  happened  to  be  ab- 
sent from  these  gatherings  it  was  usually  re- 
marked that  "we  can  do  nothing  without  blue 
stockings";  and  by  degrees  the  term  "blue 
stockings  "  was  applied  to  all  clubs  of  the  kind 
described,  and  eventually  to  the  ladies  who  at- 
tended their  meetings. 

Mound  Builders —  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  the  Mississippi  valley  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  were  once  populated  by  an  agri- 
cultural and  partially  civilized  race  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  nomadic  Indians,  though 
possibly  the  progenitors  of  some  of  the  Indian 


MISCELLANEOUS  PACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


tribes,  and  that,  after  centuries  of  occupation, 
they  disappeared  —  at  least  a  thousand,  and 
perhaps  many  thousand,  years  before  the  ad- 
vent of  Europeans.  The  theory  has  been 
advanced  that  these  people  migrated  from 
Asia  ;  that  they  passed  over  Asia  to  Siberia, 
across  Behring  SLraits,  down  the  Pacific  coast 
of  America  from  Alaska,  and  to  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  down  to  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  Peru.  The  remains  of  the  Mound  Build- 
ers, as  this  vanished  people  are  called,  are 
scattered  over  most  of  the  states  of  the  central 
and  lower  Mississippi  valley,  along  the  banks 
of  the  Missouri,  and  on  the  sources  of  the  Alle- 
gheny. They  are  most  numerous  in  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Arkan- 
sas, Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Ala- 
bama, Georgia,  Florida,  Texas,  and  are  found 
in  the  western  part  of  New  York,  and  in  Mich- 
igan and  Iowa.  These  mounds  vary  greatly  in 
size,  and  in  some  instances  are  very  extensive 
and  exceedingly  intricate,  notably  those  of  the 
Licking  valley,  near  Newark,  Ohio,  which 
cover  an  area  of  two  square  miles ;  in  other 
localities  there  are  some  which  reach  a  height 
of  ninety  feet.  It  is  not  believed  that  these 
people  had  any  written  language,  as  no  in- 
scriptions or  tablets  yet  discovered  indicate 
this.  Many  of  these  mounds  have  been  found 
to  contain  skeletons,  numerous  implements 
and  ornaments,  usually  composed  of  stone, 
sometimes  of  copper  —  in  its  native  state  — 
and  occasionally  shell  and  bone  ;  also  coarse 
and  rude  pottery  of  curious  design.  In  sub- 
stantiation of  the  belief  that  these  people  came 
from  Asia,  is  the  fact  that  in  Siberia  mounds 
have  been  found  similar  to  those  in  the  Missis- 
sippi valley. 

Vegetable  Origins. —  Spinach  is  a  Per- 
sian plant. 

Horse-radish  is  a  native  of  England. 

Melons  were  found  originally  in  Asia. 

Filberts  originally  came  from  Gresce. 

Quinces  originally  came  from  Corinth. 

The  turnip  originally  came  from  Rome. 

The  peach  originally  came  from  Persia. 

Sage  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

Sweet  marjoram  is  a  native  of  Portugal. 

The  bean  is  said  to  be  a  native  of  Egypt. 

Damsons  originally  came  from  Damascus. 

The  nasturtium  came  originally  from  Peru. 

The  pea  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 

Ginger  is  a  native  of  the  East  and  West 
Indies. 

The  gooseberry  is  indigenous  to  Great  Brit- 
ain. 

Coriander  seed  came  originally  from  the 
East. 

Apricots  are  indigenous  to  the  plains  of 
America. 


The  cucumber  was  originally  a  tropical  vege- 
table. 

The  walnut  is  a  native  of  Persia,  the  Cau- 
casus, and  China. 

Capers  originally  grew  wild  in  Greece  and 
northern  Africa. 

Pears  were  originally  brought  from  the 
East  by  the  Romans. 

The  clove  is  a  native  of  the  Malacca  Islands,  \ 
as  is  also  the  nutmeg. 

Cherries  were  known  in  Asia  as  far  back  as 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Garlic  came  to  us  first  from  Sicily  and  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Asparagus  was  originally  a  wild  seacoast 
plant,  and  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain. 

The  tomato  is  a  native  of  South  America, 
and  it  takes  its  name  from  a  Portuguese  word. 

Parsley  is  said  to  have  come  from  Egypt,  and 
mythology  tells  us  it  was  used  to  adorn  the 
head  of  Hercules. 

Apples  were  originally  brought  from  the 
East  by  the  Romans.  The  crab  apple  is  in- 
digenous to  Great  Britain. 

The  onion  was  almost  an  object  of  worship 
with  the  Egyptians  2,000  years  before  the 
Christian  era.     It  first  came  from  India. 

Cloves  came  to  us  from  the  Indies,  and  take 
their  name  from  the  Latin  clauvis,  meaning  a 
nail,  to  which  they  have  a  resemblance. 

The  cantaloupe  is  a  native  of  America,  and 
so  called  from  the  name  of  a  place  near  Rome, 
where  it  was  first  cultivated  in  Europe. 

Lemons  were  used  by  the  Romans  to  keep 
moths  from  their  garments,  and  in  the  time  of 
Pliny  they  were  considered  an  excellent  poison. 
They  are  a  native  of  Asia. 

Slavery  in  tbe  North. —  The  first  state 
to  abolish  slavery  within  her  borders  was  Ver- 
mont, which  adopted  a  plan  for  gradual  eman- 
cipation in  1777,  before  she  had  joined  the 
Union,  and  in  1800  slavery  in  that  state  had 
entirely  ceased.  The  new  Massachusetts  con- 
stitution, adopted  in  1780,  contained  a  clause 
declaring  that  "all  men  are  born  free  and 
equal,  and  have  certain  natural,  essential,  and 
inalienable  rights,  among  which  may  be  reck- 
oned the  right  of  enjoying  and  defending  their 
lives  and  liberties,"  which  had  the  effect  of 
freeing  all  the  slaves,  a  very  small  number, 
then  held  within  the  borders  of  that  state. 
In  1780  there  were  4,000  slaves  in  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  in  that  year  their  gradual  emancipa- 
tion was  provided  for  by  legislative  enactment. 
Sixty-four  of  these  were  still  living  in  bond- 
age, however,  in  1840.  Rhode  Island  and 
Connecticut  followed  the  example  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  the  former  had  but  five  slaves  left 
in  1840,  and  the  latter  seventeen.  New  York 
passed  a  gradual  emancipation  act  in  1799,  at 


606 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


which  time  she  had  upward  of  20,000  slaves, 
and  slavery  was  totally  abolished  in  the  state 
from  July  4,  1827.  In  1850  there  were  still 
236  persons  living  in  bondage  in  New  Jersey, 
although  the  state  had  adopted  the  gradual 
emancipation  plan  in  1804.  The  census  of 
1810  showed  that  there  were  no  slaves  held  in 
Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  or  Vermont, 
New  Hampshire  having  emancipated  the  few 
slaves  held  in  the  state  between  1800  and 
1810.  In  Pennslyvania,  New  York,  and  New 
Jersey,  large  numbers  of  slaves  who  could  not 
be  held  in  those  states  were  nefariously  sold  to 
Southern  slave-dealers  by  unprincipled  owners, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  each  state  had 
adopted,  at  the  time  of  emancipation,  the  most 
stringent  laws  regarding  the  exportation  of 
slaves.  By  the  census  of  I860  it  was  shown 
that  slavery  was  entirely  abolished  north  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line. 

Mardi-Gras. —  The  Mardi-Gras  is  the  fes- 
tival preceding  the  first  day  of  Lent,  or  Ash 
Wednesday.  Most  of  the  distinctive  ceremo- 
nies now  annually  performed  in  New  Orleans 
were  originally  introduced  by  the  French  pop- 
ulation as  early  as  1827.  The  day  is  a  legal 
holiday,  and  the  entire  city  is  for  the  time 
ostensibly  placed  under  the  control  of  a  king 
of  the  carnival,  the  great  "Rex."  There  are 
two  principal  pageants.  The  first,  in  the  day- 
time, is  the  escort  of  the  "beloved  Rex," 
through  his  favorite  city ;  the  other,  or  night 
pageant,  is  known  as  the  "  Mystick  Krewe  of 
Comus."  This  has  a  character  altogether 
unique.  The  first  display  was  iu  1857.  On 
Twelfth  night  (January  6),  the  "Knights  of 
Momus  "  have  a  display  analogous  "to  the 
Mardi-Gras,  but  more  exclusively  burlesque, 
and  in  which  they  satirize  the  follies  of  the 
age.  The  arrangements  for  these  celebrations 
come  within  the  control  of  quite  an  elaborate 
organization.  The  Mardi-Gras  is  held  on 
Shrove  Tuesday,  a  day  of  pleasure  in  most 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  It  is  the  carnival 
of  the  Italians,  the  Mardi-Gras  of  the  French, 
and  the  Pancake  Tuesday  of  former  times  in 
England. 

Suicides. — In  European  cities  the  number 
of  suicides  per  100,000  inhabitants  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Paris,  42  ;  Lyons,  29  ;  St.  Petersburg, 
7  ;  Moscow,  11  ;  Berlin,  36  ;  Vienna,  28  ;  Lon- 
don, 23  ;  Rome,  8 ;  Milan,  6  ;  Madrid,  3  ; 
Genoa,  31;  Brussels,  15;  Amsterdam,  14; 
Lisbon,  2  ;  Christiania,  25  ;  Stockholm,  27  ; 
Constantinople,  12  ;  Geneva,  11  ;  Dresden,  51. 
Madrid  and  Lisbon  show  the  lowest,  Di-esden 
the  highest,  figure. 

The  average  annual  suicide  rate  in  countries 
of  the  world  per  100,000  persons  living  ia 
given   by  Barker   as  follows:     Saxony,  31.1  ; 


Denmark,  25.8;  Schleswig-IIolstein,  24.0; 
Austria,  21.2;  Switzerland,  20.2;  France, 
15.7;  German  Empire,  14.3;  Hanover,  14.0; 
Queensland,  13.5 ;  Prussia,  13.3  ;  Victoria, 
11.5;  New  South  Wales,  9.3;  Bavaria,  9.1  ; 
New  Zealand,  9.0  ;  South  Australia,  8.9  ;  Swe- 
den, 8.1;  Norway,  7.5;  Belgium,  6.9  ;  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  6.9;  Tasmania,  5.3;  Hun- 
gary,^.2;  Scotland,  4.0  ;  Italy,  3.7  ;  Nether- 
lands, 3.6;  United  States,  3.5;  Russia,  2.9  ; 
Ireland,  1.7;    Spain,  1.4. 

The  causes  of  suicide  in  European  countries 
are  reported  as  follows  :  Of  100  suicides  :  Mad- 
ness, delirium,  18  per  cent.;  alcoholism,  11; 
vice,  crime,  19  ;  different  diseases,  2  ;  moral 
sufferings,  6  ;  family  matters,  4  ;  poverty,  want, 
4;  loss  of  intellect,  14;  consequence  of  crimes, 
3;    unknown  reasons,  19. 

The  number  of  suicides  in  the  United  States, 
six  years,  1882-87,  was  8,226.  Insanity  was 
the  principal  cause,  shooting  the  favorite 
method  ;  5,386  acts  of  suicide  were  committed 
in  the  day,  and  2,419  in  the  night.  Summer 
was  the  favorite  season,  June  the  favorite 
month,  and  the  11th  the  favorite  day  of  the 
month.  The  month  in  which  the  largest  num- 
bor  of  suicides  occur  is  July. 

The  number  of  suicides  in  twenty  American 
cities  in  1897  was  as  follows  :  New  York,  436  ; 
Chicago,  384;  Brooklyn,  194  ;  St.  Louis,  162  ; 
Philadelphia,  146;  Boston,  92;  Cincinnati, 
69  ;  Baltimore,  60  ;  Providence,  16  ;  Cleveland, 
54  ;  Washington,  52  ;  Milwaukee,  62  ;  Min- 
neapolis, 34  ;  New  Orleans,  40  ;  Buffalo,  23  ; 
Pittsburg,  33;  Jersey  City,  24.  Total,  with 
ten  smaller  cities,  2,014.  The  same  cities  in 
1896,  1,999  ;  increase  15,  or  .75  of  one  per- 
cent. These  figures  are  by  Frederick  L.  Hoff- 
man, in  the  New  York  Spectator  for  July  1, 
1898. 

Facts  AUmit  the  Earth. —  According 
to  Clark,  the  equatorial  semi-diameter  is  20,- 
926,202  feet=3,963.296  miles,  and  the  polar 
semi-diameter  is  20,854,895  feet=3,950.738 
miles.  One  degree  of  latitude  at  the  pole= 
69.407  miles.  One  degree  of  latitude  at  the 
equator=68.704  miles. 


POPULATION  OF   THE   EARTH   BY  CONTINENTS. 

Area  in 
Square 
Miles. 

Inhabitants. 

Continental  Di- 
visions. 

Number. 

Per  Sq. 
Mile. 

11,514,000 
6,446,000 
6,837,000 

14,710.000 
3,288,000 
3,555,000 
4,888,800 

127,000,000 

89,250,000 

36,420,000 

850,000,000 

4,730,000 

380,200,000 

300,000 

11.0 

13.8 
5.3 

57.7 

1.4 

106.9 

0.7 

Total 

51,238,8001,487,900,000 

29.0 

MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


607 


The    above   estimate  was   made   by  Ernest 
Jeorge  Ravenstein,  F.R.G.S.,  the  geographer 
and  statistician,  and  is  for  1890. 

An  estimate  of  population  of  the  earth, 
made  by  Drs.  Wagner  and  Supan,  editors 
of  Bevolkerunq  der  Enle  (Perthes,  Gotha, 
1891),  is  as  follows:  Europe,  357,379,000; 
Asia,  825,954,000;  Africa,  163,953,000; 
America,  121,713,000;  Australia,  3,230,000; 
Oceanic  Islands,  7,420,000;  polar  regions, 
80,400.  Total,  1,479,729,400.  The  estimate 
of  area  of  the  continents  and  islands  by  the 
same  authorities  is  52,821,684. 

Ravenstein 's  estimate  of  the  earth's  fertile 
region,  in  square  miles,  is  28,269,200  ;  steppe, 
13,901,000;  desert,  4,180,000;  polar  regions, 
4,888,800. 

The  population  of  the  earth  at  the  death  of 
the  Emperor  Augustus,  estimated  by  Bodio, 
was  54,000,000.  The  population  of  Europe 
hardly  exceeded  50,000,000  before  the  fifteenth 
century. 

The  area  and  cubic  contents  of  the  earth, 
according  to  the  data  of  Clark,  given  above, 
are:  Surface,  196,971,984  square  miles; 
cubic  contents,  259,944,035,515  cubic  miles. 

Murray  (Challenger  expedition)  states  the 
greatest  depth  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  27,- 
366  feet;  Pacific  Ocean,  30,000  feet;  Indian 
Ocean,  18,582  feet;  Southern  Ocean,  25,200 
feet ;  Arctic  Ocean,  9,000  feet.  The  Atlantic 
Ocean  has  an  area,  in  square  miles,  of  24,- 
536,000  ;  Pacific  Ocean,  50,309,000  ;  Indian 
Ocean,  17,084,000;  Arctic  Ocean,  4,781,000 ; 
Southern  Ocean,  30,592,000.  The  highest 
mountain  is  believed  to  be  Deodhunga,  one  of 
the  Himalayas,  29,002  feet.  Lord  Kelvin 
estimates  the  age  of  the  solid  earth  to  be  be- 
tween 20,000,000  and  30,000,000  years,  and  of 
the  human  race  the  same. 

POPULATION    OF    THE    EARTH   ACCORDING   TO 

RACE. 
(Estimated  by  John  Bartholomew,  E.  R.  G.  S.,  Edin- 
burgh). 


archies,  China,  Korea,  Morocco,  Persia,  Russia, 
Siam,  Turkey;  limited  monarchies,  Austria- 
Hungary,  Belgium,  British  Empire,  Denmark, 
Germany,  Greece,  Italy,  Japan,  Netherlands, 
Portugal,  Roumania,  Servia,  Sweden  and 
Norway,  Spain  ;  republics,  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, Bolivia,  Brazil,  Chile,  Colombia,  Costa 
Rica,  Ecuador,  France,  Guatemala,  Hayti, 
Honduras,  Mexico,  Nicaragua,  Orange  Free 
State,  Paraguay,  Peru,  Salvador,  San  Do- 
mingo, Switzerland,  Transvaal,  United  States 
of  America,  Uruguay,  Venezuela.  Besides 
these,  are  the  undefined  despotisms  of  Central 
and  South  Africa,  and  a  few  insignificant  in- 
dependent States. 

The  average  duration  of  human  life  is  about 
33  years.  One  quarter  of  the  people  on  the 
earth  die  before  age  6,  one  half  before  age  16, 
and  only  about  1  person  of  each  100  born,  lives 
to  age  65.  The  deaths  are  calculated  at  67 
per  minute,  97,790  per  day,  and  35,639,835 
per  year ;  the  births,  at  70  per  minute,  100,800 
per  day,  and  36,792,000  per  year. 

Statistics  of  the  Press —  Rowell's 
American  Newspaper  Directory  for  1898  reports 
the  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada  as  21 ,360.  Of  these, 
899  were  Canadian  publications.  The  follow- 
ing was  the  frequency  of  issue:  Weekly,  15,- 
324;  monthly,  2,734;  daily,  2,214;  semi- 
monthly, 324;  semi-weekly,  415;  quarterly, 
156;  bi-weekly,  80;  bi-monthly,  57;  tri- 
weekly, 43;  total,  21,360. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of 
papers  printed  in  the  several  states  and  Can- 
ada in  1898:  — 


Race. 

Location. 

Number. 

Indo  -  Germanic   or 
Mongolian    or    Tu- 

Europe,  Persia,  etc. 

Greater  Tart  of  Asia 
North  Africa,  Arabia 

Central  Africa 

South  Africa 

Australasia        and 

545,500,000 
630,000,000 

Semiticor  Hamitic. 
Negro  and  Bantu  . . . 
Hottentot  and  Bush 
Malay    and    Polyne- 

65,000,000 

150,000,000 

150,000 

35,000,000 

15,000,000 

Aincrican  Indian 

North     and     South 

Total    

1,440,655,000 

The  human  family  is  subject  to  forty-five 
principal  governments.  As  to  their  form,  they 
may  be  classified  as  follows :    Absolute  mon- 


Montana 93 

Nebraska 599 

Nevada 28 

New  Hampshire 103 

New  Jersey 391 

New  Mexico 57 

New  York 2,018 

North  Carolina 254 

North  Dakota 142 

Ohio 1,192 

Oklahoma 108 

Oregon 204 

Pennsylvania 1,430 

Rhode  Island 69 

South  Carolina 125 

South  Dakota  261 

Tennessee 295 

Texas 753 

Utah 74 

Vermont 84 

Virginia 272 

Washington 213 

West  Virginia 175 

Wisconsin 619 

Wyoming 41 

Total 21,360 

The  total  number  of  newspapers  published  in 
the  world  at  present  is  estimated  at  about 
50,000,  distributed  as  follows :  United  States 
and  Canada,  21,360;  Germany,  6,000,  Great 
Britain,  8,000  ;  France,  4,300;  Japan,  2,000; 


Alabama 219 

Alaska 5 

Arizona 48 

Arkansas 263 

California 684 

Canada 899 

Colorado 310 

Connecticut 201 

Delaware 42 

District  of  Columbia.  71 

Florida 164 

Georgia 357 

Idaho 74 

Illinois 1,619 

Indian  Territory 70 

Indiana * 850 

Iowa 1,053 

Kansas 703 

Kentucky 318 

Louisiana 181 

Maine 165 

Maryland 208 

Massachusetts 616 

Michigan 786 

Minnesota 601 

Mississippi 211 

Missouri 1,034 


608 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OP  FACTS. 


Italy  1,500;  Austria-Hungary,  1,200 ;  Asia, 
exclusive  of  Japan,  1,000  ;  Spain  850  ;  Russia, 
800  ;  Australia,  800  ;  Greece,  600  ;  Switzer- 
land, 450;  Holland,  300;  Belgium,  300;  all 
others,  1,000.  Of  these  more  than  half  are 
printed  in  the  English  language. 

The  Sacred  Number. —  Seven  was  fre- 
quently used  as  a  mystical  and  symbolical 
number  in  the  Bible,  as  well  as  among  the 
principal  nations  of  antiquity,  the  Persians, 
Indians,  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans. 
The  origin  is  doubtless  astronomical,  or  rather 
astrological,  viz.,  the  observation  of  the  seven 
planets  and  the  phases  of  the  moon,  changing 
every  seventh  day.  As  instances  of  this  num- 
ber in  the  Old  Testament,  we  find  the  Creation 
completed  within  seven  days,  whereof  the 
seventh  was  a  day  of  rest  kept  sacred.  Every 
seventh  year  was  sabbatical,  and  the  seven 
times  seventh  year  ushered  in  the  jubilee  year. 
The  three  Regal im,  or  Pilgrim  festivals  (Pass- 
over, Festival  of  Weeks,  and  Tabernacles), 
lasted  seven  days,  and  between  the  first  and 
second  of  these  feasts  were  counted  seven 
weeks.  The  first  day  of  the  seventh  month 
was  a  "Holy  Convocation."  The  Levitical 
purifications  lasted  seven  days,  and  the  same 
space  of  time  was  allotted  to  the  celebration  of 
weddings  and  the  mourning  for  the  dead.  In 
innumerable  instances  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  later  Jewish  writings  the  number  is  used 
as  a  kind  of  round  number.  In  the  Apocalypse 
we  have  the  churches,  candlesticks,  seals,  stars, 
trumpets,  spirits,  all  to  the  number  of  seven, 
and  the  seven  horns  and  seven  eyes  of  the 
Lamb.  The  same  number  appears  again, 
either  divided  into  half  (3£  years,  Rev.  xiii. 
5  ;  xi.  3  ;  xii.  6,  etc.),  or  multiplied  by  ten. — - 
seventy  Israelites  go  to  Egypt,  the  exile  lasts 
seventy  years,  there  are  seventy  elders,  and  at 
a  later  period  there  are  supposed  to  be  seventy 
languages  and  seventy  nations  upon  earth. 
To  go  back  to  the  earlier  documents,  we  find 
in  a  similar  way  the  dove  sent  out  the  second 
time  seven  days  after  her  first  mission,  Pha- 
raoh's dream  shows  him  twice  seven  kine, 
twice  seven  ears  of  corn,  etc. 
— The  Seven  Churches  of  Rev.  i.-iii.  are 
Ephesus,  Smyrna,  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis, 
Philadelphia,and  Laodicea. — The  Seven  Deadly 
Sins  are  pride,  covetousness,  lust,  anger,  glut- 
tony, envy,  and  sloth. —  The  Seven  Principal 
Virtues  are  faith,  hope,  charity^  prudence, 
temperance,  chastity,  and  fortitude.  —  The 
Seven  Gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost  are  wisdom, 
understanding,  counsel,  ghostly  strength  or 
fortitude,  knowledge,  godliness,  and  the  fear 
of  the  Lord. 

Among  the  Greeks  the  seven  was  sacred  to 
Apollo   and   to  Dionysus,  who,    according  to 


Orphic  legends,  was  torn  into  seven  pieces ; 
and  it  was  particularly  sacred  in  Euboea,  where 
the  number  was  found  to  pervade,  as  it  were, 
almost  every  sacred,  private,  or  domestic  rela- 
tion. On  the  many  ancient  speculations  which 
connected  the  number  seven  with  the  human 
body  and  the  phases  of  its  gradual  develop- 
ment and  formation,  its  critical  periods  of 
sicknesses, —  partly  still  extant  as  supersti- 
tious notions  —  we  cannot  here  dwell.  The 
Pythagoreans  made  much  of  this  number, 
giving  it  the  name  of  Athene,  Hermes, 
Hephaistos,  Heracles,  the  Virgin  unbegotten 
and  unbegetting  (t.  e.,  not  to  be  obtained  by 
multiplication),  Dionysus,  Rex,  etc.  Many 
usages  show  the  importance  attached  to  this 
number  in  the  eyes  not  only  of  ancient  but 
even  of  our  own  times,  and  it  is  hardly  neces- 
sary to  add  that  flie  same  recurrence  is  found 
in  the  folklore  of  every  race. 

Hippocrates  (B.  C.  400-357)  divided  the  life 
of  man  into  seven  ages,  a  division  adopted  by 
Shakespeare. 

The  Egyptian  priests  enjoined  rest  on  the 
seventh  day,  because  it  was  held  to  be  a  dies 
infaustua.  In  Egyptian  astronomy  there  were 
seven  planets,  and  hence  seven  days  in  the 
week,  each  day  ruled  by  its  own  special  planet. 
The  people  of  Peru  had  also  a  seven-day  week. 

The  Persians  and  Mexicans  have  a  tradition 
of  a  flood  from  which  seven  persons  saved 
themselves  in  a  cave,  and  by  whom  the  world 
was  subsequently  repeopled. 

The  seven  Champions  of  Christendom  are 
St.  George  for  England,  St.  Andrew  for  Scot- 
land, St.  Patrick  for  Ireland,  St.  David  for 
Wales,  St.  Denis  for  France,  St.  James  for 
Spain,  St.  Anthony  for  Italy. 

3Iaelstrom,  The,  which  means,  literally, 
"grinding  stream,"  is  situated  on  the  Nor- 
wegian coast,  southwest  of  the  Loffoden  Isles, 
and  is  Ihe  most  remarkable  whirlpool  in  the 
world.  It  runs  between  the  island  of  Mos- 
kenes  and  a  large  solitary  rock  in  the  middle  of 
the  straits.  The  strong  currents,  rushing  be- 
tween the  Great  West  Fjord  and  the  outer 
ocean,  through  the  channels  of  the  Loffoden 
Isles,  produce  a  number  of  whirlpools,  of 
which  the  maelstrom  is  by  far  the  most  dan- 
gerous. During  severe  storms  from  the  west, 
for  instance,  the  current  runs  continually  to 
the  east  at  the  rate  of  six  knots  an  hour,  with- 
out changing  its  direction  for  rising  or  falling 
tide,  and  the  stream  will  boil  and  eddy  in 
such  mighty  whirls  that  the  largest  steamer 
could  hardly  contend  successfully  with  the 
waters.  The  depth  of  the  whirlpool  is  only  20 
fathoms,  but  just  outside  the  straits  sound- 
ings reach  from  100  to  200  fathoms.  The 
great   danger  to   vessels   is   of  course   not  of 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


609 


suction  into  the  heart  of  the  whirlpool,  as  leg- 
ends have  supposed,  but  of  being  dashed  to 
pieces  against  the  rocks. 

Lucky  Horseshoe. — Most  of  the  houses 
in  the  West  End  of  London  were  protected 
against  witches  and  evil  spirits  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  says  John  Aubrey,  the  English 
antiquary,  by  having  horseshoes  fastened  to 
them  in  various  ways.  It  was  the  belief  that 
then  no  witch  or  evil  genius  could  cross  the 
threshold  which  was  protected  by  the  shoe. 
The  custom  of  nailing  horseshoes,  for  luck,  to 
all  kinds  of  sailing  craft  is  still,  to  a  certain 
extent,  in  vogue,  and  we  all  know  how  fortunate 
it  is  considered  for  anyone  to  find  a  horse- 
shoe, the  good  luck  being  increased  by  the  num- 
ber of  nails  that  are  attached  to  the  shoe  when 
it  is  picked  up.  This  superstition  can  be  traced 
back  to  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  then  we  find  it  lost  in  the  ob- 
scurity of  the  ages. 

Godiva,  I^ady,  the  wife  of  Leofric,  Earl 
of  Mercia  and  Lord  of  Coventry.  About  1040 
the  earl  imposed  certain  onerous  services  and 
heavy  exactions  upon  the  inhabitants  of  Cov- 
entry, who,  in  consequence,  loudly  complained. 
Lady  Godiva,  having  the  welfare  of  the  town 
at  heart,  eagerly  besought  her  husband  to  give 
them  relief:  and  he,  in  order  to  escape  from 
her  importunities,  said  he  would  grant  the 
favor,  but  only  on  condition  that  she  would 
ride  naked  through  the  town.  Greatly  to  her 
husband's  surprise  she  agreed  to  the  conditions  ; 
and  on  a  certain  day,  after  having  ordered  all 
the  inhabitants  to  remain  within  doors  and  be- 
hind closed  blinds,  she  rode  throtigh  the  town 
clothed  only  by  her  long  hair.  This  circum- 
stance was  commemorated  by  a  stained  glass 
window,  mentioned  in  1690,  in  St.  Michael's 
Church,  Coventry  ;  and  the  legend  that  an  un- 
fortunate tailor,  the  only  man  who  looked  out 
of  a  window,  was  struck  blind,  has  also  found 
commemoration  in  an  ancient  effigy  of  "  Peep- 
ing Tom  of  Coventry,"  still  to  be  seen  in  a 
niche  of  one  of  the  buildings.  For  many  years 
occasional  representations  were  given  of  the 
ride  of  Lady  Godiva,  the  characterbeingtaken 
by  some  beautiful  woman,  clothed,  however,  in 
considerable  more  than  her  hair,  and  attended 
by  other  historical  and  emblematic  personages. 
The  ceremony  has  now  fallen  into  disrepute. 

Molly  Maguires. —  The  first  organiza- 
tion of  this  name  was  formed  in  Ireland,  with 
the  object,  it  is  believed,  of  generally  misusing 
process-servers  and  others  engaged  in  the  prose- 
cution and  eviction  of  tenants,  and  was  com- 
posed of  young  men  who,  in  some  localities, 
assumed  women's  clothing,  blackened  their 
faces,  and  otherwise  disguised  themselves.  It 
remained,  however,  for  the  American  "Mol- 


lies" to  terrorize  whole  counties,  and  leave  a 
blood-red  trail  behind  them  in  the  coal  regions 
of  Pennsylvania.  To  give  even  a  record  of  the 
murders  and  outrages  they  committed  would 
require  an  entire  volume  ;  but  they  were  num- 
bered by  hundreds,  and  the  unfortunate  vic- 
tims were,  in  most  cases,  well  known  and  re- 
spected men.  The  American  organization  was 
composed  of  the  restless  and  reckless  element 
drawn  to  the  coal  regions  through  the  opening 
of  the  coal  fields.  There  is  no  recorded  in- 
stance where  the  disguise  of  women's  clothes 
was  assumed  in  the  United  States.  Through 
the  efforts  of  James  McParlan,  a  detective,  the 
secrets  of  the  order  were  finally  revealed,  and 
many  of  its  members  were  brought  to  justice. 

Natural  Storni  Signals. —  A  continuous 
south  wind  in  most  localities  will  in  a  few 
days  cause  rain,  because  being  warm,  dense, 
and  charged  with  moisture,  it  is  rarefied  and 
cooled  by  the  atmosphere  of  more  northern  or 
elevated  sections,  and  thus  its  capability  of  sus- 
taining moisture  is  lessened.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  continuous  north  wind  dispels  all  rain 
signs  for  the  time  being.  Flaky  clouds,  or 
low-running  ones,  from  any  direction  but  the 
north,  denote  rain  or  snow.  Salmon,  leaden,  or 
silvery  colored  clouds  denote  falling  weather  ; 
bright  red,  clear.  When  the  sunset  is  followed 
by  bright  lances  or  streaks  of  light  of  various 
hues  radiating  from  the  point  where  the  sun 
disappeared,  continuing  across  the  heavens  and 
converging  to  a  common  point  in  the  opposite 
horizon,  there  exists  a  storm-cloud  in  line 
with  the  sun,  though  it  may  be  so  distant  as  to 
be  for  a  while  entirely  hidden  from  view  by 
the  rotundity  of  the  earth.  If  the  rays  of 
light  are  evenly  divided  north  and  south  of 
the  line  between  the  observer  and  the  radiat- 
ing point,  and  continue  so  until  they  have 
faded  out,  the  cloud  is  approaching.  When 
"  heat-lightning  "  is  visible  there  is  a  storm- 
cloud  in  the  same  direction,  though  it  may 
not  be  seen  nor  thunder  be  heard.  When  the 
lightning  is  continuous  and  very  brilliant 
the  storni  is  a  violent  one,  though  the  track  of 
the  destructive  elements  may  be  from  100  to 
200  miles  away. 

Great  Bells.—  In  the  manufacture  of 
great  bells  Russia  has  always  taken  the  lead. 
The  "  Giant,"  which  was  cast  in  Moscow  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  weighed  288,000  pounds, 
and  it  required  twenty-four  men  to  ring  it.  It 
was  broken  by  falling  from  its  support,  but 
was  recast  in  1654.  On  June  19,  1706,  it 
again  fell,  and  in  1732  the  fragments  were 
used,  with  new  materials,  in  casting  the  "King 
of  Bells,"  still  to  be  seen  in  Moscow.  This 
bell  is  nineteen  feet,  three  inches  high,  meas- 
ures around  the  margin  sixty  feet,  nine  inches. 


610 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


weighs  about  443,732  pounds,  and  its  esti- 
mated value  in  metal  alone  is  at  least  $300,000. 
St.  Ivan's  bell,  also  in  Moscow,  is  forty  feet, 
nine  inches  in  circumference,  sixteen  and  one 
half  inches  thick,  and  weighs  127,830  pounds. 
The  bells  of  China  rank  next  to  those  of  Rus- 
sia in  size.  In  Pekin  there  are  seven  bells, 
each  of  which  is  said  to  weigh  120,000  pounds. 
The  weight  of  the  leading  great  bells  of  the 


world  are  as  follows:  "Great  Bell  of  Mos- 
cow," 443,732  pounds;  St.  Ivan's,  Moscow, 
127,830  pounds;  Pekin,  120,000  pounds; 
Vienna,  40,200  pounds ;  Oimutz,  Bohemia, 
40,000  pounds  ;  Rouen,  France,  40,000  pounds  ; 
St.  Paul's,  London,  38,470  pounds;  "Big 
Ben,"  Westminster,  30,350 pounds  ;  Montreal, 
28,560  pounds;  St.  Peter's,  Rome,  18,600 
pounds. 


Population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

CENSUS  OF  1891. 
ENGLAND. 


Counties. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Bedford 

Berks 

Bucks 

Cambridge . . . 

Chester 

Cornwall 

Cumberland.. 

Derby 

Devon 

Dorset 

Durham 

Aberdeen 

Argyll 

Ayr 

Banff 

Berwick 

Bute 

Caithness 

Clackmannan 
Dumbarton. . . 

Anglesey 

Brecon 

Cardigan 

Carmarthen . 

Leinster 

Carlow 

Dublin 

Kildare 

Kilkenny. 

King's 

Longford 

Louth  

Meath 

Queen's 


169,704 
238,709 
185,284 
188,961 
730,058 
322,571 
266,549 
528,033 
631,808 
191,517 
1,016,559 


Counties. 


Essex 

Gloucester  .. 
Hampshire . . 

Hereford 

Hertford 

Huntingdon. 

Kent 

Lancaster . . . 

Leicester 

Lincoln 

Middlesex . . . 


Popula- 
tion. 


785,445 

599,9*7 

690,097 

115,919 

220,162 

57,751 

1,112,324 

3,926,76) 

373,584 

472,878, 

3,251,07l! 


Counties. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Monmouth 

Norfolk 

Northampton  .... 
Northumberland. 

Nottingham 

Oxford 

Rutland 

Shropshire 

Somerset 

Stafford 

Suffolk 


252,416 
454,516 
302,183 
506,030 
445,823 
185,669 
20,659 
236,339 
484,337 
1,083,408 
371,235 


Counties. 


Surrey 

Sussex 

Warwick 

Westmoreland .. 

Wiltshire 

Worcester 

York 


Total 27,483,490 


SCOTLAND. 


284,036 
74,085 

226,386 
61,681| 
32,290 
18,404! 
37,177! 
34,140! 
98,014 


Dumfries 
Edinburgh . . 

Elgin  

Fife 

Forfar 

Haddington. 

Inverness 

Kincardine. . 
Kinross 


74,215  !  Kirkcudbright.. .  39,966 

431,276  Lanark I    1,108,899 

52.808 
9,155 


4  S.471   Linlithgow 

190,365!  Nairn 

277,735!  Orkney  and  Shet- 

37,377       land 

93,121!  Peebles 

35,492  i  Perth 

6,673;  Renfrew 


59,164 

14,750 

122,185 

230,812] 


Ross&  Cromarty. 

Roxburgh 

Selkirk 

Stirling 

Sutherland 

Wigtown 

Zetland 


78,727 
53,500 
27,712 
118,021 
21,896 
31), 062 


Total 4,025.647 


IRELAND. 


40,936 
419,216 
70,206 
87,261 
65,563 
52,647 
71,038 
76,987 


Westmeath . . . 

AVexford  

Wicklow 

Munstek. 

Clare 

Cork 

Kerry 

Limerick 

Tipperary 


64,883  Waterford. 


65,109 
111,778 
62,136 


Ulster. 

Antrim 

Armagh 

Cavan 

124,483  Donegal 

438,432   Down 

179,136  Fermanagh.. 
158,912  Londonderrv. 
173,188'  Monaghan..., 
98,251  Tvrone 


COKKAUOHl 

471,179  Galway 

143,289  HLeitrim 

111,917  Mayo 

185,035  Roscommon. . 
224,008 

74,170 
152,009 

86,206 
171,401 


214,712 
78,618 
219.034 
114,337 
98,013 


Sligo 

Total 4,704,750 


United  States  Army  Recruiting  Re- 
quirements.—  Applicants  for  enlistment  in 
the  regular  army  must  be  between  the  ages  of 
twenty-one  and  thirty  years,  unmarried,  of 
good  character  and  habits,  able-bodied,  free 
from  disease,  and  must  be  able  to  speak,  read, 
and  write  the  English  language.  Age  for  en- 
listment of  citizen  soldiery,  eighteen  to  forty- 
five  years,  married  or  unmarried. 

Minors  are  not  enlisted,  except  boys  between 
the  ages  of  sixteen  and  eighteen  who  may  be 
needed  as  musicians  and  who  have  the  written 
consent  of  father,  only  surviving  parent,  or 
legally  appointed  guardian. 

Original  enlistments  are  confined  to  persons 


who  are  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  who 
have  made  legal  declaration  of  their  intention 
to  become  citizens  thereof. 

For  infantry  and  artillery  the  height  must  be 
not  less  than  five  feet  four  inches,  and  weight 
not  less  than  120  pounds  and  not  more  than 
190  pounds. 

For  cavafvy  the  height  must  be  not  less  than 
five  feet  i'oi*r  inches  and  not  more  than  five 
feet  ten  inches,  and  weight  not  to  exceed  165 
pounds. 

All  soldiers  receive  from  the  Government  (in 
addition  to  their  pay)  rations,  clothing,  bedding, 
medicines,  and  medical  attendance.  The  follow, 
ing  is  the  rate  of  pay  as  now  established  :  — 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


611 


Grade. 

Prl vat os— Cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry 

Fielil  Musicians— Cavalry ,'artillery,  and  "infantry 

Wagoners — Cavalry,  artillery,  and' infantry 

Artificers — Artillery  and  infantry,  saddlers  and  farriers,  cavalry. 

Corporals— Cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry 

Sergeants— Cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry 

First  Sergeant  of  a  company — Cavalry,  artillery,  and  infantry  — 

Chief  Trumpeter  of  cavalry 

Principal  Musician— Artillery  and  infantry 


Pay  per 

l'av  per 

l'av  per 

Month. 

Year. 

3  Years. 

$13 

9156 

1MB 

13 

If  6 

468 

14 

168 

504 

15 

180 

540 

15 

180 

540 

18 

216 

648 

25 

300 

900 

22 

264 

792 

22 

264 

792 

ARMY  PAY  TABLE. 


GRADE. 


Pay  of  Officers  rjf  Active  Service.  ' 


Y'early  Pay. 


Set   > 
_  »  c 

*       03 


■a.    aj 


I- 


S  S 

«  $  > 

«sr   co 


3*£ 


10  p.  c.j  20  p.  0.1  30  p.  c.  40  p.  c 


Pay  of  Retired  Officers. 


Yearly  Pay. 


l-  £  O 


2-   6 


»  =S  > 

£  *  c 

<      03 


Major-General 

Brigadier-General 

Colonel 

Lieutenant-Colonel 

Major 

Captain,  mounted 

Captain,  not  mounted 

1st  Lieutenant,  mounted 

1st  Lieutenant,  not  mounted. 

2d  Lieutenant,  mounted 

2d  Lieutenant,  not  mounted . . 


$7,500 
5,500 
3,500 
3,000  ! 
2,500 
2,000  , 
1.800  i 
1.600 
1.500 
1,500 
1,400  | 


§3,850 
3,300 
2,750 
2,200 
1.980 
1,760 
1,650 
1.650 
1,540 


$4,200  *$4,500  »$4,500 

3,600  3,900  *4,000 

3,000  3,250  3.500 

2,400  2,600  3,860 

2,160  2,340  2,520 

1,920  2,080  2,240 

1,800  1,950  2,100 

1,800  1,950  2,100 

1.680  1,820  1.000 


-.-..i  26 
4,125 
2,625 
2,250 
1,875 
1,500 
1,350 
1,200 
1,125 
1,125 
1,050 


82,887 

2,475 
2,062 
1,650 
1,485 
1,320 
1,237 
1,237 
1,115 


83,150 
2,700 
2,250 
1,800 
1,620 
1,440 
1,350 
1,350 
1,260 


83,375 
2,925 
2,437 
1,950 
1,755 
1,560 
1,462 
1,462 
135 


83,375 
3,000 
2,625 
2,100 
1,890 
1,680 
1,575 
1,575 
1,470 


*  The  maximum  pay  of  Colonels  is  limited  to  84,500,  and  of  Lieutenant-Colonels  to  $4,000. 

The  pay  of  non-commissioned  officers  is  from  $18  to  834  per  month,  and  of  privates  $13  per  month. 


United  States  National  and  Inter- 
national Salutes,  with  Cannon.  Salute 
to  the  Union. —  This  is  one  gun  for  each  state, 
and  is  commemorative  of  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. It  is  fired  at  noon  of  the  Fourth 
of  Juh',  at  every  military  post,  and  on  board 
commissioned  naval  vessels  belonging  to  the 
United  States. 

The  National  Salute,  21  guns.  This  is  the 
salute  for  the  national  flag,  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  presidents  of  foreign  repub- 
lics, or  sovereigns  of  foreign  states,  visiting  the 
United  States. 

Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Amer- 
ican and  foreign  ambassadors,  19  guns. 

The  President  of  the  Senate,  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives.  Members  of  the 
Cabinet,  the  Chief  Justice,  a  Congressional 
Committee,  Governors  within  their  respective 
states  or  territories,  Viceroy  or  Governor  Gen- 
eral of  provinces  belonging  to  foreign  states, 
General  of  the  Army,  Admiral  of  the  Navy, 
and  same  ranks  in  foreign  armies  and  navies, 
17  guns. 

American  or  foreign  Envoys,  or  Ministers 
Plenipotentiary,  Assistant  Secretaries  of  the 
Navy  or  War,  Lieutenant  General,  or  a  Major 
General  commanding  the  army,  and  correspond- 
;.ng  ranks  in  the  navy,  and  foreign  armies  and 
navies,  15  guns. 

Ministers-Resident  accredited  to  the  United 
States,  Major  General,  Rear  Admiral,  and  cor- 


responding ranks  of  foreign  armies  and  navies, 
13  guns. 

Charges  d'Affaires,  Brigadier  General,  Com- 
modore, and  corresponding  ranks  in  foreign 
armies  and  navies,  11  guns. 

Consul  Generals  accredited  to  the  United 
States,  9  guns. 

Salutes  are  only  fired  between  sunrise  and 
sunset,  and  not  on  Sundays,  except  in  interna- 
tional courtesies.  The  national  colors  are  al- 
ways displayed  at  the  time  of  saluting.  The 
salute  of  the  flag  is  the  only  salute  which  is 
returned,  and  this  must  be  done  within  twenty- 
four  hours.  United  States  vessels  do  not  return 
salute  to  the  flag  in  United  States  waters  if 
there  is  any  fort  or  battery  there  to  "do  it, 
nor  do 'United  States  vessels  salute  United 
States  forts  or  posts. 

If  there  are  several  batteries  or  forts  within 
sight  or  six  miles  of  each  other,  one  of  them 
is  designated  as  the  saluting  fort,  and  returns 
all  salutes  of  foreign  men-of-war.  In  New 
York,  Castle  William,  on  Governor's  Island, 
is  the  saluting  fort. 

Washington  Monument.  —  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  the  plan  of  a  monument 
to  General  Washington  was  approved  by  Con- 
gress in  the  latter  part  of  December,  1799, 
nothing  was  done  in  the  matter  until  1833, 
when  an  association  of  prominent  persons  un- 
dertook the  raising  of  the  needed  funds  by  sub- 
scription, and  on  July  4,  1848,  had  so  far  sue- 


612 


TtiF  CFNTiJRY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


ceeded  in  their  undertaking  that  the  corner 
stone  of  a  monument  was  laid,  and  daring  the 
succeeding  eight  years  the  shaft  was  carried  to 
a  height  of  156  feet.  The  work  was  then  sus- 
pended, at  first  for  lack  of  funds,  then  because 
of  the  Civil  War,  and  finally  because  the 
foundations  were  believed  to  be  insecure.  In 
1876  Congress  undertook  the  completion  of  the 
monument.  The  base  was  first  strengthened, 
and  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  shaft  was  re- 
sumed in  August,  1880,  and  was  finished  Au- 
gust 9,  1884.  The  shaft  is  555  feet  high,  and 
the  entire  height  of  the  monument,  including 
the  foundations,  is  592  feet.  The  base  is  55 
feet  1|-  inch  square.  At  500  feet  above  the 
ground  the  monument  has  four  sides,  each  of 
which  is  35  feet  wide.  Its  area  at  this  point 
is  that  of  a  comfortable  six-room  house,  each 
room  of  which  might  be  12x16  feet.  This 
square  forms  the  base  of  the  pyramidal  top 
which  runs  from  it  55  feet  until  it  terminates 
in  a  metallic  point.  This  point  is  construcied 
of  the  largest  piece  of  aluminium  ever  made. 
The  stones  of  which  the  monument  is  con- 
structed are  great  blocks  of  crystal  marble 
from  Maryland,  and  in  some  cases  are  9  feet 
long,  2  feet  thick,  and  3  or  more  feet  wide. 
There  are  more  than  18,000  of  them.  The 
foundation  is  built  of  Potomac  gneiss,  and  is 
81  feet  square  at  the  base.  One  hundred  and 
eighty-one  "  memorial  stones"  have  from  first 
to  last  been  contributed  for  use  in  the  monu- 
ment ;  but  many  were  considered  unworthy  of 
a  place,  and  one  sent  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  in  1855, 
was  stolen  during  the  Know-Nothing  agitation, 
and  was  broken  into  pieces  and  thrown  into 
the  Potomac  river.  The  monument  was  ded- 
icated with  imposing  ceremonies  on  February 
22,  1885.  Its  cost  was  about  $1,500,000, 
which  was  raised  partially  by  an  appropriation 
by  Congress  and  partially  by  private  subscrip- 
tion. It  is  30  feet  higher  than  any  other  work 
of  man  except  the  lofty  iron  Eiffel  Tower 
erected  in  Paris  for  the  great  Exposition  of 
1889. 

Origin  of  Visiting  Cards. — As  is  the 
case  in  many  other  instances,  we  owe  the  in- 
vention of  visiting  cards  to  the  Chinese.  So 
long  ago  as  the  period  of  the  Tong  dynasty 
(618-907),  visiting  cards  were  in  common  use 
in  China,  and  that  is  also  the  date  of  the  in- 
troduction of  the  "red  silken  cords"  which 
figure  so  conspicuously  on  the  engagement  cards 
of  that  country.  From  very  ancient  times  to 
the  present  day  the  Chinese  have  observed  the 
strictest  ceremony  with  regard  to  the  paying 
of  visits.  The  cards  which  they  use  for  this 
purpose  are  very  large,  and  usually  of  a  bright 
red  color.  When  a  Chinaman  desires  to  marry, 
his  parents  intimate  that  fact  to  a  professional 


"  match-maker,"  who  thereupon  runs  through 
a  list  of  her  visiting  acquaintances,  and  selects 
one  whom  she  considers  a  fitting  bride  for  the 
young  man ;  and  then  she  calls  upon  the 
young  woman's  parents,  armed  with  the  bride- 
groom's card,  on  which  are  inscribed  his  an- 
cestral name  and  the  eight  symbols  which  de- 
note the  day  of  his  birth.  If  the  answer  is  an 
acceptance 'of  the  suit,  the  bride's  card  is  sent 
in  return ;  and  should  the  oracles  prophesy 
good  concerning  the  union,  the  particulars  of 
the  engagement  are  written  on  two  large  cards, 
tied  together  with  the  red  cords. 

Average  Annual  Temperature  in 
United  States. 

I'laceof  Average  Vlnoe  of  Average 

Observation.         Temperature.     Observation.  Temperature. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  52 
Romney,  West  Virginia,  52 

Indianapolis,  Indiana,  51 

Leavenworth,  Kansas,  51 
Santa  Fe,  New  Mex .  Ter.,  51 

Steilncoom,  Wash.,  51 

Hartford,  Connecticut,  50 

Springfield,  Illinois,  50 

Camp  Scott,  Nevada,  50 

Pes  Moines,  Iowa,  49 

Omaha,  Nebraska,  49 

Denver,  Colorado,  48 

Boston,  Massachusetts,  48 

Albany,  New  York,  48 

Providence,  R.  L,  48 

Detroit,  Michigan,  47 

Ft.  Randall,  Dakota,  47 

Sitka,  Alaska,  46 

Concord,  N.  H.,  46 

Augusta,  Maine,  45 

Madison,  Wisconsin,  45 

Helena,  Montana,  43 

Montpelier,  Vermont,  43 

St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  42 


Tucson,  Arizona,  69 

Jacksonville,  Florida,  69 

New  Orleans,  La.,  69 

Austin,  Texas,  67 

Mobile,  Alabama,  66 

Jackson,  Mississippi,  64 

Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  63 

Columbia,  S.  Carolina,  62 

Ft.  Gibson,  Indian  Ter.,  60 

Raleigh,  N.  Carolina,  59 

Atlanta,  Georgia,  58 

Nashville,  Tennessee,  58 

Richmond,  Virginia,  57 

Louisville,  Kentucky,  56 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  55 

Washington,  D.  C,  55 

St.  Louis,  Missouri,  65 

Baltimore,  Maryland,  54 

Harrisburg,  Pa.,  54 

Wilmington,  Delaware,  53 

Tren ton ,  Ne w  Jersey,  53 

Columbus,  Ohio,  53 

Portland,  Oregon,  53 

Ft.  Boise,  Idaho,  52 


Gems    Symbolic   of   the    Months. — 

January,  the  jacinth  or  hyacinth,  symbolizing 
constancy  and  fidelity. 

February;  the  amethyst,  symbolizing  peace 
of  mind  and  sobriety. 

March,  the  bloodstone  or  jasper,  symboliz- 
ing courage  and  success  in  dangerous  enter- 
prise. 

April,  the  sapphire  and  diamond,  symbol- 
izing repentance  and  innocence. 

May,  the  emerald,  symbolizing  success  in 
love. 

June,  the  agate,  symbolizing  long  life  and 
health. 

July,  the  carnelian,  symbolizing  cure  of 
evils  resulting  from  forgetful ness. 

August,  the  sardonyx  or  onyx,  symbolizing 
conjugal  felicity. 

September,  the  chrysolite,  symbolizing  pres- 
ervation from  folly,  or  its  cure. 

October,  the  aquamarine,  opal,  or  beryl, 
symbolizing  hope. 

November,  the  topaz,  symbolizing  fidelity 
and  friendship. 

December,  the  turquoise  or  ruby,  symboliz- 
ing brilliant  success. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


613 


Some  doubt  exists  between  May  and  June, 
July  and  August.  Thus  some  give  the  agate 
to  May  and  the  emerald  to  June  ;  the  carnelian 
to  August,  and  the  onyx  to  July. 

Flying  Dutchman*  The,  is  the  name 
given  by  sailors  to  a  phantom  ship,  supposed 
to  cruise  in  storms  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
According  to  tradition,  a  Dutch  captain,  bound 
home  from  the  Indies,  met  with  long-continued 
head  winds  and  heavy  weather  off  this  cape, 
and  refused  to  put  back,  as  he  was  advised  to 
do,  swearing  a  very  profane  oath  that  he 
would  beat  round  the  cape  if  he  had  to  beat  there 
till  the  Day  of  Judgment.  He  was  taken  at 
his  word,  aud  doomed  to  beat  against  winds  all 
his  days.  His  sails  are  believed  to  have  be- 
come threadbare,  and  his  ship's  sides  white 
with  age,  and  himself  and  crew  reduced  almost 
to  shadows.  He  cannot  heave  to  nor  lower  a 
boat,  but  sometimes  hails  vessels  through  his 
trumpet,  and  requests  them  to  take  letters 
home  for  him.  The  superstition  had  its  origin, 
probably,  in  the  looming  or  apparent  suspen- 
sion in  air  of  some  ships  out  of  sight  —  a 
phenomenon  sometimes  witnessed  at  sea,  and 
caused  by  unequal  refraction  in  the  lower 
strata  of  the  atmosphere. 

Age  of  Animals. —  The  exact  age  at- 
tained by  animals  other  than  those  domesti- 
cated it  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  ascertain. 


It  is  believed,  however,  among  East  Indians, 
that  the  elephant  lives  about  300  years,  and 
instances  are  on  record  of  the  animals  having 
been  kept  in  captivity  as  long  as  130  years, 
their  ages  being  unknown  when  they  were  first 
taken  from  the  forest.  Camels  live  from  40 
to  50  years ;  horses  average  from  20  to  30, 
oxen  about  20,  sheep  8  or  9,  and  dogs  from  12 
to  14  years.  The  age  of  a  whale  is  ascertained 
by  the  size  and  number  of  the  laminae  of  cer- 
tain organs  in  the  mouth,  formed  of  a  horny 
substance  commonly  called  whalebone.  These 
laminae  increase  yearly,  and,  if  the  mode  of 
computation  be  correct,  it  is  known  that  whales 
have  attained  to  the  age  of  400  years.  Some 
species  of  birds  attain  a  great  age.  The  swan 
has  been  known  to  live  100  years,  and  it  is  re- 
corded that  the  raven  has  exceeded  that  age. 
Parrots  have  been  kpown  to  live  80  years. 
Pheasants  and  domestic  poultry  rarely  exceed 
12  or  15  years.  Among  fishes  and  animals 
that  live  in  the  water  great  age  is  often  at- 
tained. The  carp  has  been  known  to  live  200 
years.  Common  river  trout  have  been  con- 
fined in  a  well  30  and  even  50  years,  and  a 
pike  was  caught  in  1497  in  a  lake  near  Heil- 
bronn,  in  Swabia,  with  a  brass  ring  attached 
to  it  recording  that  it  was  placed  in  the  lake 
in  the  year  1230. 


Navies. 


Class  of  Vkssf.l.s. 


Battle  Ships,  Fir?  t  Class 

Battle  Ships,  Second  Class. . . 

Battle  Ships,  Third  Class 

Const  -Defense  Ships 

Armored  Cruisers 

Cruisers,  First  Class 

Cruisers,  Second  and  Third 
Classes 

Gunboats.  Sea-Going 

Gunboats,  River 

Transports  and  Dispatch  Boats. 

Togs,  Repair,  Water,  Coal,  and 
Hospital  Vessels 

School  Ships,  Training  Ships. 

Subsidized  and  Auxiliary  Ves- 
sels  

Hulks  and  Obsolete  Ships 

Torpedo  Boat  Destroyers 

Torpedo  Boats.  First  Class 

Torpedo  Boats,  Second  and 
Th ird  Classes 

Officers— Xaval 

Seamen  —  Xaval 

Officers —  Marine 

Soldiers  —  Marine 

Naval  Reserves 

Heavy  Guns 

Secondary  Guns 


104 
54 

41 


49 
153 
96 

78 

112 
2,480 
81,200 
803 
19,200 
81,000  85,000! 
1.320.  490 
54800    2,900 


18 
18 

"l9 
4 
10 

20 
36 
31 
31 

41 
9 

29 
90 
18 
112 

138 
2,240 

4:>.441 
1,700 

28.000 


Z  5 


6 

lo 

"l9 
2 
2 

3 
17 
15 
IT 

23 
4 

U 

SI 

11 

109 


14 
17 

8 
27 

28 
4 

16 

57 

18 

110 


33         84 
010       811 

17,300  21,300 

23  >         98 

2,500'      620 

37,000  19.000 

2114        192 

1.094     1.402 


—  be 

2  a 
=  a 


39 


50  .    130  11 

600  1,600  080 

11,461  40.000  11,320 

76  512  300 

72(1  3,700  4,000 

4,300  49,000  20,000 

142  512  56 

440  1,346  402 


5  a 


u 
3 
H 


13 
400 


23  40 

142  594 

1,100  8,911  20,600 

40  64'        84 

300  1,720    1.200 

4,000  10,000  36,000 

144  212       209 

293  598!      312 


13 
2 
3 

35 

102 

4,000 

90 

800 

8,000 

120 

262 


9 

1 
4 

18 
84 

3,100 

36 

500 

6,000 
17 
80 


3a 
l 
u 


390 

4,000 

22 

640 

4.000 

16 

84 


Austria-Hungary". —  The  registered  number  of  young  men  attaining  the  age  of  military  service  in  1896  was 
344,300.  After  exemptions,  postponements,  etc.,  the  number  fit  for  service  was  found  to  be  186,700.  Of  this  num- 
ber 126,000  were  drawn  for  service,  as  in  1895,  namely:  Army  and  navy,  103,000;  Landwehr,  23,000.  Obligatory 
service  commences  on  the  first  day  of  January  of  each  year. 


614 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF   FACTS. 


Armies  of  Mexico,  South  America,  and  Asia. 


Classes. 

Japan. 

China. 

Mexico. 

Brazil. 

Chile. 

Argentine 
Republic. 

India.* 

Vene- 
zuela. 

63,400 
6,900 
8,112 
4,800 
83,212 
74,600 
214,000 

1   100,000 
100,000 

566,600 

f     13,312 

J         5,212 

1        1,640 

[.          982 

21,144 

28,000 

117,000 

1G,428 
2,718 
4,217 
1,126 
24,479 
26,100 
50,000 

16,920 
4,600 
2,900 
1,000 
25,420 
25,000 
45,000 

9,200 

2,680 

2,900 

712 

15,492 

16,000 

40,000 

.     138,912 

42,000 

23,618 

16,000 

220,530 

2oo',6oo 

5,300 

1,400 

580 

480 

7,760 

260,600 

Engineers  and  train.. 
Total  peace  strength 

First  Reserves 

Second  Reserves 

Total  war  strength 

371,812 

•     600,000 

166,144 

100,579 

95,420 

71,492 

420,530 

207,760 

*  Including  native  and  white  troops. 


The  Torpedo  Fleets. 

TABLE  SHOWING  TORPEDO  BOATS  AND  TORPEDO-BOAT  DESTROYERS  OF  NAVIES  OF  THE 

WORLD. 


Countries. 


S  a)  ao 

«fl  u 

ti  cj  o 

o  o« 


United  States.. .. 

Great  Britain 

France 

Germany 

Italy 

Russia 

Austria-Hungary 

Denmark 

Greece 

Netherlands 

Sweden  

Norway 


16 
103 
18 
10 
18 
18 
2 
6 
0 
16 
2 
0 


Torpedo  Boats. 


First    Second    Third 


Class. 


Class. 


0 
38 
153 

20 
7 
9 
7 
4 
0 
14 
12 
10 


Class. 


2 
105 
45 
16 
71 
116 
35 
19 
42 
32 
18 
9 


Countries. 


Portugal 

Turkey 

Spain 

144    Roumania 

19t  i  Mexico 

223   Chile 

80   Brazil 

35   A rg.  Republic 

48   Costa  Rica 

69   China 

85  Japan 

23   British  Colonies. 


O    J)  OB 

9)1-1  0J 

trss  o 

o  o  t. 


Torpedo  Boats. 


First 

Class. 


Second  Second!  & 
Class.     Class. 


22 

27 

7 

7 

2 

3 

0 

4 

0 

0 

3 

15 

0 

18 

0 

18 

0 

0 

29 

17 

37 

22 

5 

1 

The  New  Navy  of  Japan. 


BATTLE  SHIPS. 


Name. 

Tonnage. 

Guns. 

Built. 

Name. 

Tonnage.         Guns.            Built. 

12,649 
12,517 

38 
38 

1896 
1896 

Shikishima,  steel... 

7,355 
15,037 

20          L       1881 
50            Building. 

Itsukushima,  steel. 
Matsushima,  steel.. 


COAST-DEFENSE  VESSELS. 


4,278 
4,278 


30 


18*9 
1890 


Hashidate,  steel. 


4,278 


31 


STEEL   CRUISERS. 


Takasago 

Yoshino 

Puso 

Naniwa 

Takachiho.. . 

Akitsusu 

Izumi 

Tatsuta,  steel 
Iwaki,  wood. 
Gshima,  steel 
Mayo,  iron  . . 
At.igo,  steel. 
Akagi,  wood 
Chokai,  iron. 


4,227 
4,216 
3,777 
3,709 
3,709 

3,ino 

2,967 


1897 
1892 
1877 
1885 
1885 
1892 
1883 


Suma 

Chiyoda. 
Saiyen.. . 
Kasagi  . . 
Chitose. . 
Akashi  .. 


2,700 
2,439 
2,300 
4.978 
4,836 
2,800 


GUNBOATS. 


864 
667 
640 
622 
622 
622 
622 


1894 

1877 
1891 
1886 
1887 
1888 
18S7 


Soko,  wood 

Chinto,  steel 

Chinsei,  steel 

Chinhoku,  steel. 
Chinchu,  steel.. . 

Hosho,  wood 

Kaikyo,  wood. . . 


610 
440 
440 
440 
440 
321 
1.450 


1895 
1890 
1883 
1898 
1898 
Building. 


1865 
1879 
1883 
1879 
1881 
1871 


OTHER  VESSELS. 

Miyako,  dispatch  boat,  steel,  1.800  tons,  12  guns,  building;  Congo,  corvette;  Hiyci,  corvette;  Heiyen,  cor- 
vette; Tsukuba,  cruiser :  Kaisnragi,  stoop j  Yamsto,  sloop;  Musashi,  stoop;  Kaimon,  sloop;  Amaiki,  Bid  ,>. 
These  vessels  are  from  2,884  tons  to  926  tons  displacement,  and  carry  from  19  to  13  guns  each.  They  are  built 
mostly  of  iron  and  wood,  and  their  dates  are  from  1x71  to  1889. 

TheChinyen,  Saiyen, Heiyen,  Soko,  Chinto,  Chinsei,  Chinhoku,  Chinpen,  Chinchu,  and  Kaikyo,  were  captured 
from  the  Chinese  in  the  war  of  189.V96.  The  number  of  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers  is  given  in  the  torpedo-boat 
table.    There  are,  in  addition  to  the  above  vessels  and  torpedo  boats,  26  vessels  used  as  receiving  ships,  hulks, etc. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


615 


New  York   Elevated  Railways. —  In 

1868  an  elevated  railroad  extending  a  half- 
mile  was  constructed  on  Greenwich  street,  New 
York,  as  an  experiment.  Three  years  later 
the  West  Side  Elevated  Railroad  Company  ob- 
tained a  charter,  but  shortly  afterward  sold  its 
right  to  the  New  York  Elevated  Railroad 
Company.  The  new  organization  proceeded 
rapidly  to  erect  its  roads,  and  in  December, 
1879,  its  rolling  stock  consisted  of  131  loco- 
motives, 292  passenger  cars,  and  8  service  cars. 
In  May,  1879,  the  road  was  leased  to  the  Man- 
hattan Railway  Company.  The  Metropolitan 
Elevated  Railroad  was  first  called  the  Gilbert 
Elevated  Railroad,  in  honor  of  its  projector, 
Dr.  Rufus  H.  Gilbert.  Although  the  com- 
pany obtained  its  charter  in  1872,  work  was 
not  commenced  until  March,  1876.  In  two 
years  it  expended  810,300,000  in  constructing 
its  lines.  In  1879  the  road  with  its  rolling 
stock,  consisted  of  56  locomotives,  180  passen- 
ger cars,  and  2  freight  cars,  was  leased  to  the 
Manhattan  Elevated  Railroad  Company,  which 
now  controls  and  manages  the  entire  elevated 
railroad  system  of  New  York. 

The  Famous  Connecticut  Blue 
Laws. —  These  laws,  enacted  by  the  people 
of  the  "  Dominion  of  New  Haven,"  became 
known  as  the  blue  laws  because  they  were 
printed  on  blue  paper.  They  were  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

The  governor  and  magistrates  convened  in 
general  assembly  are  the  supreme  power,  un- 
der God,  of  the  independent  dominion.  From 
the  determination  of  the  assembly  no  appeal 
shall  be  made. 

No  one  shall  be  a  freeman  or  have  a  vote 
unless  he  is  converted  and  a  member  of  one  of 
the  churches  allowed  in  the  dominion. 

Each  freeman  shall  swear  by  the  blessed 
God  to  bear  true  allegiance  to  this  dominion 
and  that  Jesus  is  the  only  king. 

No  dissenter  from  the  essential  worship  of 
this  dominion  shall  be  allowed  to  give  a  vote 
for  electing  of  magistrates  or  any  officer. 

No  food  or  lodging  shall  be  offered  to  a 
heretic. 

No  one  shall  cross  a  river  on  the  Sabbath 
but  authorized  clergymen. 

No  one  shall  travel,  cook  victuals,  make 
beds,  sweep  houses,  cut  hair,  or  shave  on  the 
Sabbath  Day. 

No  one  shall  kiss  his  or  her  children  on  the 
Sabbath  or  feasting  days. 

The  Sabbath  Day  shall  begin  at  sunset  Sat- 
v-day. 

Whoever  wears  clothes  trimmed  with  gold, 
silver,  or  bone  lace  above  one  shilling  per  yard 
shall  be  presented  by  the  grand  jurors  and  the 
selectmen  shall  tax  the  estate  £300. 


Whoever  brings  cards  or  dice  into  the  domin- 
ion shall  pay  a  fine  of  £5. 

No  one  shall  eat  mince  pies,  dance,  play 
cards,  or  play  any  instrument  of  music  except 
the  drum,  trumpet,  or  jewsharp. 

No  gospel  minister  shall  join  people  in  mar- 
riage. The  magistrate  may  join  them,  as  he 
may  do  it  with  less  scandal  to  Christ's  church. 

When  parents  refuse  their  children  con- 
venient marriages,  the  magistrate  shall  deter- 
mine the  point. 

A  man  who  strikes  his  wife  shall  be  fined 
£10. 

A  woman  who  strikes  her  husband  shall  be 
punished  as  the  law  directs. 

No  man  shall  court  a  maid  in  person  or  by 
letter  without  obtaining  the  consent  of  her 
parents;  £5  penalty  for  the  first  offense  ;  £10 
for  the  second,  and  for  the  third  imprisonment 
during  the  pleasure  of  the  court. 

Perpetual  Motion, —  Perpetual  motion 
is  a  movement  which  is  not  only  self-active 
but  also  self-creative.  A  machine  which  when 
set  in  motion  would  continue  to  move  without 
the  aid  of  external  force  and  without  the  loss 
of  momentum  until  its  parts  were  all  worn 
out,  might  be  said  to  have  solved  the  perpetual 
motion  problem.  But  even  more  is  expected 
of  this  invention  should  it  ever  become  practi- 
cable, that  it  shall  go  on  doing  work  without 
drawing  on  any  external  source  of  energy, 
or  shall  by  its  movement  continually  create 
power.  The  impossibility  of  constructing  such 
a  machine  has  long  been  demonstrated,  but 
still  ignorant  and  ambitious  inventors  continue 
to  try  for  it.  As  early  as  the  year  1775,  the 
Parisian  Academy  of  Sciences  refused  to  re- 
ceive any  further  schemes  for  perpetual  motion, 
regarding  it  as  an  impossibility.  There  was  a 
time  when  the  perpetual  motion  problem  was 
worthy  the  attention  of  a  philosopher,  just  as 
there  was  a  time  when  a  man  might  have  been 
justified  in  doubting  whether  the  earth  was  a 
globe. 

Grangers,  or  Patrons  of  Husbandry,  as 
they  are  properly  called,  were  organized  De- 
cember 4,  1867,  by  Mr.  O.  H.  Kelley  and  Mr. 
William  M.  Saunders,  both  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  at  Washington.  Mr.  Kelley 
|  was  commissioned  by  President  Johnson,  in 
1860,  to  travel  through  the  Southern  States, 
and  report  upon  their  agricultural  and  mineral 
resources.  He  discovered  agriculture  in  a  state 
of  great  depression,  consequent  upon  the 
changes  made  by  the  Civil  War.  There  was 
also  at  the  time  serious  dissatisfaction  among 
the  farmery  of  the  West  and  Northwest  in  re- 
gard to  the  alleged  heavy  rate  and  unjust  dis- 
criminations made  by  railroad  companies  in 
their  transportation  of  farmers'  products.     It 


616 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


was  also  claimed  that  middle  men  exacted  ex- 
orbitant prices  for  agricultural  implements, 
etc.  Mr.  Kelley  concluded  that  an  association 
made  up  of  those  who  Were  dissatisfied  might 
be  organized  on  some  such  plan  as  the  Order 
of  Odd  Fellows  or  Masons.  He  and  Mr.  Saun- 
ders devised  a  plan  for  an  organization  to  be 
known  as  the  "Patrons  of  Husbandry,"  and 
its  branches  to  be  called  "Granges,"  and  on 
December  4,  1867,  the  National  Grange  was 
organized  at  Washington.  In  the  spring  of 
1868  granges  were  founded  at  Harrisburg,  Pa.  ; 
at  Fredonia,  N.  Y. ;  at  Columbus,  Ohio ;  at 
Chicago,  111.,  and  six  in  Minnesota.  The 
movement  became  very  popular,  and  they  were, 
in  a  few  years,  organized  in  nearly  every  state 
and  territory  in  the  Union.  The  order  has  its 
greatest  strength,  however,  in  the  Northwest- 
ern and  Western  States. 

Facts  Worth  Knowing. — Proper  ages 
of  reproduction  1,  length  of  power  of  repro- 
duction 2,  and  periods  of  gestation  3,  in 
domestic  animals : — 


1 

Horse 

Years. 

4 

Cow 

3 

Bull 

Sow 

1 

Ewe 

2 

4 

Goat 

2 

Slut 

2 

Dog 

Cat 

1 

Shortest.)  Mean.   [Longest. 


Years. 

12  to  15 

10  to  12 

10 

5 

6 

6 

6 

7 

12  to  15 

10  to  12 

5  to  6 

8  to    9 

8  to    9 

9  to  10 
5  to    6 


Days. 


287 
283 


146 


M6 

ion 

55 


Days. 


347 

321 


lie 

154 


380 
166 
60 


50 


Days. 


419 
340 


14a 
iei 


391 
163 
63 


& ; 


The  Longest  Rivers  in  the  World. 


Africa. 

Nile 3,895 

Niger 2,990 

Congo 2,700 

Zambezi 2,300 

Orange 1,152 

America  (North). 
Mississippi   and   Mis- 
souri  4,194 

St.  Lawrence 2,120 

Mackenzie 2,120 

Saskatchewan 1,918 

RioGrande  1.800 

Arkansas 1 ,514 

Columbia 1,383 

Ohio  and  Allegheny. . .  1 ,265 

Red  River 1,200 

Colorado 1.000 

America  (Sorm). 

Amazon 3,596 

Rio  Madeira        2,300 

Parana 2,211 

Rio  de  la  Plata 1,800 


name.  miles. 

America  (So.)— Cont. 

San  Francisco 1 ,613 

Rio  Negro 1,650 

Orinoco 1,500 

Asia. 

Yenisei 3,688 

H oang  Ho 2,812 

Lena 2,766 

Obi 2,674 

Amur 2,673 

Euphrates 2,005 

Ganges 1,844 

Indus 1,613 

Australasia. 

Murray 3,000 

Europe. 

Volga 2,351 

Danube 1,992 

Ural 1,099 

Don 1,088 

Dnieper 1,020 

Rhine  876 


Field   of  the   Cloth   of   Gold  was  so 

called  from  the   extravagance  and  display  at- 
tendant  upon    a  meeting   of    Henry  VIII.    of 


England  and  Francis  I.  of  France,  in  June, 
1530.  The  kings  met  in  the  field  near  the 
small  town  of  Ardres,  in  France,  which  was 
owned  by  England,  and  the  meeting  was  held 
by  the  request  of  Francis  I.,  who  desired  to 
gain  the  friendship  of  Henry  to  aid  him  in  his 
projects  for  curbing  the  power  of  his  great 
rival,  Charles  V.,  of  Germany.  The  cere- 
monial was  under  the  direction  of  Cardinal 
Wolsey,  and  the  nobility  of  France  and  Eng- 
land vied  with  each  other  in  the  gorgeous  deco- 
ration of  themselves,  their  banners  and  tents, 
and  their  retinues  of  followers. 

Historic  Minor  Political  Parties. — 
The  minor  American  parties  which  have  ap- 
peared and  disappeared  during  the  19th  century 
of  our  national  life  are  the  following:  Anti- 
Renters,  a  New  York  party  which  flourished 
about  1841.  They  resisted  the  collection  of 
back  rents  on  the  Van  Rensselaer  manor  near 
Albany.  They  had  strength  enough  to  defeat 
Wright,  the  regular  Democratic  candidate  for 
governor  of  New  York.  Barn-burners,  New- 
York,  1846,  seceders  from  the  Democratic 
party.  They  were  opposed  to  slavery  exten- 
sion. Bucltails,  New  York,  about  1815  ;  they 
supported  Madison.  Conservatives,  New  York 
and  some  other  states,  1837  ;  paper  money 
Democrats.  Doughfaces,  1820,  Northern  mem- 
bers of  Congress,  who  voted  in  favor  of  the  Mis- 
souri compromise.  Hunkers,  New  York,  a  fac- 
tion of  the  Democrats  favoring  the  South,  the 
Barn-burners  being  the  other  factor.  Kiunr. 
Nothings,  New  York,  1854,  opposed  to  natural- 
ization of  foreigners  unless  they  had  been 
twenty-one  years  in  the  country.  Loco-Focos, 
New  York,  1835  ;  a  branch  of  the  Democratic 
party.  Liberal  Republicans,  1872  ;  Republicans 
who  joined  with  the  Democrats  in  support  of 
Greeley  for  president.  Temperance ,  or  Pro- 
hibition, from  1830  down,  in  many  states  ;  in 
favor  of  preventing  or  restricting  the  sale  of 
liquors.  Woman's  Rights,  from  1860  down  ; 
those  who  favored  granting  to  women  the  right 
of  suffrage. 

Tax  on  Commercial  Travelers. —  The 
following  is  a  list  of  places  and  amount  of  tax- 
ation on  commercial  travelers:  Alabama, 
$15.50  per  year;  Arizona,  $200  per  year; 
Beaufort,  S.  C,  $10  per  visit;  Bennetrsville, 
S.  C,  $1  per  visit ;  Batesburg,  S.  C,  75  cents 
per  day  ;  Charleston,  S.  C,  $10  per  month  ; 
Cumberland,  Md.,  $1  per  day;  Delaware,  $25 
per  year  ;  Deadwood,  S.  D.,  $5  per  week  ;  Dar- 
lington, S.  C,  SI  ;  East  St.  Louis,  $2  per 
day  ;  Elkton,  Md.,  per  cent,  on  stock  carried  ; 
Florida,  $25  per  year;  Hartwell,  Ga.,  $5  per 
trip  ;  Johnston,  S.  C,  50  cents  per  day  ;  Lewis- 
town,  Idaho,  $5  per  trip;  Montana,  $100  per 
year  for   each  county;    Memphis,  Tenn.,  $10 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FlGtHES. 


617 


per  week  or  825  per  month  ;  Mobile,  Ala.,  $3 
per  day  or  §7  a  week  ;  Natchez,  Miss.,  25  cents 
per  day;  New  Orleans,  La.,  $50  per  year; 
Newport,  Ky.,  81  per  month  ;  North  Carolina, 
6100  per  year  :  Nevada,  §100  per  year  ;  Orange- 
burg, S.  C,  $2  per  day;  St.  Matthews,  S.  C, 
81  per  day ;  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  825  per 
quarter;  Texas,  835  a  year ;  Tucson,  Arizona, 
850  per  quarter  ;  Tombstone,  Arizona,  810  per 
day  ;  Virginia,  875  per  year;  Wilmington, 
N.  C,  83  per  day;  Washington,  D.  C,  8200 
per  year  ;  Walhalla,  S.  C,  81  per  day. 

Relative  Value  of  Different  Foods 
for  Stock. —  One  hundred  pounds  of  good 
hay  for  stock  are  equal  to  :  — 


Articles.  Pounds. 

Beets,  white  silesia 669 

Turnips 469 

R\  e  straw 429 

Clover,  red,  green 373 

Carrots 371 

Mangolds 368V2 

Potatoes,  kept  in  pit.  .350 

Oat  straw 317 

Potatoes 300 

Carrot  leaves  (tops) . . .  135 
Hay,  English .100 


Articles.  Pounds. 

Lucerne 89 

Clover,  red,  dry J-8 

Buckwheat 78lA 

Corn 62% 

Oats 59 

Barley 58 

toe.. 531/, 

Wheat iiy2 

Oil-cake,  linseed 43 

Pease,  dry 37V2 

Beans 28 


Colored  Troops  in  IT.  S.  Arniy  during 
the  War. 


Arkansas 

Alabama 

Connecticut   

Colorado  Territory.. 

Delaware 

Dist.  of  Columbia.. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Iowa 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan  

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Minnesota 


5,526 

4.969 

1,764 

95 

954 

3.2(>J 

1,044* 

3,486 

440 

1.5*7 

1.811 

2,080 

23  703 

24.052 

8,718 

3,966 

1,387 

17.869 

8,344 

104 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 

New  York 

New  Jersey 

North  Carolina 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode"  Island 

South  Carolina 

Texas 

Tennessee 

Vermont 

Virginia 

"West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

At  large 

Not  accounted  lor . . 
Officers 


104 

125 

4,125 

1,185 

5,035 

5,092 

8,612 

1,837 

5,462 

47 

20,133 

120 

5,723 

196 

155 

733 

5,083 

7,122 


Total 186,017 


Amount  of  Oil  in  Seeds. 


Kinds  of  Seed.       Per  cent.  Oil. 

Oats GK2 

Clover  hay 5 

Wheat  bran 4 

Oat  straw 4 

Meadow  hay 3% 

Wheat  straw 3 

"Wheat  flour 3 

Barley 21.', 


Kinds  of  Seed.       Per  cent.  Oil. 

Rai>c  seed 55 

Sweet  almond 47 

Turnip  seed 45 

White  mustard 37 

Bitter  almond ::7 

Hemp  seed 19 

Linseed 17 

Indian  corn 7 

Acetylene. — A  substance  composed  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen  and  of  remarkable  powers. 
It  is  produced  in  large  quantities  from  carbide 
of  calcium,  a  product  of  the  electric  furnace. 
When  water  is  thrown  on  this  substance  it 
gives  off  acetylene  gas.  It  was  found  about 
1895,  that  this  gas,  when  burned  in  a  suit- 
able burner,  would  give  the  brightest  light  of 
any  known  gas.  When  placed  under  strong 
pressure  acetylene  becomes  a  liquid. 

About  Ships.  —  Speed  and  Distance. 
The   rapidity  with  which   a   rapid   sailing 


propelling  steamer  travels  is  ascertained  by  the 
number  of  revolutions  or  movements  made  per 
minute  in  certain  portions  of  the  machinery. 
It  is  also  learned  by  the  dropping  of  an  object 
attached  to  a  line  into  the  water  at  the  side  of 
the  stern  of  the  vessel,  which,  remaining  nearly 
stationary,  allows  the  operator  to  know  the 
speed  by  the  number  of  knots  which  the  line 
runs  out  in  a  certain  number  of  seconds.  The 
drop  line,  called  the  log  line,  contains  a  small 
string  tied  into  a  knot  at  a  distance  of  every 
47 feet  and  3  inches  ;  hence  the  name  "knot." 

Steamship  Names. —  The  bow  is  the  ex- 
treme forward  part  of  the  ship.  The  stern  is 
the  after  part.  Forward  is  the  forepart  of  the 
vessel.  Aft  is  the  rear  part.  Amidships  is 
the  central  part  of  the  vessel.  Starboard  is 
the  right  side  of  the  ship,  looking  forward. 
Port,  the  left  side.  The  Index  Guide  gives 
the  following  description  of  sails,  namely : 
The  masts  are  the  fore  mast,  main  mast, 
and  mizzen  mast.  The  parts  of  the  masts  are 
the  fore  mast,  fore-top  mast,  fore-topgallant 
mast,  fore-royal  mast,  and  similarly  for  the 
other  masts  ;  thus,  main  mast,  main-top  mast, 
mizzen-top  mast,  etc.  Booms  are  round, 
heavy  wooden  spars  to  which  the  sails  are  at- 
tached —  the  jib-boom  extending  from  the 
bowsprit,  the  flying  jib-boom  being  attached 
to,  but  extending  beyond,  the  jib-boom.  The 
main  and  mizzen  booms  are  attached  to  the 
main  and  mizzen  masts,  the  spanker  boom  ex- 
tends aft  from  the  mizzen  mast.  Yards  are 
strong,  horizontal,  wooden  spars,  extending 
crosswise  the  ship,  to  which  the  sails  are  at- 
tached along  up  the  masts.  The  principal 
sails  are  the  jib  and  flying  jib,  long  triangular 
sails  extending  from  the  fore-mast  to  the  jib- 
booms,  and  along  the  masts  upward  from  the 
deck  to  the  try-sail,  the  fore-course  or  fore- 
sail, or  fore-top  sail,  fore-topgallant  sail,  fore- 
royal  sail,  fore-sky  sail,  and  similarly  for  each 
of  the  other  masts;  thus,  main  try-sail,  main 
sail,  main  top-sail,  mizzen  top-sail,  etc.,  and 
spanker,  the  stern  most  sail,  extendingfrom  the 
spanker  boom  to  the  gaff.  The  ensign  or  ship's 
colors  are  attached  to  the  gaff.  Shrouds  are 
the  ropes  used  to  sustain  the  masts  and  extend 
from  the  fore-top  to  the  sides  of  the  ship  (the 
rope  ladders).  The  other  ropes  used  as  sup- 
ports to  the  masts  are  designated  stays,  and 
are  named  from  that  part  of  the  mast  to  which 
they  are  attached,  as  fore-stay,  mizzen-stay, 
fore  royal-stay,  mizzen-topgallant-stay,  etc. 
The  jib-boom,  flying  jib-boom,  and  several  of 
the  sails  here  mentioned,  are  not  required  and 
are  not  used  on  the  large  modern  steamers. 

Hero  and  Leander. — Hero  was  a  priest- 
ess of  Venus.  Leander  was  a  youth  of  Abydos, 
a  famous  city  on  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  strait 


618 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


of  the  Hellespont,  nearly  opposite  the  city 
Sestos,  on  the  European  coast.  At  a  festival 
of  Venus  and  Adonis,  held  at  Sestos,  Hero  and 
Leander  first  saw  each  other,  and  were  immedi- 
ately inspired  with  a  mutual  passion ;  but 
Hero's  office  as  a  priestess  and  the  opposition 
of  her  parents  stood  in  the  way  of  their  union. 
Undaunted  by  these  obstacles,  Leander  every 
night  swam  across  the  Hellespont  to  visit  his 
beloved,  who  directed  his  course  by  holding  a 
burning  torch  from  the  top  of  a  tower  on  the 
seashore.  After  many  meetings  Leander  was 
drowned  on  a  tempestuous  night,  and  his  body 
was  cast  up  at  the  foot  of  the  tower  where 
Hero  stood  expecting  him.  Heartbroken  at 
the  sight,  she  flung  herself  from  the  tower 
into  the  sea,  and  passed  with  her  lover  into  the 
immortality  of  art  and  song. 

Popular  Names  of  Cities. — The  nick- 
names given  to  the  various  prominent  cities  in 
the  United  States  are  as  follows:  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  City  of  Churches;  Boston,  Hub  of  the 
Universe;  Baltimore,  Monumental  City  ;  Buf- 
falo, Queen  City  of  the  Lakes  ;  Chicago,  Gar- 
den City;  Cincinnati,  Queen  City;  Cleveland, 
Forest  City ;  Detroit,  City  of  the  Straits ; 
Hannibal,  Bluff  City ;  Indianapolis,  Railroad 
City;  Keokuk,  Gate  City;  Louisville,  Falls 
City ;  Lowell,  City  of  Spindles  ;  New  York, 
Gotham,  Empire  City;  New  Orleans,  Crescent 
City;  Nashville,  City  of  Rocks;  New  Haven, 
City  of  Elms  ;  Philadelphia,  Quaker  City, 
City  of  Brotherly  Love  ;  Pittsburg,  Iron  City  ; 
Portland,  Me.,  Forest  City;  Rochester,  Flour 
City  ;  St.  Louis,  Mound  City  ;  Springfield,  111., 
Flower  City;  Washington,  D.  C,  City  of 
Magnificent  Distances. 

Principal  Exports  of  Various  Coun- 
tries.—  Arabia. —  Coffee,  aloes,  myrrh, 
frankincense,  gum  arabic. 

Belgium — Grain,  flax,  hops,  woolens,  lin- 
ens, laces,  various  manufactures. 

Brazil Cotton,    sugar,    coffee,    tobacco,  ! 

gold,  diamonds,  wheat,  and  dye-goods. 

Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New  Bruns- 
wick.—  Flour,  furs,  lumber,  fish. 

Cape  Colony. —  Brandy,  wine,  ostrich 
feathers,  hides,  tallow. 

Central  America Logwood,  mahogany, 

indigo,  cocoa. 

Chile. —  Silver,  gold,  copper,  wheat,  hemp, 
hides,  sugar,  cotton,  fruits. 

China. —  Tea,  silks,  nankeens,  porcelain, 
opium,  articles  of  ivory  and  pearl. 

Denmark. —  Grain,  horses,  cattle,  beef, 
pork,  butter,  cheese. 

Eastern,  Western,  and  Southern- 
Africa. —  Gold,  ivory,  ostrich  feathers. 

Egypt. —  Rice,  grain,  linseed,  fruits,  in- 
digo, cotton,  sugar. 


Ecuador  and  Colombia — Coffee,  cotton, 
indigo,  cocoa,  fruits,  sugar. 

France.  —  Silks,  woolens,  linens,  cotton, 
wine,  brandy,  porcelain,  toys. 

GERMANY. —  Linen,  grain,  various  manu- 
factures of  silver,  copper,  etc. 

Great  Britain. —  Woolens,  cottons,  linens, 
hardware,  porcelain,  etc. 

Greenland — Whale  oil,  whalebone,  seal 
skins. 

Hindoostan — Cotton,  silks,  rice,  sugar, 
coffee,  opium,  indigo. 

Holland* —  Fine  linens,  woolens,  butter, 
cheese,  various  manufactures. 

Italy. —  Silks,  wine,  oil,  grain,  fruits. 

Ireland. —  Linens,  beef,  butter,  tallow, 
hides,  potatoes,  barley. 

Japan — Silk  and  cotton  goods,  japanware, 
porcelain. 

Mexico. —  Gold,  silver,  logwood,  cochineal, 
fruits. 

Persia. —  Carpets,  shawls,  wine,  silk,  cot- 
ton, rice,  rhubarb,  guns,  swords,  etc. 

Peru Silver,  gold,  Peruvian  bark,  mer- 
cury, sugar,  cotton,  fruits. 

Russia —  Hemp,  iron,  linen,  grain,  timber, 
furs,  tallow,  platina. 

Spain  and  Portugal. —  Silks,  wool,  wine, 
oil,  fruits,  salt. 

Sweden  and  Norway — Iron,  steel,  cop- 
per, timber,  fish. 

Switzerland. — -Watches,  jewelry,  paper, 
laces,  linen,  cotton,  and  silk  goods,  etc. 

Turkey. —  Grain,  fruits,  cotton,  oil,  wines, 
carpets,  mnslin,  swords. 

United  States  : — 

Eastern  States. —  Lumber,  beef,  pork, 

fish,  cottons,  woolens,  etc. 

Middle  States. — Flour,  wheat, salt,  coal, 

cottons,  woolens. 

Southern    States. — Cotton,    rice,    to- 
bacco, corn,  lumber,  pitch,  fruits. 

Western    States. —  Corn,  wheat,  lead, 

coal,  iron,  salt,  lime,  beef,  pork. 

Venezuela. —  Sugar,  coffee,  cocoa,  cotton, 
indigo,  fruits. 

Wf.st  Indies. —  Sugar,  rum,  molasses,  cof- 
fee, spice,  cotton,  indigo,  fruits. 

What  Dynamite  is  and  How  it  is 
Made. — Few  people  know  what  dynamite  is, 
though  the  word  is  in  common  use.  It  is  a 
giant  gunpowder;  that  is,  an  explosive  mate- 
rial, varying  in  strength  and  safety  of  han- 
dling according  to  the  percentage  of  nitro-gl yc- 
erine  it  contains.  Nitro-glycerine,  whence  it 
derives  its  strength,  is  composed  of  ordinary 
glycerine  and  nitric  acid,  compounded  together 
in  certain  proportions  and  at  a  certain  temper- 
ature. Nitro-glycerine,  though  not  the  strong- 
est explosive  known,  being  exceeded  in  power 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


G19 


by  nitrogen  and  other  products  of  chemistry, 
is  thus  far  the  most  terrible  explosive  manu- 
factured to  any  extent.  Nitro-glycerine  by 
itself  is  not  safe  to  handle,  hence  dynamite  is 
preferred.  It  is  extensively  made  and  consumed 
in  the  United  States  under  the  various  names  of 
Giant,  Hercuks,  Jupiter,  and  Atlas  powders, 
all  of  which  contain  anywhere  from  thirty  to 
eighty  per  cent,  of  nitro-glycerine,  the  residue 
of  the  compound  being  made  up  of  rotten 
stone,  non-explosive  earth,  sawdust,  charcoal, 
plaster  of  paris,  black  powder,  or  some  other 
substance  that  takes  up  the  glycerine  and 
makes  a  porous,  spongy  mass. 

Xitro-glycerine  was  discovered  by  Salvero, 
an  Italian  chemist,  in  1815.  Dynamite  is  pre- 
pared by  simply  kneading  with  the  naked 
hands  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  infusorial  earth 
and  seventy-five  per  cent,  of  nitro-glycerine 
until  the  mixture  assumes  a  putty  condition, 
not  unlike  moist  brown  sugar.  Before  mix- 
ing, the  infusorial  earth  is  calcined  in  a  fur- 
nace, in  order  to  burn  out  all  organic  matter, 
and  it  is  also  sifted  to  free  it  of  large  grains. 
While  still  moist  it  is  squeezed  into  cartridges, 
which  are  prepared  of  parchment  paper,  and 
the  firing  is  done  by  fulminate  of  silver  in  cop- 
per capsules  provided  with  patent  exploders. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  made  of  nitric  acid  one 
part  and  sulphuric  acid  two  parts,  to  which  is 
added  ordinary  glycerine,  and  the  mixture  is 
well  washed  with  pure  water.  The  infusion 
is  composed  of  small  microscopic  silicious 
shells  which  have  lost  their  living  creatures. 
The  cellular  parts  receive  the  nitro-glycerine 
and  hold  it  by  capillary  attraction,  both  in- 
side and  out.  The  earth  is  very  light.  Water 
is  expelled  from  it  by  means  of  a  furnace,  and 
then,  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  it  is  mixed 
with  nitro-glycerine.  Nitro-glycerine  has  a 
sweet,  aromatic,  pungent  taste,  and  the  pecul- 
iar property  of  causing  a  violent  headache 
when  placed  in  a  small  quantity  on  the  tongue 
or  wrist.  It  freezes  at  40  degrees  Fahrenheit, 
becoming  a  white,  half  eiystallized  mass,  which 
must  be  melted  by  the  application  of  water  at 
a  temperature  about   100  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Confederate  Soldiers  Surrendered 
at  end  of  War. — Army  of  Northern  Virginia, 
27,805;  army  of  Tennessee,  31,243  ;  army  of 
Missouri,  7,978  ;  army  of  Alabama,  42,293  ; 
army  of  Trans-Mississippi,  17,086  ;  at  Nash- 
ville and  Chattanooga,  5,029  ;  paroled  in  De- 
partments of  Virginia,  Cumberland,  Maryland, 
Alabama,  Florida,  Tennessee,  Texas,  etc.,  42,- 
189;  Confederate  prisoners  in  Northern  pris- 
ons at  the  close  of  the  war,  98,802  ;  total  Con- 
federate army  at  close,  273,025.  A  large  and 
unknown  number  of  Confederate  soldiers  were 
not  present  at  surrender. 


Costly  Mansion. — The  largest  and  cost- 
liest private  mansion  in  the  world  is  that  be- 
longing to  Lord  Bute,  called  Montstuart,  and 
situated  near  Rothesay,  England.  It  covers 
nearly  two  acres  ;  is  built  in  Gothic  style  ;  the 
walls,  turrets,  and  balconies  are  built  of  stone. 
The  immense  tower  in  the  center  of  the  build- 
ing is  120  feet  high,  with  a  balcony  around 
the  top.  The  halls  are  constructed  entirely  of 
marble  and  alabaster,  and  the  rooms  are  fin- 
ished in  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  walnut. 
The  fireplaces  are  all  carved  marbles  of  antique 
designs.  The  exact  cost  of  this  fairy  palace  is 
not  known,  but  it  has  never  been  estimated  at 
less  than  $8,000,000. 

Age  and  Growth  of  Trees. —  An  oak 
tree  in  three  years  grows  2  feet  10£  inches. 
A  larch  3  feet  7£  inches ;  at  seventy  years  it 
is  full  grown,  and  a  tree  of  seventy-nine  years 
was  102  feet,  high  and  12  feet  girth,  contain- 
ing 253  cubic  feet.  Another  of  eighty  years 
was  90  feet  and  17  feet,  and  300  cubic  feet. 
An  elm  tree  in  three  }*ears  grows  8  feet  3 
inches.  A  beech,  1  foot  8  inches.  A  poplar, 
6  feet.  A  willow,  9  feet  3  inches.  An  elm 
is  fully  grown  in  150  years,  and  it  lives  500  or 
GOO.  Ash  is  full  grown  in  100,  and  oak  in 
200.  The  mahogany  is  full  grown  in  200  years 
to  a  vast  size.  A  Polish  oak  40  feet  round  had 
600  circles.  An  oak  in  Dorsetshire  in  1755 
was  68  feet  round,  two  near  Cranborne  Lodge 
are  38  feet  and  36  feet.  There  are  yews  from 
10  to  20  feet  in  diameter,  whose  age  is  from 
1,000  to  2,000  years.  A  lime  in  the  Crisons 
is  51  feet  round  and  about  600  years  old.  An 
elm  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud  is  18  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  360  years  old.  The  African  baobab 
is  the  patriarch  of  living  organizations ;  one 
specimen,  by  its  circles,  is  estimated  at  5,700 
years  old  by  Adamson  and  Humboldt.  The 
trunk  is  but  12  or  15  feet  to  the  branches,  and 
often  75  feet  round.  A  cypress  in  Mexico  is 
120  feet  round,  and  is  estimated  by  De  Can- 
dolle  to  be  older  than  Adamson' s  baobab.  The 
cypress  of  Montezuma  is  41  feetround.  Strabo 
wrote  of  a  cypress  in  Persia  as  being  2,500 
years  old.  The  largest  tree  in  Mexico  is  127 
feet  round  and  120  high,  with  branches  of 
30  feet.  A  chestnut  tree  on  Mount  Etna  is  106 
feetround  close  to  the  ground,  and  five  of  its 
branches  resemble  great  trees.  De  Candolle  says 
there  are  oaks  in  France  1 ,500  years  old.  The 
Wallace  oak  near  Paisley  is  nearly  800  years 
old.  The  yew  trees  at  Fountain's  Abbey  are 
about  1,200  vears  old.  That  at  Crowlmrst 
1,500.  That  at  Fortingal,  above  2,000.  That 
at  Braburn,  2,500  to  3,000.  Ivies  reach  500  or 
600  years.  The  larch  the  same.  The  lime  600 
or  700  years.  The  trunk  of  a  walnut  tree  12 
feet  in  diameter,  hollowed  out,  and  furnished 


620 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


as  a  sitting  room,  was  imported  from  America 
and  exhibited  in  London.  The  trunk  was  80 
feet  high  without  a  branch,  and  the  entire 
height  150  feet,  the  bark  12  inches  thick,  and 
the  branches  from  3  to  4  feet  in  diameter. 
The  California  pine  is  from  150  to  200  feet 
high,  and  from  20  to  60  feet  in  diameter.  The 
forests  in  watered,  tropical  countries  are  formed 
of  trees  from  100  to  200  feet  high,  which  gi-ow 
to  the  water's  edge  of  rivers,  presenting  a  solid 
and  impenetrable  barrier  of  trunks  10  or 
12  feet  in  diameter.  The  dragon  tree  is  in  girth 
from  40  to  100  feet,  and  50  or  60  feet  high, 
and  a  mimosa  in  South  America  is  described 
whose  head  is  600  feet  round. 

Mount  Etna  and  Its  Eruptions. — 
Mount  Etna  is  a  volcano  of  Sicily,  and  has 
been  active  from  the  earliest  times.  The  an- 
cients had  a  fable  that  beneath  the  mountain 
was  buried  a  mighty  giant,  Enceladus,  whom 
Jove  had  hurled  from  heaven  for  rebellion,  and 
pinned  to  earth  by  tossing  a  mountain  upon 
him.  The  flames  were  the  breath  of  the  im- 
prisoned monster,  the  loud  noises  his  groans, 
and  earthquakes  were  caused  by  his  efforts  to 
turn  over  his  enormous  body.  The  first  re- 
corded eruption  of  Etna  occurred  before  the 
supposed  date  of  the  Trojan  war,  but  its  ex- 
act time  is  not  known.  Thucydides,  the  his- 
torian, next  records  three  eruptions  —  one  in 
the  year  475  B.  C,  one  in  425,  and  the  third 
at  an  earlier  date  not  specified.  Since  those 
there  have  been,  down  to  the  present  time, 
seventy-eight  outbreaks,  many  of  them  harm- 
less. Among  the  most  remarkable  of  the 
great  eruptions  were  that  of  1168  A.  D.,  when 
Catania  and  15,000  of  its  inhabitants  were 
destroyed  ;  that  of  1527,  in  which  two  villages 
were  destroyed  and  many  human  beings  per- 
ished ;  and  two  eruptions  of  1669,  in  which  15 
villages  were  destroyed.  Many  fissures  in  the 
earth  were  made  at  this  time — one  twelve  miles 
long,  which  emitted  a  most  vivid  light.  After- 
ward five  other  fissures  opened,  from  which 
came  smoke  and  loud  noises.  The  city  of 
Catania,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain,  had 
built  a  wall  sixty  feet  high  on  that  side  to  pro- 
tect it,  but  the  lava  rose  until  it  overflowed  the 
wall  and  poured  a  current  of  liquid  fire  into 
the  houses.  This  current  flowed  onward  until 
it  reached  the  sea,  15  miles  distant.  It  was 
600  yards  wide  and  40  feet  deep.  Entering 
the  sea,  the  water  was  thrown  into  violent 
commotion,  the  noise  of  its  agitation  was  as 
loud  as  thunder,  and  clouds  of  steam  darkened 
the  air  for  many  hours.  The  eruption  of  1756 
was  remarkable  for  an  inundation  caused  by 
the  flow  of  the  hot  lava  over  the  snow  that 
covered  the  mountain.  It  was  imagined  at  the 
time  that  the  water  was  thrown  out   of  the 


crater.  A  great  eruption  took  place  in  1852, 
immense  clouds  of  ashes  being  ejected.  From 
two  new  openings  on  the  east  vast  torrents  of 
lava  poured  out,  -one  of  which  was  two  miles 
broad,  and  in  part  of  its  course  170  feet  deep. 
The  outbreak  of  May,  1870,  was  violent,  the 
clouds  of  smoke  and  showers  of  ashes  being 
followed  by  the  ejection  of  a  stream  of  lava 
200  feet  wide,  which  desolated  large  tracts  of 
cultivated  land.  There  were  also  eruptions  in 
1883  and  1886,  but  both  subsided  before  any 
great  damage  had  been  caused.  Mount  Etna 
is  now  10,868  feet  high.  It  is  known  that 
frequent  eruptions  have  broken  off  large  parts 
of  the  upper  portion  of  the  mountain.  Its 
surface  is  divided  into  three  distinct  regions. 
The  lowest  is  that  of  fertile  land,  producing 
fruit  and  grain,  which  extends  2,000  feet  from 
the  base  up  the  mountain  side,  with  a  circum- 
ference of  92  miles.  Above  this  is  a  strip 
nearly  4,300  feet  wide,  covered  with  large 
forests,  above  which  to  the  mountain  top  there 
is  only  a  dreary  waste  of  ashes  and  hardened 
lava.  In  spite  of  its  tragic  history,  the  sides 
of  the  mountain  have  a  population  of  over 
300,000  people  in  63  small  villages  and  2  large 
cities. 

Postage  Stamps,  Language  of. —  Of 
\  late  years  the  postage  stamp  has  been  in- 
|  vested  with  a  language  of  its  own.  When  a 
stamp  is  inverted  on  the  right-hand  upper  cor- 
ner, it  means  the  person  written  to  is  to  write 
no  more.  If  the  stamp  be  placed  on  the  left- 
hand  upper  corner,  inverted,  then  the  writer 
declares  his  affection  for  the  receiver  of  the 
letter.  When  the  stamp  is  in  the  center  at  the 
top  it  signifies  an  affirmative  answer  to  a  ques- 
tion or  the  questions,  as  the  case  may  be  ;  and 
when  it  is  at  the  bottom,  it  is  a  negative. 
Should  the  stamp  be  on  the  right-hand  corner, 
at  a  right  angle,  it  asks  the  question  if  the  re- 
ceiver of  the  letter  loves  the  sender  ;  while  in 
the  left-hand  corner  means  that  the  writer 
hates  the  other.  There  is  a  shade  of  difference 
between  desiring  one's  acquaintance  and  friend- 
ship. For  example :  the  stamp  at  the  upper 
corner  at  the  right  expresses  the  former,  and  on 
the  lower  left-hand  corner  means  the  latter. 
The  stamp  on  a  line  with  the  surname  is  an 
offer  of  love  ;  in  the  same  place,  only  reversed, 
signifies  that  the  writer  is  engaged.  To  say 
farewell,  the  stamp  is  placed  straight  up  and 
down  in  the  left-hand  corner. 

Fabian  Policy. — The  policy  of  wearing 
out  the  enemy  in  war  by  delays,  misleading 
movements,  feints  of  attack,  etc.,  while  avoid- 
ing open  battle,  is  called  the  '<  Fabian  policy  " 
from  the  following  circumstance  :  Fabius  Max- 
imus  was  a  Roman  General  in  the  second  Pu- 
nic War.     Having  been  appointed   just  after 


MISCELLANEOUS  PACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


621 


the  Roman  army  had  suffered  severe  defeat  at 
Lake  Thrasyniene,  he  perceived  that  his  dis- 
heartened troops  and  hands  of  raw  recruits 
could  not  oppose  successfully  a  trained  army 
flushed  with  victory  and  led  by  their  great 
commander  Hannibal.  He  therefore  avoided 
pitched  battles,  moved  his  camp  from  highland 
to  highland,  and  tired  out  the  enemy  with 
.  marches  and  counter-marches.  This  he  con- 
tinued until  thwarted  in  his  calculations  by 
the  impatience  of  the  Roman  Senate. 

Character  l.y  the  Month. — Here  is  an 
old  astrological  prediction,  said  to  indicate, 
with  tolerable  certainty,  the  character  of  the 
girl  according  to  the  month  she  happens  to  be 
born  in. 

If  a  girl  is  born  in  January,  she  will  be  a 
prudent  housewife,  given  to  melancholy,  but 
good-tempered. 

If  in  February,  a  humane  and  affectionate 
wife  and  tender  mother. 

If  in  March,  a  frivolous  chatterbox,  some- 
what given  to  quarreling. 

If  in  April,  inconstant,  not  intelligent,  but 
likely  to  be  good-looking. 

If  in  May,  handsome  and  likely  to  be  happy. 

If  in  June,  impetuous,  will  marry  early,  and 
be  frivolous. 

If  in  July,  passably  handsome,  but  with  a 
sulky  temper. 

If  in  August,  amiable  and  practical,  and 
likely  to  many  rich. 

If  in  September,  discreet,  affable,  and  much 
liked. 

If  in  October,  pretty  and  coquettish,  and 
likely  to  be  unhappy. 

If  in  November,  liberal,  kind,  of  a  mild  dis- 
position. 

If  in  December,  well  proportioned,  fond  of 
novelty,  and  extravagant. 

The  World's  Principal  Tin  Mines. 
—  Pure  tin  is  an  elementary  metal,  as  much  so 
as  lead,  iron,  silver,  or  gold.  The  principal 
tin-producing  country  is  England.  The  Phoeni- 
cians traded  with  England  for  tin  1,100  years 
before  the  Christian  era.  There  is  reason  to 
believe  that  they  got  tin  from  Spain  also  ;  but 
England  was  depended  on  for  nearly  all  the 
tin  used  in  Europe  until  this  ore  was  discovered 
in  Germany  in  1210.  It  was  discovered  in 
Northern  Africa  in  the  Barbary  States  in 
1840,  in  India  in  1740,  in  New  Spain  in  1782. 
Tin  was  mined  in  Mexico  before  the  Spanish 
conquest,  and  used  in  T  shaped  pieces  for 
money,  and  in  a  bronze  composition  for  sharp 
tools,  the  principal  mines  being  at  Tasco. 
Peru  has  valuable  mines  of  this  metal,  so  have 
New  South  Wales,  Australia,  and  Banca,  and 
Malacca  in  the  Malay  peninsula.  Tin  has  been 
discovered  in  Pennsylvania,  Missouri,  Califor- 


nia, Dakota,  and  other  states  of  the  Union,  but 
not  in  quantities  to  tempt  capital  to  engage  in 
mining  it,  with  the  exception  of  Dakota,  where 
the  Illinois  Steel  Mill  Company  has  large  in- 
terests. The  chief  tin-producing  countries  are 
the  following,  arranged  in  the  order  of  im- 
portance :  England,  about  10,000  tons  a  year  ; 
Malacca,  about  8,500  tons  ;  Australia,  about 
6,000  tons;  Banca,  about  4,000  tons;  and 
Billiton,  about  3,000  tons.  Both  of  these  last 
named  places  are  islands  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies. 

St.  Valentine's  Day. —  The  custom  of 
sending  valentines  jean,  without  doubt,  be 
traced,  in  origin,  to  a  practice  among  the  an- 
cient Romans.  At  the  feast  of  the  Lupercalia, 
which  was  held  on  the  loth  of  February,  in 
honor  of  the  great  god  Pan,  the  names  of  all 
the  virgin  daughters  of  Rome  were  put  in  a 
box  and  drawn  therefrom  by  the  young  men, 
and  each  youth  was  bound  to  offer  a  gift  to  the 
maiden  who  fell  to  his  lot,  and  to  make  her 
his  partner  during  the  time  of  the  feast.  This 
custom  became  allied  to  the  name  of  St.  Val- 
entine, probably,  only  through  a  coincidence 
in  dates.  St.  Valentine  was  a  bishop  of  Rome 
during  the  third  century.  He  was  of  most 
amiable  nature,  and  possessed  remarkable  gifts 
of  eloquence,  and  was  so  very  successful  in  con- 
verting the  pagan  Romans  to  Christianity  that 
he  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  Emperor, 
and  was  martyred  by  his  order  February  1 4 , 
A.  D.  270.  When  the  saint  came  to  be  placed 
in  the  calendar,  his  name  was  given  to  the  day 
of  his  death,  and  this  was  made  a  festival,  to 
offset  that  of  the  Lupercalia,  and  an  effort  was 
made  to  substitute  the  names  of  saints  for  those 
of  girls  in  the  lottery,  but  naturally  without 
success.  Many  other  customs  of  mediaeval  and 
later  times,  which  have  become  allied  in  name 
to  a  holy  saint  of  the  church,  are  unquestion- 
ablv  of  purelv  secular,  even  pagan,  origin. 

Royal  Household.  —  In  all  mediaeval 
monarchies  of  western  Europe  the  -general 
system  of  government  sprang  from,  and  cen- 
tered in,  the  royal  household.  The  sovereign's 
domestics  were  his  officers  of  state,  and  the 
leading  dignitaries  of  the  palace  were  the 
principal  administrators  of  the  kingdom.  The 
royal  household  itself  had,  in  its  turn,  grown 
out  of  an  earlier  and  more  primitive  institu- 
tion. It  took  its  rise  in  the  comitatus,  described 
by  Tacitus,  the  chosen  band  of  comites  or  com- 
panions who,  when  the  Roman  historian  wrote, 
constituted  the  personal  following,  in  peace  as 
well  as  in  war,  of  the  Teutonic  princeps  or 
chieftain.  In  England  before  the  conquest  the 
comites  were  called  thegns.  After  the  conquest 
the  most  powerful  of  the  king's  thegns  became 
officers  of  the  royal  household  by  heredity. 


622 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


The  Stage. 

BIRTHPLACES  AND  BIRTH    YEARS  OF  DRAMATIC  AND  MUSICAL  PEOPLE. 


Name. 


Adams,  Maude 
Albani,  Emma 

Aldrich,  Louis 

Alexander,  George.. 

Anderson,  Mary 

Archer,  Belle..'. 

Arditi,Luigi 

Arthur,  Julia 

Bancroft,  Sir  S.  L 

Bancroft,  Lady 

Bandmann,  Daniel  E..   . 

Bangs,  Frank  C 

Barnabee,  II.  C 

Barrett,  Wilson 

Barron,  Charles 

Barry  more,  Maurice 

Bateman,  Isabel 

3ateman,  Kate 

Belasco,  David .- 

Bell.Digby 

Bellew,  Kyrle 

Bernhardt,  Sarah 

Bispham,  David 

Boniface,  George  C 

Booth,  Agnes 

Buchanan,  Virginia 

Burgess,  Neil 

Burroughs,  Marie 

Byron,  Oliver  Doud 

Calve,  Emma 

Cameron,  Beatrice 

Campbell,  Mrs.  Patrick. 

Carey,  Eleanor 

Cay  van,  Georgia 

Ch'anf  rau,  Mrs.  F.  M 

Clarke,  George 

Clarke,  John  S 

Claxton,  Kate 

Cody,  William  F 

Coghlan,  Rose 

Coquelin,  Behoit  C 

Crabtree,  Lotta 

Crane,  William  II 

Daly,  Augustin 

Daly,  Dan 

Damrosch,  Walter  J 

Daniels,  Frank 

D'Arville,  Camille 

De  Belleville,  Frederic. 

De  Merode,  Cleo 

De  Reszke,  Edouard 

De  Reszke,  Jean 

De  Wolfe,  Elsie 

Dickinson,  Anna 

Dixey ,  Henry  E 

Drew,  John 

Duse,  Eleanora 

Eames,  Emma  Hayden . . 

Earle,  Virginia. 

Ellsler,  Effle 

Ey tinge,  Rose , 

Fawcett,  Owen 

Florence,  Mrs.  W.  J. . .  . 

Fox,  Delia 

Frohman ,  Charges 

Frohman,  Daniel 

Germon,  Effie 

Gerster,  Etelka 

Gilbert,  Mrs.  G.  H 

Gillette,  William 

Goodwin,  Nat  C 

Hackett,  James  K 

Hading,  Jane 

Hainmerstein,  Oscar 

Harned,  Virginia 

Harrjgan,  Edward 

Harrison,  Maud 

Hauk,  Minnie 

Haworth,  Joseph  S 

Held,  Anna 

Herbert,  Victor 

Heron,  Bijou 

Hill,  Charles  liarton 

Billiard,  Robert  S 


Birthplace. 


Salt  Lake  City,  Utah. 

Chambly.  Canada 

Mid-ocean 

Heading,  England. . . 

Sacramento,  Cal 

Kaston,  Pa 

Piedmont,  Italy 

Canada 

England 

England 

Cassel,  Germany 

Alexandria,  V;i 

Portsmouth,  N.  Y... . 

Essex,  England 

Boston,  Mass 

India 

Cincinnati,  O 

Baltimore,  Md 

San  Francisco 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

London 

Paris 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

New  York  city 

Australia 

Cincinnati,  O 

Boston,  Mass 

San  Francisco 

Baltimore,  Md 

Aveyron,  France 

Troy;  N.Y 

London 

Chile,  S.  A 

Bath,  Me 

Philadelpia,  Pa 

Brooklyn,  N.Y 

Baltimore,  Md 

New  York  city 

Scott  County, Iowa.. . 
Peterboro,  England. 
Boulogne,  France. . . . 

New  York  city 

Leicester,  Mass 

North  Carolina 

Boston,  Mass 

Breslau,  Prussia 

Boston,  Mass 

Holland 

Belgium 

Paris 

Warsaw,  Poland 

Warsaw,  Poland 

New  York  city 

Philadelphia,  "Pa 

Boston,  Mass 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Vigevano,  Italy 

shanghai,  China 

New  York  city 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

London,  England 

New  Y'ork  city 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Sandusky,  O 

Sandusky,  O 

Augusta'.  Ga 

Kaschau,  Hungary..  . 
Rochdale,  England.. 

Hartford,  Ct 

Boston,  Mass 

Canada 

Marseilles,  France. . . 
Berlin,  German)  ...  . 

Boston,  Mass 

New  York  city 

England ' :. . 

New  Orleans.  La 

Providence,  R.I 

Paris 

Dublin,  Ireland 

New  York  city 

Dover,  England 

Brooklyn 


Born. 

Is72 
1851 
1843 
1858 
1859 
I860 
1822 
18G9 
1841 
1810 
1839 
1838 
1833 
1816 
1811 
1847 
1854 
1842 
1862 
1851 
1815 
1844 
1857 
1832 
1843 
1846 
1846 
1866 
1847 
1864 
1868 
1864 
1sY_> 
1858 
1837 
1840 
1825 
1848 
1S45 
1853 
1841 
1847 
1845 
1888 
1863 
1862 
1860 
1863 
1853 
1874 
1855 
1850 
istr, 
1842 
1859 
1853 
1861 
1868 
1873 
1858 
1837 
1838 
1816 
1871 
1858 
1850 
1845 
lsr,7 
1820 
1853 
1857 
1869 
1861 
1847 
1868 
1846 
1868 
1853 
1855 

is?:; 
1860 
1863 
1828 
1800 


Name. 


Holland,  E.M 

Hopper,  De  Wolf 

Hoyt,  Charles  II 

Irving,  Isabel 

Irving,  Sir  Henry 

Irwin,  May 

James,  Loins 

Jananschek,  Francesoa. 

Jefferson,  Joseph 

Jones,  Walter 

Karl,  Tom 

Kendal,  Mrs.  W.  II 

Keeley,  Mrs.  Robert 

Kelcey,  Herbert  H.  L. . . 
Kellogg,  Clara  Louise. . . 

Knowles,  Edwin  II 

Kopacsy ,  Julie 

Langtry,  Lily 

Le  Moyne,  W  J 

Maddem,  Minnie 

Maude,  Cyril 

Manstield,  Richard 

Man  tell,  Robert  B 

Marlowe,  Julia 

Martinot,  Sadie 

Melba,  Nellie 

Mitchell,  Maggie 

jModjeska,  Helena 

Mordaunt,  Frank 

Morgan,  Edward  J 

(Morris,  Clara 

Mounet-Sully 

Murphy,  Joseph 

(Nevada,  Emma 

Nilsson,  Christine 

Nordica,  Lillian 

Olcott,  Chauncey 

O'Neil,  James. . ." 

Paderewski,  Ignace  J... 

Palmer,  A.  M 

I  Pastor,  Tony 

Patti,  Adeliha 

PI ynipton,  Eben 

Ponisi,  Madame 

Powers,  James  T 

Rankin,  A.  McKee 

Reed,  Roland 

Rehan,  Ada 

Rhea,  Madame 

Robinson,  Frederick 

Robson,  Stuart 

Roze,  Marie 

Russell,  Annie 

Russell,  Lillian 

Russell,  Sol.  Smith 

Saleza,  Albert 

Salvini,  Tommaso 

Sanderson,  Sibyl 

Seabrooke,  Thomas  (J... 

Sembrich,  Marcella 

Skinner,  Otis 

Smith,  Mark 

Sorma,  Agnes 

Sothern,  Edward  11 

Stanhope,  A  delaide 

Stanley,  Alma  Stuart. .. 

Stevenson,  Charles  A 

Stoddart,  J.  |H 

Studley,  John  B 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthur 

Tearle,  Osmond 

Terry,  Ellen 

Thompson,  Denman 

Thompson,  Lydia 

Thursby,  Emma 

Toole,  John  L 

Tree,  Beerbohm 

Van  Dyck,  Ernest 

Vezin,  Hermann 

Walsh,  Blanche 

Warde,  Frederick 

Wilson,  Francis 

Willard,  E.  S 

Wyndharn,  Charles 


Biktiu'i.a<  i:.  Born. 

N  e  w  V ork  city  .  .7 ...  1848 

New  York  city 1862 

Concord,  N.  H 1860 

Bridgeport,  Conn Is70 

Keinton,  England 1888 

Toronto,  Canada  1862 

Tremont,  111 1842 

Plague,  Austria 1880 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1829 

Springfield,  o 1871 

Dublin,  Ireland 1849 

Lincolnshire,  England. .  1848 

Ipswich,  England 1806 

London,  England 1855 

Sumpterville,  S.  C 1H42 

Rhode  Island 1845 

Hungary 1871 

St.  Helens,  Jersey  (Eng.  i  1  sr.i 

Boston,  Mass 1835 

New  Orleans,  La 1865 

London 1862 

Heligoland,  Germany...  1857 

Ayrshire,  Scotland..'.. ..  1>T>4 

Caldbeck,  England 1865 

Yonkers,  N.Y is;,; 

Melbourne 1866 

New  York  city 1832 

Cracow,  Poland 1814 

Burlington,  Vt i  1841 

Barnes,  Surrey,  Eng l s;  l 

Cleveland,  O ls-a; 

France 1841 

Brooklyn ,  N.  Y 1838 

San  Francisco,  Cal 1857 

Wederslof ,  Sweden 1843 

Farinington,  Me 1858 

Providence,  R.  1 1862 

Ireland 1849 

Poland i860 

North  Stonington,  Ct...  1838 

New  York  city 1837 

Madrid 1848 

Boston,  Mass ls50 

Huddersrield,  England..  1825 

New  V ork  city 1862 

Sandwich,  Canada 1844 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1852 

Limerick,  Ireland i860 

Brussels 1855 

London,  England 1832 

Annapolis,  Md 1836 

Paris 1846 

New  Y'ork  city 1864 

Clinton,  Iowa 1860 

Brunswick,  Mo 1848 

Bruges,  France 1807 

Milan,  Italy 1830 

Sacramento,  Cal is»;n 

Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y 1860 

Lemberg.  Austria 1858 

Cambridgeport,  Mass...  1857 

Mobile,  Ala I860 

Germanv 1865 

England 1864 

Paris,  France 1858 

Jersev,  England i860 

Dublin.  Ireland 1842 

Yorkshire,  England 1827 

Boston,  Mass 1888 

London 1842 

Plymouth.  England 1852 

Coventv.  England 1848 

<i  hard.' Pa 1833 

London,  England :  1838 

Brooklyn.  \.  Y Is57 

London.  England \  1833 

England j  1846 

A  nt  werp ■  1861 

Philadelphia.  Pa i  1829 

New  York  city I  1873 

Wadington,  England 1851 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1865 

Brighton,  England 1853 

England |  1841 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


623 


Vaudeville. —  The  name  Vaudeville  is  a 
corruption  of  Vaux  de  Vire,  the  name  of  two 
picturesque  valleys  in  the  Bocage  of  Normandy, 
and  was  originally  applied  to  a  song  with  words 
relating  to  some  story  of  the  day.  These  songs 
were  first  composed  by  one  Oliver  Basselin,  a 
fuller  in  Vire  ;  they  were  very  popular,  and 
spread  all  over  France,  and  were  called  by  the 
name  of  their  native  place  (Les  Vaux  de  Vire). 
As  the  origin  of  the  term  was  soon  lost  sight 
of,  it  at  last  took  its  present  form.  The  word 
is  now  used  to  signify  a  play  in  which  dialogue 
is  interspersed  with  songs  incidentally  intro- 
duced, but  forming  an  important  part  of  the 
drama. 

The  Single  Tax. —  This  idea  was  first 
formulated  by  Mr.  Henry  George,  in  his  book, 
"Progress  and  Poverty,"  in  1879,  and  has 
grown  steadily  in  favor.  Single  tax  men  assert, 
as  a  fundamental  principle,  that  all  men  are 
equally  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  earth  ;  there- 
fore, no  one  should  be  allowed  to  hold  valuable 
land  without  paying  to  the  community  the 
value  of  the  privilege.  They  hold  that  this  is 
the  only  rightful  source  of  public  revenue,  and 
they  would,  therefore,  abolish  all  taxation, 
local,  state,  and  national,  except  a  tax  upon  the 
rental  value  of  land,  exclusive  of  its  improve- 
ments, the  revenue  thus  raised  to  be  divided 
among  local,  state,  and  general  governments, 
as  the  revenue  from  certain  direct  taxes  is  now 
divided  between  local  and  sjate  governments. 

The  single  tax  would  not  fall  on  all  land,  but 
only  on  valuable  land,  and  on  that  in  propor- 
tion to  its  value.  It  would  thus  be  a  tax,  not 
on  use  or  improvements,  but  on  ownership  of 
land,  taking  what  would  otherwise  go  to  the 
landlord  as  owner. 

In  accordance  with  the  principle  that  all 
men  are  equally  entitled  to  the  use  of  the  earth, 
they  would  solve  the  transportation  problem 
by  public  ownership,  and  control  of  all  high- 
ways, including  the  roadbeds  of  railroads,  leav- 
ing their  use  equally  free  to  all. 

The  single  tax  system  would  :  — 

1.  Dispense  with  a  horde  of  taxgatherers, 
simplify  government,  and  greatly  reduce  its 
cost. 

2.  Give  us  with  all  the  world  that  absolute 
free  trade  which  now  exists  between  the  states 
of  the  Union. 

3.  Give  us  free  trade  in  finance  by  abolish- 
ing all  taxes  on  private  issues  of  money. 

4.  Take  the  weight  of  taxation  from  agri- 
cultural districts,  where  land  has  little  or  no 
value  apart  from  improvements,  and  put  it 
upon  valuable  land,  such  as  city  lots  and  min- 
eral deposits. 

5.  Call  upon  men  to  contribute  for  public 
expenses  in  proportion  to  the  natural  opportu- 


nities they  monopolize,  and  compel  them  to  pay 
just  as  much  for  holding  the  land  idle  as  for 
putting  it  to  its  fullest  use. 

6.  Make  it  unprofitable  for  speculators  to 
hold  land  unused  or  only  partly  used,  and,  by 
thus  opening  to  labor  unlimited  fields  of  em- 
ployment, solve  the  labor  problem,  raise  wages 
in  all  occupations,  and  abolish  involuntary 
poverty. 

Printer's  Devil. —  The  origin  of  this 
term  is  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  in  the  early 
days  of  printing  the  apprentice's  duties  in- 
cluded the  inking  of  the  forms  with  bags  con- 
taining ink  or  besmeared  with  it.  In  the 
performance  of  this  work  his  face  and  hands 
became  so  daubed  with  the  ink  that  in  appear- 
ance he  suggested  the  devil.     Hence  the  name. 

Bastille. —  The  famous  French  prison 
known  by  this  name  was  originally  the  Castle 
of  Paris,  and  was  built  by  order  of  Charles  V., 
between  1370  and  1383,  as  a  defense  against 
the  English.  When  it  came  to  be  used  as  a 
state  prison  it  was  provided  with  vast  bulwarks 
and  ditches.  The  Bastille  had  four  towers,  of 
five  stories  each,  on  each  of  its  larger  sides, 
and  it  was  partly  in  these  towers  and  partly  in 
underground  cellars  that  the  prisons  were  sit- 
uated. It  was  capable  of  containing  seventy 
to  eighty  prisoners,  a  number  frequently 
reached  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
Louis  XV.,  the  majority  of  them  being  per- 
sons of  the  higher  ranks.  The  Bastille  was 
destroyed  by  a  mob  on  the  15th  of  July,  1789, 
and  the  governor  and  a  number  of  his  officers 
were  killed.  On  its  site  now  stands  the  Column 
of  Julv,  erected  in  memory  of  the  patriots  of 
1789  and  1830. 

White  House  Weddings. —  The  first 
wedding  to  occur  in  the  White  House  was  that 
of  Miss  Todd,  a  relative  by  marriage  of  Presi- 
dent Madison.  Then,  in  their  order,  came  the 
weddings  of  Elizabeth  Tyler,  a  daughter  of 
President  Tyler ;  John  Quincy  Adams,  Jr. ; 
Miss  Easten  and  Miss  Lewis,  both  during  Gen- 
eral Jackson's  administration;  Martha  Mon- 
roe ;  Nellie  Grant ;  Emily  Piatt,  a  niece  of 
President  Hayes;  and  last,  President  Cleve- 
land. 

Dying  Sayings  of  Famous  People. 

Addison.  "See  how  a  Christian  dies!"  or  "See  in 
what  peace  a  Christian  can  die ! " 

Anaxagoras.    "  Give  the  hoys  a  holiday." 

Arria.     "  Mv  Paetus,  it  is  not  painful." 

Augustus.  *"  Vos  Plaudite."  (After  asking  how  he 
had  acted  his  part  in  life.) 

Beaufort  (Cardinal  Henry).  "I  pray  you  all,  pray 
for  me." 

Berry  (Mme.  de).  "  Is  not  this  dying  with  courage 
and  true  greatness?" 

Bronte  (father  of  the  authoress).  "  While  there  is 
life  there  is  will."    (He  died  standing.) 

Byron.    "  I  must  sleep  now." 

Csesar  (Julius).  "  Et  tu,  Brute  !"  (To  Brutus,  when  he 
stabbed  him.) 


624 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Charlemagne.  "  Lord,  into  Thy  hands  I  commend 
my  spirit!" 

Charles  I.  (of  England).  "Remember."  (To  William 
Juxon,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.) 

Charles  II.  (of  England).  "Don't  let  poor  Nelly 
starve."    (Nell  Gwynne.) 

Charles  V.     "Ah,  Jesus!" 

Charles  IX.  (of  Erance).  "Nurse,  nurse,  what 
murder!  what  blood!  Oh,  I  have  done  wrong.  God 
pardon  me." 

Charlotte  (the  princess).  "  You  make  me  drink.  Pray, 
leave  me  quiet.    I  find  it  affects  my  head." 

Chesterfield.    "  Give  Day  Rolle's  a  chair." 

Columbus.  "Lord,  into"  Thy  hands  I  commend  my 
spirit!" 

Crome  (John).  "  Oh,  Hobbima,  Hobbima,  how  I  do 
love  thee ! " 

Cromwell.  "  My  desire  is  to  make  what  haste  I  may 
to  be  gone." 

Demonax  (the  philosopher).  "  You  may  go  home,  the 
show  is  over." — Lvcian. 

Elden  (Lord).  "It  matters  not,  where  I  am  going, 
whether  the  weather  be  cold  or  hot." 

Fontenelle.  "I  suffer  nothing,  but  feel  a  sort  of 
difficulty  in  living  longer." 

Franklin.    "  A  dying  man  can  do  nothing  easy." 

Gainsborough.  "  We  are  all  going  to  lieav'en,  and 
Vandyke  is  of  the  company." 

George  IV.  "  Whatty,  what  is  this?  It  is  death,  my 
bov.  Tnev  have  deceived  me."  (Said  to  his  page,  Sir 
Walthen  Waller.) 

Gibbon.    "  Mon  Dieu  !    Mon  Dieu  !  " 

Goethe.    "More  light!" 

Gregory  VII.  "I  have  loved  justice  and  hated 
iniquity,  therefore  I  die  in  exile." 

Grey  (Lady  Jane).  "  Lord,  into  Thy  hands  I  commend 
my  spirit!" 

Grotius.    "  Be  serious." 

Haydn.    "  God  preserve  the  emperor." 

Hailer.    "The  artery  ceases  to  beat." 

Hazlitt.    "  I  have  led  a  happy  life." 

Hobbes.  "  Now  I  am  about  to  take  my  last  voyage — 
a  great  leap  in  the  dark." 

Hunter  (Dr.  William).  "  If  I  had  strength  to  hold  a 
pen,  I  would  write  down  how  easy  and  pleasant  a  thing 
it  is  to  die." 

Irving.    "If  I  die  I  die  unto  the  Lord.    Amen." 

James  V.  (of  Scotland).  "It  came  with  a  lass  and 
will  go  with  a  lass"  (i.  e.,  the  Scotch  crown). 

Jefferson  (of  America).  "  I  resign  my  spirit  to  God, 
my  daughter  to  my  country." 

Jesus  Christ.    "  It  is  finished." 

Johnson  (Dr.).  "  God  bless  you,  my  dear !  "  (To  Miss 
Morris.) 

Knox.    "  Now  it  i3  come." 

Louis  I.  "Huz!  huz!"  (Bouquet  says,  "  He  turned 
his  face  to  the  wall,  and  twice  cried  'huz!  huz!' 
(out,  out*  and  then  died.") 

Louis  IX.  "I  will  enter  now  into  the  house  of  the 
Lord." 

Louis  XIV.  "  Why  weep  ye?  Did  you  think  I 
should  li-re  forever  ?"  Then,  aftera  pause,  "  1  thought 
dying  had  been  harder." 

Louis  XVIII.    "  A  king  should  die  standing." 

Mahomet.  "  Oh,  Allah,  be  it  so  !  Henceforth  among 
the  glorious'host  of  paradise." 

Marie  Antoinette.  "  Farewell,  my  children,  forever. 
I  go  to  your  father." 

Mirabeau.  "  Let  me  die  to  the  sounds  of  delicious 
music." 

Moody  (the  actor). 
"  Reason  thus  with  life, 
If  I  do  lose  thee,  I  do  lose  a  thing 
That  none  but  fools  would  keep." — Shakespeare. 

Moore  (Sir  John).  "  I  hope  my  country  will  do  me 
justice." 

Napoleon  III.  "Were  you  at  Sedan?"  (To  Dr. 
Conneau.) 

Nelson.    "  I  thank  God  I  have  done  my  duty." 

Pitt  (William).    "  Oh,  my  country,  how  I  love  thee!" 

Pizarro.    "Jesu!" 

Pope.    "  Friendship  itself  is  but  a  part  of  virtue." 

Kabelais.    "  Let  down  the  curtain,  the  farce  is  over." 

Sand  (George).  "  Laissez  la  verdure."  (Leave  the 
tomb  green.) 

Schiller.  "  Many  things  are  growing  plain  and  clear 
to  my  understanding." 

Scott  (Sir  Walter).  "  God  bless  you  all."  (To  his 
family.) 

Socrates.    "  Crito,  we  owe  a  cock  to  ylisculapius." 


Stael  (Mme.  de).  "  I  have  loved  God,  my  father,  and 
liberty." 

Thurlow  (Lord).  "  I'll  be  shot  if  I  don't  believe  I'm 
dying." 

William  III.  (of  England >.  "Can  this  last  long?" 
(To  his  physician.) 

AVolfe  (General).  "  What !  do  they  run  already?  Then 
I  die  happy." 

State     Flowers.— Tii  e     following     are 

"  State  Flowers  "  as  adopted  in  most  instances 

by  the  votes  of  the  public  school  scholars  of 

the  respective  states  :  ■ — 

California Colifornia  Poppy 

Colorado Columbine 

Delaware Peach  Blossom 

Idaho Syringa 

Indiana Corn 

Iowa Wild  Rose 

Maine Pine  Cone  and  Tassel 

Michigan *  Apple  Blossom 

Minnesota Cypripediumor  Moccasin  Flower 

Montana ! Bitter  Root 

Nebraska Golden-rod 

Nevada Sunflower 

New  York, Rose;        State  fci'je Maple 

North  Dakota Golden-rod 

Oklahoma  Territory Mistletoe 

Oregon  . .' Golden-rod 

Rhode  Island Violet 

Utah Sego  Lily 

Vermont Red  Clover 

Washington Rhododendron 

♦Adopted  by  Slate  Legislature,  not  by  public  school 
scholars. 

In  other  states  the  scholars  or  State  Legisla- 
tures have  not  yet  taken  action.  In  Illinois 
in  the  vote  on  the  leading  State  Flower  by  the 
pupils  of  the  schools  the  Rose,  Violet,  and 
Golden-rod  received  the  largest  number  of 
votes,  in  the  order  named,  although  no  state 
flower  was  adopted.  In  Massachusetts  the 
Columbine  was  strongly  urged,  but  no  flower 
was  adopted.  In  Ohio  and  Tennessee  the 
Golden-rod  is  advocated. 
Strength  of  Modern  Powders  and 
High  Explosives. 


Name  of  Explosive. 


l'erunite  I! 

l'eruniteC 

Perunite  D 

Explosive  gelatine 

Rack-a-rock 

Hellotite 

Nitro-glycerine,  best  quality 

Nobel's  smokeless  powder 

Explosive  gelatine  made  from  No.  5 nitro- 
glycerine   

United  States  Navy  gun-cotton 

Fulgurite 

Emmensite 

French  nitro-f  lycerine 

Dynamite  No.  1, 

Cannonite 

Amide  powder 

Progressite 

Tonite 

Bellite 

Oxonite 

Atlas  powder,  N  >.  1 

Melinite 

Silver  fulminate 

Mercury  fulminate 

Uifle  powder 

Mortar  powder 

Ko-scl's  mixture 

Amerijanite 

Schiu'belite 


Peeentage 

of 
Strength. 


100.0 
91.0 
83.9 
81.0 
79.0 
78.0 
730 
70.0 

68.0 
67.5 
67.0 
66.0 
630 
62.6 
62.0 
59.0 
58.5 
57.0 
56.0 
54.4 
54.0 
49.0 
48.2 
47.5 
;«.o 
30.0 
89.5 
82.0 
80.0 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


625 


Absinthe  is  a  spirit  flavored  with  the 
pounded  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  worm- 
wood, together  with  angelica-root,  sweet-flag 
root,  star-anise,  and  other  aromatics.  The 
aromatics  are  macerated  for  about  eight  days 
in  alcohol  and  then  distilled,  the  result  being 
an  emerald-colored  liquor.  The  best  absinthe 
is  made  in  Switzerland,  the  chief  seat  of  the 
manufacture  being  in  the  canton  of  Neufcha- 
tel.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  France  and  the 
United  States.  The  evil  effects  of  drinking 
this  liquor  are  very  apparent ;  frequent  intox- 
ication, or  moderate  but  steady  tippling,  ut- 
terly deranges  the  digestive  system,  weakens 
the  frame,  induces  horrible  dreams  and  hallu- 
cinations, and  may  end  in  paralysis  or  in 
idiocy. 

United  States  Navy  Pay  Table. 


Rank. 


Admiral §13.500— For  life 

Rear- Admirals 

f 'ommodores 

Captains , 

Commanders , 

Lieutenant-Commanders : 

First  four  years* 

After  four  yearst 

Lieutenants  :* 

First  five  years* 

After  five  yearst 

Lieutenants'(Junior  Grade): 

First  five  years* 

After  live  yearst 

Ensigns: 

First  five  years* 

After  five  yearst 

Naval  Cadets 

Mates 

Medical  and  Pay  Directors   and 

Inspectors  and'Chief  Engineers 

having  the  same  rank  at  sea. . . . 
Fleet  Surgeons,  Fleet-Paymasters, 

and  Fleet-Engineers 

Surgeons,  Paymasters,  and  Chief 
Engineers 


I    On 
At  Sea  Shore 
Duty. 


£6,000  s.-,. in  in 

6,000!  4,000 

4,500l  3,500 

3,500  3,000 

2.soo  2,100 

3,000  2  000 

2.400  2,000 

2,600  2,600 


On  Leave 

or  Wniting 

Orders. 


1,500 

1,700 

1,000 

1,200 

500 

700 


Chaplains. 


1,800 
2,000 

1.200 

1,400 

500 

900 


4,430 


4.400 

2,8001  2,4001 

to  to 

4.200  4.000, 

2.500!  2,000 

to    I  to    I 

2  800  2,300 


§4,000 
3,000 
2,800 
2,300 

2,000 
2,200 

1,600 
1,800 

1,200 
1,400 

800 

1,000 
500 
500 


2.000 

to 

3  000 
1.000 

to 
1  9:>0 


Warrant  officers  are  paid  f torn  $700  to  §1,800,  and  sea- 
men. (228  to  $288  per  annum. 
*After  date  of  commission.     tFrom  date  of  commission. 

United  States  Naval  Enlistment. — 

All  applicants  for  enlistment  in  the  naval  serv- 
ice must  be  of  robust  frame,  intelligent,  of 
perfectly  sound  and  healthy  constitution  and 
free  from  any  of  the  following  physical  defects: 
Greatly  retarded  development,  feeble  constitu- 
tion, inherited  or  acquired  ;  permanently  im- 
paired general  health,  decided  cachexia,  diath- 
esis or  predisposition,  weak  or  disordered 
intellect,  epilepsy  or  other  convulsions  within 
five  years,  impaired  vision  or  chronic  disease 
of  the  organs  of  vision,  great  dullness  of  hear- 
ing or  chronic  disease  of  the  ears,  chronic  nasal 
catarrh,  ozena,  polypi  or  great  enlargement 
of  the  tonsils,  marked  impediment  of  speech, 
decided  indications  of  liability  to  pulmonary 
disease,  chronic  cardiac  affections,  large  vari- 


cose veins  of  lower  limbs,  chronic  ulcers,  un- 
natural curvature  of  the  spine,  permanent 
disability  of  either  of  the  extremities  or  artic- 
ulations from  any  cause,  defective  teeth. 

Following  are  the  requirements  for  the  vari- 
ous classes  of  the  service,  and  monthly  wages 
paid  :  — 

Class.                                                    Age.  Wages. 

Landsmen 18  to  25  §16 

Ordinary  Seamen 18  to  30  19 

Seamen 21  to  #0  24 

Painter ,.  21to35  30 

Bugler 21  to  36  30 

Shipwright 2lto35  25 

Carpenter's  mate 21  to  35  43  to  50 

Chief  yeoman 60 

Yeoman 30  to  40' 

Musicians 21  to  35  32 

Cooks 21to35  40 

Mess  attendants 21  to  30  16 

Sailmakers 21  to  35  25 

Machinist 40  to  70 

Boilermaker 21  to  35  60 

Blacksmith ill  to  35  50 

Firemen 21  to  35  30to35 

Coal  passers 21  to  35  22 

Slavery  and  Serfdom. — Some  of  the 
wealthy  Romans  had  as  many  as  10,000  slaves. 
The  minimum  price  fixed  by  the  law  of  Rome 
was  $80,  but  after  great  victories  they  could 
sometimes  be  bought  for  a  few  shillings  on  the 
field  of  battle.  The  day's  wages  of  a  Roman 
gardener  were  about  sixteen  cents,  and  his 
value  about  $300,  while  a  blacksmith  was  val- 
ued at  about  $700,  a  cook  at  $2,000,  an  actress 
at  $4,000,  and  a  physician  at  $11,000. 

The  number  of  slaves  emancipated  in  the 
British  Colonies  in  1834  was  780,993,  the  in- 
demnity aggregating,  in  round  figures,  $100,- 
000,000.  In  Brazil,  in  1876,  there  were  1,- 
510,800  slaves,  15  per  cent,  of  the  entire  pop- 
ulation. These  were  held  by  41,000  owners, 
averaging  37  to  each  owner.  In  1882  the 
number  of  slaves  was  1,300,000.  Owing  to 
the  gradual  abolition  of  slavery  in  Brazil  by 
law,  it  is  expected  that  it  will  be  entirely  ob- 
solete in  1900. 

SLAVERY   IN   THE  UNITED   STATES. 
Year.  Number.  I  Year.  Number. 

1791 697,900  !  1830 2,009,030 

1800 .- 803,040  j  1840 2,487,500 

1810  1,191,400  1850 3.204300 

1820 1,538,100  ;  1860 3,979,700 

Serfdom  in  Russia. — There  were  47,- 
932,000  serfs  in  Russia  in  1861,  as  follows: 
Crown  serfs,  22,851 ,000  ;  appanage,  3,320,000  ; 
held  by  nobles,  21,755,000.  The  cost  of  re- 
demption was,  in  round  numbers,  about  $325,- 
000,000,  as  follows  : — 

Mortgages  remit-  Paid  bv  serfs §52.000,000 

ted ?152.000,000    Balance  due 20,000,000 

Gov'inent  scrip . .  101,000,000 

The  indemnity  to  the  nobles  was  $15  per 
serf.  The  lands  are  mortgaged  to  the  state  till 
1912.  The  lands  ceded  to  crown  serfs  are 
mortgaged  only  till  1901.    The  item  of  "  rnort- 


626 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


gages  remitted  "  is  the  amount  due  by  nobles 
to  the  Imperial  Bank  and  canceled. 

AUSTRIAN  SERVITUDE  (1840). 

Value. 

Labor  (two  days  per  week) $175,000,000 

Tithe  of  crops,  etc 60,000,000 

Male  tribute,  timber 7,000,000 

Female  tribute,  spun  wool 9,000,000 

Fowl,  eggs,  butter 5,000,000 

Total $256,000,000 

There  were  7,000,000  serfs,  whose  tribute 
averaged  more  than  $ 35  per  head,  which  was, 
in  fact,  the  rent  of  their  farms.  Some  Bohe- 
mian nobles  had  as  many  as  10,000  serfs.  The 
redemption  was  effected  by  giving  the  nobles 
5  per  cent.  Government  scrip,  and  land  then 
rose  50  per  cent,  in  value. 

Average  Annual  Rainfall  in  United 
States. 

Place.  Inches. 

Neah  Bay,  Wash 123 

Sitka,  Alaska 83 

Ft.  Haskins,  Oregon 66 

Mt.  Vernon,  Alabama.. .  66 
Baton  Rouge,  Louisiana  60 

Meadow  Valley,  Cal 67 

Ft.  Tonson,  Indian  Ter..  57 

Ft.  Myers,  Florida 56 

Washington,  Arkansas..  54 

Huntsville,  Alabama 54 

Natchez,  Mississippi ....  53 
New  Orleans,  Louisiana  51 

Savannah,  Georgia 48 

Springdale,  Kentucky. .  48 

Fortress  Monroe,  Va 47 

Memphis,  Tennessee 45 

Newark,  New  Jersey 44 

Boston, Massachusetts..  44 

Brunswick,  Maine 44 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 44 

New  Haven,  Conn 44 

Philadelphia,  Fa 44 

Charleston,  S.  Carolina.  43 
New  York  City,  N.  Y....  43 

Gaston,  N.  Carolina 43 

Richmond,  Indiana 43 

Marietta,  Ohio 43 

St.  Louis,  Missouri 43 

Muscatine,  Iowa 42 

Baltimore,  Maryland ...  41 

New  Bedford,  Mass 41 

Providence,  R.I 41 

Ft.  Smith,  Arkansas 40 

Tariff.- 

age:— 


Place.  Inches. 

Hanover,  N.  H 40 

Ft.  Vancouver,  Wash ...  .38 

Cleveland,  Ohio 37 

Pittsburg,  Pa 37 

Washington,  D.  C 37 

W.  Sulphur  Springs,  Va.37 
Ft.  Gibson,  Indian  Ter... 36 

Key  West,  Florida 36 

Peoria,  Illinois 35 

Burlington,  Vermont.... 34 

Buffalo,  New  York 33 

Ft.  Brown,  Texas 33 

Ft.  Leavenworth,  Kan. ..31 

Detroit,  Michigan 30 

Milwaukee,  Wisconsin. .  .30 

Penn  Yan,  New  York 28 

Ft.  Kearney,  Neb 25 

Ft.  Snelling,  Minnesota.. 25 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  ...  .23 

Mackinac,  Michigan 23 

San  Francisco,  Cal 21 

Dallas,  Oregon 21 

Sacramento,  California.  .21 
Ft.  Massachusetts,  Col..  .17 
Ft. Marcy ,  New  Mex.  Ter. 16 

Ft.  Randall,  Dakota 16 

Ft.  Defiance,  Arizona 14 

Ft.  Craig,  New  Mex.  Ter..ll 

San  Diego,  California 9 

Ft.  Colville,  Wash 9 

Ft.  Bliss,  Texas 9 

Ft.  Bridger,  Utah 6 

Ft.  Garland,  Colorado...  6 


Import     duties,     general     aver- 


fiatlo  to 
Imports. 
Per  cent. 

United  Kingdom 5y» 

France 6% 

Germany 6 

Russia 18 

Austria 5 

Italy 11 

Spain 24 

Portugal 26 

Holland 1 


Ratio  of 
Imports. 
Per  cent. 

Belgium 1% 

Denmark 9 

Sweden  and  Norway .  12 

Europe 7V4 

United  States 33% 

Canada 15 

Australia 13 

Brazil 44 

Argentine  Republic.  37 


Rabbit's  Foot. — The  legends  of  "  Br'er 
Rabbit  "  among  the  negroes,  his  clever  devices 
in  outwitting  his  natural  enemies — the  dog, 
fox,  and  wolf — and  thwarting  every  scheme 
designed  for  his  own  punishment,  are  almost 
without  number.  From  these  legends  of  the 
preternatural  sagacity  of  the  living  rabbit  came 
the  idea  that  the  dead  rabbit  had  certain  magic 


powers.  The  negroes  believe  that  to  carry  a 
rabbit's  foot  in  the  pocket  is  not  only  a  talisman 
for  good  luck,  but  is  a  specific  for  diseases. 
The  left  hind  foot  of  the  rabbit  is  believed  to 
have  the  most  efficacy,  and  if  it  be  taken  from 
a  rabbit  that  runs  in  a  graveyard,  its  super- 
natural properties  are  believed  to  be  quite 
irresistible. 

dumber  of  Years  Seeds  retain  their 
Vitality. 

Vegetables.  Years. 


Vegetables.  Years. 

Cucumber 8  to  10 

Melon 8to  10 

Pumpkin 8  to  10 

Squash 8  to  10 

Broccoli 5  to   6 

Cauliflower 5  to   6 

Artichoke 5  to   6 

Endive 5  to  6 

Pea 5  to   6 

Radish 4  to   5 

Beets 3  to  4 

Cress 3  to  4 

Lettuce 3  to   4 

Mustard 3  to   4 

Okra.. 3  to   4 

Rhubarb 3  to   4 

Spinach 3  to. 4 

Turnip 3  to   6 


Asparagus 2to3 

Beans 2  to  3 

Carrots 2  to  3 

Celery 2to3 

Corn  (on  cob) 2  to  3 

Leek 2to3 

Onion ...2to3 

Parsley 2  to  3 

Parsnip 2  to  3 

Pepper 2  to  3 

Tomato 2  to  3 

Egg  plant 1  to  2 

HERBS. 

Anise 3  to  4 

Caraway 2 

Summer  Savory 1  to  2 

Sage 2  to  3 


Acquisition  of  Territory. —  The  in- 
crease in  area  of  the  United  States,  by  war 
and  treaty,  is  shown  in  the  annexed  table  : — 


177C  ) 

1783  f  ' 

1803... 

1819... 

1845... 

1846... 

1846) 

1848/  • 

1853... 

1867... 

1898... 

1898  .. 


How. 

Whence. 

War . . . 

England. 

Treat  v. 

France  .. 

Treaty. 

Spain .... 

Union.. 

Mexico . . 

Treaty. 

England. 

War . . . 

Mexico.. 

Treatv. 

Mexico . . 

Treat  v. 

Russia... 

Treaty. 

Hawaii . . 

War... 

Spain 

War . . . 

Spain 

What. 


(  Thirteen  origi- 
j     D&1  States  a.. 

Louisiana  b 

Florida  c 

Texas  d 

Oregon  

( California  and 
|     New  Mexico  e 

(iadsden  Purchase/ 

Alaska  g 

Hawaii 

Porto  Rico 

Philippines 


Sq.  Miles. 


820,680 

899,579 

66.900 

318,000 

308,052 

522.955 

45,535 

580,107 

6,740 

3,600 

120,000 


a  Estimated  cost  of  War  of  Independence.  $168,000,000. 
b  Purchased  for  $15,000,000.    c  Cost  $3,000,000. 
d  Debt  of  Texas  on  admission  into  the  Union,  $7,500,- 
000. 
e  Estimated  cost  of  the  Mexican  War,  $15,000,000. 
/  Cost  $10,000,000.    g  Cost  $7,200,000. 

The   Capital  of   the   United   States 

has  been  located  at  different  times  at  the  fol- 
lowing places  :  At  Philadelphia  from  Septem- 
ber 5,  1774,  to  December,  1776 ;  at  Balti- 
more from  December  20,  1776,  to  March, 
1777  ;  at  Philadelphia  from  March  4,  1777,  to 
September,  1777 ;  at  Lancaster,  Pa.,  from 
September  27,  1777,  to  September  30,  1777  ; 
at  York,  Pa.,  from  September  30,  1777,  to 
July,  1778  ;  at  Philadelphia  from  July  2,  1778, 
to  June  30,  1783;  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  June 
30,  1783,  to  November  20,  1783;  Annapolis, 
Md.,  November  26,  1783,  to  November  30, 
1784  ;  Trenton  from  November,  1784,  to  Janu- 
ary, 1785  ;  New  York  from  January  11,  1785, 
to  1790  ;  then  the  seat  of  government  was  re- 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


627 


moved  to  Philadelphia,  where  it  remained  until 
1800,  since  which  time  it  has  been  in  W ash- 
in  gton. 

Wireless  Telegraphy. — Of  the  several 
systems  for  telegraphing  without  wires,  that 
devised  hy  Signor  Marconi  has  been  most 
before  the  public.  Early  in  1899  messages 
were  successfully  sent  by  this  system  from 
South  Foreland,  England,  across  the  English 
channel  to  Boulogne,  France,  a  distance  of  32 
miles.  A  full  description  of  the  apparatus 
used  and  of  the  experiments  themselves  was 
published  in  a  paper  by  Signor  Marconi,  read 
before  the  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers  of 
London.  In  September,  1899,  Signor  Marconi 
and  several  assistants  came  to  America  to 
report  the  international  yacht  races  off  Sandy 
Hook  by  wireless  telegraphy.  Sending  appa- 
ratus were  placed  on  two  steamers  which  fol- 
lowed the  yachts,  and  receiving  apparatus 
were  placed,  one  on  the  cable  rship  Mackay- 
Bennett,  anchored  near  the  Sandy  Hook  light- 
ship, and  the  other  on  shore  at  the  Highlands 
of  Navesink.  Bulletins  of  the  progress  of  the 
races  were  sent  from  the  following  steamers 
to  the  receiving  stations,  and  from  them  by 
wire  to  the  office  of  the  New  York  Herald. 
After  the  yacht  races,  tests  were  made  by 
Signor  Marconi  in  conjunction  with  the 
Signal  Corps  of  the  United  States  Army  and 
with  the  Navy  Department.  The  report  of 
the  inspecting  board  in  the  Navy  Department 
tests  was  quite  favorable  to  the  utility  of  the 
system  for  communicating  between  vessels  at 
sea. 

The  system  is  well  adapted  for  use  in 
squadron  signaling  under  conditions  of  rain, 
fog,  darkness,  and  motion  of  ship. 

Marconi's  system  has  been  the  means  of 
stimulating  a  number  of  investigators. 

Capacity  of  Cisterns. 

FOR  EACH  10  INCHES  DJ  DEPTH. 

Twenty-five  feet  in  d iameter  holds 3059  gallons 

Twenty  feet  in  diameter  holds 1958  gallons 

Fifteen  feet  in  diameter  holds 1101  gallons 

fourteen  feet  in  diameter  holds 959  gallons 

Thirteen  feet  in  diameter  holds 827  gallons 

Twelve  feet  in  diameter  holds 705  gallons 

Eleven  feet  in  diameter  holds 592  gallons 

Ten  feet  in  diameter  holds 4S9  gallons 

Nine  feet  in  diameter  holds 396  gallons 

Eight  feet  in  diameter  holds 313  gallons 

Seven  feet  in  diameter  holds 239  gallons 

Six  and  one  half  feet  in  diameter  holds 206  gallons 

Six  feet  in  diameter  holds 176  gallons 

Five  feet  in  diameter  holds 122  gallons 

Four  and  one  half  feet  in  diameter  holds. . .      99  gallons 

Four  feet  in  diameter  holds 78  gallons 

Three  feet  in  diameter  holds 44  gallons 

Two  and  one  half  feet  in  diameter  holds 30  gallons 

Two  feet  in  diameter  holds 19  gallons 

The  Roman  Month  was  divided  into 
Calends,  Nones,  and  Ides.  The  Calends  always 
fell  upon  the  first  of  the  month  :  in  March,  May. 
July,  and  October,  the  Nones  on  the  7th  and 


the  Ides  on  the  loth,  and  in  the  remaining 
months,  the  Nones  on  the  5th  and  the  Ides  on 
the  13th.  The  Roman  year  began  with  March, 
and  the  months  corresponded  with  ours  ex- 
cept that  their  fifth  and  sixth  months  were 
called  Quintilis  and  Sextilis.  Afterwards  they 
were  changed  to  July  and  August  in  honor  of 
the  emperors  Julius  and  Augustus. 

The  Limits  of  Vision  vary  with  eleva- 
tion, conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  intensity 
of  illumination,  and  other  modifying  elements 
in  different  cases.  On  a  clear  day  an  object 
one  foot  above  a  level  plain  may  be  seen  at  a 
distance  of  1.31  miles;  one  10  feet  high,  4.15 
miles ;  one  20  feet  high,  5.86  miles  ;  one  100 
feet  high,  13.1  miles  ;  one  a  mile  high,  as  the 
top  of  a  mountain,  95.23  miles.  This  allows 
7  inches ;  or,  to  be  exact,  6.99  inches,  for  the 
curvature  of  the  earth,  and  assumes  that  the 
size  and  illumination  of  the  object  are  suffi- 
cient to  produce  an  image. 

Mottoes  of  the  States.  —  Arkansas. 
Regnant  populi :  The  people  rule.  California. 
Eureka:  I  have  found  it.  Colorado.  Nil 
sine  numine :  Nothing  without  the  Divinity. 
Connecticut.  Qui  transtulit  sustinet :  He  who 
has  transferred,  sustains.  Delaware.  Liberty 
and  Independence,  Florida.  In  God  is  our 
trust.  Georgia.  Wisdom,  Justice,  Modera- 
tion. Illinois.  State  Sovereignty  and  Na- 
tional Union.  Iowa.  Our  liberties  we  prize, 
and  our  rights  we  will  maintain.  Kansas. 
Ad  astra  per  aspera  :  To  the  stars  through  rug- 
ged wajTs.  Kentucky.  United  we  stand,  di- 
vided we  fall.  Louisiana.  Union  and  Con- 
fidence. Maine.  Dirigo:  I  direct.  Mary- 
land. Crescite  et  multiplicamini :  Increase  and 
multiply.  Massachusetts.  Ense  petit  placidam 
sub  Ubertate  quietem:  By  her  sword  she  seeks 
under  liberty  a  calm  repose.  Michigan.  Si 
quosris peninsulam  amcenani  circumspice :  If  thou 
seekest  a  beautiful  peninsula,  look  around. 
Minnesota.  L'Etoile  du  Nord:  The  Star  of 
the  North.  Missouri.  Salus  populi  suprema 
lex  esto :  Let  the  wrelfare  of  the  people  be  the 
supreme  law.  Nebraska.  Popular  Sovereignty. 
Nevada.  Volens  et  potens  :  Willing  and  able. 
New  Jersey.  Liberty  and  Independence.  New 
York.  Excelsior:  Higher.  Ohio.  Imperium 
in  imperio:  An  empire  within  an  empire. 
Oregon.  Alis  volat  propriis  :  She  flies  with  her 
own  wings.  Pennsylvania.  Virtue,  Liberty, 
Independence.  Rhode  Island.  Hope.  North 
Carolina.  Esse  quam  videri :  To  be,  rather 
than  to  seem.  South  Carolin:.  Animis  opibus- 
que  parali :  Ready  with  our  lives  and  property. 
Tennessee.  Agriculture,  Commerce.  Ver- 
mont. Freedom  and  Unity.  Virginia.  Sic 
semper  tyrannis  :  So  be  it  ever  to  tyrants.  West 
Virginia.     Montani  semper  liberi :  The  rnoun- 


628 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


taineers  are  always  free.  Wisconsin.  For- 
ward. United  States.  E plurihus  unum  :  From 
many,  one.  Annuit  cceptls ;  God  has  favored 
the  undertaking.  Novus  orrfo  secidorum :  A 
new  order  of  ages.  The  first  named  on  one  side 
of  the  great  seal,  the  other  two  on  the  reverse. 

Barrenness. —  One  woman  in  20,  one  man 
in  30  —  about  4  per  cent.  It  is  found  that  one 
marriage  in  20  is  barren  —  5  per  cent.  Among 
the  nobility  of  Great  Britain,  21  per  cent,  have 
no  children,  owing  partly  to  intermarriage  of 
cousins,  no  less  than  4£  per  cent,  being  mar- 
ried to  cousins. 

Meteoric  Stones. —  A  meteoric  stone, 
which  is  described  by  Pliny  as  being  as  large  as 
a  wagon,  fell  near  ^Egospotami,  in  Asia  Minor, 
in  467  B.  C.  About  A.  D.  1500  a  stone 
weighing  1,400  pounds  fell  in  Mexico,  and  is 
now  in  the  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Wash- 
ington. The  largest  meteoric  masses  on  record 
were  heard  of  first  by  Captain  Ross,  the  Arctic 
explorer,  through  some  Esquimaux.  These 
lay  on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland,  and  were 
subsequently  found  by  the  Swedish  Exploring 
Expedition  of  1870.  One  of  them,  now  in 
the  Royal  Museum  of  Stockholm,  weighs  over 
50,000  pounds,  and  is  the  largest  specimen 
known.  Two  remarkable  meteorites  have 
fallen  in  Iowa  within  the  past  thirteen  years. 
On  February  12,  1875,  an  exceedingly  bril- 
liant meteor,  in  the  form  of  an  elongated 
horseshoe,  was  seen  throughout  a  region  of  at 
least  400  miles  in  length  and  250  in  breadth, 
lying  in  Missouri  and  Iowa.  It  is  described 
as  «*  without  a  tail,  but  having  a  sort  of  flow- 
ing jacket  of  flame.  Detonations  were  heard, 
so  violent  as  to  shake  the  earth  and  to  jar  the 
windows  like  the  shock  of  an  earthquake,"  as 
it  fell,  at  about  10.30  o'clock  p.  M.,  a  few 
miles  east  of  Marengo,  Iowa.  The  ground 
for  the  space  of  some  seven  miles  in  length  by 
two  to  four  miles  in  breadth  was  strewn  with 
fragments  of  this  meteor,  varying  in  weight 
from  a  fewouncesto  seventy-four  pounds.  On 
May  10, 1879,  a  large  and  extraordinarily  lumi- 
nous meteor  exploded  with  terrific  noise,  fol- 
lowed at  slight  intervals  with  less  violent 
detonations,  and  struck  the  earth  in  the  edge 
of  a  ravine  near  Estherville,  Emmet  County, 
Towa,  penetrating  to  a  depth  of  fourteen  feet. 
Within  two  miles  other  fragments  were  found, 
one  of  which  weighed  170  pounds  and  another 
thirty-two  pounds.  The  principal  mass 
weighed  431  pounds.  All  the  discovered  parts 
aggregated  about  6 10  pounds.  The  one  of  170 
pounds  is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  the  State  Uni- 
versity of  Minnesota.  The  composition  of 
this  aerolite  is  peculiar  in  many  respects  ;  but, 
as  in  nearly  all  aerolites,  there  is  a  considerable 
proportion  of  iron  and  nickel. 


Woman  Suffrage. — The  constitution  of 
the  Colony  of  New  Jersey  granted  suffrage  to 
all  inhabitants,  under  certain  qualifications, 
irrespective  of  sex.  This  act  was  repealed, 
however,  in  1807.  The  first  Woman's  Rights 
convention  was  held  July  19,  1848,  at  Seneca 
Falls,  N.  Y.,  and  its  claims  for  women  were 
based  upon  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
On  October  23,  1850,  a  National  Woman's 
Rights  Convention  was  held  at  Worcester, 
Mass.  From  that  time  until  i863  the  subject 
was  agitated  in  America  and  England,  but  no 
decisive  action  was  taken.  In  the  latter  year 
the  American  Equal  Rights  Association  pre- 
sented the  first  petition  for  woman  suffrage  to 
Congress.  Two  years  later  (1868)  the  New 
England  Woman  Suffrage  Association  was 
formed,  and  the  work  of  memorializing  Legis- 
latures and  Congress,  holding  conventions  and 
circulating  documents,  began  in  earnest.  By 
1870  the  agitation  had  assumed  such  propor- 
tions that  the  Republican  Convention  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, held  October  5th  of  that  year,  ad- 
mitted Lucy  Stone  and  Mary  A.  Livermore  as 
regularly  accredited  delegates.  Since  then  sev- 
eral State  conventions  have  indorsed  woman 
suffrage.  December  10,  1869,  the  Legislature 
of  the  territory  of  Wyoming;  granted  the  right 
of  suffrage  to  women.  The  same  right  was 
granted  in  1883  in  the  territory  of  Washington 
but  has  since  been  declared  unconstitutional. 
Woman  suffrage,  limited  to  school  elections  or 
school  meetings,  has  been  conferred  in  the 
states  of  Kansas,  Washington,  Nebraska,  New 
Hampshire,  Texas,  Vermont,  Arizona,  the  Da- 
kotas,  Montana,  Colorado.  Minnesota,  Wis- 
consin, Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Michigan, 
and  New  York.  In  the  two  latter  states  the 
law  requires  that  they  be  tax -payers.  Widows 
and  unmarried  women  may  vote  as  to  sjiecial 
district  taxes  in  state  of  Idaho  if  they  hold 
taxable  property.  In  Kentucky  any  white 
widow  having  a  child  of  school  age  is  a  quali- 
fied school  voter  ;  if  she  has  no  child,  but  is  a 
tax-payer,  she  may  vote  on  the  question  of 
taxes.  In  Oregon  widows  having  children  and 
taxable  property  may  vote  at  school  meetings. 
Widows,  or  unmarried  women  not  minors  who 
pay  taxes  and  are  listed  as  parents,  guardians, 
or  heads  of  families,  may  vote  at  school  meet- 
ings in  Indiana.  They  have  full  municipal 
suffrage  in  Kansas,  and  vote  on  the  sale  of  liq- 
uor in  Arkansas  and  Mississippi.  In  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales  women  (unless  married) 
vote  for  all  elective  officers,  except  member  of 
Parliament,  on  like  terms  with  men.  In  Ire- 
land women  vote  everywhere  for  poor-law 
guardians;  in  Dundalk  and  other  seaports,  for 
harbor  hoards  ;  in  Belfast,  for  all  municipal 
officers.     In  Sweden  their  suffrage  is  about  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


629 


same  as  in  England,  except  that  they  vote  in- 
directly for  members  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  Russia  women  (heads  of  households)  vote 
for  all  elective  officers  and  on  all  local  questions. 
In  Austria-Hungary  they  vote  (by  proxy)  at 
all  elections.  In  Italy  widows  vote  for  mem- 
bers of  Parliament.  In  all  the  countries  of 
Russian  Asia  women  vote  wherever  a  Russian 
colony  settles.  Municipal  woman  suffrage  ex- 
ists in  New  Zealand,  Victoria,  New  South  Wales, 
Queensland,  and  South  America.  Iceland,  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  Pitcairn  Island  have  full 
woman  suffrage.  Tasmania,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  a  host  of  islands  elsewhere,  have  partial 
woman  suffrage. 

•  Consumption. —  Of  the  total  number  of 
deaths,  the  percentage  traceable  to  consumption 
in  the  several  states  and  territories  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Alabama,  9.6  ;  Arizona,  6.1  ;  Arkansas, 
6.4  ;  California,  15.6  ;  Colorado,  8.2  ;  Connec- 
ticut, 15.1  ;  Dakota,  8.8  ;  Delaware,  16.1  ;  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  18.9  ;  Florida,  8.3  ;  Georgia, 
7.9  ;  Idaho,  6.8  ;  Illinois,  10.3  ;  Indiana,  12.6  ; 
Iowa,  9.9 ;  Kansas,  7.3 ;  Kentucky,  15.7 ; 
Louisiana,  10.4  ;  Maine,  19.2  ;  Maryland,  14.0  ; 
Massachusetts,  15.7  ;  Michigan,  13.02  ;  Min- 
nesota, 9.3  ;  Mississippi,  8.8  ;  Missouri,  9.8  ; 
Montana,  5.6  ;  Nebraska,  8.8  ;  Nevada,  6.3  ; 
New  Hampshire,  5.6  ;  New  Jersey,  8.9  ;  New 
Mexico,  2.4;  New  York,  8.1  ;  North  Carolina, 
9.5;  Ohio,  13.8;  Oregon,  12.1  ;  Pennsylvania, 
12.6 ;  Rhode  Island,  14.6 ;  South  Carolina, 
9.8  ;  Tennessee,  14.5  ;  Texas,  6.5  ;  Utah,  2.8  ; 
Vermont,  16.1  ;  Virginia,  12.2  ;  Washington, 
13.2;  West  Virginia,  13.0;  Wisconsin,  10.4; 
Wyoming,  2.6.  Average,  12.0. 

Presidents  Inaugurated  Irregularly. 
—  George  Washington,  April  30,  1789  ;  James 
Monroe,  second  term,  March  5,  1821  ;  John 
Tyler,  April  6,  18  H  ;  Zachary  Taylor,  March 
5,  1849;  Millard  Fillmore,  July  10,  1850; 
Andrew  Johnson,  April  15,  1865  ;  R.  B.  Hayes, 
March  5,  1877. 

Women,  Myths  of  the  Origin  of. — 
Woman's  first  appearance  has  been  a  fruitful 
subject  of  legends.  The  Phoenician  myth  of 
creation  is  found  in  the  story  of  Pygmalion 
and  Galatea.  There  the  first  woman  was 
carved  by  the  first  man  out  of  ivory,  and  then 
endowed  with  life  by  Aphrodite.  The  Greek 
theory  of  the  creation  of  woman,  according  to 
Hesiod,  was  that  Zeus,  as  a  cruel  jest,  ordered 
Vulcan  to  make  woman  out  of  clay,  and  then 
induced  the  various  gods  and  goddesses  to  in- 
vest the  clay  doll  with  all  their  worst  qualities, 
the  result  being  a  lovely  thing,  with  a  witchery 
of  mien,  refined  craft,  eager  passion,  love  of 
dress,  treacherous  manners,  and  shameless 
mind.  The  Scandinavians  say  that  as  Odin, 
Vill<  and  Ve,  the  three  sons  of  Bor,  were  walk- 


ing along  the  sea  beach,  they  found  two  sticks 
of  wood,  one  of  ash,  and  one  of  elm.  Sitting 
down,  the  gods  shaped  man  and  woman  out  of 
these  sticks,  whittling  the  woman  from  the 
elm,  and  calling  her  Ernia.  One  of  the  strang- 
est stories  touching  the  origin  of  woman  is 
told  by  the  Madagascarenes.  In  so  far  as  the 
creation  of  man  goes,  the  legend  is  not  unlike 
that  related  by  Moses,  only  that  the  fall  came 
before  Eve  arrived.  After  the  man  had  eaten 
the  forbidden  fruit,  he  became  affected  with  a 
boil  on  the  leg,  out  of  which,  when  it  burst, 
came  a  beautiful  girl.  The  man 's  first  thought 
was  to  throw  her  to  the  pigs  ;  but  he  was  com- 
manded by  a  messenger  from  heaven  to  let  her 
play  among  the  grass  and  flowers  until  she 
was  of  marriageable  age,  then  to  make  her  his 
wdfe.  He  did  so,  called  her  Baboura,  and  she 
became  the  mother  of  all  races  of  men.  The 
American  Indian  myths  relative  to  Adam  and 
Eve  are  numerous  and  entertaining.  Some 
traditions  trace  back  our  first  parents  to  white 
and  red  maize  ;  another  is  that  man,  searching 
for  a  wife,  was  given  the  daughter  of  the  king 
of  muskrats,  who,  on  being  dipped  into  the 
waters  of  a  neighboring  lake,  became  a  woman. 

Gotham. —  The  origin  of  the  name 
"  Gotham,  "as  applied  to  the  city  of  New  York, 
is  contained  in  a  humorous  book  called  "Salma- 
gundi," written  by  Washington  Irving,  his 
brother  William,  and  James  K.  Paulding,  and 
is  used  to  signify  that  the  inhabitants  were  given 
to  undue  pretensions  to  wisdom.  This  defini- 
tion of  the  word  is  taken  from  a  story  regarding 
the  inhabitants  of  Gotham,  a  parish  in  Not- 
tinghamshire, England,  who  were  as  remark- 
able for  their  stupidity  as  their  conceit.  The 
story  relates  that  when  King  John  was  about 
to  pass  through  Gotham  toward  Nottingham, 
he  was  prevented  by  the  inhabitants,  who 
thought  that  the  ground  over  which  a  king 
passed  became  forever  a  public  road.  When 
the  king  sent  to  punish  them  they  resorted  to 
an  expedient  to  avert  their  sovereign's  wrath. 
According  to  this,  when  the  messengers  arrived 
they  found  the  people  each  engaged  in  some 
foolish  occupation  or  other,  so  they  returned 
to  court  and  reported  that  Gotham  was  a  vil- 
lage of  fools.  In  time  a  book  appeared  entitled 
"Certain  Merry  Tales  of  the  Mad  Men  of 
Gotham,  "compiled  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
by  Andrew  Borde,  a  sort  of  traveling  quack, 
from  whom  the  occupation  of  the  "Merry 
Andrew  "  is  said  to  be  derived.  Among  these 
tales  is  the  story  of  "The  Three  Wise  Men 
of  Gotham,"  who  went  to  sea  in  a  bowl. 

Hallows  Eve,  or  Halloween,  is  the  night 
of  October  31st,  the  eve  of  All  Saints',  or  All- 
hallows  Day,  which  is  November  1st,  and  is 
probably  a  relic  of  pagan  times  or  of  mediaeval 


630 


THE   CENTURY    BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


superstitions,  as  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  do 
with  the  church  festival.  In  England  and 
Scotland  it  is  especially  selected  as  the  time  for 
trying  spells  and  divinations  in  love  affairs. 
The  superstitious  tradition  regarding  it  is 
that  it  is  the  night  of  all  others  when  super- 
natural influences  prevail ;  when  spirits  of  the 
invisible  and  visible  world  walk  abroad,  for 
on  this  mystic  evening  it  was  believed  that  the 
human  spirit  was  enabled,  by  the  aid  of  super- 
natural power,  to  detach  itself  from  the  body 
and  wander  through  the  realms  of  space. 
There  is  a  similar  superstition  in  Germany 
concerning  "  Walpurgis  night"  —  the  night 
preceding  the  first  of  May.  On  this  night,  the 
German  peasants  believe  that  there  is  a  witch 
festival,  or  gathering  of  evil  spirits,  on  the 
summit  of  the  Brocken,  in  the  Hartz  Moun- 
tains, and  the  malign  influence  of  this  convo- 
cation was  believed  to  be  felt  all  over  the  sur- 
rounding country.  It  was  an  old  custom,  and 
still  observed  in  some  places,  to  light  great 
bonfires  of  straw  or  brush  on  that  night,  to 
drive  away  the  spirits  of  darkness  supposed  to 
be  hovering  in  the  air.  Considering  that  All 
Saints'  Day  was  originally  kept  on  May  1st, 
there  would  appear  to  be  but  little  doubt  that 
Allhallow  eve  and  Walpurgis  night  have  a 
common  origin,  which,  doubtless,  dates  back 
to  the  earliest  belief  in  a  personal  and  all- 
powerful  Evil  One  —  the  Chaldean's  Power  of 
Darkness. 

Mammoth  Cave,  The,  is  situated  in  Ed- 
mondson  County,  near  Green  River,  Kentucky, 
and  extends  some  nine  miles.  It  contains  a  suc- 
cession of  wonderful  avenues,  chambers,  domes, 
abysses,  grottoes,  lakes,  rivers,  and  cataracts. 
One  chamber,  the  Star,  is  about  500  feet  long, 
70  feet  wide,  and  70  feet  high  ;  the  ceiling  is 
composed  of  black  gypsum,  and  is  studded  with 
innumerable  white  points,  that  by  a  dim  light 
resemble  stars ;  hence  the  name.  There  are 
avenues  one  and  a  half  and  even  two  miles  in 
length,  some  of  which  are  incrusted  with 
beautiful  formations,  and  present  a  most 
dazzling  appearance.  There  is  a  natural  tun- 
nel about  three  quarters  of  a  mile  long,  100 
feet  wide,  covered  with  a  ceiling  of  smooth 
rock,  45  feet  high.  Echo  River  is  some 
three  fourths  of  a  mile  in  length,  200  feet  in 
width  at  some  points,  and  from  10  to  30  feet 
in  depth,  and  runs  beneath  an  arched  ceiling 
of  smooth  rock  about  15  feet  high  ;  while  the 
Styx,  another  river,  is  450  feet  long,  from  15 
to  40  feet  wide,  and  from  30  to  40  feet  deep, 
and  is  spanned  by  a  natural  bridge.  Lake 
Lethe  has  about  the  same  length  and  width  as 
the  river  Styx,  varies  in  depth  from  3  to  40 
feet,  lies  beneath  a  ceiling  some  90  feet  above 
its  surface,  and  sometimes  rises  to  a  height  of 


60  feet.  There  is  also  a  Dead  Sea.  The  en- 
trance to  the  cave  is  reached  by  passing  down 
a  wild,  rocky  ravine  through  a  dense  forest. 
To  visit  the  portions  of  this  wonderful  cave 
already  traversed  requires,  it  is  said,  150  to 
200  miles  of  travel. 

Yosemite  Valley,  or,  as  it  is  also  called. 
Yohamite,  is  situated  in  the  eastern  portion  of 
California,  and  is  from  8  to  10  miles  long,  and 
a  little  more  than  a  mile  wide.  In  some  places 
the  valley  is  filled  with  noble  oaks  ;  in  others  it 
opens  out  into  broad,  grassy  fields.  The 
natural  beauties  of  this  region  are  of  world- 
wide report.  It  has  pine-covered  mountains, 
towering,  with  very  steep  slopes,  to  the  height 
of  3,500  feet,  a  precipice,  or  bluff,  in  on6  place 
rising  perpendicularly  3,089  feet  above  the 
valley  ;  in  another,  a  rock,  almost  perpendicu- 
lar, 3,270  feet  high  ;  waterfalls  pouring  over 
its  sides  from  heights  of  700  to  almost  1,000 
feet;  and  one  great  waterfall  broken  into  three 
laps,  but  of  which  the  whole  height  is  2,550 
feet.  Of  the  other  waterfalls  on  the  sides  of 
the  valley,  the  Pohono,  or  Bridal  Veil  Water- 
fall, is  particularly  to  be  remarked  for  its 
beauty,  as  well  as  for  its  height,  which  is  940 
feet,  and  almost  unbroken.  The  Yosemite 
Valley  was  first  entered  by  white  men  in  1855, 
but  now,  like  the  valleys  of  Switzerland,  has 
its  hotels  and  guides,  and  is  yearly  visited  by 
American  and  foreign  tourists. 

Great  Eastern,  The. —  The  largest  ship 
in  the  world,  the  Great  Eastern,  was  con- 
structed by  the  Eastern  Navigation  Company 
of  London.  The  work  of  construction  com- 
menced May  1,  1854,  and  the  wfork  of  launch- 
ing her,  which  lasted  from  November  3,  1857, 
to  January  31,  1858,  cost  £60,000,  hydraulic 
pressure  being  employed.  Her  extreme  length 
is  680  feet ;  breadth,  82  1-2  feet,  and  includ- 
ing paddle-boxes,  118  feet ;  height,  58  feet,  or 
70  feet  to  top  of  bulwarks.  She  has  8  engines, 
capable  in  actual  work  of  11,000  horse  power, 
and  has,  besides,  20  auxiliary  engines.  The 
ship's  history  presents  a  singular  series  of  vicis- 
situdes. She  left  the  Thames  September  8, 
1859,  on  her  trial  trip  across  the  Atlantic  ;  an 
explosion  of  steam  pipes  took  place  off  Hast- 
ings ;  seven  persons  were  killed,  and  several 
wounded  ;  and  the  voyage  abruptly  came  to  an 
end  at  Weymouth.  After  a  winter  spent  in 
costly  repairs,  the  ship  started  again  on  June 
17,  1860.  Leaving  Southampton  on  that  day, 
she  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  eleven  days,  and 
reached  New  York  on  the  28th.  During  the 
remainder  of  1860,  and  the  greater  part  of  1861, 
she  made  many  voyages  to  and  fro,  losing 
money  by  the  insufficiency  of  the  receipts  to 
meet  the  current  expenses,  and  constantly  re- 
quired  repairs.      In    December  of  the  latter 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


631 


year  she  was  used  as  a  troop  ship  to  convey 
troops  to  Canada.  The  years  1862  to  1864 
were  a  blank  as  concerns  the  history  of  the 
steamer.  In  1864  she  was  employed  by  the 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company  as  a  cable-laying 
ship,  and  continued  in  such  service  during 
1865  and  1866.  In  1867,  when  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  Paris  International  Exhibition 
were  approaching  completion,  a  body  of  specu- 
lators chartered  the  Great  Eastern  for  a  certain 
number  of  months,  to  convey  visitors  from  New 
York  to  Havre  and  back  ;  but  the  speculation 
proved  an  utter  failure,  there  being  neither 
wages  for  the  seamen  and  engineers,  nor  profits 
for  the  speculators.  In  1868  the  ship  was 
again  chartered  by  the  Telegraph  Construction 
and  Maintenance  Company.  On  October  28, 
1885,  the  Great  Eastern  was  sold  at  public 
auction  for  $126,000. 

Giant's  Causeway. —  The  name  Giant's 
Causeway  is  often  applied  to  the  entire  range 
of  cliffs  in  the  County  Antrim,  on  the  north- 
east coast  of  Ireland,  but  it  properly  belongs 
to  only  a  small  portion  of  them,  which  is  a 
platform  of  basalt  in  closely  arranged  columns, 
from  fifteen  to  thirty-six  feet  high,  which  ex- 
tends from  a  steep  cliff  down  into  the  sea  till 
it  is  lost  below  low- water  mark.  This  plat- 
form is  divided  across  its  breadth  into  three 
portions,  the  Little,  Middle,  and  Grand  Cause- 
way, these  being  separated  from  each  other  by 
dikes  of  basalt.  The  columns  are  generally 
hexagonal  prisms,  but  they  are  also  found  of 
five,  seven,  eight,  and  nine  sides,  in  almost 
every  instance  being  fitted  together  with  the 
utmost  precision,  even  so  that  water  cannot 
penetrate  between  adjoining  columns.  The 
name  "  causeway  "  was  given  to  the  platform 
because  it  appeared  to  primitive  imagination 
to  be  a  road  to  the  water,  prepared  for  giants. 

Golden  Fleece,  The. —  According  to 
Greek  tradition,  Pelias,  King  of  Iolcos,  in 
Thessaly,  dethroned  the  rightful  King  jEson 
and  endeavored  to  kill  his  son  Jason,  who  was, 
however,  saved  by  his  parents,  who  conveyed 
him  by  night  to  the  cave  of  the  centaur  Chiron, 
to  whose  care  they  committed  him,  and  then 
gave  out  that  he  was  dead.  He  remained  with 
Chiron  until  he  was  twenty  years  of  age  and 
then  went  to  claim  his  father's  crown.  Pelias 
agreed  to  surrender  the  kingdom  to  Jason  pro- 
vided he  brought  him  the  golden  fleece  from 
Colchis,  expectingthat  he  would  never  attempt 
it,  or,  if  he  did,  would  surely  perish  in  the  rash 
adventure.  One  of  the  myths  of  the  fleece  is 
that  Ino,  second  wife  of  Athamas,  King  of 
Orchomenus,  in  Bceotia,  wished  to  destroy 
Phrixus,  son  of  Athamas ;  but  he  and  Helle 
were  saved  by  their  mother,  Nephele,  who  gave 
them  a  golden  fleeced  ram  she  had  obtained 


from  Mercury,  which  carried  them  through 
the  air  over  sea  and  land.  Helle  fell  into  the 
sea,  and  it  was  named  Hellespontus.  Phrixus 
went  on  to  Colchis,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived, and  sacrificed  the  ram  to  Jupiter  Phyx- 
ius,  and  gave  the  golden  fleece  to  iEetes,  who 
nailed  it  to  an  oak  in  the  grove  of  Mars,  where 
it  was  watched  over  by  a  sleepless  dragon. 
Jason,  by' heralds,  announced  the  great  under- 
taking throughout  the  land,  and  all  the  heroes 
of  Greece  flocked  to  his  assistance,  and  the 
famous  company  were  called  the  "  Argo- 
nauts," from  the  name  of  their  ship,  Argo, 
which  was  built  for  them  by  Argus,  with  the 
aid  of  Minerva.  After  a  voyage  of  varied 
adventure  the  heroes  reached  Colchis,  and 
Jason  explained  the  cause  of  his  voyage  to 
iEetes  ;  but  the  conditions  on  which  he  was  to 
recover  the  golden  fleece  were  so  hard  that  the 
Argonauts  must  have  perished  had  not  Medea, 
the  king's  daughter,  fallen  in  love  with  their 
leader.  She  had  a  conference  with  Jason,  and 
after  mutual  oaths  of  fidelity  Medea  pledged 
herself  to  deliver  the  Argonauts  from  her 
father's  hard  conditions  if  Jason  would  marry 
her  and  carry  her  with  him  to  Greece.  He 
was  to  tame  two  bulls  which  had  brazen  feet 
and  breathed  flame  from  their  throats.  When 
he  had  yoked  these,  he  was  to  plow  with  them 
a  piece  of  ground,  and  sow  the  serpent's  teeth 
which  ^Eetes  possessed.  All  this  was  to  be 
performed  in  one  day.  Medea,  who  was  an 
enchantress,  gave  him  a  salve  to  rub  on  his 
body,  shield,  and  spear.  The  virtue  of  this 
salve  would  last  an  entire  day,  and  protect 
alike  against  fire  and  steel.  She  further  told 
him  that  when  he  had  sown  the  teeth  a  crop 
of  armed  men  would  spring  up  and  prepare  to 
attack  him.  Among  these  she  desired  him  to 
fling  stones,  and  while  they  were  fighting  with 
one  another  about  them,  each  imagining  that 
the  other  had  thrown  the  stones,  to  fall  on  and 
slay  them.  All  of  these  things  were  done  by 
Jason,  but  ^etes  refused  to  give  the  fleece, 
and  meditated  burning  the  Argo,  Jason's  ves- 
sel, and  slaying  her  crew.  Medea,  anticipat- 
ing him,  led  Jason  by  night  to  the  golden 
fleece ;  with  her  drugs  she  put  to  sle«p  the 
serpent  which  guarded  it ;  and  then,  taking 
her  little  brother  Absyrtus  out  of  his  bed,  she 
embarked  with  him  in  the  Argo,  and  the  ves- 
sel set  sail  while  it  was  yet  night.  They  were 
pursued  by  iEetes,  when  Medea  killed  her 
brother  and  threw  his  body  into  the  sea  piece 
by  piece,  thus  delaying  the  king,  who  stopped 
to  gather  up  the  remains,  leaving  the  Argo- 
nauts to  escape.  After  many  months  of  toil 
and  numerous  trials  they  at  last  reached  Iolcos, 
and  the  Argo  was  consecrated  by  Jason,  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth,  to  Neptune. 


632 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


The  Armed  Strength  of  Europe. 

TABLE  SHOWING  RESOURCES  IN  THE  EVENT  OF  A  GENERAL  CONFLICT. 

LAND  FORCES. 


Classes. 

Germany. 

France. 

Italy. 

Austria- 
Hungary. 

Russia. 

Great 
Britain.* 

Turkey. 

Active  Army  and  Reserve. 

Officers 

Non-com.  Officers  and  Men 

22,803 

1,963,517 

168,410 

107,960 

2,864 

33,400 

23.600 
2,190,672 

4,201 
93,700 

1,920 

19,455 
992,500 

65,258 

5,146.689 

201,660 

4,784 

396,782 
72,300 
86,516 
36,113 

120,300 
2,864 

591,715 

120,300 

2,864 

22. 106 
1,998,604 
34,654 
112,800 
3,400 
32,982 

19.402 
1,911.512 
17,618 
83,416 
1,680 
3,600 

18,960 
914,600 

424 

60,468 

4,824,716 

196,216 

5,504 

378,914 
72,100 
83,620 
27,214 

118,700 
3,400 

561,848 

118,700 

3,400 

17,600 
652,612 
10,000 
56,700 
1.268 
14,600 

18,424 

592,112 

3,700 

744 

18,940 
912,100 

54,964 

2,556,824 

68  000 

2,012 

130,600 
28,200 
34,800 
13,860 
59,000 
1,268 

208,060 

59,000 

1,268 

17,328 
749,868 
12.315 
59,800 
1.024 
17,000 

16,962 
364,800 

3,211 
23,680 

1,200 

22,900 
497,850 

57,188 

1,612,018 

83,480 

2,824 

189.320 
39,400 
35,100 
15,300 
67,000 
1,624 

279,120 

67,000 

1,624 

27,912 

1,120,602 

42,000 

162,100 

2,312 

29,800 

18,790 

2,576,840 

16.000 

143,816 

3.636 

6,800 

18,964 
1,372,416 

65.6C6 

5,069,858 

305,916 

5,948 

496,000 
121,400 
112,000 
34,000 
178,600 
2,312 

761,400 

178,600 

2,312 

7,786 

197,925 

8,145 

29,000 

720 

|        82,652 

J      128,612 
18,000 

J      425,120 
4,700 

146,999 
19,361 
36,977 
7,900 
29,000 
720 

211,237 

29,000 

720 

9,300 
192,000 

31,000 

696 

First  Reserve. 
Officers 

(       13,600 
\     49J.00O 

64,000 

Second  Reserve. 
Officers 

Grand  War  Total. 

(       29.900 

|  1,084  ono 

95.000 

696 

Peace  Establishment. 

158,800 

32.400 

18,200 

28,(00 

36,000 

696 

Tot.  Peace  Establishment. 

237,400 

36,600 

696 

This  table  does  not  include  fortress  guns. 


*  Including  regular  forces  in  India  and  the  colonies. 
LAND  FORCES. 


Classes. 


Infantry 59,600 

Cavalry 9,800 

Artillery 15,300 

Engineers  and  Train 6,512 

Total  Active  Army 907212 

East  Indian  Troops 

Sanitary     and     Administfative 

Troops 17.600 

West  Indian  Troops *52.000 

Philippine  Troops 17,600 

First  Reserves 180,000 

Second  Reserves 1,000.000 

Total  Peace  Strength I    177,412 

Total  War  Strength 1,357,412 


- 


31,690 
6,213 
8,740 
2,600 


49,273 

5,100 

65,600 
50,000 
54,343 
169,943 


C  a 


43,400 
4,290 

12,960 
1,896 


62,546 
40,000 

4,600 
1,900 

53, 000 
78,001 
116,046 
2467046 


24.470 

2.4D0 

9,616 

_  L200J 

377686 


O 


3,200 
1,400 

42,000 
48,000 
>2.286 


12,000 
1,200 
2,800 

4.1  III  I 
20,100 

1,200 


120,300 
3,100 
9,812 
6,214 

129,426 

4,200 


2-9  & 

~  -  ^ 
o  c  > 

SI      £ 


Danubian 

States. 


Bul- 
garia. 


Ser- 
via. 


c  a 
At 


38,840 


1,600 


22,100      52,300 

2,492        7,800 

4,820       3,100 

1,950  _    2,100 

"31,362  ~  65,300 


2,000        2,400 


33,112 
2,300 
2.000 
1,620 

39,032 


2,700 


90,000      81,000  90,000      83,000!  41,000      84,000 

120,000    270,000  125.000  JllO.OOO  165,000    132,000 

~2T.300J~133,626|  41,440      33,362  67,700J~~41.732 

1327286    231,300!   484,626  225,440    226,362  173  700    257. 733 


*  Remaining  in  Cuba  November  30, 1898. 

CONDITIONS  OF  SERVICE  AND  AVAILABLE   STRENGTH  OF  POWERS. 

Every  year  the  young  men  who  attain  the  age  in  which  they  are  available  for  military  service  are  enrolled,  in 
advance,  in  every  European  country.  These  ages  run  generally  from  21  to  45,  and  this  time  is  divided  up  by  serv- 
ice; first,  in  the  active  army,  which  answers  to  our  regular  establishment;  second,  in  the  reserve  to  the  active 
army;  third,  in  the  Landwehr ;  fourth,  in  the  Landsturm,  in  which  they  are  never  called  out,  except  in  time  of 
war,  and  then  for  defense  of  the  fatherland  only. 


Liberty  Bell  was  cast  in  London  in  1752 
by  order  of  the  Pennsylvania  Assembly,  for 
use  in  their  State  House.  The  bell  reached 
Philadelphia  the  following  year,  but  it  cracked 
without  any  apparent  reason  when  it  was  rung 
to  test  the  sound,  and  it  was  necessary  to  have 


it  recast.  This  was  done  by  Philadelphia 
workmen,  and  in  June,  1753,  it  was  again 
hung  in  the  belfry  of  the  State  House.  On 
July  4,  1776,  when  the  Continental  Congress 
declared  the  colonies  independent  of  Great 
Britain,  the  bell  was  rung   for   two  hours,  so 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


633 


the  story  goes,  by  the  old  bellman,  who  was  so 
filled  with  enthusiasm  and  excitement  that  he 
could  not  stop.  It  was  taken  down  when  the 
British  threatened  Philadelphia  in  1777,  and 
removed  to  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  but  was  returned 
to  the  State  House  in  1778,  and  a  new  steeple 
was  built  for  it.  A  few  years  afterward  it 
cracked  under  a  stroke  of  the  hammer,  and 
although  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  restore 
its  tone  by  sawing  the  crack  wider,  it  has  been 
unsuccessful.  During  the  World's  Fair  in 
New  Orleans  in  1885,  the  bell  was  sent  there 
for  exhibition.  It  left  Philadelphia,  January 
24th,  in  the  charge  of  three  custodians  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor  of  the  city,  who  did  not 
leave  it  day  or  night  until  it  was  returned  in 
June  of  the  same  year.  The  train  carrying 
the  bell  was  preceded  over  the  entire  route  by  a 
pilot  engine.  The  following  words  are  in- 
scribed around  it :  "  By  order  of  the  Assembly 
of  the  Province  of  Pennsylvania,  for  the  State 
House,  in  the  City  of  Philadelphia,  1752," 
and  underneath,  "Proclaim  liberty  through 
all  the  land  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof  — 
Levit.  xxv.  10."  Its  weight  is  about  2,000 
pounds. 

Sizes  of  Books. — The  name  indicates 
the  number  of  pages  in  the  sheet,  thus :  in  a 
folio  book,  4  pages  or  2  leaves  =  1  sheet;  a 
quarto,  or  4to,  has  8  pages  or  4  leaves  to  a 
sheet ;  an  octavo,  or  8vo,  16  pages  or  8  leaves 
to  a  sheet.  In  a  12mo,  24  pages  or  12  leaves 
=  one  sheet,  and  the  18mo,  36  pages,  or  18 
leaves  =  1  sheet,  and  so  on.  The  following 
are  the  approximate  sizes  of  books  : — 

Royal  Folio 19  inches  X  12 

Demy 18       "  X  11 

Super  Imp.  Quarto  (4to) 15%  "  X  13 

Roval4to i2Vi  "  X  10 

Deiny4to 11V2  "  X    8y> 

Crown4to 11       "  x    8 

Royal  Octavo 10%"  X    6% 

Medium8vo 9V2  "  X    6 

Demy  8vo 9       "  x    5% 

Crown8vo t\/2  "  x    4% 

Foolscap  8vo 7       "  X    4 

12mo 7       "  X    4 

16mo 6l/2  "  X    4 

Square  16mo 4V2  "  X    3% 

Royal  24mo 5%  "  X    3X4 

Demv  24mo 5      "  X    2% 

Rova"l32mo 5       "  X    3 

Post32mo 4      "  x    2V2 

Demy  48mo 3%  "  x    2V4 

Boomerang  is  an  instrument  of  war  or  of 
the  chase  used  by  the  aborigines  of  Australia. 
It  is  of  hard  wood,  of  a  bent  form  ;  the  shape 
is  parabolic.  It  is  about  two  and  a  half  inches 
broad,  a  third  of  an  inch  thick,  and  two  feet 
long,  the  extremities  being  rounded.  The 
method  of  using  this  remarkable  weapon  is 
very  peculiar.  It  is  taken  by  one  end,  with 
the  bulged  side  downward,  and  thrown  for- 
ward as  if  to  hit  some  object  twenty-five  yards 
in  advance.     Instead  of  continuing  to  go  di- 


rectly forward,  as  would  naturally  be  expected, 
it  slowly  ascends  in  the  air,  whirling  round  and 
round,  and  describing  a  curved  line  till  it 
reaches  a  considerable  height,  when  it  begins 
to  retrograde,  and  finally  sweeps  over  the  head 
of  the  projector  and  falls  behind  him.  This 
surprising  motion  is  produced  by  the  reaction 
of  the  air  upon  a  missile  of  this  peculiar  shape. 
The  boomerang  is  one  of  the  ancient  instru- 
ments of  war  of  the  natives  of  Australia.  They 
are  said  to  be  very  dexterous  in  hitting  birds 
with  it — -the  birds,  being,  of  course,  behind 
them,  and  perhaps  not  aware  that  they  are  ob- 
jects of  attack. 

United  States  Census  of  1890. 

Popula-  Square  Elector- 

STATES.  Hon.  Miles,  al  vole. 

Alabama 1.513,017  52.250  10 

Arkansas 1,128.179  53,850  7 

California 1,208,130  158.360  8 

Colorado  412,198  103,925  3 

Connecticut 746,258  4,990  G 

Delaware 168,493  2,050  3 

Florida 391,422  58,680  4 

Georgia 1,837,353  59,475  12 

Idaho 84.385  84,800  •    3 

Illinois 3,826,351  56,650  22 

Indiana 2,192.404  36,350  15 

Iowa 1,911,896  56,025  13 

Kansas 1,427,096  82,080  9 

Kentucky 1,858,635  40,400  13 

Louisiana 1,118.587  48.720  8 

Maine 661,086  33,040  6 

Maryland 1,042,390  12.210  8 

Massachusetts 2,238.943  8,315  14 

Michigan 2,093,889  58,915  13 

Minnesota 1,301.826  83,365  7 

Mississippi 1,289.600  46,810  9 

Missouri 2,679,184  69,415  16 

Montana  132,159  146,080  3 

Nebraska  1,058,910  77.510  5 

Nevada 45,761  110,700  3 

New  Hampshire 376  530  9,305  4 

New  Jersey 1,444,933  7,815  9 

New  York  5,997,853  49,170  36 

North  Carolina 1,617,947  52,250  11 

North  Dakota 182,719  68,645  3 

Ohio 3,672,316  41,060  23 

Oregon 313,767  96,030  3 

Pennsylvania 6,258,014  45,215  30 

Rhode  Island 345,506  1,250  4 

South  Carolina 1,151.149  30.570  9 

South  Dakota 328,808  79.800  4 

Tennessee 1,766.518  42,050  12 

Texas 2,235.523  265,780  13 

Vermont 332.422  9,565  4 

Virginia 1,655,980  42,450  12 

Washington 349,390  69,180  3 

"West  Virginia 762,794  24,780  6 

Wisconsin 1,686.880  56,040  11 

Wyoming 60,705  97,890  3 

Delaware,  Raritan,  and  New 

York  Bays 720 

Total,  States.    61,908,906  2,634,530      420 
TERRITORIES. 

Arizona 59,620  113,020 

District  of  Columbia 230,392  70 

New  Mexico 153,593  122,580 

Oklahoma 61,834  39,450 

Utah 207,905  84,970 

Total,  Territories,         713,344      360,090 

Excluding  Alaska,  Indian  Ter. 

and  Indians.  .Grand  Total,  62,622,250 

Straslmrg  Clock The  celebrated  as- 
tronomical clock  of  Strasburg  is  in  the  minster, 
or  cathedral,  and  was  originally  designed  by 
an  astronomer  named  Isaac  Habrecht,  in  the 


634 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Previous 
to  this  time,  in  fact  as  early  as  1.354,  Stras- 
burg  had  an  astronomical  clock.  It  was  in 
three  parts.  The  lower  part  had  a  universal 
calendar,  the  central  part  an  astrolabe,  and  in 
the  upper  division  were  figures  of  the  three 
Magi  and  the  Virgin.  At  every  hour  the 
Magi  came  forward  and  bowed  to  the  Virgin  ; 
at  the  same  time  a  chime  was  played,  and  a 
mechanical  cock  crew.  This  Clock  of  the 
Magi,  as  it  was  called,  stopped  in  the  early 
part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  was  replaced 
by  the  clock  made  by  Habrecht,  which  ran  un- 
til 1789,  when  it  stopped,  and  all  attempts  to 
put  its  works  in  order  failed.  In  1838  a  clock- 
maker  named  Schwilgue  undertook  to  remodel 
the  internal  machinery,  and  finished  it  in  1842. 
The  case  of  the  clock  made  by  Habrecht  was 
retained.  A  perpetual  calendar,  forming  a 
ring  around  a  dial  thirty  feet  in  circumference, 
occupies  the  central  part  of  the  lower  division 
of  the  clock.  At  midnight,  December  31st, 
the  clock  regulates  itself  (for  the  new  year) 
for  365  or  366  days,  as  the  case  may  be  —  even 
the  omission  of  the  bissextile  day  every  400 
years  being  provided  for.  The  disk  within  the 
calendar  shows  the  eclipses  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  calculated  for  all  time  to  come.  On 
one  side  Apollo  points  with  an  arrow  to  the 
date  and  name  of  the  saint  for  the  day.  On 
the  opposite  side  stands  Diana,  the  goddess  of 
night.  Above  the  calendar  is  a  niche  in  which, 
on  each  day,  the  mythological  deity  of  the  day 
appears — Apollo  on  Sunday,  Diana  on  Monday, 
Mars  on  Tuesday,  Mercury  on  Wednesday, 
Jupiter  on  Thursday,  Venus  on  Friday,  and 
Saturn  on  Saturday.  Above  this  is  a  dial 
marking  the  mean  time  in  hours  and  quarters, 
with  two  genii,  one  on  each  side,  the  one 
striking  the  first  stroke  of  every  quarter,  the 
other  turning  over  the  hourglass  at  the  last  stroke 
of  the  last  quarter.  Then  follows  an  orrery, 
showing  the  revolution  of  the  seven  visible  plan- 
ets around  the  sun,  and,  above,  a  globe  giving  the 
phases  of  the  moon.  Still  above  this,  in  a  niche, 
four  figures  revolve  around  the  skeleton  image  of 
Death,  in  the  center.  Childhood  strikes  the 
first  quarter,  Youth  the  second,  Manhood  the 
third,  and  old  Age  the  last  —  Death  strikes 
the  hour.  In  a  higher  niche  stands  the  image 
of  our  Saviour.  At  twelve  o'clock  the  Twelve 
Apostles  pass  before  Him  in  line,  and  He  raises 
His  hands  to  bless  them.  St.  Peter  closes  the 
procession,  and,  as  he  passes,  the  mechanical 
cock  on  top  of  the  case  flaps  his  wings  and  crows 
three  times.  The  left  turret  ©f  this  wonderful 
clock  contains  the  weights  and  machinery,  and 
has  in  its  lower  part  the  portrait  of  Schwilgue, 
above  this  the  figure  of  Copernicus,  and  yet 
above,   the  muse  Urania.      At  the  foot  of  the 


case  is  a  celestial  globe,  calculated  for  observa- 
tion at  the  latitude  of  Strasburg.  The  clock 
is  wound  up  every  eight  days.  The  mythical 
story  of  the  city  fathers  of  Strasburg  putting  out 
the  eyes  of  the  clockmaker  to  prevent  his  build- 
ing a  similar  clock  refers  to  Isaac  Habrecht. 

Age. — A  man's  working  life  is  divided  into 
four  decades  :  20  to  30,  bronze  ;  30  to  40,  silver  ; 
40  to  50,  gold;  50  to  60,  iron.  Intellect  and 
judgment  are  strongest  between  40  and  50. 
The  percentages  of  population  to  age  in  various 
countries  are  shown  thus  : — 


Percentage  of  Population. 

Country. 

Under 
20  Years. 

From 
20  to  60 

Over  60. 

of  all  living, 
Years- 

United  States... 

50 
46 
46 
46 
36 
43 
44 
43 
48 
42 
46 
40 
43 
42 
43 
43 

45 
47 
45 
43 
52 
49 
49 
50 
47 
52 
45 
50 
49 
50 
49 
48 

5 

7 
9 
11 
12 
8 
7 
7 
5 
6 
9 
10 
8 
8 
8 
9 

24.9 
27.1 

27.4 

28.6 

32.2 

Italy 

28.0 
27.6 

27.7 

Greece 

25.5 

27.2 

27.3 
29.7 

28.3 

28.4 
28.0 

28.0 

The  Americans  are  the  youngest,  the  French  the 
oldest. 

Garter,  Order  of  The,  was  founded  in 
1344,  some  writers  say  1350,  by  Edward  III. 
The  original  number  of  knights  was  twenty- 
five,  his  majesty  himself  making  the  twenty- 
sixth.  It  was  founded  in  honor  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  St.  Edward  the 
Confessor,  and  St.  George.  The  last,  who 
had  become  the  tutelary  saint  of  England,  was 
considered  its  special  patron,  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  has  alway  borne  the  title  of  ' '  The  Order 
of  St.  George,"  as  well  as  that  of  "  The  Gar- 
ter." The  emblem  of  the  order  is  a  dark  blue 
ribbon,  edged  with  gold,  bearing  the  motto, 
Honisoit  qui  mal  ypense,  in  golden  letters,  with 
a  buckle  and  pendant  of  gold  richly  chased. 
It  is  worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the  knee. 
Regarding  the  adoption  of  this  emblem  and 
motto,  the  story  is  that  the  Countess  of  Salis- 
bury let  fall  her  garter  when  dancing  with  the 
king,  and  that  he  picked  it  up  and  tied  it  round 
his  own  leg,  but  that,  observing  the  jealous 
glances  of  the  queen,  he  restored  it  to  its  fair 
owner,  with  the  exclamation,  Honi  soit  qui  vial 
y  pense.  The  Order  of  the  Garter,  though  not 
the  most  ancient,  is  one  of  the  most  famous 
military  orders  of  Europe.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  devised  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  to 
the  king's  party  such  soldiers  of  fortune  as 
might  be  likely  to  aid  in  asserting  the  claim 
which  he  was  then  making  to  the  crown  of 
France,  and  intended  as  an  imitation  of  King 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


335 


Arthur's  Round  Table.  The  officers  of  the 
order  are  the  Prelate,  the  Chancellor,  the  Reg- 
ister, the  Garter  King  of  Arms,  and  the  Usher 
of  the  Black  Rod. 

Number  of  Miles  from  New  York  to 


Adrian ,  Mich 775 

Akron,  Ohio 610 

Albany,  N.Y 143 

Alexandria,  Va 238 

Algiers,  La  1,551 

Allegheny,  Pa 434 

Allentown.Pa 92 

Alton,  111 1,060 

Annapolis,  Md 222 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 716 

Atchison,  Kan 1,368 

Atlanta,  Ga 1,018 

Auburn,  N.Y 328 

Augusta,  Me 407 

Augusta,  Ga 887 

Aurora,  111 951 

Baltimore,  Md 188 

Bangor,  Me 482 

Bath,  Me 382 

Baton  Rouge,  La 1,320 

Belfast.Me 424 

Bellefontaine,  Ohio..  658 

Binghaniton,  N.  Y...  215 

Blackstone,  Mass 272 

Bloomington,  111 1,037 

Boston,  Mass 236 

Bristol,  R.I 215 

Bucyrus,  Ohio 632 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 433 

Burlington,  N.  J 74 

Burlington,  Iowa 1,122 

Burlington,  Yt 280 

Cambridge,  Mass 239 

Camden,  N.J 91 

Canandaigua,  N.  Y...  377 

Carson  City,  Nevada.  2,800 

Chanibersburg,  Pa. ..  246 

Charleston,  S.  C 874 

Charlestown,  Mass. . .  '235 

Chattanooga,  Tenn...  980 

Chicago.  Ill 911 

Chillicothe,  Ohio 645 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 744 

Circleville,  Ohio 640 

Cleveland,  Ohio 581 

Columbia,  S.  C 744 

Columbus,  Ohio 624 

Concord,  N.  H 308 

Covington,  Kv 745 

Cumberland,  Md 364 

Davenport,  Iowa 1,093 

Dayton,  Ohio 804 

Denver,  Col 1,980 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 1,251 

Detroit,  Mich 679 

Dover,  N.  H 304 

Dubuque,  Iowa 1,100 

Dunkirk,  N.  Y 460 

Elmira,  N.Y 274 

Erie,  Pa 508 

Evansville,  Ind 1,021 

Fall  River,  Mass 180 

Fitehburg,  Mass 218 

FortKearnev,  Neb...  1,598 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 763 

Fredericksburg,  Va..  296 

Galena,   111 1,083 

Galesburg,  111 1,076 

Galveston,  Tex 1,900 

Georgetown ,  D.  C 228 

Hamilton,  Ohio 766 

Harrisburg,  Pa 182 

Hartford,  Conn 112 

Hudson,  N.Y 115 

Indianapolis,  Ind 838 

Jackson,  Miss 1,498 

Jefferson  City,  Mo...  1,210 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 822 

Kansas  Citv,  Mo 1,361 

Kingston,  N.Y 88 


Lafayette,  Ind 903 

Lansing,  Mich 785 

Lawrence,  Mass 262 

Leavenworth,  Kan. . .  1,385 

Lexington,  Ky 840 

Lexington,  Mo 1,354 

Little  Rock,  Ark 1,430 

Lockport,  N.Y 507 

Louisville,  Kv 900 

Lowell,  Mass 261 

Lynchburg,  Va 404 

Macon,  Ga 1,121 

Madison,  Wis 1,049 

Memphis,  Tenn 1,289 

Milledgeville,  Ga 1,100 

Milwaukee,  Wis 996 

Mobile,  Ala 1,370 

Montgomery,  Ala 1,193 

Montpelier,  Vt 454 

Nashua,  N.  H 275 

Nashville,  Tenn 1,085 

New  Albany,  Ind 903 

New  Bedford,  Mass..      181 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J..       32 

Newburgh.N.  Y 53 

New  Haven ,  Conn 76 

New  Orleans.  La 1,550 

Newport,  Ky 744 

Newport,  R.  1 162 

Norwalk,  Conn 45 

Omaha,  Neb 1,455 

Oswego,  N.Y 237 

Paterson,  N.  J 17 

Peoria,  111 1,072 

Petersburg,  Va 378 

Philadelphia,  Pa 88 

Pittsburg,  Pa 431 

Portland,  Me 344 

Providence,  R.  1 193 

Quincy,  111 1,176 

Racine,  Wis 976 

Raleigh,  N.  C 669 

Reading,  Pa 128 

Richmond,  Va 356 

Rochester,  N.  Y 386 

Rock  Island,  111 1,093 

Rome,  N.  Y 264 

Roxbury,Mass 238 

Sacramento,  Cal 2,900 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 1,384 

St.  Louis,  Mo 1,084 

St.  Paul,  Minn 1,441 

Salem,  Mass 252 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah.  2,410 

San  Francisco,  Cal 3,038 

Sandusky,  Ohio 642 

Saratoga,  N.  Y 182 

Savannah,  Ga 974 

Scranton,Pa "  142 

Springfield,  111 1,062 

Springfield,  Mass 138 

Springfield,  Ohio 828 

Staunton,  Va 486 

Stonington,  Conn 143 

Syracuse,  N.Y 302 

Taunton,  Mass 210 

Tallahassee,  Fla 1,190 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 912 

Toledo,  Ohio 742 

Tonawanda,  N.  Y 463 

Trenton,  N.  J 58 

Troy,  N.Y 148 

Utica,  N.  Y 237 

Vicksburg,  Miss 1 ,642 

Washington,  D.  C . . . .      230 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 522 

Wilmington,  Del 116 

Wilmington.  N.  (  . . . .      604 
Worcester,  Mass 192 


Number    of    Miles  by    Water    from 
New  York  to 

3,510    Kingston 1,640 

660    Lima 11,310 

11,574    Liverpool 3,210 

310    London 3,375 

7,110    Madras 11,850 

12,425    Naples 4,330 

13,900    New  Orleans 2,045 

8,115    Panama 2,358 

6,830    Pekin 15,325 

750    Philadelphia 240 

15,965    Quebec 1,400 

5,140    Rio  Janeiro 3,840 

3,225    Round  the  Globe 25,000 

3,300  Sandwich  Islands...  15,300 

612    San  Francisco 15,858 

3,775    St.  Petersburg 4,420 

1,420    Valparaiso 9,750 

3,210    Washington 400 


Amsterdam 

Bermuda 

Bombay .... 

Boston 

Buenos  Ayres 

Calcutta 

Canton 

Cape  Horn 

Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Charleston 

Columbia  River 

Constantinople 

Dublin 

Gibraltar 

Halifax 

Hamburg 

Havana 

Havre 


Patents   Issued   Since   1852. 


Patents  and  Certificates  of  Registration  Issued 

Year 

Patents 

Designs 

Reis- 
sues 

Total 
Patents 

Trade- 
marks 

Labels 

Tot.nl 
Certifi- 
cates 

1852 

890 

109 

20 

1,019 

1860 

4,363 

183 

232 

4,778 







1870 

12,157 

737 

439 

13,333 

121 



121 

1880 

12,926 

515 

506 

13,947 

349 

203 

552 

1890 

25.322 

886 

84 

26,292 

1,415 

304 

1,719 

1891 

22,328 

836 

80 

23,244 

1,762 

a  137 

1,899 

1892 

22.661 

817 

81 

23,559 

1,737 

6 

1,743 

1893 

22,768 

902 

99 

23,769 

1.677 



1,677 

1894 

19.875 

928 

64 

28,867 

1,806 



1,806 

1895 

20,883 

1,115 

59 

22,057 

1,829 

3 

1,832 

1896 

21,867 

1,445 

61 

23,273 

1,813 

61 

1,846 

1897 

22,098 

1,631 

65 

23,794 

1,671 

cl4 

1,701 

1898 

20,404 

1,803 

60 

22,267 

1,238 

df200 

1.473 

a  Registration  of  labels  practically  ceased  May  27, 
1891,  under  decision  of  United  States  Supreme  Court  in 
Higgins  et  al.  v.  Keuffel  etal.  (55  O.  G.,  1139V 

6  32  Prints.        c  16  Prints.        d  35  Prints. 

Note. —  The  number  of  patents  granted  prior  to  the 
commencement  of  this  series  of  numbering  (July  28, 
1836)  was  9957. 

The  whole  number  of  original  patents,  in- 
cluding designs,  issued  up  to  Dec.  31,  1898, 
was  646,785. 

Scales  of  Different  Thermometers. 


Reaumur. 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit 

Water  Boils. 

80° 

100" 

212° 

(Bar.  at  30  inch.) 

76 

95 

203 

72 

90 

194 

68 

85 

185 

63V2 

79V2 

174 

Alcohol  Boils. 

60 

75 

167 

56 

70 

158 

52 

65 

149 

48 

60 

140 

44 

55 

131 

43 

53 

127 

Tallow  Melts. 

40 

50 

122 

36 

45 

113 

34 

42V2 

108 

32 

40 

104 

Fever  Heat. 

29 

37 

98 

Blood  Heat. 

28 

35 

95 

25% 

32i/4 

90 

24 

30 

86 

21% 

26% 

80 

20 

25 

77 

19 

24 

76 

Summer  Heat. 

16 

20 

68 

13% 

17V4 

63 

12 

15 

59 

10 

13 

55 

Temperate. 

8 

10 

50 

Temp,  of  Spring 

5% 

34 
4% 

45 

Water. 

8J4 
VA 

40 

2 

35 

636 


THE   CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


0 

0 

32 

Water  Freezes, 

—  4 

—  5 

23 

—  5V2 

—  7 

20 

Wine  Freezes. 

—  8 

-10 

14 

—10 

-12V4 

10 

—12 

—15 

0 

—14 

—18 

0 

Zero,  Fahr. 

—16 

—20 

—  4 

—19 

—24 

—10 

—20 

—25 

—13 

—23 

—20 

—20 

—26 

—32 

—25 

—28 

—35 

—31 

—30 

-37 

—35 

—32 

—40 

—40 

Mercurv  Freezes. 

-103 

-130 

-200 

Pure  Alcohol  Freezes. 

No.  Brick  Required  to  Construct  amy 
Building. 

(Reckoning  7  Brick  to  each  superficial  foot.) 


Superficial  Feet 
of  Wall. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
in. 
20, 
30. 
M 

511. 
CO. 
70. 


Number  of  Bricks  to  Thickness  of 


90 

100 

200 

300 

400 !  3.000 

500 3,750 

600 4  r.oo 

700 !  5,250 

800 6  000 

900 B.780 

1000 1  7,500 


4inch.   8  inch.  12  inch.  16  inch.  20  inch.  24inch 

45 

90 

135 

180 

225 

270 

315 

360 

405 

450 

900 

1,350 

1,800 

2.250 

2,700 

3.150 

3,600 

4,050 

4,500 

9,000 

13,500 

18,000 

22,500 

27.000 

31.500 

36  000 

40.500 

45,000 


7 

15 

23 

30 

38 

45 

53 

60 

68 

75 

150 

225 

300 

375 

450' 

525 

600 

C75 

750 

1,500 

2  2.r0 


15 

311 

45 

60 

75 

90 

105 

120 

135 

150 

300 

450 

600 

750 

900 

1,050 

1,200 

1,350 

1,500 

3,000 

4,500 

6,000 

7,500 

9,000 

10,500 

12,000 

13,500 

15.000 


23 
45 

68 
90 
113 
135 

158 

180 

203 

225 

450 

675 

900 

1,125 

1,350 

1,575 

1,800 

2,f'2o 

2,250 

4,E00 

6.750 

9,000 

11.250 

13  500 

15,750 

18,000 

20.250 

22,500 


30 

60 

90 

120 

150 

180 

210 

240 

270 

300 

600 

900 

1,200 

1,500 

1,800 

2,100 

2,400 

2,700 

3,000 

6,000 

9,000 

12,000 

15,000 

18,000 

2l,f00 

24.000 

27,000 

30,000 


88 

75 

113 

150 

188 

225 

263 

300 

338 

375 

750 

1,125 

1,500 

1,875 

2.250 

2,625 

3,000 

3,375 

3,750 

7  500 

11,250 

15,000 

18,750 

22,500 

26,250 

30,000 

33,750 

37,500 


of  Various  Grains, 
and  Fruits. 


Lbs.  per 

Grass .- 

(  arrots 

Potatoes 

Apples 

Turnips 

Cinquefoil  grass 

Vetches,  green 

Cabbage 

Parsnips  

Mangel-Wurzel 


acre. 

7,000 
6  800 
7,500 
8,0C0 
8.420 
9,600 
9,800 
10,900 
11.200 
22,000 


Comparative  Yield 
Vegetables, 

.   Lbs.  per  acre.' 

Hops 442 

Wheat 1,260 

Barley 1,600 

Oats l.?40 

Pease 1,920 

Beans 2,000 

Plums 2,000 

Cherries 2,000 

Onions 2,800 

Hav 4,000 

Pears 5,000 

Yellowstone  Park  is  situated,  the 
greater  part,  in  Wyoming,  the  remainder  partly 
in  Montana  and  partly  in  Idaho,  and  comprises 
3,575  square  miles.  The  adaptability  of  this 
section  of  the  country  to  the  purposes  of  a 
national  park  was  first  brought  prominently 
before  the  public  by  a  company  of  surveyors 
who  visited  the  region  in  the  year  1869.  In 
1870  and  1871  the  territory  was  again  ex- 
plored by  scientific  expeditions,  and  the  re- 
ports of  the  first  visitors  were  confirmed.  The 
expedition    of    1871    was   headed   by    Profes- 


sor Ilayden,  and  upon  his  representations  an 
act  was  passed  by  Congress,  and  approved 
March  1,  1872,  by  which  what  is  now  known 
as  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  was  "re- 
served and  withdrawn  from  settlement,  occu- 
pancy, or  sale,  and  dedicated  and  set  apart  as  a 
public  park  or  pleasure-ground  for  the  benefit 
and  enjoyment  of  the  people."  This  great  park 
contains  the  most  striking  of  all  the  mountains, 
gorges,  falls,  rivers,  and  lakes  in  the  whole 
Yellowstone  region.  The  mountain  ranges 
rise  to  the  height  of  from  10,000  to  12,000  feet, 
and  are  always  covered  with  snow.  The  banks 
of  the  Yellowstone  river  abound  with  ravines 
and  canyons,  which  are  carved  out  of  the  heart 
of  the  mountains  through  the  hardest  rocks. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  canyon  of 
Tower  Creek  and  Column  Mountain,  which  is 
about  ten  miles  in  length,  and  is  so  deep  and 
gloomy  that  it  is  called  "  The  Devil's  Den." 
The  Grand  Canyon,  which  beginswhere  Tower 
Creek  ends,  is  twenty  miles  in  length,  is  im- 
passable throughout,  and  is  inaccessible  at  the 
water's  edge  except  at  a  few  points,  and  its 
depth  is  so  profound  that  no  sound  ever  reaches 
the  ear  from  the  bottom.  The  Park  contains 
a  great  multitude  of  hot  springs  of  sulphur, 
sulphate  of  copper,  alum,  etc.  There  are  at 
least  50  geysers  that  throw  columns  of  water  to 
the  height  of  from  50  to  200  feet,  and  the  falls 
of  this  wonderland  are  considered  marvelous. 
The  altitude  of  the  entire  Park  is  6,000  feet  or 
more  above  the  sea  level. 

Aqueducts. — Among  modern  works  the 
most  famous  are  : — 

Length.    Million  gal's 

Miles.  dailv.  Cost. 

Croton  (New  York) 41  88  S9.000,000 

Madrid 47  40  11.500,000 

Marseilles 51  60  2,250,000 

(Jlasgow 34  50  7,775,000 

Washington 16  90 

Rome,  in  the  time  of  the  Csesars,  had  nine 
aqueducts,  measuring  249  miles  in  the  aggre- 
gate, and  with  a  daily  capacity  of  320,000,000 
gallons,  or  200  gallons  per  inhabitant.  The 
great  aqueduct  of  Peru,  built  by  the  Incas, 
was  360  miles  long. 

Watches  of  the  Night. —  The  Jews,  like 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  says  the  Rev.  Dr. 
William  Smith  in  his  "  Bible  Dictionary," 
divided  the  night  into  watches  instead  of  hours, 
each  watch  representing  the  period  for  which 
sentinels  or  pickets  remained  on  duty.  The 
proper  Jewish  reckoning  recognized  only  three 
such  watches,  entitled  the  first  or  "  beginning 
of  the  watches  "  (Lamentations  ii,  19),  the 
middle  watch  (Judges  vii,  19),  and  the  morn- 
ing watch  (Exodus  xiv,  24  ;  T  Samuel  xi,  11). 
These  would  last,  respectively,  from  sunset  to 
ten   o'clock  p.  m.,  from  ten  o'clock  p.  m.  to 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


637 


two  o'clock  a.  m.,  and  from  two  o'clock  a.  k. 
to  sunrise.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
Roman  supremacy  the  number  of  the  watches 
was  increased  to  four,  which  were  described 
either  according  to  their  numerical  order,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  "  fourth  watch  "  (Matthew  xiv, 
25),  or  by  the  terms  "even,"  "midnight," 
"  cockcrowing, "  and  "  morning  "  (Mark  xiii, 
35).  These  terminated,  respectively,  at  nine 
o'clock  p.  m.,  midnight,  three  o'clock  a.  m., 
and  six  o'clock  a.  m. 

Walkyries. —  The  name  "  Walkyries  "  is 
derived  from  the  old  Norse  val,  which  signifies 
a  heap  of  slaughtered  men,  and  kjora,  to 
choose.  In  the  Scandinavian  mythology  the 
Walkyries,  also  called  battle-maidens,  shield- 
maidens,  and  wish-maidens,  are  beautiful 
young  women,  who,  adorned  with  golden  orna- 
ments, ride  through  the  air  in  brilliant  armor, 
order  battles  and  distribute  the  death-lots  ac- 
cording to  Odin's  command.  Fertilizing  dew- 
drops  on  the  ground  from  the  manes  of  their 
horses,  light  streams  from  the  points  of  their 
lances,  and  a  nickering  brightness  announce 
their  arrival  in  the  battle.  They  rejoice  the 
glazing  eye  of  the  hero  with  their  charming 
glances,  and  lead  him  to  Walhalla,  where  they 
act  as  his  cup-bearers.  Some  of  the  Walky- 
ries spring  from  elves  and  other  superhuman 
beings ;  some,  also,  are  the  daughters  of 
princes.  They  ride  generally  in  companies  of 
three,  or  of  three  times  three,  or  four  times 
three,  and  have  the  gift  of  changing  them- 
selves into  swans.  Whoever  deprives  a  Walky- 
rie  of  her  swan-robe  gets  her  into  his  power. 

Mourning  Customs. —  From  the  earliest 
times  the  manner  of  expressing  grief  at  death 
has  differed  in  different  countries.  The  He- 
brew period  of  mourning  was  usually  seven 
days ;  but  in  some  instances,  as  at  the  death 
of  Moses  and  Aaron,  it  was  extended  to  thirty 
days.  The  mourners  tore  their  clothing,  cut 
off  the  hair  and  beard,  strewed  ashes  on  their 
heads,  and  cast  themselves  on  the  ground, 
weeping  and  smiting  their  breasts.  The  Greeks 
mourned  thirty  days,  except  in  Sparta,  where 
the  mourning  period  was  limited  to  ten  days,  and 
wore  coarse  black  garments,  cut  off  their  hair, 
and  secluded  themselves  from  the  public  gaze. 
In  the  event  of  the  death  of  a  great  general, 
the  whole  army  cut  off  their  hair,  and  also  the 
manes  of  their  horses.  The  Roman  mourning 
period  lasted  only  a  few  days  ;  but  if  the  death 
was  that  of  some  great  ruler  or  general,  all 
business  was  stopped,  and  the  forum  and  the 
schools  were  closed.  Among  the  Fiji  Island- 
ers the  women  are  required  to  burn  their 
bodies  on  the  death  of  a  chief,  and  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands  the  people  go  into  mourning 
by  knocking  out  the  front  teeth  and  by  paint- 


ing the  lower  part  of  the  face  black.  The 
mourning  color  among  the  Romans  under  the 
republic  was  black  or  dark  blue  for  both  sexes, 
but  during  the  empire  the  women  wore  white. 
In  Europe  and  America  the  color  is  black  ;  in 
Turkey,  it  is  violet ;  in  China,  white  ;  in  Egypt, 
yellow  ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown.  It  is  customary 
for  the  courts  in  all  European  countries  to  go 
into  mourning  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of 
a  member  of  a  royal  family.  The  custom  of 
draping  buildings  on  the  death  of  a  great  man 
or  a  hero  of  national  reputation  has  always 
prevailed  in  the  United  States. 

Natural  Gas. —  The  earliest  use  of  natu- 
ral gas  of  which  there  is  any  record  is  in 
China,  where  for  centuries  it  has  been  con- 
veyed from  fissures  in  salt-mines  to  the  surface 
through  hollow  bamboos  and  used  for  burning 
purposes.  There  are  also  places  in  Asia,  near 
the  Caspian  Sea,  where  it  is  seen  to  issue  from 
the  earth,  and  a  similar  phenomenon  is  to  be 
seen  in  the  Szalatna  salt-mine  in  Hungary. 
The  first  discovery  of  natural  gas  made  in 
America  was  in  the  neighborhood  of  Fredonia, 
Chautauqua  County,  New  York,  early  in  this 
century.  In  1821  a  small  well  was  bored  in 
the  vdlage  and  the  gas  was  conducted  through 
pipes  to  the  houses  and  used  for  illuminating 
purposes,  and,  on  the  occasion  of  Lafayette's 
visit  in  1824,  it  is  said  that  the  village  was 
illuminated  with  this  gas.  Although  this  dis- 
covery was  widely  known  it  did  not  lead  to 
any  further  experiments,  either  in  the  neighbor- 
hood or  in  other  places,  till  fully  twenty  years 
after.  In  the  early  part  of  the  present  century 
it  was  found  that  the  wells  which  were  bored 
for  salt  in  the  Kanawha  Valley  yielded  large 
quantities  of  gas,  but  it  was  not  utilized  as 
fuel  until  1841.  In  1865,  a  well  which  was 
sunk  for  petroleum  at  West  Bloomfield,  New 
York,  struck  a  flow  of  natural  gas.  An  effort 
was  made  to  utilize  this,  and  it  was  carried  in 
a  wooden  main  to  the  city  of  Rochester,  a  dis- 
tance of  twenty-four  miles,  in  1870,  for  the 
purpose  of  illuminating  the  city,  but  the  ex- 
periment was  a  failure.  In  1873,  a  well  in 
Armstrong  County,  Pennsylvania,  was  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  gas  could  be  separated  from 
the  water  with  which  it  was  discharged,  and 
conveyed  through  pipes  to  several  mills  in 
that  vicinity,  where  it  was  extensively  used  for 
manufacturing  purposes  for  the  first  time. 
From  that  date  to  the  present  day  the  use  of 
natural  gas,  both  for  fuel  and  illuminating,  has 
increased  very  rapidly,  it  having  been  discov- 
ered in  other  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and 
Indiana. 

Associated  Press  was  organized  about 
thirty  years  ago  by  the  following  New  York 
city  papers:     Herald,   Tribune,    World,  Times, 


638 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Sun,  Evening  Express,  and  Journal  of  Com- 
merce, for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  col- 
lection of  news.  The  general  agent  of  the 
Association  is  located  in  New  York,  and  asso- 
ciate agents  in  Chicago,  Washington,  Cincin- 
nati, and  other  news  centers.  There  is  also  a 
complete  reportorial  staff,  and  the  news  col- 
lected is  used  not  only  by  the  syndicate  of  pa- 
pers, but  is  transmitted  by  telegraph  to  others 
in  almost  every  city  in  the  country  who  have 
secured  the  privilege  by  purchase. 

All  Fools'  Day. —  The  origin  of  the  cus- 
tom of  April  fooling  cannot  be  traced  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  In  the  literature  of  the 
last  century  there  are  found  many  references  to 
it,  and  yet  beyond  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to 
go.  One  suggestion  is  that  the  custom  of 
playing  tricks  on  the  first  day  of  April  was 
derived  from  some  ancient  pagan  custom,  such 
as  the  Huli  festival  among  the  Hindoos,  or  the 
Roman  Feast  of  the  Fools.  One  fact,  how- 
ever, we  do  know,  and  that  is  that  the  practice 
prevails  in  many  countries,  under  various 
names,  which  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it 
dates  away  back  to  the  early  history  of  the  race. 

Palmistry. — The  art  of  studying  the  lines 
in  the  palm,  to  discover  the  character  and 
fortunes  of  a  person,  was  practiced  in  ancient 
India  and  Greece.  The  subject  was  noticed 
by  Aristotle,  Pliny,  Paracelsus,  Albertus 
Magnus,  and  Cardan.  A  work  by  Johann 
Hartlieb  was  published  in  Augsburg,  in  1475. 
M.  le  capitaine  d'Arpentigny  and  M.  Adrien 
Desbarrolles  are  chief  modern  authorities.  L. 
Cotton's  "  Palmistry  "  was  published  in  1890, 
and  Dr.  Francis  Galton  published  his  study  of 
"FingerPrints"  in  1893. 

Pavements. — The  Carthaginians  are  said 
to  have  been  the  fir3t  who  paved  their  towns 
with  stones.  The  Romans,  in  the  time  of 
Augustus,  had  pavement  in  many  of  their 
streets ;  the  Appian  way,  a  paved  road,  was 
constructed  312  B.  C.  In  England  there 
were  few  paved  streets  before  the  time  of 
Henry  VII.  London  was  first  paved  about 
1533.  It  was  paved  with  flagstones  between 
1815  and  1825.  Among  modern  paving 
materials  are  brick,  stone,  wood,  asphaltum, 
and  many  kinds  of  concrete. 

Bookkeeping. —  The  system  by  double 
entry,  called  originally  Italian  bookkeeping, 
was  taken  from  the  course  of  algebra  pub- 
lished by  Burgo,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  at 
Venice.  John  Gowghe,  a  printer,  published 
a  treatise  on  "Debitor  and  Creditor,"  in 
London,  1543.  This  was  the  earliest  English 
work  on  bookkeeping,  and  the  forerunner  of 
many  improved  efforts. 

Democrats,     advocates    of     government 


by  the  people  themselves,  is  a  term  first 
adopted  by  the  French  republicans  in  1790  ; 
they  termed  their  opponents  aristocrats.  The 
name  Democrats  was  also  adopted  by  the  pro- 
slavery  party  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
abolitionists  were  called  Republicans.  Into 
these  two  parties  a  number  of  smaller  ones 
were  absorbed  at  the  presidential  election  in 
1856. 

The  Twentieth  Century  began  at  mid- 
night of  December  31,  1900  ;  the  year  1901  is 
therefore  the  first  year  of  the  century.  It  will 
contain  25  leap  years,  and  will  have  36,525 
days,  which  are  equal  to  5,218  weeks,  lacking 
one  day.  It  began  on  Tuesday,  and  will  end 
on  Sunday.  February  will  have  five  Sundays 
in  1920,  1948,  and  1976. 

Sizes  of  Paper. 

FOLDED. 


Billet  Note 6 

Octavo  Note 7 

Commercial  Note.  8 
Packet  Note 9 


x    8 
x    9 

x  10 
x  11 


Bath  Note 8V2  x  14 


Letter 10     x  16 

Com'rcial  Letter.  11     x  17 

Packet  Post 1 1 1/2  x  18 

Foolscap 12VJ  x  16 


Hills  in  an  Acre   of   Ground. 


40  feet  apart 27  hills 


35    " 

35 

30    " 

48 

25 

69 

20    " 

108 

15    " 

193 

12    " 

302 

10    " 

435 

8  feet  apart 680  hills 

6  " 

5  " 

3%  " 

3  " 

Hi  " 

2  " 

l  " 


1.210 

.  1,782 

.  3,556 
.  4,840 
.  6,969 
.10.890 
.43,560 


The  Wedding  Anniversary. 

At  end  of  First  Year  comes  the Cotton  Wedding 

Second  Year.  Paper  Wedding 

Third  Year Leather  Wedding 

Fifth  Year Wooden  Wedding 

Seventh  Year Woolen  Wedding 

Tenth  Year Tin  Wedding 

Twelfth  Year Silk  and  Fine  Linen  Wedding 

Fifteenth  Year Crystal  Wedding 

Twentieth  Year China  Wedding 

Twentv-fif th  Year Silver  Wedding 

Thirtieth  Year Pearl  Wedding 

Fortieth  Year Ruby  Wedding 

Fiftieth  Year Golden  Wedding 

Seventy-fifth  Year Diamond  Wedd  ing 

Pensions. — The  total  number  of  pension- 
's classified  and  compared  for  the  years  1898 
id  1897  are  as  follow  : — 


Vidows,  Revolutionary  soldiers 

'  aughters,  Revolutionary  soldiers. 

(■  urvivors  of  War  of  1812 

Widows,  War  of  1812 '. . 

urvivors,  Indian  wars,  1832-'42. .   . 

Widows,  Indian  wars,  1832-'42 

".urvivors,  Mexican  War 

Widows,  Mexican  War 

Under  general  laws: 

A riny  i  11  valids 

Widows,  army 

Navy  invalids 

Widows,  navy 

Act  of  June  27,  1890: 

Army  invalids 

Army  widows 

Navy  invalids 

Navy  widows 

Ami  y  nurses 

Total 


1898 


5 
7 
3 
,407 
,018 
,067 
,012 
,143 

080 
B4J5 
833 
300 

366 
786 
543 

M  l 
658 

714 


1897 


7 
9 
7 
2,810 
2.373 
4.288 
10,922 
8,072 

336,299 
94,602 

4,788 
2,375 

378.609 

110,593 

13,831 

5,766 

663 


976,014 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


639 


Paper  Table  for  Printers'  and  Pub- 
lishers' Use. — Showing  the  quantity  of 
paper  required  for  printing  1,000  copies  (in- 
cluding 56  extra  copies  to  allow  for  wastage) , 
of  any  usual  size  book,  from  8vo  down  to 
32mo.  If  the  quantity  required  is  not  found 
in  the  table,  double  or  treble  some  suitable 
number  of  pages  or  quantity  of  paper. 


<h  m 

1,000 

cs 

8vo 

12mo 

16mo 

24mo  32 

mo 

Copies. 

Pages. 

Pages. 

Pages. 

Pages.  Pa 

ges. 

Rms. 

Qrs. 

1 

8 

12 

16 

24 

32 

1 

2 

2 

16 

24 

32 

48 

64 

2 

4 

3 

24 

36 

48 

72 

96 

3 

6 

4 

32 

48 

64 

96    1 

28 

4 

8 

5 

40 

60 

80 

120    1 

60 

5 

10 

6 

48 

72 

96 

144    1 

92 

6 

12 

7 

56 

84 

112 

168    '. 

•24 

7 

14 

8 

64 

96 

128 

192    5 

>56 

8 

16 

9 

72 

108 

144 

216    S 

•88 

9 

18 

10 

80 

120 

160 

240   ; 

20 

11 

11 

88 

132 

176 

264   : 

52 

12 

2 

12 

96 

144 

192 

2s8    : 

!84 

13 

4 

13 

104 

156 

20S 
224 

312    4 

16 

14 

6 

14 

112 

168 

336    4 

148 

15 

8 

15 

120 

180 

240 

360    4 

180 

16 

10 

16 

128 

192 

256 

384    • 

>12 

17 

12 

17 

136 

204 

272 

408 

18 

14 

18 

144 

216 

288 

432 

19 

16 

19 

152 

228 

304 

456 

20 

18 

20 

160 

240 

320 

480 

22 

21 

168 

252 

336 

504 

23 

2 

22 

176 

264 

352 

24 

4 

23 

184 

276 

368 

25 

6 

24 

192 

288 

384 

26 

8 

25 

200 

300 

400 

27 

10 

26 

208 

312 

416 

28 

12   - 

27 

216 

324 

432 

29 

14 

28 

224 

336 

448 

30 

16 

29 

232 

348 

464 

31 

18 

30 

240 

360 

480 

33 

31 

248 

372 

496 

34 

2 

32 

256 

384 

512 

35 

4 

33 

264 

396 

528 

36 

6 

34 

272 

408 

544 

37 

8 

35 

280 

420 

560 

38 

10 

36 

288 

432 

576 

39 

12 

37 

296 

444 

592 

40 

14 

38 

304 

456 

608 

41 

16 

39 

312 

468 

42 

18 

40 

320 

480 

44 

Carrier  Pigeons.  —  That  pigeons  have 
been  used  for  a  great  many  years  for  the 
transmission  of  messages  is  well  known,  but 
with  what  nation  the  custom  originated  it  is 
impossible  to  discover.  The  Romans  used  the 
birds  for  this  purpose,  they  were  in  use  among 
the  Asiatics,  and  we  have  the  assertion  of  the 
poet  Tasso  for  believing  that  they  were  em- 
ployed during  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  in  1099  ; 
and  it  is  a  historical  fact  that  they  were  used 
during  the  crusade  of  St.  Louis,  in  1250. 
Their  most  remarkable  use  in  modern  times 
was  during  the  siege  of  Paris,  in  1870.  In 
Turkey  they  have  been  more  generally  used 
than  in  any  other  country,  and  it  is  said  that 
there  the  art  of  training  them  is  carried  to  its 
highest  perfection.  Pigeons  intended  for  this 
use  are  taken,  when  they  have  acquired  full 
strength  of  wing,  in  a  covered  basket  to  a  dis- 
tance of  about  half  a  mile  from  their  home, 
and   then  set  at  liberty  and  thrown  into  the 


air.  If  they  return  home  they  are  then  taken 
to  greater  distances,  progressively  increased 
from  forty  to  fifty  miles.  When  the  bird  is 
able  to  accomplish  this  flight  he  maybe  trusted 
to  fly  any  distance,  overland,  within  the  limits 
of  physical  power.  It  is  the  general  plan  to 
keep  the  birds  in  a  dark  room  for  some  hours 
before  they  are  used.  They  are  then  fed  spar- 
ingly, but  are  given  all  the  water  they  can 
drink.  The  paper  on  which  the  message  is 
written  is  tied  around  the  upper  part  of  the 
bird's  leg,  or  to  one  of  the  large  feathers  of 
the  tail,  so  as  not  to  impede  its  flight.  The 
feet  are  washed  in  vinegar  to  keep  them  from 
getting  too  dry,  so  that  the  bird  will  not  be 
tempted  to  descend  to  water  and  thus  possibly 
ruin  the  message.  The  rate  of  flight  is  from 
twenty  to  thirty  miles  an  hour,  though  the 
bird  has  been  known  to  pass  over  great  distances 
much  more  rapidly.  When  thrown  up  in  the 
air,  the  pigeon  at  first  flies  round  and  round, 
as  though  for  the  purpose  of  sighting  some 
landmark  that  it  knows.  When  this  is  dis- 
covered, it  flies  toward  it,  and  thence  onward 
to  its  home. 

Emancipation  in  Great  Britain. — 
The  system  of  slavery  was  abolished  through- 
out all  the  British  Colonies  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment in  1833,  when  a  bill  was  passed  which 
gave  freedom  to  all  classes  and  indemnified 
their  owners  with  an  award  of  £20,000,000. 
According  to  this  act,  slavery  was  to  cease  on 
August  1,  1834,  but  the  slaves  were  to  con- 
tinue with  their  former  owners  as  apprentices 
for  a  certain  period.  This  apprenticeship, 
however,  did  not  work  satisfactorily  to  either 
side,  and  complete  emancipation  took  place  in 
1838.  In  1787  the  subject  of  the  suppression 
of  the  slave  trade  was  agitated  in  London  and 
received  the  support  of  Mr.  Pitt,  the  Prime 
Minister,  and  William  Wilberforce,  a  member 
of  Parliament,  and  in  1791  a  bill  forbidding 
the  further  importation  of  slaves  was  offered 
by  Wilberforce  in  Parliament,  but  was  not 
passed.  The  conquest  of  the  Dutch  colonies 
in  America  by  the  British  led  to  such  an  in- 
crease in  the  British  slave-trade  that  in  1805 
the  traffic  was  forbidden  in  the  conquered  colo- 
nies ;  and  in  1806  the  friends  of  emancipation 
gained  still  another  step  by  the  passage  of  an 
act  forbidding  British  subjects  to  engage  in  the 
]  trade,  and  the  following  year  a  general  aboli- 
tion bill  making  all  slave-trade  illegal  after 
January  1,  1808,  was  adopted  by  Parliament. 
I  This,  however,  did  not  have  the  desired  effect, 
as  British  subjects  still  continued  the  trade 
under  the  flags  of  other  nations.  So,  in  1811, 
:  it  was  made  a  felony,  punishable  with  im- 
prisonment at  hard  labor  or  transportation  ; 
and  subsequent   laws   made   it  piracy,  to  be 


610 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF    FACTS. 


punished  with  transportation  for  life.  From 
this  time  until  the  passage  of  the  Emancipa- 
tion bill  the  subject  was  continually  pressed 
upon  the  attention  of  Parliament.  Slavery 
existed  in  Great  Britain  in  Saxon  and  Norman 
times,  when  the  peasantry  were  sold  in  the 
market  like  cattle  for  exportation,  and  were 
looked  upon  as  mere  chattels,  to  be  bought  and 
sold  with  the  land  upon  which  they  toiled.  In 
Scotland,  even  as  late  as  1780,  a  law  existed 
which  compelled  colliers,  on  entering  a  mine, 
to  perpetual  service  there,  the  right  to  their 
labor  passing  with  the  mine  to  an  inheritor  or 
purchaser,  and  their  children  being  in  like 
manner  attached  to  the  mine,  and  forbidden 
under  severe  penalty  to  seek  other  employment. 

Trojan  War. —  The  legend  regarding  the 
Trojan  war  has,  undoubtedly,  a  historical  ori- 
gin, in  the  fact  of  the  actual  destruction  of 
Troy  by  a  Grecian  military  expedition.  About 
1194-'84  B.  C,  according  to  the  traditions, 
Paris,  one  of  the  sons  of  Priam,  enticed  Helen, 
the  beautiful  wife  of  Menelaus,  King  of  Sparta, 
away  from  her  husband,  and,  at  the  call  of 
Menelaus  all  the  heroes  of  Greece  flew  to  arms 
to  avenge  this  wrong.  The  Grecian  host  num- 
bered 100,000  warriors,  among  whom  were 
Ulysses,  Achilles,  Ajax,  Diomed,  and  Aga- 
memnon, who,  as  brother  of  Menelaus,  was 
chosen  to  lead  the  expedition.  The  siege  of 
the  city  of  Priam  lasted  ten  years.  Finally  the 
Greeks,  by  the  device  of  Ulysses,  built  an  im- 
mense wooden  horse,  in  which  they  concealed  a 
number  of  their  warriors,  and  left  it  on  the  plain 
in  sight  of  the  city,  and  then  retired  to  their 
ships  as  though  abandoning  the  siege.  The 
Trojans,  believing  that  the  statue  was  left  as 
a  propitiatory  offering  to  their  gods,  carried  it 
within  their  walls,  and  at  night  the  concealed 
warriors  issued  from  the  horse  and  opened  the 
gates  of  the  city  to  their  returned  comrades, 
and  Troy  was  sacked  and  burned.  The  king 
and  all  his  sons  were  killed  ;  in  fact,  according 
to  the  legend,  JEneas,  and  his  father,  Anchises, 
and  a  few  devoted  followers,  were  the  only  ones 
to  escape,  and  these,  after  long  wanderings  by 
sea  and  land,  finally  settled  on  the  shores  of 
Etruria,  in  Italy.  The  battles  which  were  fought 
before  the  walls  of  Troy  have  been  immortalized 
by  Homer  in  the  "Iliad." 

Bride,  Throwing  Shoe  after.  —  The 
custom  of  throwing  a  shoe  after  a  departing 
bride  and  groom  originated  so  far  back  in  the 
dim  and  mystical  past  that  the  memory  of  man 
stretcheth  not  back  to  its  beginning.  It  is  by 
some  thought  to  typify  an  assault,  and  is  a 
lingering  trace  of  the  custom  among  savage 
nations  of  carrying  away  the  bride  by  violence. 
Others  claim  that  it  has  a  likeness  to  a  Jewish 
custom   mentioned   in   the   Bible.      Thus,  in 


Ruth,  when  the  kinsman  of  Boaz  gave  up  his 
claim  to  the  inheritance  of  Ruth,  and  to  Ruth 
also,  he  indicated  his  assent  by  plucking  off 
his  shoe  and  giving  it  to  Boaz.  Also,  we  read 
in  Deuteronomy  that  when  the  brother  of  a 
dead  man  refused  to  marry  his  widow  she  as- 
serted her  independence  of  him  by  "  loosing 
his  shoe." 

Captain  Kidd  was  born  in  Scotland,  and 
took  to  the  sea  when  a  mere  boy.  In  1695  a 
company  composed  of  leading  gentlemen  in 
Great  Britain  and  in  the  Colonies  was  formed 
to  make  a  business  of  privateering  and  reap 
the  profits,  which  were  known  to  be  immense. 
The  "Adventure,"  a  galley  of  287  tons,  quite 
a  large  vessel  for  those  days,  was  purchased, 
and  the  command  given  to  Kidd,  who  sailed 
with  two  commissions,  one  of  which  empow- 
ered him  to  act  against  the  French,  and  the 
other  to  cruise  against  pirates.  Besides  these 
commissions  under  the  Great  Seal,  he  had  the 
ordinary  letters  of  marque  from  theCommis- 
sioners  of  the  Admiralty.  The  king  was  to 
have  one  tenth  of  all  the  booty,  and  the  rest 
was  to  be  divided  between  the  shareholders  and 
Kidd  in  certain  specified  proportions.  A  por- 
tion was  to  be  appropriated  to  the  crew,  who 
were  to  receive  no  regular  pay.  Kidd  left  Plym- 
outh April  23,  1696,  captured  a  French  fish- 
ing vessel  off  Newfoundland,  and  in  July 
reached  New  York,  where  he  remained  until 
September,  when  he  sailed  for  Madagascar, 
then  one  of  the  strongholds  of  the  buccaneers. 
In  January  of  the  following  year  he  arrived  at 
the  island,  and  in  1698  reports  were  abroad  in 
England  that  he  had  raised  the  black  flag,  and 
orders  were  dispatched  to  the  effect  that  he  be 
apprehended  should  he  come  within  reach. 
April,  1699,  found  him  in  the  West  Indies, 
whither  he  had  gone  in  a  vessel  called  the 
"  Quidah  Merchant."  This  he  secured  in  a 
lagoon  in  the  island  of  Saona,  near  Hayti,  and 
re-embarked  in  a  small  doop  named  the  "  San 
Antonio,"  for  the  Colonies  of  America.  He 
sailed  up  Long  Island  Sound  to  Oyster  Bay, 
after  making  a  landing  in  Delaware  Bay,  and 
there  took  aboard  a  New  York  lawyer  named 
James  Emott,  whom  he  afterward  sent  to 
Boston  to  the  Earl  of  Bellamont,  who  had  be- 
come governor  of  the  Colonies.  Emott  was 
Kidd's  advance  agent,  sent  forward  to  ascer- 
tain how  the  privateersman  would  be  received. 
While  the  lawyer  was  absent  on  this  mission, 
Kidd  buried  some  bales  of  goods  and  treasure 
on  Gardiner's  Island.  To  the  inquiries  of  the 
Newr  York  lawyer  Bellamont  made  evasive 
answers,  and  then  later  induced  Kidd  to  pro- 
ceed to  Boston,  where  he  landed  July  1,  1699. 
Five  days  later,  Kidd,  who  was  examined  by 
the  Council,  was  sent  to  England,  where  he 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


641 


was  given  something  of  the  form  of  a  trial. 
He  was  permitted  to  have  no  counsel,  was  not 
allowed  to  send  for  papers  or  witnesses,  and 
was,  of  course,  found  guilty  of  piracy  and  of 
the  murder  of  one  of  his  crew,  and  was  hanged 
at  Execution  Dock,  with  nine  of  his  associates. 
Bellamont  fitted  out  another  vessel  to  go  in 
search  of  the  "  Quidah  Merchant,"  but  news 
came  before  the  search  began  that  the  latter 
had  been  stripped  and  burned  by  the  men  left 
with  it  by  Kidd.  The  treasure  which  was 
secured  on  Gardiner's  Island,  with  what  was 
found  with  Kidd  on  the  "  San  Antonio," 
amounted  to  $70,000. 

Bridge  of  Sighs  is  the  bridge  connect- 
ing the  palace  of  the  Doge  with  the  state 
prison  in  Venice.  It  was  so  called  because 
prisoners  once  having  crossed  it  from  the 
Judgment  Hall  were  never  seen  again,  and  it 
was  supposed  that  many  of  them  were  dropped 
through  a  trap-door  into  the  dark  and  deep 
waters  of  the  canal  flowing  beneath. 

Scaraba^us,  a  peculiar  beetle  held  sacred 
by  the  Egyptians.  Several  mystical  ideas  were 
attributed  to  it  ;  the  number  of  its  toes,  30, 
symbolized  the  days  of  the  month  ;  the  time  it 
deposited  its  ball,  which  contained  its  eggs, 
was  supposed  to  refer  to  the  lunar  month  ;  the 
movement  of  the  clay-ball  referred  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  on  the  earth,  and  personified 
that  luminary.  It  was  supposed  to  be  only  of 
the  male  sex,  hence  it  signified  the  self-exist- 
ent, self-begotten  generation,  or  metamorphosis, 
and  the  male  or  paternal  principle  of  nature. 
In  this  sense  it  appears  on  the  head  of  the 
Pygmaean  deity  Ptah-Socharis  Osiris,  the 
Demiurgos,  and  in  astronomical  scenes  and 
sepulchral  formulas.  In  connection  with  the 
Egyptia.i  notions,  the  Gnostics  and  some  of 
the  Fathers  called  Christ  the  scarabseus.  The 
insect  during  its  life  was  worshiped  and  after 
death  embalmed. 

Tammany,  Society  of,  or  Columbian 
Order,  was  formed  in  1789,  being  the  effect  of 
a  popular  movement  in  New  York,  having  pri- 
marily in  view  a  counterweight  to  the  so-called 
'•aristocratic"  Society  of  the  Cincinnati.  It 
was  essentially  anti-Federalist  or  Democratic 
in  its  character,  and  its  chief  founder  was  Wil- 
liam Mooney.  an  upholsterer,  and  a  native-born 
American  of  Irish  extraction.  It  took  its  title 
from  a  noted,  ancient,  wise,  and  friendly  chief 
of  the  Delaware  tribe  of  Indians,  named  Tam- 
many, who  had,  for  the  want  of  a  better  subject, 
been  canonized  by  the  soldiers  of  the  Revolu- 
tion as  the  American  patron  saint.  The  first 
meeting  was  held  May  12,  1789.  The  act  of 
incorporation  was  passed  in  1805.  The  Grand 
Sachem  and  thirteen  Sachems  were  designed 
to  typify  the  President  and  the  Governors  of 


the  thirteen  original  States. .  The  society  is 
nominally  a  charitable  and  social  organization, 
and  is  distinct  from  the  general  committee  of 
the  Tammany  Democracy,  which  is  a  political 
organization. 

Salutation,  Forms  of. —  The  custom  of 
shaking   hands,   which  is   the  most   common 
among  civilized   nations,   conies    undoubtedly 
from  remote  barbarism,  when  two  men,  meet- 
ing, gave  each  other  their  weapon  hands  as  a 
security  against  treachery  or  sudden    attack. 
In  the  East  and  among  the  Slavic  nations  the 
character    of    salutations    is    quite    different. 
Among  the  Persians,  the  custom  of  throwing 
one's   self   upon  the  ground  and  kissing   the 
feet  of  the  monarch  prevails.     In   China,  an 
inferior   upon    horseback    meeting   a   superior 
dismounts  and  waits  until  the  latter  has  passed. 
In    Japan    the    inferior    removes   his   sandals 
when  meeting  his  superior,  crosses  his  hands 
by  placing  the  right  hand  in  the  left  sleeve, 
i  and,  with  a  slow,  rocking  motion  of  his  body, 
I  cries   out,    "  Augh  !    Augh  !  "    (Do    not   hurt 
me.)     In  Siam,  the    inferior  throws   himself 
;  upon  the  ground  before  his  superior  ;  the  latter 
j  sends  forward  one  of  his  slaves  to  see  whether 
the  former  has  been  eating  anything,  or  car- 
:  ries  with  him  any  smell  at  all  offensive.     If  he 
j  does,  he    is  immediately  kicked    out   without 
j  ceremony  ;  but  if  not,  the  attendant  raises  him 
j  up.     In    Ceylon,  the    inferior,  on    meeting  a 
I  superior,  throws  himself  upon  the  ground,  re- 
j  peating   the  name  and  dignity   of  the  latter. 
!  Among  some  tribes  of  the  American  Indians 
i  the    custom    is   to    salute    by   rubbing    noses 
together.     This  form  is  also  common  in  the 
Friendly  and  Society  Islands,  where  it  is  re- 
turned by  each  taking  the  hand  of  the  other 
and  rubbing  it  upon  his  own  nose  and  mouth. 
The  Moors  of  Morocco  ride  at  full  speed  toward 
■  a  stranger,   as  if  they    intended  to  run  him 
down,   and,  on  arriving   near,  suddenly   stop 
and  fire  a  pistol  over  his  head.     The  Arabians 
shake  hands  six  or  eight  times  ;  but  if  persons 
of  distinction    they  embrace  and  kiss  several 
times,  also  kissing  their  own  hands.     In  Tur- 
,  key,  it  is  the  custom  to  place  the  hand  upon 
the  breast  and  bow  to  the  person  saluted.     In 
Burmah,  when  a  gentleman    meets  a  lady  or 
another  gentleman  he  applies  his  mouth  and 
nose  closely  to  their  cheek  and  draws  in  a  long 
breath,    as   if    smelling   a  delightful  perfume 
with  both  mouth  and    nose.     In  the   greater 
portion  of  Germany  it  is  an  act  of  politeness 
to  kiss  the  hand  of  a  lady  ;  but  this  privilege  is 
allowed  in  Italy  only  to  near  relatives,  while 
in  Russia  it  is  extended  to  kissing  the  fore- 
head.     On  the  European  continent,  it  is  usual 
for  men  who  are  intimate  friends  to  kiss  one 
another.     The  Pelew  Island  inhabitants  grasp 


642 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


either  the  hand  or  foot  of  the  one  they  wish  to 
salute  and  rub  their  faces  against  it ;  while 
Yemen  persons  of  rank  permit  their  fingers  to 
be  kissed,  after  long  refusal. 

Nihilism. — The  term  "Nihilist' '  was  prob- 
ably first  used  by  the  Russian  novelist  Tur- 
geneff,  and  was  given  to  the  party  now  known 
as  Nihilists  in  derision,  because  its  members 
sought  the  destruction  of  all  existing  order 
and  government  without  proposing  and  appar- 
ently without  intending  to  substitute  any  de- 
fined scheme  or  organization  in  its  place.  The 
earliest  advocate  of  this  doctrine  was  Michael 
Bakunin,  who,  as  early  as  1847,  advocated  a 
Russian  republic,  and  in  1868  founded  the 
"International  Alliance  of  Revolution,"  a 
secret  society  having  for  its  object  a  popular 
uprising  against  all  monarchical  governments. 
This  society  was  undoubtedly  the  parent  of  the 
many  secret  organizations  that  have  since 
sprung  into  existence  throughout  Europe. 
Though  Alexander  II.  introduced  a  much  more 
liberal  policy  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  it 
came  so  far  short  of  the  desires  of  the  party  of 
progress  that  the  spirit  of  discontent  seemed 
stimulated,  and  the  existence  of  a  revolution- 
ary conspiracy  was  proved  in  1877,  when,  after 
a  great  trial  lasting  eighteen  months,  135  per- 
sons out  of  183  arrested  were  found  to  belong 
to  such  an  organization.  In  1878,  when  Vera 
Sassulitch  shot  General  Trepoff,  chief  of  the 
secret  police,  the  Nihilists  began  to  attract  at- 
tention as  a  really  formidable  society.     Her  ac- 


quittal was  followed  by  a  series  of  outbreaks 
and  assassinations  which  were  only  checked  after 
the  Czar  himself  had  fallen  at  the  hands  of  a 
Nihilist  assassin.  The  doctrines  and  objects 
of  the  Nihilists  must  be  taken  from  the  decla- 
rations of  their  leaders.  Bakunin,  in  a  speech 
at  Geneva  in  1868,  announced  that  he  was  the 
bearer  of  a  new  gospel,  whose  mission  was  to 
destroy  the  lie  at  the  beginning  of  which  was 
God.  Having  got  rid  of  this  belief,  the  next 
lie  to  be  destroyed  was  right,  a  fiction  invented 
by  might  to  strengthen  her  power.  "  Our  first 
work,"  he  said,  "  must  be  destruction  of  every- 
thing as  it  now  exists,  the  good  and  the  bad  ; 
for,  if  but  an  atom  of  this  old  world  remains, 
the  new  will  never  be  created." 

Bacteria  is  the  name  given  to  certain 
forms  found  in  animal  and  vegetable  fluids  be- 
cause of  their  shape,  and  is  derived  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  a  club.  They  are  mere 
points  of  organized  matter,  and  constitute  the 
lowest  form  of  organic  life.  They  are  found 
in  the  sap  of  plants,  in  the  blood  of  man  and 
of  the  lower  animals,  and  are  abundant  in 
eggs.  They  bear  an  important  part  in  healthy 
as  well  as  morbid  processes,  in  the  ripening  of 
fruit  as  well  as  decay.  They  also  exist  in  sus- 
pension in  the  air,  and  the  festering  of  an  open 
sore  is  occasioned  by  the  entrance  of  bacteria 
from  the  surrounding  air.  They  also  act  as 
powerful  organic  ferments  in  the  transforma- 
tion of  starch  into  sugar,  of  sugar-cane  into 
glucose,  etc. 


Temperature  and  Rainfall  of  Foreigfn  Cities. 


Cities. 


Alexandria 

Algiers 

Amsterdam 

Archangel 

Astrakhan 

Athens 

Bagdad 

Barcelona 

Berlin 

Bermuda 

Berne 

Birmingham 

Bombay 

Bordeaux 

Brussels 

Budapest 

Buenos  Ay  res.... 

Cairo 

Calcutta 

Canton  

Cape  Town 

Cayenne 

Cherrapongee*. . 

Christiania 

Constantinople.. 

Copenhagen 

Delhi 

Dublin 

Edinburgh  


Mean 

Annual 

Annual 

Average 

Temper- 

Rainfall, 

ature. 

Inches. 

69.0 

10 

64.3 

27 

49.9 

33.0 

50.1 

6 

63.0 

74.0 

C3.0 

48.2 

24 

72.0 

55 

46.0 

46 

48.2 

81.3 

75 

57.0 

30 

50.0 

29 

51.9 

17 

62.8 

72.2 

82.4 

76 

71.0 

39 

62.0 

23 

116 

610 

41.5 

56.5 

46.6 

19 

77.0 

24 

50.1 

29 

47  1 

38 

Cities. 


Florence 

Frankfort . . . 

Geneva 

Genoa 

Glasgow 

Hague 

Hamburg 

Havana 

Hong  Kong  . 

Honolulu 

Iceland 

Jerusalem ... 

Lima    

Lisbon 

London  

Lyons 

Madeira 

Madrid 

Malta 

Manchester., 
Manila. ...... 

Maranltam  .. 

Marseilles 

Melbourne.. . 

Mexico 

Milan 

Montevideo . 

Montreal 

Moscow 


Mean 

Annual 

Annual 

Average 

Temper- 

Rainfall, 

ature. 

Inches. 

59.2 

41 

50.0 

52.7 

32 

61.1 

47 

49.8 

44 

52.0 

47.0 

79.1 

91 

73.0 

101 

75.0 

39  0 

30 

62.6 

16 

73.3 

61.4 

27 

50.8 

25 

53.0 

28 

66.0 

25 

58.2 

9 

C6  0 

20 

48.8 

36 

78.4 

277 

58.3 

23 

57.0 

29 

609 

551 

38 

62.0 

44 

44.6 

40.0 

Cities. 


Munich 

Naples 

Nice 

Odessa 

Para 

Paris 

Pekin 

Port  Said 

Prague 

Quebec 

Quito 

Rio  de  Janeiro.. 

Rome 

Rotterdam 

San  Domingo 

Shanghai 

Smyrna 

St.  Petersburg  .. 

Stockholm 

Sydney  

Tobolsk 

Trieste 

Valdivia 

Valparaiso 

Venice 

Vera  Cruz 

Vienna 

Warsaw 


Mean  |  Annual 
Annual  Average 
Temper-    Rainfall, 

ature.       Inches. 


48.4 
60.3 
58.0 
48.0 
81.0 
51.3 
53.0 

50.2 
40.3 
60.9 
77.2 
60.5 
51.0 
81.3 
59.0 
60.0 
39.6 
42  3 
65.8 
32.0 
55.0 
52.0 
64.0 
55.4 
77.0 
51  0 
56.2 


Mil 
L'l' 

'71 
22 
27 
2 

14 


29 
31 
23 

108 

"24 
17 
20 
49 

"43 

106 


180 
19 


*  In  Southwestern  Assam.    It  is  the  wettest  place  in  the  world.    In  1861  the  rainfall  there  reached  905  inches. 
Note.— The  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  globe  is  50°  Fahrenheit.    The  average  rainfall  is  36  inches. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


643 


[Abbreviations  —  Propulsion  : 
cated  horse  power.] 


List  of  Ships  of  the  United  States  Navy- 

S.,  screw;  T.  S.,  twin  screw ;  Tr.  S.,  triple  screw;  P.,  paddle;   I.  H.  P.,  indi- 
FIRST  RATE. 


Name  ani>  Date  of 
Launching. 


s  -  « 


Type. 


, 

Hull. 

I.  H.  P. 

fr " 

Steel 

12,105 

T.  S. 

Steel 

9,738 

T.  S. 

Steel 

10,403 

T.  S. 

Steel 

11,111 

T.  S. 

Steel 

18,769 

T.  S. 

Steel 

17,401 

T.  S. 

Steel 

18,509 

Tr.  S. 

Steel 

20,862 

Tr.  S. 

Steel 

8,610 

T.  S. 

Iron 

3,700 

T.  S. 

Steel 

17.313 

T.  S. 

a  ® 

—     ** 

Iffi 

'-2 


a  eS 
O 


5°« 


Iowa 

Indiana 

Massachusetts  . 

Oregon  

Brooklyn 

New  York 

Columbia 

Minneapolis — 

Texas 

Puritan 

Olympia 


.1896 
.1893 
.1893 
1893 
.1895 
.1891 
.1892 
.1893 
.1892 
.1882 
.  1892 


11,340 
10,288 
10,288 
10,288 
9,215 
8,200 
7,375 
7,375 
6,315 
6,060 
5,870 


1st  class  battleship 

Armored  cruiser 

Protected  cruiser 

2d  class  battleship 
Double-turret  monitor 
Protected  cruiser 


17.08 

15.54 

16.21 

16.79 

21.91 

21. 

22.8 

23.07 

17.08 

12.04 

21.68 


SECOND  RATE. 


Chicago 

Baltimore  — 
Philadelphia. 
Monterey 


Newark 

San  Francisco. 

Charleston 

Miantonomoh. 

Amphitrite 

Monadnock 

Terror 

New  Orleans  .. 

Albany 

Lan  aster 

Cincinnati 

Raleigh 

Atlanta 

Boston 


.1885: 
.1888 

.1889, 
.1891] 

.1890 
.1889 
.1888 
.  1878 
.18831 
.18831 
.1883 
.18J6 


.1892 
.  1893 

.  l>.-4 
.  1884 


4,500 
4,413 
4,324 
4,084 

4,098 
4,098 
3,730 
3,990 
3,990 
3,990 
3,990 
3,437 
3.437 
3,250 
3.213 
3,213 
3,000 
3,000 


Protected  cruiser 


Barbette  turret,  low 

board  monitor 
Protected  cruiser 


free- 


Double-turret  monitor 


Protected  cruiser 


Cruiser 
Protected  cruiser 


Steel 

9,000 

T.S. 

18. 

18 

Steel 

10,064 

T.  S. 

20.09 

10 

Steel 

8,815 

T.  S. 

19.67 

12 

Steel 

5,244 

T.  S. 

13.6 

4 

Steel 

8,869 

T.  S. 

19. 

12 

Steel 

9,913 

T.  S. 

19.52 

12 

Steel 

6,666 

T.  S. 

18.20 

8 

Iron 

1,426 

T.  S. 

10.5 

4 

Iron 

1,600 

T.  S. 

10.5 

6 

Iron 

3,000 

T.  S. 

12. 

6 

Iron 

1,600 

T.  S. 

10.5 

4 

Steel 

7.500 

T.  S. 

20. 

10 

Steel 

7,500 

T.  S. 

20. 

10 

Wood 

1,000 

S. 

9.6 

12 

Steel 

10,000 

T.  S. 

19. 

11 

Steel 

10,000 

T.  S. 

19. 

11 

Steel 

4,030 

S. 

15.60 

8 

Steel 

4,030 

s. 

15,60 

8 

THIRD  RATE. 


Hartford 

Mayflower 

Katahdin 

Ajax 

Canonicus 

Mahopac 

Manhattan . . 

Detroit 

Montgomery 
Marblehead . 

Mohican 

Comanche 

Catskill 

Jason 

Lehigh  

Montauk 

Nahant 

Nantucket 

Passaic , 

Bennington. 

Concord  

Yorktown 

Topeka 

Dolphin 

Wilmington. 

Helena 

Adams 

Alliance.   ... 

Essex 

Enterprise  . . 

Nashville 

Monocacy  . . . 

Castine 

Machias 

Alert 

Ranger 

Annapolis.. . 
Yicksburg.. . 

Wheeling 

Marietta 

Newport 

Princeton  . . . 


2,790 

2.690 

1893 

2,155 

2,100 

2,100 

2,100 

2.100 

1891 

2,089 

1891 

2,089 

1892 

2,089  ! 

1,900 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1,875 

1890 

1,710 

189(1 

1,710 

1>ss 

1,710 

1881 

1,700 

1884 

1.486 

1sn.-. 

1.392 

1896 

1,392 

1,375 

1.375 

1.375 

1,375 

1895 

1,371 

1,370 

1892 

1.177 

1891 

1.177 

1.020 

1.020 

1896 

1,000 

1896 

1,000 

1897 

1,000 

1897 

1,000 

189K 

1.000 

1897 

1.000 

Cruiser 

Harbor-defense  ram 
Single-turret  monitor 


Unprotected  cruiser 


Cruiser 
Single-turret  monitor 


Gunboat 


Despatch  boat 
Light-draft  gunboat 

Cruiser 


Light-draft  gunboat 
Gunboat 
Cruiser 
Composite  gunboat 


Wood 

2,000 

S. 

12. 

13 

4,700 

T.  S. 

16.8 

2 

Steel 

5,068 

T.  S. 

16.11 

4 

Iron 

340 

S. 

5  to  6 

2 

Iron 

340 

S. 

6. 

2 

Iron 

340 

S. 

6. 

2 

Iron 

340 

S. 

6. 

2 

Steel 

5,227 

T.  S. 

18.71 

10 

Steel 

5,580 

T.  S. 

19.05 

10 

Steel 

5.451 

T.  S. 

18.44 

10 

Wood 

1,100 

S. 

10.65 

8 

Iron 

340 

s. 

5  to  6 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

6. 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

5  to  6 

2 

Iron 

310 

s. 

" 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

ii 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

" 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

(i 

2 

Iron 

340 

s. 

" 

2 

Steel 

3,436 

T.  S. 

17.5 

6 

Steel 

3.405 

T.  S. 

16.8 

6 

Steel 

3,392 

T.  S. 

16.4 

6 

Iron 

2,000 

S. 

16. 

6 

Steel 

2,253 

s. 

15.50 

3 

Steel 

1,894 

T.  S. 

12.88 

8 

Steel 

1,988 

T.  S. 

15.50 

8 

Wood 

800 

S. 

9.8 

6 

Wood 

800 

S. 

9.98 

6 

Wood 

800 

s. 

10.4 

6 

Wood 

800 

s. 

11.4 

4 

Steel 

2,536 

T.  S. 

16.30 

8 

Iron 

850 

P. 

11.2 

6 

Steel 

2.199 

T.  S. 

16.03 

8 

Steel 

2,016 

T.  S. 

15.46 

8 

Iron 

500 

S. 

10. 

3 

Iron 

500 

S. 

10. 

6 

Comp 

1,227 

S. 

13.17 

6 

Comp 

1.118 

S. 

12.71 

6 

Comp 

1,081 

T.  S. 

12.88 

6 

Comp 

1,054 

T.  S. 

13.03 

6 

Comp 

1,008 

S. 

12.29 

6 

Comp 

800 

S. 

12. 

6 

044 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK   OF  FACTS. 


List  of   Ships  of  the  United  States  Navy —  Continued. 

FOT'RTH   RATE. 


Name  and  Date  of 
Launching. 

i 

eS  a  m 

a.*  S 

STSS 

5    ~ 

Type. 

Hull. 

I.H.  P. 

-   CD 

Si 

2  c  $ 
■?-- 

5  « 

S  fl  *^ 

Petrel 1888 

Fern 

929 
892 
840 
839 
685 
550 

Dynamite-gun  vessel 

Gunboat 

Training  ship 

Gunboat 

Cruiser 

Gunboat 

Steel 
Steel 
Wood 
Steel 
Iron 
Iron 

3,795 
1,096 

1,213 
365 
310 

T.  S. 

S. 

S. 
T.  S. 

P. 

s. 

21.42 
11.79 

9. 
14.37 
10.5 

8.5 

3 
4 
3 
4 
4 
2 

6 
7 
4 

Bancroft 1892 

10 

4 

TORPEDO   BOATS. 


Cushing  (No.  1) 1890 

Ericsson  (No.  2) 1894 

Foote(No.3) 1896 

Rodgers  (No.  4^ 1896 

Winslow  (No.  5) 1897 

Porter  (No.  6) 1896 

Dupont(No.  7) 1897 

Morris  (No.  14) 1*97 

Talbot  (No.  15) 1897 

Gwin(No.l6) 1897 

Mackenzie  (No.  17) 1898 

McKee(No.  18) 1898 

Manly  (No.  22) 

Somers  (No.  23) 

Stiletto 


105 

120 

142 

142 

142 

165 

165 

105 

46J 

46 

65 

65 

145 
31 


Torpedo  boat 


Steel 

1,720 

T.  S. 

22.5 

aZ 

Steel 

1,800 

T.  S. 

24. 

aZ 

Steel 

2,000 

T.  S. 

24.53 

aZ 

Steel 

2,000 

T.  S. 

245 

aZ 

Steel 

2,000 

T.  S. 

24.5 

a  3 

Steel 

T.  S. 

28.63 

aZ 

Steel 

T.  S. 

28  .£8 

«3 

Steel 

1,750 

T.  S. 

24. 

(i  3 

Steel 

850 

S. 

21.15 

a% 

Steel 

850 

s. 

20.88 

at 

Steel 

850 

s. 

20. 

at 

Steel 

850 

s. 

19.82 

a'l 
at 

Steel 

1,900 

s. 

23.' 

Wood 

359 

s. 

18.22 

al 

a  In  ordinary. 
TUGS. 


Fortune. . 

Iwana 

Ley  den... 
Narkeeta. 

Nina 

Rocket . . . 
Standish  . 
Traffic.  . 
Triton.... 
Wahneta . 
Unadilla.. 
Samoset . . 


450 

1892 

192 

450 

1892 

192 

357 

187 

450 

280 

212 

192 

1895 

345 

1897 

225 

Tug. 


Iron 

340 

S. 

10. 

Steel 

300 

s. 

11.5 

Iron 

340 

s. 

10. 

Steel 

300 

s. 

11  5 

Iron 

388 

s. 

11.12 

Wood 

147 

s. 

8.5 

Iron 

340 

s. 

10. 

1 

Wood 

s. 

10. 

Steel 

300 

s. 

13. 

Steel 

300 

s. 

11.5 

...• 

Steel 

500 

s. 

12. 

Steel 

450 

s. 

12. 

SAILING   SHIPS. 


Monongahela. 
Constellation. 
Jamestown. .. 
Portsmouth . . 

Saratoga 

St.  Marv's 


2  100 
1,186 
1,150 
1,125 
1.025 
1,025 


Wood 

Sails 

4 

Wood 

" 

8 

Wood 

" 

Wood 

" 

12 

Wood 

" 

Wood 

" 

RECEIVING   SHIPS. 


Franklin 

Wabash 

Vermont 

Independence . 

Pensacola 

Richmond 


5,170 
4.650 
4150 
3.270 
3,000 
2,700 


Wood 

1,050 

S. 

9. 

4 

Wood 

950 

s. 

9.15 

Wood 

Sails 

Wood 

" 

6 

Wood 

980 

S. 

9. 

Wood 

692 

S. 

9.5 

2 

UNSERVICEABLE. 


New  Hampshire. 

Omaha 

Constitution 

Iroquois 

Nipsic 

St.  Louis 

Dale 

Minnesota 

Marion 

Thetis 

Yantic 


4.150 

2,400 

2,200 

1,575 

1,375 

830 

675 

4,700 

1,900 

1,250 

900 


Sailing  ship 
Cruiser 


Cruiser 


Sailing  ship 
Cruiser 


Wood 

....3 

Sails 

6 

Wood 

95 

S. 

Wood 

Sails 

4 

Wood 

1,202 

S. 

10.7 

Wood 

839 

S. 

10.7 

4 

Wood 

Sails 

Wood 

" 

Wood 

1,000 

S. 

9.25 

9 

Wood 

1,100 

S. 

11.25 

8 

Wood 

530 

s. 

7.55 

Wood 

310 

s. 

8.30 

4 

UNDER  CONSTRUCTION. 


Kearsarge . 
Kentucky  . 

Illinois 

Alabama  . . 
Wisconsin. 

Maine 

Missouri... 

Ohio 

Plunger . .. 
Panacook. 


.18981   11.525 

,1898     11.525 

.1898!   11,525 

.1898     11,525 

11,525 

12,500 

,   12.500 

12,500 

.1897!        168 

225 


1st  class  battleship 


Suomarme  torpedo  boat 
Tug 


Steel 

10,000 

T.  S. 

16. 

22 

Steel 

10,000 

T.  S. 

16. 

22 

Steel 

10,000 

T.S. 

16. 

18 

Steel 

10.000 

T.  S. 

16. 

18 

Steel 

10,000 

T.  S. 

16. 

18 

Steel 

16,000 

T.  S. 

18. 

20 

Steel 

16,000 

T.  S. 

18. 

20 

Steel 

16,000 

T.  S. 

18. 

20 

Steel 

1,200 

T.  S. 

8. 

2 

Steel 

450 

S. 

82 

32 
28 
28 
28 
81 
31 
:u 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


645 


List  of   Ships  of  the  United  States  Navy.- 

TJNDER  CONSTRUCTION. 


Continued. 


Name  and  Date  of 
Launching. 


cS  C  on 

»a° 

5   ~ 


Type. 


a  <u 

Hull. 

I.  H.  P. 

Id 

t « 
ft 

-  5.,j 

•s  «  a 

»   :  — 

ccg 

Steel 

450 

s.- 

Comp 

Sails 

Steel 

Steel 

2,400 

f .  S. 

12. 

Steel 

2,400 

T.  S. 

12. 

Steel 

2.400 

T.  S. 

12. 

Steel 

2.400 

T.  S. 

12. 

Steel 

8.000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8.000 

T\  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8,000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8,000 

T.  S. 

28. 

Steel 

8,000 

T.  S. 

28. 

Steel 

7.206 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

7,200 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8,400 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

8,400 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

7,000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

7,000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

7,000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8,000 

T.  S. 

29. 

Steel 

8.300 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

8,300 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

8300 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

3,200 

T.  S. 

26. 

Steel 

4,200 

T.  S. 

30.5 

Steel 

4,200 

T.  S. 

-    30.5 

Steel 

5,600 

T.  S. 

30. 

Steel 

1,750 

T.  S. 

22.5 

Steel 

1,750 

T.  S. 

22.5 

Steel 

7,200 

T.  S. 

31. 

S;eel 

T.  S. 

30. 

a  cs 
a» 
O 


Pawtucket 

Chesapeake  

Gunboat  (No.  16) 

Arkansas 

Connecticut 

Florida 

Wyoming 

Bainbridge 

Barry 

Chauncev 

Dale 

Decatur 

Hopkins 

Hull 

Lawrence 

Macdonough 

Paul  Jones 

Perry • 

Preble 

Stewart 

Truxtun 

Whipple 

Worden 

Rowan  (No.  8) 1898 

Dahlgren  (No.  9). . .. .. .. 

T.  A.  M.  Craven  (No.  10) 

Farragnt  (No.  11) 1898 

Davis  (No.  12) 

Fox  (No.  13) 1898 

Stringham  (No.  19) 

Goldsborough  (No.  201. . . 


225 
1,175 

2, 700 
2,700 
2  700 
2,700 
420 
420 
420 
420 
420 
408 
408 
435 
435 
420 
420 
420 
420 
433 
433 
433 
182 
146 
146 
273 
132 
132 
340 
247J 


Tug 

Sailing  ship 

Gunboat 

Monitor 


Torpedo  boat  destroyer 


Torpedo  boat 


6 

6 

6 

6 

al 

a% 

a'l 

«2 

a  2 

a2 

>>■! 

a  2 
a2 
a.2 
a 2 
a.2 
a2 
o2 
«2 
o2 
«3 
a  2 
a2 
«2 
a 3 
«3 
a.2 
a2 


a  Torpedo  tubes. 


Losses     From    War    in    Twenty-five 
Years  (1855-80.) 

Killed  in  battle,  or  died 
of  wounds  and  disease. 


150,000 
45,000 
3,000 
280,000 
520,000 

45,000 

65,000 
155,000 

60,000 
225,000 

40,000 

1,588,000 

imerals. 

War  of  Schleswig-H 
American  civil  war- 
War  between  Pruss 

Italy,  in  1866 
Expeditions  to  Mexi 

Morocco,  Paragu 
Franco-German  war 

Russian  and  Turkish 

-til 
tl 
ia. 

00 

av 
1>7 

\v; 
rs. 

(1 

e  North 

e  South 

Austria,    and 

Cochin-China, 

0-71— France... 
"  — Germ'ny. 

1879 

Total 

Roman  an 

I 

ii 

in 

IV 

v 

Ar 

I 

3 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 

abic  Ni 

XXX.... 

XL 

L 

LX 

LXX.   ... 

30 
40 
50 
60 
70 

VI 

VII 

LXXX  or 

XC 

C 

CC 

CCC 

CCCC... 

1) 

DC 

DCC 

XXC 

80 
90 

VIII 

100 

IX 

x 

XI 

XII 

200 
300 
400 
500 

X11I 

600 

XIV 

700 

XV •. 

IK  ('(' 

CM 

M 

MM 

MDCCCXC1X 

800 

XVI 

900 

XVII 

1000 

XVIII 

2000 

XIX 

1890 

Size  of  Oceans,  Seas,  Bays,  and 
Lakes. 

Oceans.  Sq.  MilesJ        Oceans.  Sq.  Miles. 

Pacific ,  about 80,000,000  Southern ,  about . . .  10,000,000 

Atlantic,    "     40,000.000  Arctic,  "      ...  5,000,000 

Indian,      "    20,000,000 


The  seas,  bays,  gulfs,  etc.,  connected  with 
each  ocean,  are  included  in  the  foregoing  esti- 
mate. The  exact  superficial  extent  of  the 
several  oceans  is  not  known  with  certainty, 
nor  the  exact  proportion  of  land  and  water. 


Seas.     Length  in  Miles.         Seas.  Length  in 

Mediterranean,  about.  .2,000  Caspian,  about. 

Caribbean,  about 1,800  Baltic,       "       

China,  "      1,700  Okhotsk,   "      

Red,  '«      1,400  White,        "       

Japan,     *      "      .......1,000  Aral,  "      

Black,  "      932  


Miles. 
..  640 
..  600 
. .  600 
..  450 
. .     250 


Length  in  Miles.  I        Bays.    Length  in 

Hudson,  about 1,200  Chesapeake,  about 

Baffin's, 


XX 


20; 


Lakes. 


Superior 

Baikal 

Michigan. . . 
Great  Slave. 

Huron 

•Winnipeg... 

Erie 

Athabaska.. 

Ontario 

Maracaybo.. 


'     600 

Length  Width 

Miles. 

Miles. 

380 

120 

360 

35 

330 

60 

300 

45 

250 

90 

240 

40 

270 

50 

200 

20 

180 

40 

150 

60 

Miles. 
..     260 


Lakes. 


Great  Bear. 

Ladoga 

Champlain. 

Nicaragua  . 

Lake  of  the 

Woods  . . . 

Geneva 

Constance.. 

Cayuga 

George 


Length 
Miles. 


150 
125 
123 
120 

70 
50 
45 
36 
36 


Width 

Miles. 


646 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OF  FACTS. 


Distances   Between   European   Cities. 


London 

Liverpool 

202 

Paris 

489 

287 

Madrid 

908 

1397 

1195 

Lisbon 

415 

1323 

1812 

1610 

TRAVELING  DISTANCES                                                               ASTWBBP 

1530 

1119 

211 

472 

270 

BETWEEN  THE                                                            Hamburg 

412 

1804 

1495 

587 

859 

657 

PRINCIPAL  CITIES  IN  EUROPE                                      Berlin 

178 

497 

1889 

1582 

674 

948 

746 

IN  MILES.                                                Berne 

611 

678 

460 

1602 

1183 

359 

848 

646 

Turin 

297 

837 

839 

719 

1506 

1073 

500 

989 

787 

Vienna 

720 

535 

427 

605 

727 

2157 

1668 

849 

1182 

980 

Munich 

266 

470 

295 

401 

579 

522 

1897 

1477 

582 

970 

768 

Rome 

647 

840 

414 

639 

1048 

1180 

1063 

174(1 

1  223 

907 

1397 

1195 

Trieste 

510 

487 

370 

391 

533 

888 

1060 

1009 

1828 

1416 

863 

1352 

1150 

Warsaw 

806 

1276 

702 

436 

1156 

1021 

398 

576 

B8C 

2593 

1 925 

1067 

1557 

1355 

Constantinople  j  1205 

1725 

2138 

1564 

1298 

2018 

1883 

1699 

1903 

2025 

3345 

2718 

1899 

2232 

2030 

Odessa  I  363    842 

1330 

1800 

1226 

960 

1680 

1545 

1240 

1418 

1737 

3117 

2625 

1760 

2119 

1917 

Moscow  I  950 !  1339    81 1 

1617 

2087 

1513 

1247 

1967 

1832 

1209 

1387 

1706 

3414 

2904 

1843 

2117 

1915 

St.  Petersburg  I  406  1356  1733  j  693 

1769 

2239 

1395 

399 

2119 

1714 

1091 

1269 

1588 

3286 

2874 

1699 

1976 

1774 

Stockholm  |  430    836  1510 12408  1082 

1171 

1731 

1084 

1110 

1337 

1176 

685 

580 

993 

2384 

1972 

1219 

1491 

1289 

Copenhagen)  416]  846 1 1252  1510  1510 1  668 

1067 

1318 

671 

697 

1047 

885 

270 

208 

620 

2012 

1600 

812 

1181 

979 

Greatest  Altitude   in   Each   State. 

FROM  THE  RECORDS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  GEOLOGICAL  SURVEY. 


State  or 
Territory. 


Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Dis.  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Territory 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky  

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts . . 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 


Name  of  Place. 


Cheauha  Mt.  (Talladega  Co.). 

*Not  named 

San  Francisco  Mt 

Magazine  Mt 

Mt.  Whitney 

Blanca  Peak 

Bear  Mt 

Dupont 

Tenley 

Mossyhead 

EnotaMt 

Hy  ndman  Peak 

Warren 

Haley 

Sugarloaf 

Ocheyedan 

Kanarado 

Big  Black  Mt.  (Harlan  Co.). . 

Mansfield 

Katahdin  Mt 

Great  Backbone  Mt 

Mt.  Greylock 

Porcupine  Mt 

Mesabi  Range 

Pontotoc  Ridge 

Cedar  Gap 


Heig't, 
Feet. 


2.407 

19,500 

12,794 

2,800 

14,898 

14,464 

2,355 

282 

400 

263 

4,798 

12,073 

1,009 

1,140 

2,600 

1,554 

3,906 

4,100 

321 

5,200 

3,400 

3,535 

2,023 

2,000 

566 

1,675 


State  or 
Territory. 


Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina.. 
North  Dakota  . . . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. . . 

Rhode"  Island 

South  Carolina. . 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia... 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


Name  of  Place. 


Mt.  Douglas 

White  River  Summit 

Wheeler  Peak 

Mt.  Washington 

Kittatinny  Mt 

Cerro  Blanco 

Mt.  Marcv  (Adirondack). 

Mt.  Mitchell 

Sentinel  Butte 

Ontario 


Mt.  Hood 

Negro  Mt 

DurfeeHill 

Rocky  Mt.  (Pickens  Co.). . . . 

Harney  Peak 

Mt.  Leconte 

Chinati 

Mt.  Emmons 

Mt.  Mansfield 

Mt.  Rogers  (Grayson  Co.)  .. 

Mt.  Rainier 

Spruce  Mt.  (Pendleton  Co.). 

Summit  Lake 

Fremont  Peak 


Heig't, 
Feet. 


11,300 
4,876 

13,036 
6,286 
1,630 

14,269 
5,379 
6,703 
2,707 
1,376 
t 

11,225 
2,826 
805 
3,600 
7,368 
6,612 
7,730 

13,694 
4.389 
5,719 

14,500 
4,860 
1,732 

13,790 


*  Mt.  St.  Elias,  supposed  to  be  the  highest  point  in  Alaska,  is  now  believed  to  be  in  Canadian  territory, 
are  reports  of  mountains  in  Alaska  far  to  the  northwest  higher  than  Mt.  St.  Elias,  but  not  yet  verified. 
+  Western  end  of  Beaver  County,  Oklahoma,  reaches  5,000  feet  elevation. 


There 


All  the  Famous  Diamonds. — Follow- 
ing is  an  accurate  list  of  the  largest  diamonds 
in  the  world  : — 

name.  possessor. 


Braganza King  of  Portugal . 

Rajah  of  Mattan. 

(Borneo.) 

Star  of  the  South. . .  

OrlofT Czar  of  Russia. 

Florentine Empress  Austria. 

King  of  Portugal. 

Pitt King  of  Prussia. 

Koh-i-noor Queen  of  Engl'nd. 

Shah Czar  of  Russia. 

Pigott Messrs.  Rundell 

and  Bridge. 

Nassac L'd  Westminster. 

Blue 

Sancy Czar  of  Russia. 

Dudley Earl  of  Dudley. 

Pacha  of  Egypt Khed've  of  Eg'pt. 


CARATS 

CUT. 

(UNCUT). 

1680 

— 

367 



254 

— 

194 

— 

139% 

— 

138 'i 

410 

1363/4 

793% 

106^ 

— 

86 

— 

821,4 



78 

112 

67% 

— 

53 

8sy2 

44V, 

— 

40 

Treasure    Cost  in   Recent  Wars.— 

The  cost  of  recent  wars,  according  to  figures 
furnished  by  the  London  Peace  Society,  is  as 
follows : — 

Crimean  war §1,700,000.000 

Italian  war,  1859 300,000,000 

American  civil  war— North  4,700,000,000 

"            "        "      South 2,300,000,000 

Schleswig-Holstein  war 35,000.000 

Austrian  and  Prussian  war,  1866 330,000,000 

Expeditions  to  Mexico,  Morocco,  Para- 
guay, etc.  (say  only) 200,000,000 

Franco-Prussian' war 2,500,000,000 

Russian  and  Turkish  war,  1877 1,100,000.000 

Zulu  and  Afghan  wars,  1879 50,000,000 

§13,265,000.000 

This  would  allow  $  10  for  every  man,  woman, 
and  child  on  the  habitable  globe,  It  would 
make  two  railways  all  round  the  world  at 
$250,000  per  mile  each. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


647 


Grocer's  Table. 

12  things  make 1  dozen. 

12  dozen  make 1  gross. 

12  gross  make 1  great  gross. 

20  things  make 1  score. 

196  pounds  of  "flour  make 1  barrel. 

200  pounds  of  beef  or  pork  make  1  barrel. 

135  pounds  of  potatoes  or  apples  make..  1  barrel. 

280  pounds  of  salt  make 1  barrel. 

400  pounds  of  molasses  make 1  barrel. 

200  pounds  of  sugar  make 1  barrel. 

240  pounds  of  lime  make 1  barrel. 

100  pounds  of  fish  make 1  quintal. 

100  pounds  of  nails  make 1  keg. 

50  pounds  of  soap  make 1  box. 

20  pounds  of  raisins  make 1  box. 

2  pounds  of  cigars  make 1  box. 

20  pounds  of  soda  make 1  box. 

40  pounds  of  cheese  make 1  box. 

25pound8of  tobacco  make 1  box. 

62  pounds  of  tea  make 1  box. 

60  pounds  of  saleratus  make 1  box. 

25  pounds  of  chocolate  make 1  box. 

56  pounds  of  butter  make 1  firkin. 

5  pounds  of  spices  make lean. 

1100  pounds  of  rice  make 1  tierce. 

2150.42  cubic  inches  make 1  bushel. 

231  cubic  inches  make 1  gallon. 

Noted   National  Nicknames. — Pupils 

in  United  States  history  and  the  general  reader, 

who  is  at  times  puzzled  to  know  who  is  meant, 

will  take  interest  in  the  following  list : — 

The  Father  of  his  Country Washington 

Old  Man  Eloquent J.  Q.  Adams 

The  Sage  of  Monticello Jefferson 

Old  Hickory Jackson 

Young  Hickory Polk 

Great  Pacifier Clay 

Mad  Anthony Wayne 

Old  Rough  and  Ready Taylor 

Expounder  of  the  Constitution Webster 

Unconditional  Surrender  Grant U.S.  Grant 

Poor  Richard Franklin 

Political  Meteor : Randolph 

Little  Mac McClellan 

Stonewall T.  J.  Jackson 

Honest  Abe Lincoln 

Rock  of  Chickamauga Thomas 

Ol d  Put Putnam 

Old  Tecumseh Sherman 

Light  Horse  Harrv Henrv  Lee 

Uncle  Robert  .....* R.  E\  Lee 

Fighting  Joe Hooker 

Bayard  of  the  South Marion 

The  Little  Magician Van  Buren 

Father  of  the  Constitution James  Madison 

The  Superb Hancock 

The  Rail  Splitter Lincoln 

Great  American  Commoner Thad.  Stevens 

•  ild  <  issawatomie John  Brown 

Old  Public  Functionary James  Buchanan 

Carolina  Game  Cock Sumter 

Teacher  President Garfield 

Father  of  Greenbacks Samuel  P.  Chase 

Little  Giant S.  A.  Douglas 

Colossus  of  American  Independence John  Adams 

Sage  of  Chappaqua Greeley 

Prince  of  American  Letters AV.  Irving 

Mill  Boy  of  the  Slashes Clay 

Pathfinder  of  the  Rockies Fremont 

Cincinnatus  of  the  West Washington 

Oreat  Indian  Apostle Eliot 

Motoax King  Phillip 

Corner  Stones. — The  custom  of  laying 
the  corner  stone  of  a  public  building  with  cer- 
emonies was  practiced  by  the  ancients.  AVe 
are  told  that  at  the  laying  of  the  corner  stone 
when  the  capitol  of  Rome  was  rebuilt  a  pro- 
cession of  vestal  virgins,  robed  in  white,  sur- 
rounded the  stone  and  consecrated  it  with  liba- 
tions of  living  water.     A  prayer  to  the  gods 


followed,  and  then  the  magistrates,  priests,  sen- 
ators, and  knights  laid  hold  of  the  ropes  and 
moved  the  mighty  stone  to  its  proper  position. 
In  a  hollow  cut  in  the  stone  were  placed  ingots 
of  gold,  silver,  and  other  metals  which  had  not 
been  melted  in  any  furnace.  With  the  Jews 
the  corner  stone  was  considered  an  emblem  of 
power,  and  they  also  performed  ceremonies  at 
its  laying.  In  mediaeval  times  the  rite  was 
taken  up  by  the  Order  of  Free  Masons,  and 
has  by  them  been  brought  down  to  modern 
days.  The  Masonic  ceremony  of  laying  a  cor- 
ner stone  is  symbolical.  The  form  of  the  stone, 
a  square  on  the  surface  and  a  perfect  cube  ;  its 
place,  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  structure  ; 
the  testing  it  with  a  square,  level,  and  plumb, 
and  the  pouring  of  libations  of  corn,  wine,  and 
oil  over  it, —  all  have  their  hidden  meaning. 
The  custom  of  laying  the  corner  stone  with 
ceremonies  is  usually  observed  at  the  com- 
mencement of  any  public  building,  when  coins 
of  the  current  year,  newspapers,  and  important 
documents  are  placed  within  the  stone  to  serve 
as  valuable  historical  relics  when  the  building 
shall  be  destroyed. 

Chillon,  Castle  of,  is  a  celebrated  castle 
and  fortress  of  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of 
Yaud,  six  miles  southeast  of  Vevay.  It  is  sit- 
uated at  the  east  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  on 
an  isolated  rock,  almost  entirely  surrounded  by 
deep  water,  and  is  connected  with  the  shore  by 
a  wooden  bridge.  The  castle  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  Amadeus  IV.,  of  Savoy,  in  1238, 
and  it  long  served  as  a  state  prison.  It  is  built 
|  of  white  stone,  but  though  large  is  not  of  very 
j  imposing  appearance,  as  its  foundations  only 
rise  a  few  feet  above  the  water.  The  lake 
here  is  800  feet  deep.  Over  one  of  the  en- 
trances to  the  castle  the  Bernese  inscribed,  in 
1643,  in  the  German  language,  the  words, 
' '  The  Lord  God  save  those  who  come  in  and 
go  out."  In  the  gloomy  dungeons  are  still  to 
be  seen  the  stone  pillars,  with  strong  iron  rings 
attached,  to  which  the  unhappy  prisoners  were 
|  fettered.  Chillon  is  famous  as  the  prison  of 
:  Bonnivard,  the  prior  of  St.  Victor,  who,  hav- 
I  ing  by  his  efforts  to  free  the  Genevese  rendered 
himself  obnoxious  to  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  was 
j  carried  off  by  emissaries  of  that  potentate,  and 
confined  here  for  six  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  castle  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
Bernese  and  Genevese,  when  Bonnivard  se- 
cured his  liberty.  Since  1738  the  castle  has 
been  employed  as  a  magazine  for  military 
stores.  Chillon  has  been  immortalized  by 
Byron's  poem,  "Prisoner  of  Chillon,"  refer- 
ring to  the  Bonnivard  mentioned  above. 

Pilgrim  Fathers  and  Mothers. —  The 
names  of  the  passengers  who  came  over  to 
America  in  the  Mayflower  on  her  first  trip,  in 


648 


THE  CENTURY  BOOK  OE  FACTS. 


the  year  1620,  were  as  follows  :  — 

John  Alden  ;  Mr.  Isaac  Allerton,  Mary,  his 
wife,  Bartholomew,  a  son,  and  Remember  and 
Mary,  daughters  ;  John  Allerton  ;  Mr.  William 
Bradford,  the  second  governor,  and  Dorothy, 
his  wife ;  Mr.  William  Brewster,  their  ruling 
elder,  Mary,  his  wife,  and  Love  and  Wrestling 
Brewster,  his  sons  ;  John  Billihgton,  his  wife, 
Ellen,  and  two  sons,  John  and  Francis ;  Peter 
Brown ;  Richard  Britteridge ;  Mr.  John  Car- 
ver, who  was  chosen  first  governor,  and  Katha- 
rine, his  wife ;  Francis  Cooke  ;  John  Cooke  ; 
Humility  Cooper ;  James  Chilton,  his  wife, 
and  daughter  Mary ;  John  Crackston  and  his 
son,  John;  Richard  Clarke;  Robert  Carter; 
Edward  Dorey ;  Francis  Eaton  and  his  wife, 
Sarah  ;  Samuel  Eaton  ;  — —  Ely  ;  Thomas 
English ;  Mr.  Samuel  Fuller,  physician ; 
Edward  Fuller,  his  wife,  and  son,  Samuel ; 
Moses  Fletcher ;  John  Goodman ;  Richard 
Gardiner :  John  Hooke  ;  John  Howland  ;  Mr. 
Stephen  Hopkins,  his  wife,  Elizabeth,  two  sons, 
Giles  and  Damarius,  and  two  daughters,  Con- 
stantia  and  Oceanus  ;  William  Holbrook  ;  Ed- 
ward Leister  ;  John  Langmore  ;  William  La- 
tham ;  Mr.  Christopher  Martin  and  wife  ;  Mr. 
William  Mullins,  his  wife,  a  son,  Joseph,  and  a 
daughter,  Priscilla  ;  Edmund  Margeson ;  Rich- 
ard More  and  brother ;  Ellen  More ;  Jasper 
More  ;  Degory  Priest ;  Solomon  Power  ;  Thomas 
Rogers  and  son,  Joseph  ;  John  Ridgedale  and 
his  wife,  Alice  ;  Capt.  Myles  Standish  and  Rose, 
his  wife  ;  Henry  Sampson;  George  Soule  ;  Elias 
Story ;  Edward  Thompson  ;  William  Trevor ; 
Edward  Tilly,  his  wife,  Anne,  and  daughter, 
Elizabeth  ;  John  Tilly  and  his  wife  ;  Thomas 
Tinker,  his  wife  and  son  ;  John  Turner  and  his 
two  sons  ;  Roger  Wilder  ;  Mr.  Edward  Wins- 
low, sometime  governor, and  Elizabeth, his  wife  ; 
Desire  Winter ;  Mr.  William  White,  his  wife, 
Susanna,  and  a  son,  Resolved  ;  Mr.  Richard 
Warren  ;  Thomas  Williams  ;  Gilbert  Winslow. 

Nautical  Vocabulary. 

Abaft.    Toward  the  stern. 

About.    To  take  the  opposite  tack. 

Anchor 'i  The  heavy  piece  of  iron  which  holds  the  ship 
at  rest. 

Alee.    On  the  side  away  from  the  wind. 

Astern.    In  the  direction  of  the  stern. 

Athvart.    In  a  line  across  the  ship. 

Beating.    Sailing  against  the  wind  by  tacking. 

Row.    The  front  of  a  vessel. 

Bend.    To  fasten  ;  as,  to  bend  on  a  rope. 

Berth.  A  ship's  anchorage,  or  a  narrow  shelf  for 
sleeping  on. 

Block.    A  pulley. 

Bolt  Rope.  The'rope  surrounding  the  sail  to  which  it  is 
sewed. 

Boom.  The  spar  at  the  bottom  of  a  sail  by  which  it  is 
extended. 

Brace.  A  rope  attached  to  a  boom  or  yard  by  which 
they  are  moved. 

Bulkhead,    A  partition  within  the  hull. 

Bulwark*.  The  sides  of  a  vessel  surrounding  and  ex- 
tending above  the  deck. 

Cable.    A  strong  rope  or  chain. 

Caboose.    A  kitchen  on  deck. 


Calk.    To  make  tight  the  seams  of  a  vessel. 

Camel.  An  arrangement  for  assisting  a  ship  over 
shoals. 

Carry  Away.    To  break  or  lose  a  rope  or  spar. 

Cat  Block.    The  tackle  block  for  hoisting  the  anchor. 

Cat's  Paw.    A  light  puff  of  wind. 

Clew.    To  bind  up. 

Cleir  Lines.    Ropes  for  clewing. 

Combings.    The  raised  edges  around  the  hatches. 

Cock  Pit.    A  room  for  wounded  men  in  a  war  vessel. 

Companion  Way.    The  cabin  stairway. 

Compass.    An  instrument  showing  the  vessel's  course. 

Coxswain.    The  steerer  of  a  small  bqat. 

Deadlight.    An  iron  shutter  covering  a  porthole. 

Dead  Reckoning.  The  keeping  the  course  of  a  vessel 
with  the  use  of  log  line  and  compass. 

I>< '<•/,'.    The  covering  or  floor  to  a  ship. 

Draught.  The  depth  of  water  required  to  float  a  ves- 
sel. 

Fathom.    Six  feet. 

Fender.  A  piece  of  wood  or  other  material  to  prevent 
the  contact  of  two  vessels. 

Footrope.  A  rope  extending  along  and  under  a  yard 
on  which  the  seamen  stand. 

Fore  and  Aft.    From  bow  to  stern. 

Forecastle.    That  part  forward  of  the  foremast. 

Foremast.    The  mast  nearest  the  bow. 

Forge.    To  move  slowly  ahead. 

Founder.    To  sink. 

Furl.    To  roll  up. 

Ctiff.    The  upner  spar  holding  up  a  fore  and  aft  sail. 

Galley.    The  kitchen. 

Gangway.    An  entrance  to  a  ship. 

Grapnel.    A  small  anchor. 

Halyards.    Ropes  for  hoisting  sails. 

Hatch ,  or  Hatch  (ray.    An  opening  in  the  deck. 

Heave  To.  Tostopliybringingaship'sbowto  thewind. 

Hold.    The  interior'of  a  vessel. 

Hull.    The  body  only  of  a  vessel. 

.hi  ir.    The  mast  end'of  a  boom  or  gaff. 

./ih.    A  triangular  sail  at  a  ship's  bow. 

■Inri/mast.    A  temporary  mast. 

Jibe.    To  shift  a  sail  from  one  side  to  the  other. 

Keel.    The  lowest  timt  er  in  a  ship. 

Knot.    A  nautical  mile. 

Larboard.  The  left  hand  of  a  ship  looking  toward 
the  bow. 

l.n  Much.    To  let  a  ship  slide  into  the  water. 

Laid.    A  mass  of  lead  used  in  sounding. 

Lee.    Away  from  the  wind. 

Leeway.    The  lee  motion  or  space  of  water. 

Locker.    A  chest  or  box . 

Log  or  Jsog  Line.  A  rope  used  for  measuring  the  speed 
of  a  vessel. 

Log  or  Log  Book.    The  ship's  record  or  diary. 

/.  >iff.    To  bring  a  ship  nearer  to  the  wind. 

Manrope.  A  rope  used  in  going  up  or  down  the 
ship's  side. 

Mast.  An  upright  piece  of  timber  set  in  a  ship  for 
supporting  sails,  rigging,  etc. 

Masthead.    The  head  or  top  of  a  mast. 

Meet.    A  number  of  men  eating  together. 

Midships.    The  middle,  or  widest  part  of  a  ship. 

Mi-.zr-nmast;  Mizzensail.  The  hindmost  when  there 
are  three. 

Moor.    To  secure  a  ship  in  any  position. 

\ 'i/>.    A  short  turn,  as  in  a  rope. 

Painter.    A  rope  used  to  secure  a  boat  to  anything. 

Pay  Out.    To  slacken  or  give  out,  as  to  pay  out  a  rope. 

Peak.    The  upper  and  outer  corner  of  a  boom  sail . 

I'intle.    The  bolt  on  which  a  rudder  is  hung. 

Port.    The  same  as  larboard. 

Port  or  Porthole.  An  opening  in  a  ship's  side  to  ad- 
mit light  and  air 

Quarter.    The  stern  portion  of  a  ship's  side. 

Bake.    The  inclination  of  a  mast. 

Beef.  A  portion  of  the  sail  which  is  clewed  up  when 
the  wind  is  too  high  to  expose  the  whole. 

Reef.    To  take  op  SHOD  B  portion. 

Ri  eve.  To  pass  the  end  of  a  rope  through  a  pulley,  etc. 

Rigging.  A  term  applied  generally  to  a  vessel's  ropes, 
etc. 

Road.  An  open  space  of  water  where  ships  may 
anchor. 

Rowlock.  Arrangement  for  giving  purchase  to  an  oar 
in  rowing, 

I! udder.    The  contrivance  which  steers  a  vessel. 

Scud.    To  sail  before  a  heavy  wind  or  gale. 

Sail.  The  sheet  of  canvas  which  is  exposed  to  the 
wind  and  gives  motion  to  the  vessel. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


649 


Seams.    Where  the  ship's  planks  join. 

Sheet.    A  rope  for  controlling  and  moving  a  sail. 

shore.    A  prop  under  a  beam. 

Skipper.  The  name  given  generally  to  the  master  of 
a  small  vessel. 

sloop.    A  vessel  with  but  one  mast. 

Sound.    To  ascertain  the  depth  of  the  water. 

Spar.    A  name  applied  to  a  mast, boom,  gaff,  yard,  etc. 

Stern.    The  rear  portion  of  a  vessel. 

Stay.    A  rope  supporting  or  keeping  in  place  a  mast. 

Tack.  To  go  against  the  wind  in  a  zigzag  course,  and 
to  change  a  ship's  course  by  shifting  lier  rudder  and 
sails. 

Taut.    Tight. 

Th  matt.    A  boat's  seats. 

Tiller.    A  bar  for  moving  a  rudder. 


Trick.    A  sailor's  duration  of  time  in  steering. 

Warp.  To  move  a  vessel  by  a  line  fastened  at  the  end 
to  an  anchor. 

Watch.    A  certain  portion  of  time  for  duty. 

Wake    The  track  left  in  the  water  by  a  moving  vessel. 

Weather.    Toward  the  wind. 

Weigh  Anchor.    To  raise  the  anchor. 

Waist.  That  portion  of  the  deck  between  the  quar- 
ter deck  and  forecastle. 

Windlass.    A  machine  for  raisingthe  anchor  or  cargo. 

Windward.     The  point  from  whence  the  wind  blows. 

Yacht.    A  sailing  vessel  used  for  pleasure. 

Yard.    A  spar  supporting  and  extending  a  sail. 

Yardarm.    Either  half  of  a  yard. 

Ya  to.  A  movement  causing  a  temporary  change  of 
course. 


Pension  Statistics. 


UNITED  STATES. 

Alabama 

Alaska 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Dela  ware 

District  of  Columbia 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana  

Indian  Territory 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Mai  ne 

Maryland 

Massachusetts   

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska  

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico 

New  York 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode"  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Ten  nessee 

Texas  

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Total  in  States  and  Territories 

FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Austria-Hungary 

Algiers 

Argentine  Republic 

Australia 

Azores  Islands 

Bahamas 

Belgium 

Bermuda 

Bolivia 


Num- 
ber. 


3,780 

65 

619 

10,949 

16,981 

7,307 

12,015 

2,740 

8,629 

3,121 

3,770 

1,248 

70,767 

67.139 

2,682 

37,977 

41,629 

28,980 

5,285 

20,935 

12,905 

38.692 

45.436 

16,650 

4,182 

53,649 

1,392 

17,627 

264 

9,204 

20,775 

1,483 

89,051 

4,064 

1,769 

105,864 

6,627 

4,932 

104,376 

4,402 

1,743 

4,842 

18,434 

8,000 

796 

9,635 

8,797 

5,336 

12,953 

28,197 

708 

989,343" 


§505 
8, 
87 
1,521 
2,442 
1,001 
1,410 

419 
1,532 

426, 

495 

177 
10.371 
10,902 

369 
5,549 
6,472 
4,309 

868 
3,127 
1,789 
5,606 
7,209 
2,420 

555 
7,455 

203 

2,764 

37, 

1,392. 

2,555 

219 
12,619 

561 

232 
16,166 

933 

712 
13,164 

519 

227. 

638 
2.732 
1,042 

115, 
1,504. 
1,352 

780, 
2,058 
4,308 

104 


,098.27 
970.14 
,895.31 
527.82 
,231.65 
.617.20 
115.59 
917.57 
120.97 
068.07 
737.07 
297.17 
,293.73 
,433.06 
,728.01 
978.61 
,994.49 
049.75 
234.65 
655.53 
363.91 
,197.45 
436.93 
.956.67 
126.80 
,681.72 
951.89 
084.78 
292.73 
039.09 
095.89 
114  38 
366.22 
292.50 
030.93 
264.16 
787.91 
008.86 
211.79 
129.51 
332.94 
856.04 
349.25 
628.40 
171.58 
170.78 
384.37 
977.54 
753.48 
186.05 
818.03 


143,982,017.24 


§4,090.15 

540.00 

487.20 

5.908. 85 

164.40 

240.00 

2,272.50 

1,099.33 

521.47 


FOREIGN   COUNTRIES— 

Continued . 

Brazil 

British  Guiana 

Bulgaria 

Canada 

Chile 

China 

Comora  Islands 

Costa  Rica 

Cuba 

Cyprus 

Danish  West  Indies 

Denmark 

Dutch  East  Indies 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Ecuador 

England 

Egypt 

Finland 

France 

Germany 

Greece .". , 

Guatemala 

Hawaii , 

Honduras , 

India 

Ireland /. , 

Isle  of  Man 

Italy 

Japan 

Korea 

Liberia 

Madeira 

Malta 

Mauritius 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

New  Zealand 

Nicaragua 

Norway 

Paraguay  

Peru 

Portugal 

Russia 

San  Salvador 

Scotland 

Seychelles  Islands 

Siam 

South  African  Republic 

Spain 

St.  Helena 

Sweden  

Switzerland 

Tahiti 

Turkey 

United.  States  of  Colombia 

Uruguay 

Wales 

West  Indies 

Total  in  Foreign  Countries. 
Grand  Total 


Num- 
ber. 


6 

1 

1 

2,192 

10 

16 
1 
3 
4 
2 
2 

23 
1 
2 
3 
320 
1 
1 

62 

632 

5 

4 

29 

7 

2 

428 

2 

34 

12 
1 
6 
4 
2 
1 
112 

10 
8 
2 

40 
1 
I 

4 

1 

84 

2 

2 

3 

7 

1 

45 

74 

2 

7 

3 

3 

13 

14 


4,371 


993,714 


144,651,879.80 


650 


MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  FIGURES. 


Degrees  in  Freemasonry. 


York  Rite. 


Scottish  Rite. 


10. 


11. 
12. 
13. 


Lodge. 
Entered  Apprentice. 
Fellow  Craftsman. 
Master  Mason. 

Chapter. 
Mark  Master. 
Past  Master. 
Most  Excellent  Master, 
Royal  Arch  Mason. 

Council. 
Royal  Master. 
Select  Master. 
Super  Excellent  Master. 

Commandery. 
Red  Cross  Knight. 
Knight  Templar. 
Knight  of  Malta. 


Lodge  of  Perfection. 

4.  Secret  Master. 

5.  Perfect  Master. 

6.  Intimate  Secretary. 

7.  Provost  and  Judge. 

8.  Intendant  of  the  Build- 

ing. 

9.  Elect  of  Nine. 

10.  Elect  of  Fifteen. 

11.  Sublime  Knight  Elect. 

12.  Grand    Master    Archi- 
tect. 

13.  Knight    of    the    Ninth 

Arch. 
.    Grand     Elect,    Perfect 
and  Sublime  Mason. 

Councils  of  Princes  of 
Jerusalem. 

.    Knight  of  the  East  or 
Sword. 


Councils    of    Princes     of 
Jerusalem  (Continued). 

16.  Prince  of  Jerusalem. 

Chapters  of  Pose  Croix. 

17.  Knight  of  the  East  and 

West 

18.  Knight     of    the    Rose 

Croix  de  H.  R.  D.  M. 

Consistories  of  Sublime 
Princes  of  the  Poyal 
Secret. 

19.  Grand  Pontiff. 

20.  Master  Ad  Vitam. 

21.  Patriarch  Noachite. 

22.  Prince  of  Libanus. 

23.  Chief    of     the    Taber- 

nacle. 

24.  Prince    of    the    Taber- 

nacle. 


Consistories  of  Sublime 
Princes  of  the  Poyal 
Secret  (Continued). 

25.  Knight  of  the  Brazen 

Serpent. 

26.  Prince  of  Mercy. 

27.  Commander    of    the 

Temple. 

28.  Knight  of  the  Sun. 

29.  Knight  of  St.  Andrew. 
JO.    Grand  Elect  Knight, 

K.  H.,  or  Knight  of 
the  Black  and  White 
Eagle. 

51,    Grand    Inspector  In- 
quisitorCommander. 

J2.  Sublime  Prince  of  the 
Royal  Secret. 
Sovereign  Grand  In- 
spector-General of 
the  33d  and  Last 
Degree. 


33 


Cities  of  the  United  States,  above  25,000. 

TWELFTH  CENSUS,  1900. 


New  York,  N.  Y ,  3,437,202 

Chicago,  111 1,698,575 

Philadelphia,  Pa !  1,293,697 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Boston,  Mass 

Baltimore,  Md 

Cleveland,  Ohio. . . . 

Buffalo,  N.  Y 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Cincinnati,  Ohio . . . 

Pittsburg,  Pa 

New  Orleans,  La. . . 

Detroit,  Mich 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

Washington,  D.  C. . 

Newark,  N.  J 

Jersey  City,  N.J... 

Louisville,  Ky 

Minneapolis.  Minn . 


575,238 
560,892 
508,957 
381,768 
352,219 
342,782 
325,902 
321,616 
287,104 
285,704 
285,315 
278,718 
246,070 
206,433 
204,731 
202.718 
Providence,  R.  I I    175,597 


Indianapolis,  Ind. 

Kansas  Citv,  Mo 

St.  Paul,  Minn 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Denver,  Col 

Toledo,  Ohio 

Allegheny,  Pa 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Worcester,  Mass  . . 

Syracuse,  N.  Y 

New  Haven,  Conn 

Paterson,  N.J 

Fall  River,  Mass 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 

Omaha,  Neb 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Scranton,  Pa 

Lowell,  Mass 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Cambridge,  Mass 

Portland,  Oregon 

Atlanta,  Ga 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 

Dayton,  Ohio 

Richmond,  Va 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Seattle,  Wash 

Hartford,  Conn 

Reading,  Pa 

Wilmi  ngton,  Del  — 

Camden,  N.  J. ... 

Trenton,  N.J 


169,164 
163.752 
163,632 
162,435 
133,859 
131,822 
129,896 
125,560 
118,421 
108,374 
108,027 
105,171 
104,863 
102,979 
102,555 
102,479 
102.320 
102,026 
94,969 
94,151 
91,886 
90,426 
89,872 
87,565 
85,333 
85,050 
80,865 
80,671 
79,850 
78,961 
76,508 
75,935 
73,307 


Bridgeport,  Conn 70,996 

Lynn,  Mass 68,513 

Oakland,  Cal 66,960 

Lawrence,  Mass 62,559 

New  Bedford,  Mass 62,442 

Des  Moines,  Iowa 62,139 

Springfield,  Mass 62,059 

Somerville,  Mass 61,643 

Troy,  N.  Y 60,651 

Hoboken,  N.  J 59,364 

E vansville,  Ind 59,007 

Manchester,  N.  H 56,987 

Utica.N.Y 56.383 

Peoria,  111 56,100 

Charleston,  S.  C 55,807 

Savannah,  Ga 54,244 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 63,531 

San  Antonio,  Tex 53,321 

Duluth,Minn 52,969 

Erie, Pa 52,733 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 52,130 

Wilkesbarre,  Pa 51,721 

Kansas  City,  Kan 51,418 

Harrisburg,  Pa 50,167 

Portland,  Me 50,145 

Yonkers,  N.Y 47,931 

Norfolk,  Va 46.624 

Waterbury,  Conn 45,859 

Holyoke,  Mass 45,712 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 45,115 

Youngstown,  Ohio 44,885 

Houston,  Tex 44,633 

Covington,  Ky 42,938 

Akron,  Ohio 42,728 

Dallas.Tex I  42,638 

Saginaw,  Mich 42.345 


Lancaster,  Pa. 

Lincoln,  Neb 

Brockton,  Mass 

Binghamton,  N.  Y . 

Augusta,  Ga , 

Pawtucket,  R.  I 

Altoona,  Pa 

Wheeling,  W.  Va.. 

Mobile,  Ala 

Birmingham,  Ala. 
Little  Rock,  Ark... 
Springfield,  Ohio.. 

Galveston,  Tex 

Tacoraa*  Wash 

Haverhill,  Mass.. . . 

Spokane,  Wash 

Terre  Haute,  Ind.. 


41,459 
40,169 
40,063 
39.647 
39,441 
39,231 
38,973 
38,878 
38,469 
38,415 
38,307 
38,253 
37.789 
37,714 
37,175 
36,848 
36,673 


Dubuque,  Iowa 

Quincy,  111 

South  Bend,  Ind.... 

Salem,  Mass 

Johnstown,  Pa 

Elmira,  N.  Y 

Allentown,  Pa 

Davenport,  Iowa 

McKeesport,  Pa , 

Springfield,  111 , 

Chelsea,  Mass 

Chester,  Pa , 

Maiden,  Mass 

York,  Pa 

Topeka,  Kan 

Newton,  Mass 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 

Bayonne,  N.  J 

Knox ville,  Tenn 

Chattanooga,  Tenn... 
Schenectady,  N.  Y ... 

Fitchburg,  Mass 

Superior  Citv,  Wis... 

Rockford,  111 

Taunton,  Mass 

Joliet,  111 

Canton,  Ohio 

Butte,  Montana 

Montgomery,  Ala 

Auburn,  N.  Y 

East  St.  Louis,  111.... 

Sacramento,  Cal , 

Racine,  Wis 

La  Crosse,  Wis 

Williamsport,  Pa 

Jacksonville,  Fla 

Newcastle,  Pa 

Newport,  Ky 

Oshkosh,  Wis 

Woonsocket,  R.  I 

Pueblo,  Col 

Atlantic  Citv,  N.J... 

Passaic,  N.  J 

Bay  Citv,  Mich 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 

Lexington,  Ky 

Gloucester,  Mass 

South  Omaha,  Neb . . . 
New  Britain,  Conn... 
Council  Bluffs,  Iowa. 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa.. 
Easton,  Pa 


36,297 
36,252 
35,999 
35,956 
35,936 
35,672 
35,416 
35,254 
34,227 
34,159 
34,072 
33,988 
33,664 
33,654 
33,608 
33,587 
33,111 
32,722 
32,637 
32,490 
31,682 
31,531 
31,091 
31.051 
31.036 
30,720 
30,667 
30,470 
30,346 
30,345 
29,655 
29,282 
29,102 
28,895 
28,757 
28,429 
28,339 
28,301 
28,284 
28,204 
28,157 
27,838 
27,777 
27,628 
26,688 
26,369 
26,121 
26,001 
25,998 
25,802 
25,656 
25,238 


INDEX. 


A 

Page 

Abbeys  and  Monasteries, 283 

Abbreviations  in  General  Use,       .     .     •  181 

Abderit, 126 

Aberdeen,  University  of, 283 

Aboukir, 283 

Abraham's  Bosom 126 

Absinthe, 625 

Abydos,        283 

Abyla  and  Calpe,         126 

Abyssinian  War,  The, 273 

Academics,        .           126 

Academy,  The  French, 126 

National,  of  Design, 571 

Royal, 564 

West  Point 562 

Acadia, 126 

Accent  Marks,        123 

Acetate  of  Lead,  Liquor  of,      ....  401 

Acetic  Acid, 395 

Acoustics, 300 

Actium,         283 

Acre, 283 

Adam  and  Eve, 502 

Adam's  Apple, 126 

Addison,  Dying  Saying  of,        ....  623 

Admirable  Crichton,  The, 126 

Admiral, 126 

Adrianople, 283 

iEneid, 126,  169 

^Eolian  Harp, 302 

Aerial  Navigation, 302 

.Esthetics, 522, 

Africa,  Division  among  European  Powers,  111 

Age, 634 

of  Animals, 613 

Ages,       . 126 

Agincourt,  Battle  of, 283 

Air, 300,  366 

Aix-la-Chapelle, .  283 

Alabama, 126,  283 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  76 

Aladdin's  Window, 126 

Alaska, 283 

Albans,  St., 283 

Albany  Regency, 126 

Albany,  State  Capitol  at, 512 

Albigenses,        514 

Albino, 126 

Albinos,       .     .     •     . 283 

Albion, 126 

Alcoholic  Drinks, 300 


Page 

Alcoholic  Liquors, 588 

Alderton  Moor, 283 

Aldine  Press, 126 

Ale, 378 

Alessandria, 283 

Alexandria, 283 

Alexandrian  Codex, 513 

Alexandrian  Library,       .     .     .     .       126,  283 

Alexandrine  Age, 126 

Algebra, 300 

Algiers,         283 

Alhambra,  The, 126,  283 

Allah, 126 

All  Fool's  Day, 638 

Allhallowmas,        197 

All-Hallows, 126 

Alliance,  La  Belle, .  290 

Alloys,  Table  of  the  Principal,       ...  583 

All  Souls'  Day, 197 

Allspice, 416 

Almacks, 126 

Almanacs, 300 

Almighty  Dollar, .126 

Aloes,  Barbadoes,        396 

Alphabets, 143 

Alsatia, 126 

Altars, 283 

Altitude,  Greatest  in  P>ach  State,        .     .  646 

Alto-Relievo, 126 

Alum 397 

Amazons, 283 

Ambrosia, 126 

Amen, 541 

America,  Catholic  University  of,   .     .     .  560 

History  of, 218,  283 

Printing  in, 345 

American  Battles,  Calendar  of,     .     .     .  223 

American  Cheese, 418 

American  Civil  War, 274 

American  Clocks  and  Watches,      .      .     .  302 

American  Coinage,  Early, 447 

American  Flags, 601 

American  Indians,  The, 592 

American  Literature, 166 

American  Mine,  Oldest, 459 

Amerigo  Vespucci, 283 

Ammonia, 429 

Liniment  of, 401 

Liquor  of, •  397 

Sesqui-Carbonate  of, 397 

Spirit  of, 404 

Anachronism, 126 

Anacreontics, 126 

Anatomy, 301 

Anaxagoras,  Dying  Saying  of,      ...  623 


652 


INDEX. 


Page 

Ancient  Regime, 126 

Anglesey, 283 

Angling, 301 

Angling,  The  Father  of, 126 

Anglo-Saxons,        283 

Angular  Measure, 587 

Animal  Productions, 466 

Animal  Worship, 533 

Animals,  Age  Attained,       ...           •  613 

Anjou,  Battle  of, 283 

Annapolis,  U.  S.  Naval  Academy  at,       .  563 

Anniversaries,        200 

Anniversary,  The  Wedding,     ....  638 

Annus  Mirabilis, 126 

Anointing,                         ■. 283 

Antidotes  for  Poisons, 427 

Antimony,  Potassio-Tartrate  of,    .      .      .  397 

Antioch, 283 

Antoninus,  The  Wall  of 126 

Antonio,  Battle  of, 283 

Apocrypha,  The, 499 

Apollo  Belvedere, 126 

Apostles,  Deaths  of, 497 

Apostrophe,  The 123 

Apothecary's  Weights,    ......  587 

Appian  Way, 126,  283 

Apples,  Golden, 126 

Apples  of  Sodom, 126 

Applications :      Patent  Office,        ...  33 

Civil  Service,  U.  S., 37 

Apprenticeship,  Law  of, 118 

Approx.  Value  Gold  &  Silver,  L\  S.,  ;97,  455 

Aqueducts, 636 

Arabesque,        126 

Arabic  Literature, 149 

Numerals, 645 

Arbela,  Battle  of 284 

Arbor  Day 198 

Arcadian, 126 

Arcadians, 284 

Archimedes,  Principle  of, 302 

Architecture, 505 

Chinese, 508 

Egyptian, 506 

Gothic  or  Pointed, 509 

Grecian, 507 

Italian, 508 

Modern  British, 510 

Modern  Gothic, 509 

Norman, 508 

Roman, • .     .  508 

Saracenic, 509 

Saxon, 509 

Architecture  in  the  United  States,      .      .  511 

Art  Museum  at  Cincinnati,   ....  .11:} 

Art  School  at  Yale, 513 

Bureau  of  Printing  and  Engraving,      .  511 

Capitol  at  Hartford, 513 

Capitol  at  Washington, 511 


Page 

Architecture,  Cathedral  St.  John,  N.  Y.,  513 

City  Hall,  Philadelphia, 512 

Congressional  Library, 511 

Grace  Church,  New  York,     ....  512 

Harvard  College, 513 

Masonic  Temple,  Philadelphia,       .      .  513 

Memorial  Hall,  Harvard,       ....  513 

Museum  Fine  Arts,  Boston,        .     .     .  513 

Pension  Bureau, 511 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 512 

State  Capitol,  Albany, 512 

Stone  Hall,  Wellesley, 513 

Temple  Emmanuel,  N.  Y.,   .     .     .      .  513 

Treasury  and  Patent  Office,      .     .     .  511 

Trinity  Church,  New  York,        .     .     .  512 

University  of  Pennsylvania,       .     .     .  513 
Arctic  Explorers,  Most  North 'n  Pt.  li'ch'd,  599 

Area  and  Population  of  Cuba,       ...  19 

Hawaii, 15 

Porto  Rico, 16 

Areopagus,        284 

Argentine  Republic, 85 

Justice, 86 

Local  Government, 86 

Religion  and  Instruction,       ....  86 

Argentria, 284 

Argo, 126 

Argonauts, 126 

Argus-eyed, 126 

Arithmetic, 301 

Arizona, 284 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  76 

Arkansas, 284 

Divorce  Laws  of,    . 74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

.     Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  76 

Ark  of  the  Covenant, 516 

Armada,  The  Spanish,    ....        126,284 

Armed  Strength  of  Europe,       ....  632 

Armies,  Asia, 614 

Mexico, 614 

South  America, 614 

Armor, 303 

Arms,  Coats  of, 284 

Army, 284 

during  Civil  War,         579 

Colored  Troops  in  U.  S.,       ....  617 

Pay  Table, 611 

Recruiting  Requirements,  U.  S.,    .      .  610 

Strength  of  the  Federal 579 

The  Salvation, 563 

Arquebus,  Origin  of, 329 

Arria,  Dying  Saying  of, 623 

Art,  Schools  of/ 565 

American, 568 

Dutch 566 

English, 568 


INDEX. 


65a 


Page 

Art,  Flemish, 566 

French, .  567 

German, 566 

Lombard, 566 

Roman, 566 

Spanish, 567 

Venetian, 566 

Art  Terms,  Glossary  of, 574 

Artesian  Well,       .' 126 

Artillery, 304 

Arundel  Marbles 542 

Aryans, 126 

Asafcetida,  Gnm, 397 

Ascalon,  Battle  of,           284 

Asia,  Armies, 614 

Assaying, 301 

Assignment  of  Demand  for  "Wages  or  Debt,    67 

Assignment  of  a  Lease, 66 

Assignment  of  a  Mortgage 67 

Assignment  of  a  Patent, 67 

Assignment  of  a  Policy  of  Insurance,     .  67 

Associated  Press, 637 

Assyria, 284 

Astor  Library, 126 

Astronomy, 304 

Athens,   .* 284 

The  Modern, 126 

Atlantic  Cables, 303 

Atlantic  Ocean  Passage,  Fastest.       .      .  475 

Attorneys-General, 281 

Augustan  Age, 126 

Augustus,  Dying  Saying  of 623 

Auld  Reekie, 126 

Aurora  Borealis, 303 

Austerlitz, 284 

Australian  Federation, 110 

Austria, 284 

Austria-Hungary, 86 

Affairs  Common  to  the  Two  States.     .  86 

Instruction, 87 

Justice, 87 

Legislative  Power, 86 

Ministries,  The, 86 

Religion,        87 

Austrian  Servitude, 626 

Automobile, 301 

Avalon, 126 

Avignon 284 

Axminster  Carpets, .  419 

Axe-Wedge, 304 

Ayrshire  Poet,  The, 126 

Aztecs, 284 

B 

Babelmandeb,  Straits  of, 295 

Babel,  Tower  of, 542 

Babylon, 284 

Babylon,  Hanging  Gardens  of,     .      .      .  522 

Babylonish  Captivity, 126  , 


Page 

Bacon, 406 

Baconian  Philosophy, 126 

Bacteria, 642 

Baldness, 421 

Balloon,  Air,  Origin  of, 329 

Balmoral  Castle 126 

Baltimore,  Battle  of, 284 

Banana, 388 

Banking  System,  National, 451 

Banking,  Origin  of, 329 

Bank  Law,  The  National, 112 

Bank  of  England, 126 

Banks, 449 

Wild-Cat, .455 

United  States, 451 

Bannockburn,  Battle  of, 284 

Barbers, 284 

Barber's  Pole, 601 

Barcelona, 284 

Bard  of  Avon, 126 

Barmecide's  Feast, 126 

Barnburners, m  126 

Barometers,  Origin  of, 329 

Baron, 284 

Baronets,      .     .     . 284 

Barrenness, .  628 

Basilisk, 126 

Basso  Relievo,        126 

Bastille, 126,  284,  623 

Bath, 378 

Shower, 379 

Sponge,     .     . 380 

Warm, 379 

Battering  Ram,  Origin  of, 329 

Battery,  The, .126 

Battle  of  the  Books,   .......  126 

Battle  of  the  Kegs, 126 

Battle  of  Lake  Erie, 284 

Battles,  Great,  of  the  Civil  War,  ...  580 

Some  Famous  Naval, 282 

Bayonets,  Origin  of, 329 

Bayeux  Tapestry,        541 

Bays,  Size  of, 645 

Beacon  Street, 126 

Beaufort,  Dving  Saying  of.       ....  623 

Beauty  and  th«  Beast,     ....       126,  169 

Bedlam,        126 

Bedouins, 284 

Bedrooms, 430 

Beds, 305 

Beds  and  Bedding, 412 

Pillows 413 

Pillow  Cases, 413 

Sheets, 413 

Springs, 413 

Beef,        405 

Beelzebub, 126 

Beer,  Origin  of, 304 

Bee,  The  Attic, 126 


654 


INDBX. 


Page 

Bee,  The  Busy, 126 

Begging  the  Question, 126 

ium, 87,  284 

Chamber  of  Representatives,     ...  88 

Executive  Government, 88 

Instruction,   .                      89 

Justice, 89 

Local  Government,       ......  88 

Religion,        88 

Belgrade,  Battle  of, 284 

Belgravia, 126 

Belle  France,  La 126 

Bell  the  Cat, 126 

Bell,  Liberty, 632 

Bell,  The  Passing, 126 

Bellows,  Origin  of, 329 

Bells '305 

Great, 609 

Beloved  Disciple,  The, .126 

Benedictines, 505 

Benefit  of  Clergy,        498 

Benzine, 431 

Benzoic  Acid, 395 

Bermuda  Islands,        284 

Berry,  Mme.  de,  Dying  Saying  of,     .      .  623 

Bess,  Good  Queen, 126 

Bible,  English  Translations,     ....  497 

Bible  Societies, 284 

Bibles,  The  Seven  of  the  World,       .     .  564 

Bibliotheque  National, 126 

Billiards, 306 

Billingsgate, 126 

Bill  of  Fare :     April  19, 385 

|     July  4, 385 

j     Thanksgiving  Day, 385 

Washington's  Birthday, 385 

Bills  of  Lading, 118 

Biography,  Dictionary  of, 233 

^Bishop  of  Rome,  The, 100 

J  Bismuth,  Trisnitrate  of, 397 

Bithynia, 284 

Black  Death, 126 

Black  Friday, 126 

Black  Hole  of  Calcutta, 126 

Blacklisting,  Anti-  Laws,      ..*...  44 

Black  Prince,  The, 126 

Black  Republicans, 127 

Black  Teas, 417 

Blarney  Stone,  The, 127,  595 

Blenheim,  Battle  of, 284 

Blind,  Education  of  the, 520 

Blood,  Circulation  of, 304 

Bloodstone, 597 

Bluebeard, 127,  169 

Blue  Laws,        127 

Famous  Connecticut, 615 

Blue  Stocking, 127,  604 

Boadicea, 285 

Bodily  Exercise,  Kinds  of, 373 


Page 

Bohemian, 127 

Bois  de  Boulogne, 127 

Bombs,  Origin  of, 329 

Bonnet, 304 

Books,  The  World's  Best, 135 

Antiquities,  Art,  and  Music,     .      .     .  135 

Classics,  Poetry,  and  Drama,     .     .     .  140 

Education, 135 

Essays  and  Criticisms 140 

Fiction  and  Description,       ....  138 

History  and  Biography,         .     .     .      .  136 

Language  and  Literature,     ....  135 

Philosophy  and  ^Esthetics 141 

Political  Science,  Economics,  and  Law,  142 

Reference  Books  and  Dictionaries,       .  135 

Religion,  Theology,  and  Mythology,  .  137 

Science  and  Travels, 141 

Size  of, 633 

Boomerang, 633 

Boots, 306 

Borax, 397 

Border  Minstrel,  The, 127 

Border  States, 127 

Border,  The, 127 

Boston,  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,     .     .      .  513 

Botanic  Gardens,         305 

Botany,         306 

Bottles,         306 

Boulevard,         127 

Boulogne, 285 

Bourgeoisie, .  127 

Bourse, 127 

Bow  Bells, 127 

Bowery,  The, 127 

Boxers,  The, 519 

Boycott, 127 

Anti-Laws, 44 

and  Boycotting, 458 

Boyne,  Battle  of, 285 

Brackets, 123 

Brain,  The,       .......       305,  596 

Overworking  the  Undeveloped,       .     .  375 

Brandy, 388 

Brandy  Nose, 127 

Brazil, 89,  285 

Chamber  of  Deputies,       .     .     .     .     .  89 

Executive  Authority,         89 

Instruction,   .           90 

Legislative  Authority,       .....  89 

Local  Government, 90 

Religion,        90 

Bread, 306 

Breakfast, 382 

Breakfasts,  Family, 382 

Breakfast  Parties, 383 

Breeches  Bible, 127 

Brick  Required  to  Construct  Building,    .  636 

Bricks, 306 

Bride  of  the  Sea, 127 


INDEX. 


655 


Page 

Bride,  Throwing  Shoes  after,   ....  640 

Bridge  of  Sighs, 127,  641 

Bridges,  Most  Notable, 589 

Origin  of, 329 

British  Columbia,  Exemption  Laws  of,  .  74 

British  Customs  Tariff, 43 

British  Empire,  The, 79 

Cabinet  Officers,  The, 80 

House  of  Commons,  The,      ....  79 

House  of  Lords,  The, 79 

Local  Government, 80 

Territorial  Extent  of,        82 

British  Museum, 127 

Broadway, 127 

Brochs, 285 

Bronte,  Dying  Saying  of, 623 

Brook  Farm, 127 

Brother  Jonathan, 127 

Brussels  Carpet, 419 

Buddhism, 503 

Buenos  Ayres,        285 

Bulgarians, 285 

Bullets,  Origin  of, 329 

Buncombe, 127 

Bunker  Hill  Monument,       .     .      .       127,  602 

Burgundy, 425 

Business  Law  and  Forms  :      Agency,       .  53 

Checks, 55 

Common  Carriers,        54 

Currency, 55 

Deeds, 53 

Forms  of  Deeds, 53 

Forms  of  Powers  of  Attorney,    ...  53 

Guaranty, 57 

Kinds, 53 

Notes, 55 

Business  Terms,  Dictionary  of,  481 

Butter, 306 

Byron,  Dying  Saying  of, 623 

Byzantine  Architecture,        509 

Byzantium, 285 

c 

Cabinet  Officers  : 

Attorneys-General, 281 

Postmasters-General, 281 

Secretaries  of  Agriculture,      ....  281 

Secretaries  of  the  Interior,    ....  281 

Secretaries  of  the  Navy, 280 

Secretaries  of  State, 279 

Secretaries  of  the  Treasury,       .      .      .  280 

Secretaries  oi  War, 280 

Cables,  Cuba, 21 

Owned  by  Nations, 476 

Submarine  of  the  World,      ....  476 

Caesar,  Dying  Saying  of, 623 

Cachet,  Litres  de, 127 

Caledonia, 127,  285 


Page 

Calico  Printing, 306 

California, 285 

Discovery  of  Gold  in, 313 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married    Women,  76 

University  of, 560 

Calomel, 397 

Calumet, 127 

Cambridge,  University  of, 501 

Camera  Obscura,  Origin  of,       ....  329 

Campagna, 127 

Camphor, 397 

Liniment  of, 401 

Tincture  of, 404 

Canada, 285 

Area,  etc.,  of  the  Provinces,      ...  85 

Capital, 84 

Constitution  and  Government,         .     .  82 

Executive  Officers, 83 

House  of  Commons, 83 

Instruction, 84 

Justice, 84 

Money  and  Credit,        ......  84 

Naturalization,        84 

Productions  and  Industry,     ....  84 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  79 

Provincial  Government, 83 

Religion, 84 

Rulers  since  1867,        83 

Senate, 83 

Canals, 480 

Canary  Islands, 285 

Cancer,         429 

Candia,         285 

Candlemas,        197 

Candles,        307 

Canna,  Battle  of,         285 

Cantharides,  Plaster  of,        398 

Capacity,  Scriptural  Measure  of,    .      .     .  540 

Capital  Letters, 121 

Capital  of  U.  S., 626 

Capsicum, 398 

Captain  Kidd,        640 

Carbolic  Acid,        ........  396 

Carbonari,         127 

Carmagnole, 127 

Carpets,        419 

Axminster, 419 

Brussels,         419 

Dutch, 420 

Ingrain, 420 

Kidderminster,         420 

Moquette, 420 

Persian  and  Turkish, 420 

Printed  Felt, 420 

Rag, 420 

ubstitute  for, 436 


656 


INDEX. 


Page 

Carpets,  Tapestry, 420 

Three  Ply, 420 

Velvet, 420 

Wilton, 420 

Wood, 420 

Carrier  Pigeons, 639 

Cartesian  Philosophy, 127 

Carthage, 285 

Castle  of  Chillon,        647 

Castle  Garden, 127 

Castor  Oil, 398 

Catacombs, 127,  498 

Catalonia, 285 

Catawba  Wine, 426 

Cathartics,        428 

Cathedral  of  St.  John,  New  York,      .      .  513 

Cathedrals,  European, 496 

Height  of  Noted,     .......  590 

Catholic  University  of  America,    .     .      .  560 

Cavalier  Servente, 1 27 

Cave,  Mammoth,        630 

Caveats,  Patent  Office  Procedure,       .      .  34 

Cecilia,  St., 127 

Ceilings, 435 

Celebrated  Paintings, 502 

Celestial  Empire, 127 

Celluloid, 307 

Census,  U.  S.,  1890, 633 

Central  America, 285 

Central  and  South  American  Trade,  .      .  463 

Central  Park, 127 

Cerate, 398 

Cerate  of  Acetate  of  Lead,       ....  398 

Cerate  of  Resin, 398 

Cerate  of  Spermaceti, 398 

Chaldeans, 285 

Chalk,  Prepared, 398 

Chamomile  Flowers, 398 

Chamomile,  Tnfusion  of, 400 

Champagne, "  .  424 

Champ  de  Mars, 127,  285 

Champs  Elysees, 127 

Channel  Islands,  Local  Government,       .  81 

Character  Indicated  by  the  Month,     .      .  621 

Charcoal,  Poultice  of, 403 

Charing  Cross, 285 

Charlemagne,  Dying  Saying  of,  '  .      .      .  624 

Charles  I.  of  England,  Dying  Saying  of,  624 

Charles  II.  of  England,  Dying  Saying  of,  624 

Charles  V.,  Dying  Saying  of,    ....  624 

Charles  IX.  of  France,  Dying  Saying  of,  624 

Charlotte,  Dying  Saying  of,      ...      .  624 

Charter  Oak, 127 

Chartists, 285 

Chauvinism, 127 

Cheapside, 127 

Checks, 55 

Cheese, 418 

American, 418 


Page 

Cheese,  Dutch, 418 

English, 418 

French, 418 

German, 418 

Italian, 418 

Scotch, 418 

Swiss, 418 

Chemical  Substances,  Com.  Names  of,      .  307 

Chemistry, 308 

Chess,  Origin  of, 307 

Chesterfield,  Dying  Saying  of,        ...  624 

Chicago,  University  of,        561 

Childermas, 197 

Children,  Rights  of, 118 

Chile 90 

Instruction.  Justice, 91 

Local  Government, 91 

Religion, 91 

Chillon, 285 

Castle  of, 617 

Chiltern  Hundreds, 127 

Chimneys,  Origin  of, 329 

China, 91,  285 

Great  Wall  of, 599 

Origin  of, 329 

Instruction, 92 

Local    Government, 92 

Religion, 92 

Chinese  Burial  Customs, 545 

Chinese  Immigration  Law,        .      .     .     .  114 

Chinese  Literature, 143 

Chinese  Styles  of  Architecture,     .      .      .  508 

Chloride  of  Zinc, 398 

Chocolate, 417 

Christ  Church, 127 

Christian  Association,  Young  Men's,      .  520 

Christian  Names,  Meaning  of,        ...  190 

Christian  Science, 550 

Science  Churches,        550 

Christianity, 556 

Christmas, 554 

Christmas  Day, 198 

Chronograph,  Origin  of, 329 

Chronometer, Origin  of, 329 

Chronological  P2ras, 196 

Church  of  England, 520 

Church,  Greek, 573 

Roman  Catholic, 555 

Churches,  Capacity  of  Largest,     .      .      .  600 

Cid  Campeador, 170 

Cid,  The, 127 

Cimbri, 286 

Cinchona  Bark, 398 

Decoction  of, 399 

Cincinnati,  The, 127 

Art  Museum  at, 513 

Cinnamon, 399 

Cisterns,  Capacity  of, 627 

Cities,  Distance  between  European,    .     .  646 


INDEX. 


657 


Cities,  Largest  of  the  Earth,      . 

Popular  Names  of, 

Rainfall  of  Foreign, 

Temperature  of  Foreign,        .... 

United  States, 

Citizen  King,  The, 

Citric  Acid, 

Civil  Service, United  States  :   Applications 

Appointments, 

Divisions  of, 

Examination, 

Excepted  Places, 

Extent  of, 

Political  Activity  of  Officials, 

Preference  Claimants, 

Political    Discrimination,      .     .      .     . 

Unclassified  Executive, 

Civil  War,  American, 

Civil  War,  Army  during, 

Great  Battles  of, 

Claret,     

Classic  and  Romantic  Literature,  . 

Classification  of  Mankind, 

Cleanliness, 

Clearing  House, 

Cleopatra's  Needle, 

Clepsydra,  Origin  of, 

Clergy,  Benefit  of, 

Climate, 

Altitude,        

Character  of  Soil, 

Distribution  of  Land  and  Water,    . 

Elevation  of  the  Land, 

Land  and  Water, 

Latitude, 

Length  of  Day, 

Moisture, 

Mountain  Ranges,        

Ocean  Currents, 

Prevailing  Winds, 

Rotation  of  the  Earth, 

Slope  of  Land, 

Temperature, 

Philippine  Islands, 

Porto  Rico, 

Clock,  Strasburg,        

Clocks,  American, 

Origin  of, 

Cloth  of  Gold,  Field  of  the,     .     .     .     . 

Cloth,  Woolen,  Origin  of, 

Cloves,  Infusion  of, 

Coaches, 

Coal  Area  of  World 

Mines,  Origin  of 

Production  of, 

Cockagne,  Land  of 

Cocoa, 

Cod, 

Cod  Liver  Oil, 


Page 

591 

618 

642 

612 

650 

127 

396 

37 

38 

37 

37 

38 

37 

39 

38 

39 

39 

274 

579 

580 

425 

171 

569 

372 

455 

568 

329 

498  i 

308 

308! 

308! 

308 

309 

309 

308 

308 

309  I 

308 

308  ! 

308  1 
309! 
308, 

309  I 
18! 
16 

633 

302 

329 

616 

331 

400 

309 

595  i 

329 

473  | 

127 

430 

405 

399 


Page 

Coffee, 415,  480 

Its  Uses  and  Medicinal  Qualities,  .     .  414 

Origin  of, 329 

Coffins,    . '.     ...  309 

Coin, 309 

Coins,  Rare  U.  S.  and  Value,    ....  581 

Coinage,  United  States  Mints,       .     .     .  453 

Early  American,     ........  447 

Coined  Money  of  Great  Britain,     .     .      ,  446 

Cold  Bath, 379 

College  de  France,      . 573 

College,  AVilliam  and  Mary,      ....  565 

Colocynth, 399 

Colon,  The, 122 

Colorado, 286 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  76 

Colosseum,  The, 544 

Colossus  of  Memnon,      .......  543 

Colossus  of  Rhodes 127,543 

Columbia, 127 

Columbia  University, 560 

Columbian  University, 572 

Columbus,  Dying  Saying  of,     ...      .  624 

Column  of  Vendome, 127 

Combustion,  Spontaneous, 351 

Comedy, 286 

Comets, 309 

Comma,  The,  * 122 

Commerce  and  Industry :     Cuba,       .      .  20 

Philippine  Islands, 18 

Porto  Rico, 17 

Hawaii, 15 

Commerce  Law,  Interstate,       ....  52 

Commercial  Travelers,  Tax  on,     .      .      .  616 

Common  Carriers, 54 

Common  Domestic  Fowls, 406 

Common  Sense  in  Summer 382 

Commune,  Paris,        602 

Commune,  The, 286 

Communism  and  Socialism,       ....  459 

Compass,  The, 310 

Confederate  Money,  How  Price  Dropped,  462 

Confederate  States, 127,  580 

Confucianism, 504 

Congress,  Library  of, 589 

Conium, 399 

Connecticut, 286 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Famous  Blue  Laws, 615 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  76 

Congressional  Library 127,  511 

Consols,        .     . 127 

Constantinople, 286 

Constitution  and  Government :     Canada,  82 


58 


INDEX. 


Page 

Constitution  and  Government :  Hawaii,  15 

United  States, 10 

Constitution,  Expounder  of,      ...  128 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,      .     .  23 

Amendment  to, 29 

Ratification  of, 31 

Ratification  of  Amendment,       ...  31 

Consumption, 629 

Contracts, 59 

Forms  of, 61 

Convention, 286 

Cook,  Captain, 286 

Copaiba  Balsam, 399 

Co- Partnership,  Articles  of,      ....  65 

Copenhagen, 286 

Copernican  System, 311 

Copper,  Production  of, 473 

Copperheads, 127 

Copyright  Law,  United  States,      ...  31 

Cordova, 286 

Corncrackers,  The, 127 

Corn  Law  Rhymer,  The, 127 

Cornell  University, 559 

Corner  Stones, 647 

Corpulence,  Treatment  of, 380 

Corsets, 311 

Corsica, 286 

Corso, 127 

Cosmetics, 427 

Cosmos,  Origin  of, 329 

Cotton, *  ...  311 

Councils,  General, 200 

Countries  of  the  World,  Statistics  of,      .  110 

Divorces  in  Different, 595 

Summer  Heat  in  Various,     ....  581 

Covent  Garden, 286 

Crabs, 405,  428 

Crapaud  Johnny,  .    ' 127 

Credit  Mobilier, 127,  458 

Cremation,        311 

Creosote, 399 

Ointment  of, 402 

Crockery, 311 

Printing, 344 

Crocodile  Tears, 127 

Crome,  John,  Dying  Saying  of,     .  624 

Cromwell,  Dying  Saying  of,      ...     .  624 

Crusade,  Children's, 515 

Crusades, 286 

Cryolite, 312 

Cuba:     Area  and  Population,       ...  19 

Cables, 21 

Commerce  and  Industry,        ....  20 

Finances, 20 

Government, 19 

Minerals, 20 

Ports, 21 

Railways, 20 

Cubic  Measure, 587 


Page 

Cumberland, 127 

Curfew  Bell, 127,  286 

Curious  Book,  A, 171 

Curious  Misnomers, 581 

Currency, 55 

Currency,  Early  Forms  of, 444 

Curtains, 431,  434 

Customs  Duties, 39 

Customs,  Baggage  Regulations,     ...  47 

Customs,  Mourning,        637 

Dado, 435 

Daguerreotype, 312 

Dakotas,  , 286 

Damascus  Steel, 312 

Damask  Linens  and  Silks, 312 

Damocles'  Sword, 127 

Dandelion,  Decoction  of, 399 

Daudruff, 426 

Danes, 286 

Dante, 171 

Darby  and  Joan, 127 

Darwinian  Theory, 127 

Dash,  The, 123 

Dates,  Some  Interesting, 350 

Day  and  Night, 312 

Day,  All  Fool's 638 

Days  of  the  Week,  Origin  of,  .     .     .     .  199 

Debatable  Ground, 127 

Debt,  Assignment  of  Demand  for,     .      .  67 

Imprisonment  for, 458 

Decemvirs, 286 

Decisive  Battles  of  History,     ....  273 

Declaration  of  Independence,        ...  21 

Signers  of 578 

Decoration, 434 

Decoration  Day, 198 

Deeds, 53 

Forms  of, 53 

Defective  Classes,  The, 593 

Delaware, 286 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Exemption  Laws  of , 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  7(5 

Delft, 286 

Origin  of, •    .     .     .      .  329 

Delphi, 286 

Temple  at, 546 

Demonax,  Dying  Saying  of 624 

Denmark, 286 

De  Profundis, 127 

Design,  National  Academy  of,       ...  571 

Devil,  Printer's, 623 

Dew,        312 

Diamond, 597 

Diamonds,  Famous, 646 

Diana 286 

Dictionary, 313 


INDEX. 


659 


Page 

Diet  of  Advanced  Life, 391 

Brain  Workers, 370 

Childhood  and  Youth, 390 

Infancy, 389 

Middle  Life 390 

Diet  of  Worms, 504 

Dill  Water, 400 

Dinner, 383 

Family, 386 

Dionysius, 286 

Diplomatic  Service, 580 

Directory,  The  French, 127 

Disinfectants  and  How  to  Use,       .      .      .  393 

District  of  Columbia  :     Divorce  Laws  of,  74 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  76 

Diving  Bells, 313 

Divorce  Laws, 74 

Divorces  in  Different  Countries,    .      .      .  595 

Dixie,  The  Land  of ,    .......  127 

Dizzy, 127 

Doctors'  Commons, 127 

Doctrinaire, 127 

Doe,  John, 128 

Dollar,  Saved, 584 

Dominion  Executive  Officers,    ....  83 

Donnybrook  Fair, 128 

Doomsday  Book, 128,  286 

Douay  Bible,  The, 128 

Downing  Street, 128 

Draco's  Laws, 114 

Drugs, 395 

Acid,  Acetic, 395 

Acid,  Benzoic, 395 

Acid,  Carbolic, 396 

Acid,  Citric, 396 

Acid,  Gallic, 396 

Acid,  Hydrochloric, 396 

Acid,  Sulphuric, 396 

Acid,  Tartaric,        396 

^Ether,  Sulphuric, 396 

Aloes,  Barbadoes, 396 

Alum, 397 

Ammonia,  Liquor  of, 397 

Ammonia  Sesqui-Carbonate,     .     .     .  397 

Antimony,  Potassio-Tartrate,     .     .     .  397 

Asafoetida,  Gum, 397 

Bismuth,  Trisnitrate  of,  .     .     •.     .     .  397 

Borax, 397 

Calomel 397 

Camphor, 397 

Cantharides,  Plaster  of, 398 

Capsicum, 398 

Castor  Oil, 398 

Cerate, 398 

Cerate  of  Acetate  of  Lead,   ....  398 

Cerate  of  Resin, 398 

Cerate  of  Spermaceti, 398 


Page 

Drugs :    Chalk,  Prepared, 398 

Chamomile  Flowers, 398 

Chloride  of  Zinc 398 

Cincona  Bark, 398 

Cinnamon, 399 

Cod  Liver  Oil, 399 

Colocynth, 399 

Conium, 399 

Copaiba  Balsam, 399 

Creosote, 399 

Decoction  of  Cinchona, 399 

Decoction  of  Dandelion,        ....  399 

Decoction  of  Iceland  Moss,       .     .     .  399 

Decoction  of  Logwood, 399 

Decoction  of  Poppyheads,     ....  399 

Decoction  of  Sarsaparilla,     ....  400 

Dill  Water, 400 

Extract  of  Gentian, 400 

Extract  of  Henbane, 400 

Extract  of  Hop, 400 

Extract  of  Sarsaparilla, 400 

Gamboge, 400 

Horse-radish, 400 

Infusion  of  Chamomile, 400 

Infusion  of  Gentian 400 

Infusion  of  Linseed, 400 

Infusion  of  Orange-Peel,      ....  400 

Infusion  of  Quassia, 401 

Infusion  of  Rhubarb, 401 

Infusion  of  Roses, 401 

Infusion  of  Senna,       ......  401 

Ipecacuanha,  the  Root, 401 

Jalap,  the  Root, 401 

Laudanum, 401 

Liniment  of  Ammonia, 401 

Liniment  of  Camphor, 401 

Liniment  of  Turpentine,        ....  401 

Liquor  of  Acetate  of  Lead,  ....  401 

Magnesia,  Carbonate  of,  .      .     .     .     .  401 

Magnesia,  Sulphate  of, 402 

Marsh  Mallows, 402 

Mercury,  Ammonia-Chloride  of,     .     .  402 

Mercury,  Mild  Chloride  of ,  .     .     .     .  402 

Mercury,  Nitric  Oxide  of,     ...     .  402 

Mint-Water, 402 

Mixture  of  Chalk, 402 

Mixture  of  Iron, 402 

Ointment  of  Creosote, 402 

Ointment  of  Galls, 402 

Ointment  of  Green  Iodide  of  Mercury,  402 

Ointment  of  Nitric  Oxide  of  Mercury,  402 

Ointment  of  Zinc, 402 

Olive  Oil, 402 

Peruvian  Balsam, 403 

Pill  of  Mercury, 403 

Pill  of  Rhubarb, 403 

Pitch,  Burgundy, 403 

Poultice  of  Charcoal, 403 

Poultice  of  Hemlock, 403 


660 


INDEX. 


Page 

Drugs  :  Poultice  of  Linseed,     ....  403 

Poultice  of  Mustard, 403 

Poultice  of  Yeast, 403 

Powder  of  Ipecacuanha, 403 

Quinine,  Sulphate  of, 403 

Rhubarb, 403 

Saffron, 403 

Senna, 403 

Simple  Cerate, 398 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of, 404 

Soda,  Sulphate  of, 404 

Spirit  of  Ammonia 404 

Spirit  of  Horse-radish, 404 

Spirit  of  Nitric  Ether, 404 

Squill, 404 

Syrup  of  Iodide  of  Iron, 404 

Tincture  of  Camphor, 404 

Tincture  of  Ginger, 404 

Tincture  of  Iodine, 404 

Tincture  of  Myrrh, 404 

Tincture  of  Opium, 404 

Tincture  of  Quinine, 404 

Tincture  of  Rhubarb, 404 

Tincture  of  Valerian, 404 

Tolu,  Balsam  of, 404 

Turpentine,  Spirit  of, 404 

Valerian, 405 

Wine  of  Iron, 405 

Wine  of  Opium, 405 

Wine  of  Potassio- Tartrate  of  Antimony,  405 

Zinc,  Chloride  of, 405 

Zinc,  Sulphate  of, 405 

Drury  Lane  Theater, 128 

Dry  Measure 588 

Dublin, 287 

Ducks, 406 

Duke,      .     .     .' 287 

Durability  of  Different  Woods,      .      .     .  583 

Dutch  Carpet, 420 

Dutch  Cheeses, 418 

Dutchman,  Flying 613 

Dwarfs,  Famous, 581 

Dyeing, 314 

Dying  Gladiator, 128 

Dynamite, 314,  618 

Gun, 314 

E 

Eagle  as  an  Emblem 603 

Earth,  Facts  about  the, 606 

Largest  Cities  of  the, 591 

Population  According  to  Race,        .     .  607 

Population  by  Continents,     ....  606 

Earthenware, 428 

Earthquakes, 315 

Earth's  Surface,  The, 314 

Avalanche, 314 

Glaciers, 314 


Pace 

Earth's  Surface,  The,  Lowlands,        .     .  314 

Mountain  Chains, 314 

Mountain  Pass, 314 

Mountains, 314 

Silvas, 314 

Easter, 497 

Eastern  States, 128 

Eating,  Effects  of  Excessive,    ....  389 

Ecce  Homo, 128 

Ecole  Polytechnique, 128,505 

Eden,  Garden  of, 503 

Education,  Compuls'y  in  For.  Countries,  524 

Compulsory  in  United  States,    .      .     .  523 

John  F.  Slater  Fund, 571 

The  Peabody  Fund, 570 

Eggs,  Weight  of 585 

Egypt, 287 

Egyptian  Architecture, 506 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 44 

Elden,  Lord,  Dying  Saying  of,      ...  624 

El  Dorado, 128 

Electric  Light, 315 

Electricity,        316 

Storage  of, 317 

Terms  in, 359 

Electroplating 317 

Elephant,  Seeing  the 128 

Elevated  Railways,  New  York,     .      .      .  615 

Elgin  Marbles 128 

Emancipation  in  Great  Britain*,     .      .     .  639 

Embalming, 318 

Emblem,  Eagle  as  an, 603 

Embrocations, 429 

Embroidery, 318 

Emerald, 598 

Emery, 318 

Engines,  Compressed  Air, 310 

England, 287 

and  Wales, 81 

Justice, 81 

Local  Government, 80 

English  Cheeses, 418 

English  Language,  The, 121 

English  Royal  Incomes,        .     .      .      .      .  621 

Engraving, 318 

Enlistment,  United  States  Naval,       .      .  625 

Entomology, 318 

Envelopes,  Origin, 329 

Epirus, 287 

Epochs,  Eras,  Periods,  Date  of  Beginning,  196 

Escurial,  The 128,  573 

Etching,  Art  of 319 

Eternal  City,  The, 128 

Ether, 319 

Ethnology, 319 

Etna,  Mount, 620 

Eureka, 128 

Europe,  Armed  Strength  of 632 

European  Cities,  Distances  between,       .  646 


INDEX. 


6G1 


Page 

European  Sovereigns,  Civil  List  of,    .     .  108 

Evangelists,  Symbols  of  the,     ....  128 

Evolution  Theory,  The, 320 

Exclamation  Point,  The, 123 

Exclusion,  Bill  of, 128 

Execution,  Mode  of,        584 

Executive,  Civil  List, 593 

U.  S.  Government, 10 

Exemption  Laws, 71 

Exercise, 373 

Kinds  of  Bodily, 373 

Mental, 376 

Repose  Demanded  by, 374 

Running  as  an,        374 

Expectation  of  Life, 592 

Explosives,  Strength  of, 624 

Exports,  Principal,  of  Various  Cities,     .  618 

Expounder  of  the  Constitution,    .      .     .  128 

Express,  Origin  of 329 

Extension,  University, 572 

Eyes,  Care  of  the, 418 


Fabian  Policy, 

Fabius,  The  American, 

Facts  about  theEarth 

Worth  Knowing, 

Faineants,  Les  Rois 

Fairmount  Park, 

Fairs,  The  World's, 

Faith,  Defender  of  the, 

Falernian, 

Falk  Law, 

Familiar  Allusions, 

Famous  Diamonds, 

Famous  Dwarfs, 

Famous  Giants, 

Famous  Xaval  Battles,  .... 
Famous  People,  Dying  Sayings  of, 
Famous  Retreat,  The,     .... 

Faneuil  Hall, 

Farmer  George, 

Fata  Morgana, 

Father  of  His  Country,   .... 
Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church,   . 
Faubourg  St.  Autoine,    .... 

St.  Germain, 

Federal  Army,  Strength  of  the,     . 
Federal  Bankruptcy  Act, 
Feeg,  Patent  Office  Procedure, 

Feminine  Height, 

Feminine  Weight 

Fenians, 

Feudal  Law, 

Fever,  Spring, 

Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,      .      . 

Fifth  Avenue,        

Fighting  Joe, 


128, 


12S, 


620 
128 
606 
616 
128 
128 
582 
127 
128 
287 
126 
646 
581 
581 
282 
623 
287 
128 
128 
128 
128 
12S 
128 
128 
579 
51 
34 
582 
582 
128 
287 
381 
616 
128 
128 


Page 

Figures,  Origin  of, 329 

Finances,  Cuba, 20 

Financial  and  Ind.  Cond.,  Philippine  Is.,  17 

Finding,  Law  of, 47 

Fire,  Fire  Engines, 321 

Fire  Insurance, 470 

Fires,  Great, 584 

First  Day  of  the  Year, 200 

First  Gentleman  in  Europe,      .      .     .     .  128 

First  Newspapers, 189 

First  Railroads, 321 

Fish,  Fresh  Water, 405 

Five  Points, 128 

Five  Wits,  The, 600 

Flag,  Origin  of, 329 

Flags,  American,        601 

Flagellants, 128 

Fleet,  The, 128 

Fleets,  Torpedo,  The, 614 

Flies  Walking  on  the  Ceiling,  ....  321 

Floods,  Great,        585 

Florida,        287 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  76 

Flounders, •     .     .  405 

Flowers,  Language  of,     ....*.     .  586 

State,        624 

Flowery  Kingdom,  The, 128 

Fluid  Measure, 587 

Flying  Dutchman, 128,  613 

Folklore,      .     .     .    * 205 

Indian, 600 

Fontenelle,  Dying  Saying  of,    ...     .  624 

Food, 366 

Choice  of  Articles  of, 405 

Classification  of, 371 

Composition  of  Various,        ....  370 

Digestibilitv  of , 369 

Kinds  of,       .     • 368 

Medicinal, 380 

Xutritiousness  of, 369 

Quantity  of, 370 

Seasonable, 406 

Foods,  Relative  Value  for  Stock,   .     .      .  617 

Foreign  Cities,  Rainfall  of,       ....  642 

Temperature  of, 642 

Foreign  Coins,  Value  in  U.   S.  Money,  453 

Foreign  Trade  of  the  United  States,       .  464 

Foreign  Words  and  Phrases,     .     .      .      .  174 

Forks, 322 

Forte, 128 

Fort  Sumter 128 

Fourierism, 128 

France, 92,  287 

Chamber  of  Deputies, 93 

College  de, 573 

Colonies  and  Dependencies,  ....  94 

Instruction, 94 


662 


INDEX. 


Paoe 

France,  Justice, 95 

Local  Government, 93 

Ministry,        . 92 

Religion,        94 

Rulers  from  Revolution  of  1792,     .     .  231 

Senate, 93 

Franco-German  War, 275 

Franklin,  Dying  Saying  of,      ....  624 

Franks " 287 

Frauds,  Statute  of, 60 

Freedman's  Bank, 456 

Freemasonry,   .      .           650 

Freemasons, 287 

Freezing,  Fusing,  and  Boiling  Points,    .  321 

French  Academy, 168,518 

Forty  Immortals, 189 

French  Cheeses, 418 

French  Cookery,  Terms  Used  in,        .      .  408 

French-English  Dishes,        410 

French  Literature, 155 

French  Renaissance,        518 

French  Revolution, 287 

Freshmen, 128 

Friedland, 287 

Fruits,  Comparative  Yield  of,        ...  636 

Fuel,  Wood  for, 586 

Funk,  Peter, 128 

Furnishing, 432 

Bedrooms, 433 

Border, 435 

Ceilings, 435 

Curtains, 434 

Dado,        435 

Decoration, 434 

Dining  Room,  The, 433 

Gas  Fixtures, 433 

General  Advice, 436 

Hall,  The, 432 

Library,  The, *  .     .  433 

Nursery,  The, 433 

Papers, 435 

Parlor,  The, 432 

Pictures, 435 

Remarks  on  Various  Rooms,      .     .      .  435 

Servants'  Rooms, 433 

Upholstery, 434 

Fur  Trade,  American, 460 

G 

Gadshill, 128 

Gainsborough,  Dying  Saying  of,   .     .     .  624 

Gallic  Acid, 396 

Galls,  Ointment  of 402 

Galvanized  Iron, 322 

Gamboge, 400 

Games, 287 

Secular, 132 

Garnet, 598 


Pagb 

Garter,  Order  of  the 634 

Gas  Fixtures, 433 

Natural, 637 

Gasolene, 322 

Geese, 406 

Genre  Painting, 128 

Gems,  Language  of, 597 

Amethyst, 597 

Bloodstone, 597 

Diamond, 597 

Emerald, 598 

Garnet, 598 

Onyx, 598 

Opal, 598 

Pearl, 598 

Ruby, 598 

Sapphire, 598 

Symbolic  of  the  Months,        ....  612 

Topaz, 598 

Turquoise, 593 

General  Councils, .  200 

Genoa, 287 

Gentian,  Extract  of, 400 

Infusion  of, 400 

Geographical  Formation,  Porto  Rico.      .  16 

Geography,        322 

Geologic  Ages, 322 

Geometry, 323 

George  IV.,  Dying  Saying  of,  .      .      .     .  624 

George,  St.,  and  the  Dragon,   .     .      .     .  128 

Georgia, 288 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women ,   .  77 

German  Cheeses, 418 

German  Empire, 95 

Constitution,  The, 95 

Foreign  Dependencies, 96 

Instruction, 96 

Justice, 96 

Religion, 96 

Secretaries  of  State, 95 

German  Literature, 158 

German  Philosophers, 569 

Germany, 288 

Gerrymander, .  128 

Gesta  Romanorum, 169 

Geysers, 323 

Ghent, 288 

Ghetto, 128 

Ghibelline, 128 

Giants'  Causeway, *631 

Giants,  Famous, 581 

Gibbon,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Gibraltar, 288 

Ginger,  Tincture  of, 404 

Girondins, 288 

Girondists, 128 

Glacial  Period, 323 


INDEX. 


663 


Page 

Glass, 324 

Glass,  Discovery  of, 324 

Glencoe,             128 

Glossary  of  Mining  and  Milling  Terms,  .  462 

Art  Terms, 574 

Musioal  Terms, 574 

Glucose, 324 

Gnostic, 521 

Gobelins, 128 

God,  The  Name  of,  in  Different  Languages,  563 

Godiva,  Lady, 128,  609 

Goethe, 171 

Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Golconda, 128 

Gold  and  Silver,  Facts  about,   ....  462 

World's  Production  in  1897,      .     .     .  454 

Gold  Exports, 460 

Gold  Fever, 128 

Golden  Age, .128 

Golden  Gate, 128 

Golden  Horn, 128 

Golden  Fleece,  The, 631 

Good  Friday, 198 

Gordian  Knot, 128,  288 

Gordon  Riots,  The, 128 

Gotham, 128 

The  Wise  Men  of, 128 

Gothic  Style  of  Architecture,    ....  509 

Goths, 288 

Government,  Cuba, 19 

Revenues  of  the, 456 

Salary  List, 603 

Governments  of  the  World,  Heads  of,     .  109 

Salaries  Paid  to  Heads  of,      ...  595 

State, 51 

Territorial, 51 

Grace  Church,  New  York, 512 

Grain, 324 

Grains,  Comparative  Yield  of,        ...  636 

Granada, 288 

Grangers, 615 

Graphite, 324 

Graphophone, 325 

Gravitation, 325 

Great  Bells, 609 

Great  Britain,  Coined  Money  of,   .     .      .  446 

Emancipation  in, 639 

Population  of, 610 

Great  Commoner,  The, 128 

Great  Duke,  The, 128 

Great  Eastern,  The, 128,  630 

Great  Financial  Panics, 582 

Great  Fires, 584 

Great  Floods, 585 

Great  Men's  Works, 134 

Great  Pyramid,  The, 129 

Great  Waterfalls,  The, 585 

Grecian  Architecture, 507 

Grecian  Monarchy,     ..,,,,.  288 


Page 

Greece, 97,  288 

Constitution,  The, 97 

Instruction, 98 

Ministry, 97 

Religion, 98 

Greek  Church, 573 

Greek  Literature, 144 

Greenbacks, 129 

Green  Iodide  of  Mercury,  Ointment  of,  .  402 

Green  Isle,  The, 129 

Green  Teas, 417 

Greenwood, 129 

Gregorian  Year, 129 

Gregory  VII.,  Dying  Saying  of,     .     .      .  624 

Gretna  Green, 129,  288 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  Dying  Saying  of,    .     ..  624 

Grocer's  Table,        .         647 

Grotius,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Ground,  Hills  in  an  Acre  of,     ...  638 

Grub  Street, 129,  168 

Guam  (Ladrones), 19 

Guaranty, 57 

Forms  of, 59 

Guelphs, 129 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines, 288 

Guildhall, 129 

Guillotine, 325 

Gun-Barrels, 325 

Gunpowder,  Discovery  of, 326 

Gunpowder  Plot, 129 

Guns,  Origin  of, 329 

Air,  Origin  of,   ........  329 

Gutta-Percha, 326 

Gyges'  Ring, 129 

Gymnastics  and  Physical  Culture,      .     .  391 

Gypsy  Tribes, 288 


Habeas  Corpus  Act,  The, 129 

Hades, 521 

Hair, 423 

Treatment  of  The, 422 

Halacha, 524 

Halcyon  Days, 129 

Haller,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Hallows  Eve, 629 

Halls,  Capacity  of  Largest,       ....  600 

Hampshire  Shakers, 525 

Handicap, 129 

Handkerchiefs,  Origin  of, 330 

Hanging  Gardens  of  Babylon.       .     .     .  522 

Hansard, 129 

Hanseatic  League, 129,  289 

Hanse  Towns, 129 

Harbors, 601 

Hare,  Mad  as  a  March, 129 

Hari-Kari, 129 

\  Harpies,        ..,...,.,,  J29 


664 


INDEX. 


Page 

Hartford,  Capitol  at, 512 

Harvard  College, 513 

College  Memorial  Hall, 513 

University, 557 

Harvest  Months  of  the  World,      ...  462 

Harvest  Moon, 129 

Hats  and  Caps, 326 

Hawaii,  Area  and  Population,       ...  15 

Commerce,  Shipping,  etc.,    ....  15 

Constitution  and  Government,   ...  15 

Haydn,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Hazlitt,  Dying  Saying  of,     .     .     .     .      .  624 

Heads  of  the  Governments  of  the  World,  109 

Hearse, 326 

Heat  in  Various  Countries,       ....  581 

Heathen  Chinee,  The, 129 

Hebrew  Literature, 146 

Hebrew  Race, 289 

Hegira, 129 

Heidelberg  Castle, 129 

Height,  Feminine, 582 

Heliography, 326 

Hemlock,  Poultice  of, 403 

Henbane,  Extract  of, 400 

Heptarchy,        289 

Herculaneum, 289 

Hero  and  Leander, 617 

Herrings, 405 

High  Church, 129 

High  Seas,  The, 129 

Highest  Mountains, 599 

Hills  in  an  Acre  of  Ground,      ....  638 

Hindoos,  Caste    mong  the,       ....  601 

Sacred  Books  of  the,        172 

Historic  Treaties,        297 

History,  Decisive  Battles  of,      ...  273 

Dictionary  of, 283 

of  America,        218 

and  Biography, 196 

The  Father  of, 129 

Hittites, 289 

Hivites, 289 

Hobbes,  Dying  Saying  of,    ....      .  624 

Hobson's  Choice, 129 

Hog  Products  Exported  from  U.  S.    .      .  479 

Holborn, 129 

Holidays, 593 

Old  English 197 

Holland, 289 

Holy  Alliance,        129,  289 

Holy  Coat,         535 

Holy  Family,  The .129 

Holy  Grail,        526 

Holy  Land,  The, 129 

Holy  League,  The, 129 

Homoeopathy,  Origin  of, 330 

Honi  soit  qui  mal  y  pense, 129 

Honors  of  War, 129 

Hop,  Extract  of, 400 


Page 

Horse-radish, 400 

Spirit  of, 404 

Horseshoe,  Lucky, 609 

Horseshoes,  Origin  of, 330 

Host, •     .  544 

Hot  Bath, 379 

Hotel  de  Ville, 129 

Hottentots, 289 

Houris; 129 

House,  Location  of, 381 

Housekeeper's  Time-Table,       ....  410 

Huguenots, 289 

Human  Body,  Chemical  Composition  of.  371 

Human  Family, 327 

African  Race, 327 

Indo-European  Race,        327 

Mongolian  Race, 327 

Human  Pulse,  The ;     .      .  376 

Humanities, 533 

Hundred  Days, 129 

Hungarian  Literature, 173 

Hungarv, 289 

Huns,   " 289 

Hunter,  Dr.  Wm.,  Dying  Saying  of ,       .  624 

Hydrochloric  Acid, 396 

Hydrometer,  Origin  of,        330 

Hyphen,  The,        123 

Hypnotism, 328 

I 

Iceland  Moss,  Decoction  of,       ....  399 

Iconoclast, 129 

Idaho, 289 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Igneous  Rocks, 328 

Ignis-Fatuus, 328 

Iliad, 129,  169 

Illegitimacy, 592 

Illinois, 290 

Divorce  Laws  of, 74 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Illiteracy  of  Nations, 522 

Important  Origins, 329 

Inaugurations,  Irregular, 629 

Incomes,  Royal  English, 621 

Indebtedness  of  Nations, Ill 

of  States, 598 

of  Territories, 598 

Independence  Day, 198 

Declaration  of, 129 

Hall, 129 

Signers  of  Declaration  of,      ....  578 

Independents, 289 


INDEX. 


665 


Page 

Index  Expurgatorius, 129 

India  Rubber, 462 

Indian,  The  American, 592 

Indian  Folklore, 600 

Indian  Mutiny, 273 

Indian  Summer, 331 

Indian  Territory, 289 

Indian  War, 289 

Indiana, ,     .      .      .     .  289 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of,         44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Indies, 290 

Indorsements, 59 

Indulgences, 500 

Infusoria, 331 

Ingrain  Carpet, 420 

Inns  and  Innkeepers, 68 

Inns  of  Court, 129 

Inquisition,  ........        129,  499 

Insanity, 590 

Insurance, 470 

Fire, 470 

Life, 471,  585 

Marine  and  Transit, 471 

Insurance  Policy,  Assignment  of,  .      .      .  67 

Inter-Communication,  Porto  Rico,      .  16 

Interest  Laws,  .     .     ' 68 

Interrogation  Point,  The, 122 

Interstate  Commerce  Law, 52 

Iodide  of  Iron,  Syrup  of, 404 

Iodine,  Tincture  of, 404 

Iowa, 290 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  77 

Ipecacuanha,  Powder  of, 403 

The  Root, 401 

Ireland, 290 

Justice, 81 

Population  of, 610 

Irish  Agitator, 129 

Iron  City,  The, 129 

Iron  Crown  of  Lombardy, 290 

Tron,  Discovery  of, 331 

Iron  Duke,  The, 129 

Iron,  Galvanized,        322 

Iron  Mask,  Man  in  the, 129 

Iron,  Wine  of, •     .  405 

Irving,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Islam, 514 

Islands,  Largest  in  the  World,       .      .      .  603 

Isle  of  Man,  Local  Government,    ...  81 

Israel, 290 

Issus, 290 

Italian  Architecture, 508 

Italian  Cheeses, 418 

Italian  Literature, 150 


Page 

Italy, 98,  290 

Constitution, 98 

Executive  Power, 99 

Instruction, 100 

Justice, 100 

Local  Government, 99 

Parliament, 98 

Religion, 99 

See  and  Church  of  Rome,      ....       99 
The  Bishop  of  Rome, 100 


J 

Jack  Ketch, 129 

Jack  Robinson, 129 

Jack,  The  American,  or  Union,     .     .     .  129 

Jack,  The  Giant  Killer, 129 

Jacobins, 129,290 

Jacobites,     . 129,290 

Jacquard  Loom, 331 

Jalap,  the  Root, 401 

Jamaica, 290 

James  V.  of  Scotland,  Dying  Saying  of,  624 

Japan,     100,290 

House  of  Peers, 100 

House  of  Representatives,     ....  101 

Instruction, 101 

Justice, 101 

New  Navy  of, 614 

Religion, 101 

System  of  Government, 100 

Jardin  des  plantes, 129 

Jardin  Mabille, 129 

Jefferson,  Dying  Saying  of,       ....  624 

Jelly  Fishes, 331 

Jericho,  Gone  to, 129 

Jerusalem, 290 

Delivered, 129 

Jesuits,  Society  of, 547 

Jewish  Religion,  The, 570 

Temple,  The,      ........  573 

Jingo,  Jingoism, 129 

John  Bull, 129 

Chinaman, 129 

Johnny  Cakes, 130 

Johnson,  Dr.,  Dying  Saying  of,     .      .     .  624 

Jubilee,  Year  of,    .           130 

Judiciary,  United  States  Government,    .  13 

Juggernaut, 130,  515 

Jugurthine  War, L90 

Julian  Era,  The, 130 

Junius,  Letters  of, 130 

Juries, 290 

Jury,  Trial  by, 114 

Justice  of  the  Peace, 290 

Justices  of  the  Peace,  Jurisdiction  of,     .  46 

Justinian  Code 290 


666 


INDEX. 


K 

Page 

Kansas, 290 

Bleeding, 130 

Kansas,  Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  77 

Kensington  Gardens, 130 

Kentucky, 290 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Kidd,  Captain, 640 

Kidderminster  Carpets, 420 

Kilkenny  Cats,  The, 130 

King  Can  Do  No  Wrong,  The,      ...  130 

King  Cole, 130 

King  Cotton, 130 

King's  Evil, 130 

King  Log, 130 

King-Maker,  The, 130 

King  of  Yvetot 130 

King  Stork, 130 

Kings  and  Queens  of  England,  Table  of,  2d2 

Kissing  the  Book, 517 

Kit  Kat  Club,  The, 130 

Knickerbocker, 130 

Knighthood, 604 

Knights  of  Malta, 130 

Knights  Templars 290 

Know  Nothings, 130 

Knox,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Koh-i-Noor, 130 

Koran, 130,  171,  545 

Kremlin,  The, 130 


Labor  Day, 198 

Labor,  Anti-Blacklisting  Laws,      ...  44 

Anti  -  Boycotting  Laws, 44 

Legislation,         44 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 44 

Labyrinth,  The,  130 ;  Egyptian,        .      .  514 

Lace-Making, 332 

Lace,  Origin  of, 330 

Laconic, 130 

Lacrymal  Christi, 130 

Lady  Day, 197 

Lake  Erie,  Battle  of, 284 

Lake  School,  The, 130,  517 

Lakes,  Size  of, 645 

Lamb, 405 

Lammas  Day, 197 

Lamps, 332 

Landlord  and  Tenant, 70 

Land,  Alien  Holders  of  Our,    ....  602 

o'  Cakes,  The, 130 

of  Bondage,  The, 130 


Page 

Land  of  Nod,  The, 130 

of  Promise,  The, 130 

Lands,  Mortgage  of 65 

Lands,  Public,  Vacant, 598 

Lang  Syne, 130 

Language  of  Postage  Stamps,  ....  620 

Languages,  Classification  of,     ...     .  120 

of  the  World, 168 

English, 168 

French, 168 

German, 168 

Latin, 173 

Langue  d'  Oc,        130 

Langue  d'  OZil, 130 

Laocoon,  The,        130 

Laodicean, •.     .     .     .  130 

Lares  and  Penates, 130 

Last  Judgment,  The, 130 

Last  Supper,  The, 130 

Lateran  Palace,  The, 130 

Latin  Language, 173 

Latin  Union, 604 

Latitude, 332 

Latter  Day  Saints, 516 

Laudanum, 401 

Laughing  Philosopher,  The,     ....  130 

Law  of  Apprenticeship, 118 

of  the  Road,  The, 69 

of  Subscription,  The, 116 

of  Trade-Marks,  The, 52 

Parliamentary,  Condensed,    ....  113 

Requirements  for  the  Practice  of,    .     .  548 

Terms,  Dictionary  of, 481 

Laws,  Famous  Connecticut  Blue,        .     .  615 

Laws,  Naturalization, 34 

Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa,        .     .     .       130,  516 

Learned  Blacksmith,  The,        ....  130 

Lease,  Assignment  of, 66 

Leather,  Tanning,  Origin  of,    .      .     .     .  330 

Lee's  Birthday, 198 

Legal  Holidays  in  the  United  States,       .  197 

Admission  Day, 198 

All  Saints'  Day, 198 

Anniversary  Battle  of  New  Orleans,   .  197 
Anniversary  Battle  of  San  Jacinto,     .  198 
Anniversary  Signing  of  the  Mecklen- 
burg Declaration  of  Independence,  .  198 
Anniversary  of  Texan  Independence,    .  198 

Arbor  Day, 198 

Bennington  Battle  Day, 198 

Christmas  Day, 198 

Confederate  Memorial  Day,  .     .     .     .  198 

Decoration  Day, 198 

General  Election  Day, 198 

Good  Friday, 198 

Independence  Day, 198 

Jefferson  Davis's  Birthday,   ....  198 

Labor  Day, 198 

Lee's  Birthday, 198 


INDEX. 


667 


Page 

Legal  Holidays  :  Lincoln's  Birthday,      .  198 

Mardi-Gras 198 

New  Year's  Day, 197 

Patriots'  Day, 198 

Pioneers'  Day, 198 

Spring  Election, 198 

State  Election  Day, 198 

Thanksgiving  Day, 198 

Washington's  Birthday, 198 

Legend, 205 

Legislation,  Labor, 44 

Legislative,  U.  S.  Government,     ...  11 

Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  University,       .      .  561 

Length,  Measure  of, 587 

Particular  Measure  of, 587 

Scriptural  Measure  of, 541 

Leonine  Verses, 130 

Libby  Prison, 130 

Liberia, 290 

Liberty,  Bartholdi's  Statue  of,      ...  598 

Liberty  Bell, 632 

Library  of  Congress, 589 

Libraries,  Foreign, 519 

Life,  Expectation  of , 592 

Life  Insurance, 471 

Origin  of, 332 

Life- Boats,  Origin  of 330 

Light,  Undulatory  Theory  of ,   .      .      .     .  360 

Lightning  Rods,  Origin  of,       ....  330 

Ligny,  Battle  of, 290 

Lilliput, 130 

Limitations,  Statutes  of, 68 

Limits  of  Vision, 627 

Lincoln's  Birthday, 198 

Lincoln's  Inn, 290 

Line,  Mason  and  Dixon's, 580 

Linen,  Origin  of, 330 

Lingua  Franca, 130 

Linseed,  Infusion  of, 400 

Poultice  of, 403 

Lion  and  Unicorn, 130 

Lion  of  the  North 130 

Lion's  Share, 130 

Liquid  Air, 333 

Liquid  Measures,         588 

Liquids,  Specific  Gravities  and  Weight  of,  594 

Liquors,  Alcoholic, 588 

Percentage  of  Alcohol  in,      ....  586 

Literary  Pseudonyms, 188 

Literature,   . 120 

American, 166 

Arabic, 149 

Chinese, 143 

Classic, 171 

Early, 143 

English, 163 

French, 155 

German, 158 

Greek, 144 


Page 

Literature,  Hebrew,  , 146 

Hungarian,    ........     .  173 

Italian, 150 

Persian, 150 

Polish, 162 

Portuguese, 154 

Roman, 147 

Romantic, .     .     .  171 

Russian, 161 

Sanskrit, 148 

Scandinavian, 160 

Spanish, 152 

Literature,  Celebrated  Characters  in,       .  183 

Lithography,  Origin  of, 330 

Little  Corporal,  The, 130 

Little  Giant,  The, 130 

Liverpool  Docks, 459 

Living,  Cost  of, 472 

Lloyds, 130 

Lobsters, 405 

Local  Government,  British  Empire,   .     .  80 

Locomotives,  Weight  and  Cost,      .     .      .  460 

Logwood,  Decoction  of, 399 

Lollards  or  Lollhards, 518 

Lombard  Street, 130 

Lombardy, 291 

London, 291 

Lone  Star  State,  The, 130 

Long  Parliament, 130 

Looms,  Ribbon,  Origin  of, 330 

Lord's  Prayer,  The, 134 

Lorelei, 130,  169 

Losses  from  Wars, 645 

Lotus-Eaters,  The, 130 

Louis  I.,  Dying  Saying  of , 624 

IX.,  Dying  Saving  of, 624 

XIV.,  Dying  Saving  of, 624 

XVIII.,  Dying  Saying  of,     ....  624 

Louisburg, 291 

Louisiana, 290 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Louvre,  The, 130 

Low  Church,  The, 130 

Lucky  Horseshoe, 609 

Lunch, -386 

Lusiad,  The, 130 

Lycurgus, 291 

Lynch  Law, 130 

M 

Mab,  Queen, 130 

Macadamize, 130 

Macaronic  Verse,        130 

Macchiavellism, 130 

Machines,  Ruling, 330 

Machines,  Sewing,  Origin  of,  .     .      .     .  330 

Mackerel, 405 


668 


INDEX. 


Page 

Mad  Poet,  The 130 

Madagascar, 291 

Madam  Tussaud's  Exhibition,       .      .     .  130 

Madeira, 425 

Islands .291 

Madman  of  Macedonia,  The,  .      .      .      .  130 

of  the  North 130 

Madonna,     . 130 

Madrid,        291 

Madrigal, 168 

Maecenas, 130 

Maelstrom, 608 

Magna  Charta, 130,291 

Magnesia,  Carbonate  of, 401 

Sulphate  of, 402 

Magnet,        333 

Magnifying  Glasses,  Origin  of,      .      .      .  330 

Mahomet,  Dying  Saying  of 624 

Mahomet's  Coffin, 130 

Mahrattas, 291 

Maid  of  Orleans, 130 

Saragossa, 130 

Maiden  Queen,  The,        130 

Maine, 291 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Law, 130 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  77 

Majolica  Ware, 519 

Malthusian  Doctrine,  The,        ....  130 

Mammoth  Cave, 130,630 

Man  in  the  Moon, 130 

of  Destiny, 130 

of  Iron,  The, 131 

of  Straw, 131 

Manitoba 291 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Mankind,  Classification  of,        ....  569 

Mansion,  Costly, 619 

Marble  Paper,  Origin  of, 330 

Mardi-GrasJ 198,606 

Mare's  Nest, 131 

Marie  Antoinette,  Dying  Saying  of,  .      .  624 

Marine  and  Transit  Insurance,       .      .      .  471 

Mariner's  Compass, 333 

Marriage, 291 

a  la  Mode 131 

Laws, 74 

Marrying,  A  Woman's  Chances  of,     .     .  585 

Marseillaise, 131 

Marsh  Mallows 402 

Martinet, 131 

Martinmas,        197 

Maryland .  291 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of    Married  Women,  77 
Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,     .     .     .      .131,580 

Masonic  Temple,  Philadelphia,      .      .      .  513 


Page 

Massachusetts, 291 

Blue-Laws, 115 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  77 

Massacres, 291 

Matches,  Invention  of, 333 

Mausoleum, 131 

Maxim  Self-Acting  Gun, 333 

Mayfair, 131 

Measure,  Angular, 587 

Boxes  of  Different, 588 

Cubic, 587 

Dry, 588 

Fluid, 587 

Liquid, 588 

of  Time, 587 

Surface,  . 587 

Measures, 412,  587 

of  Weight, 588 

Origin  of, 330 

Mecklenburg  Declaration, 23 

Medical  Dictionary, 437 

Medicinal  Food 380 

Medicine, 334 

Requirements  for  the  Practice  of.   .     .  551 

Meerschaum, 334 

Memnon, 291 

Memorial  Day,  Confederate,     ....  198 

Mental  Exercise, 376 

Mercator's  Projection, 131 

Mercury,  Ammonia-Chloride  of,    .      .      .  402 

Mild  Chloride  of, 402 

Nitric  Oxide  of, 402 

Pill  of, 403 

Merry  Andrew, 131 

Merry  Monarch,  The, 131 

Mesmerism, 131,334 

Metallic  Coins, 445 

Metals,  Fluid  Density  of, 584 

Pecuniary  Value  of, 581 

Tenacity  of, 584 

Value  as  Conductors,        584 

Meteoric  Stones, 628 

Meteors, 334 

Metric  System, 335 

Mexico,        102,291 

Armies  of, 614 

Constitution, 102 

Instruction,         102 

Justice, 102 

Local  Government, 102 

Religion, 102 

Mezzo  Relievo, 131 

Michaelmas, 197 

Michigan, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights    of  Married   Women,  77 


INDEX. 


669 


Page 

Microphone, 335 

Microscope,  Invention  of, 335 

Microscopes, 291 

Origin  of, 330 

Middle  Ages,  The, 131 

Middle  States,  The, 131 

Midsummer  Day, 197 

Milan, 291 

Mileage,  Railroad  by  Countries,     .     .      .  470 

Miles,  Number  of,  from  New  York  to,    .  635 

Number  of,  by  Water  from  New  York  to,  635 

Millennium, 504 

Milling  Terms,  Glossary  of,      ....  462 

Mineral  Productions, 466 

Minerals,  Cuba, 20 

Mines,  Coal,  Origin  of, 329 

Tin,  Origin  of, 330 

World's  Principal  Tin, 621 

Mining  Terms,  Glossary  of,       ....  462 

Minnesingers, 131,  169 

Minnesota, 291 

Divorce  Laws  of , 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,    .  77 

Minstrels, 292 

Mint,        292 

Water, 402 

Mirabeau,  Dying  Saying  of,      ....  624 

Miracle  Plays, 170 

Mirage, 336 

Mirrors, -  .     .      .      .  336 

Miserere, 131 

Misnomers,  Curious, 581 

Mississippi, 291 

Bubble, 131 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  77 

Mississippi  Scheme, 457 

Missouri, 291 

Compromise,  The,        131 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of. 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Mistress  of  the  Seas, 131 

Misuse  of  Words, 192 

Mixture  of  Chalk, 402 

of  Iron 402 

Modern  British  Architecture,    ....  510 

Modern  Gothic  Architecture,    ....  509 

Mogul  Empire, 292 

Molly  Maguires, 131,609 

Monarch,  Le  Grand, 131 

Monetary  Statistics, 454 

Money  in  the  United  States,      ....  452 

Time  in  Which  it  Doubles,   ....  584 

Monkery, 292 

Monroe  Doctrine, 131 


Page 

Mont  de  Piete, 131 

Montana, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  78 

Month,  Character  by  the, 621 

Gems  Symbolic  of,       ......  612 

The  Roman, 627 

Months  and  their  Names,  The,       .     .      .  199 

Montmartre, 131 

Monument,  Bunker  Hill, 602 

Washington, 611 

Monumental  City,  The, 131 

Moody  (the  actor),  Dying  Saying  of,    .     .  624 

Moore  (Sir  John),  Dying  Saying  of,    .     .  624 

Moorish  Architecture,     .     .      .     .     .      .  509 

Moors 292 

Moquette  Carpets, 420 

Morey  Letter,  The, 131 

Morganatic  Marriage, 131 

Morocco, 292 

Mortgage,  Assignment  of  a,       ....  67 

of  Lands, 65 

Mosaics, 547 

Moscow, 292 

Mother  Carey's  Chickens, 131 

Goose, 131 

of  Presidents, 131 

Motion,  Perpetual, 615 

Mottoes  of  the  States, 627 

Mound  Builders, 604 

Mount  Ararat, 517 

Mount  Vernon, 131,292 

Mountains,  Highest, 599 

Mourning  Customs, 637 

Muscular  Christianity, 131 

Museum, 292 

of  Fine  Arts,  Boston, 513 

Music, 336,  562 

of  the  Spheres, 131 

Musical  Terms,  Glossary  of,      ...     .  574 

Mustard,  Poultice  of, 403 

Mutton, 405 

Myrrh,  Tincture  of 404 

Mythology,  A  Dictionary  of,    ...     .  202 

IV 

Nails, 336 

Namby-Pamby, 131 

Nantes,  Edict  of , 131,292 

Naples, 292 

Napoleon  III.,  Dying  Saying  of,    .      .     .  624 

Narcotics, 413 

National  Academy  of  Design,  ....  571 

National  Bank  Law,  The, 112 

Nation  of  Shop-keepers, 131 

Nations,  Illiteracy  of  Various,      .     .     .  522 


670 


INDEX. 


Page 

Nations,  Indebtedness  of, Ill 

Wealth  of  Principal, 459 

Natural  Bridge,  The, 131 

Natural  Gas, 637 

Natural  Storm  Signals, 609 

Naturalization  Laws, 34 

Nautical  Vocabulary, 648 

Navies, 613 

Navigation,  Ocean  Steam,        ....  338 

Navy,  List  of  Ships  of  U.  S.,   .     .     .     .  643 

New,  of  Japan, 614 

United  States,  Pay  Table,     ....  625 

Nebraska, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Nebular  Hypothesis 337 

Needle,  Cleopatra's, 568 

Needles, 337 

Nelson,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Netherlands, 102,  292 

Constitution,  The, 102 

Executive  Power, 102 

Instruction, 103 

Justice, 103 

Local  Government, 103 

Ministry,  The, 103 

Religion, 103 

Nevada,        292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

New  Brunswick,  Exemption  Laws  of,     .  73 

New  England, 292 

Newfoundland, 292 

Newgate, 131 

New  Hampshire, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

New  Jersey, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

New  Mexico, 292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

New  Orleans, 292 

Battle  of,  Anniversary, 197 

Newspapers,  First, 189 

Size  of, 586 

New  World, 131 

New  Year's  Day, 197 

New  York .  292 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 44 


Page 

New  York,  Elevated  Railways,      .     .     .  615 

Exemption  Laws  of, 72 

Grace  Church, 512 

Number  of  Miles  from, 635 

Number  of  Miles  by  Water  from,  .     .  635 

Property    Rights  of  Married   Women,  78 

Temple  Emmanuel, 513 

Trinity  Church 512 

New  Zealand, 292 

Nibelungen  Lied, 131.190 

Nice,  Councils  of, 51  I 

Nicholas,  Saint, 554 

Nickel, 337 

Nicknames,  Noted,  National,   ....  647 

Night,  Watches  of  the, 636 

Nihilism, 642 

Nine  Worthies,  The, 131 

Nitric  Ether,  Spirit  of, 404 

Nitro-Glycerine, 619 

Noctes  Ambrosianse, 131 

Noel 131 

Non-Conformists, 131 

Norman  Architecture, 509 

Normandy, 293 

North  Carolina, 293 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

North  Dakota,  Divorce  Laws  of,    .     .     .  74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  76 

North',  Slavery  in  the, 605 

Northern  Giant,  The, 131 

Northwest  Territories,  Exemption  Laws  of,  73 

Norway, 293 

Notable  Bridges, 589 

Notaries  Public, 293 

Notes, 55 

Forms  of, 58 

Notre  Dame, 131 

Nova  Scotia, 293 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Nova  Zembla, 293 

Number,  The  Sacred, 608 

Numerals,  Arabic, 645 

Roman, 645 

Nutrition,  Effects  of  Insufficient,  .      .     .  389 

o 

Oath, 293 

Obelisks, 517,  568 

Obligations  of  Parents, 117 

Occupations  in  the  United  States,       .     .  477 

Ocean  Steam  Navigation, 338 

Ocean  Steamship  Lines : 

Designating  Marks  of, 472 

Night  Signals  on, 472 

Oceans,  Depths  of, 337 


INDEX. 


671 


Page 

Oceans,  Size  of, 645 

Odyssey 131 

Ogres, 131 

Ohio 293 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 44 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Ohm's  Law, 338 

OiPolloi, 131 

Oklahoma,  Divorce  Laws  of,     ...  75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,   .  78 

Old  Abe, 131 

Old  Bailey, 131 

Old  Dominion,  The, 131 

Old  English  Holidays, 197 

Allhallowmas, 197 

All  Soul's  Day, 197 

Candlemas, 197 

Childermas, 197 

Lady  Day, 197 

Lammas  Day, 197 

Martinmas, 197 

Michaelmas, 197 

Midsummer  Day, 197 

Old  Candlemas .197 

St.  Sw'ithin'sDay, 197 

Twelfth  Day, 197 

Old  Guard,  The, 131 

Old  Hickory, 131 

Old  Probs, 131 

Old  Public  Functionary, 131 

Old  South,  The, 131 

Oleomargarine, 338 

Olive  Oil, 402,431 

Olives, 431 

Olympiads, 293 

Oneida  Community, 524 

Ontario, 293 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Onyx, 598 

Opal, 598 

Opium,  Tincture  of ,  . 404 

Wine  of, 405 

Oracles, 526 

Orange, 293,432 

Orange  Peel, 131 

Infusion  of, 400 

Orangeman, 131 

Ordinance  of  1787, 131 

Oregon, 293 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,     .  78 

Organs, 293 

Origin  of, 330 

Origin  of  the  Days  of  the  Week,   .      .      .  199 

of  Woman,  Myths  of  the,      .     ,     .     .  629 


Page 

Origins.  Some  Important, 329 

Air  Balloons, 329 

Air  Guns, 329 

Arquebus, 329 

Banking, 329 

Barometers,         329 

Battering  Ram, 329 

Bayonets, 329 

Bellows, 329 

Bombs, 329 

Bridges, 329 

Bullets, 329 

Camera  Obscura, 329 

Chain  Shot, 329 

Chimneys, 329 

China, 329 

Chronograph, 329 

Chronometer, 329 

Clepsydra, 329 

Clocks 329 

Coal  Mines, 329 

Coffee, 329 

Cosmos, 329 

Delf, 329 

Envelopes,     .     .     .     . ■ 329 

Express, 329 

Figures, 329 

Flag, 329 

Guns,        329 

Handkerchiefs,        330 

Homoeopathy, 330 

Horseshoes, 330 

Hydrometer, 330 

Lace, 330 

Life-Boats 330 

Lightning  Rods, 330 

Linen, 330 

Lithography, 330 

Magnifying  Glasses, 330 

Marble  Paper, 330 

Microscopes, 330 

Organs, 330 

Parchments, 330 

Paving  with  Stones, 330 

Post  Offices 330 

Ribbon  Looms 330 

Ruling  Machines,         330 

Sewing  Machines,        330 

Sextants, 330 

Silk,  Raw, 330 

Sleeping  Cars, 330 

Speaking  Trumpets, 330 

Stirrups, 330 

Sun-dials, 330 

Tanning  Leather, 330 

Tapestry, 330 

Tin  Mines, 330 

Vegetable, 605 

Ventilators, 330 


672- 


INDEX. 


Origins,  Some  Important :  Violin, 

Wall  Paper, 

Watches, 

Water  Mills, 

Weathercocks, 

Weights,  Measures, 

Windows, 

Wine, 

Woolen  Cloth, 

Orlando  Furioso, 

Ossian, 

Ostend  Manifesto, 

Ostracism, 

Ostrogoths, 

Ottoman, 

Outlines  of  History, 

Prehistoric  Ages, 

From  the  Deluge  to  Cyrus,    .... 

From  Cyrus  to  Alexander,     .... 

From  Alexander  to  Augustus,    . 

From  Augustus  to  Charlemagne,    . 

From  Charlemagne  to  Napoleon,     . 

From  Napoleon  to  the  Present  Time,  . 

Oxford  University, 

Oysters,  .  .  .  . , 405 


Page 
330 
330 
330 
330 
330 
330 
330 
330 
331 
131 
131 
131 
131 
293 
293 
207 
207 
207 
208 
209 
210 
212 
216 
501 

,  430 


Paganism, 

Pagodas, 

Painting, 

Paints,  How  to  Mix,  . 
Palace  of  the  Caesars, 

Westminster, 

Palatines, 

Palimpsest, 

Palladium, •■ 

Pall  Mall, 

Pan, 

Pandects, 

Panics,  Great  Financial, 
Pantheon  of  Rome,     . 
Paper,  Dimensions  of  Sizes, 

Hangings, 

History  of, 

Names  of  Sizes,       .     .     .     . 

Table, 

Papers,  Common  Sizes  of  Flat, 

Papier-Mache,        

Paradise  Lost, 

Paradise  Regained,     .     .     .     . 

Paragraph,  The, 

Parchment,  .     ., 

Parchments,  Origin  of,    . 

Parenthesis, 

Parents,  Obligations  of,  . 

Rights  of,      ...... 

Paris, 

Commune, 


...  293 

...  525 

...  338 

...  583 

...  545 

...  562 

.  .  .  293 

...  131 

.  .  .  131 

.  .  .  131 

...  522 

...  293 

...  582 

131,  293,  526 

...  638 

...  339 

.  .  .  339 


639 
586 
339 
131 
131 
123 
340 
330 
123 
117 
117 
293 
602 


Page 

Paris  of  America,  The, 131 

Park,  Yellowstone, 036 

Parliamentary  Law,  Condensed,   .     .      .  113 

Parsees, 544 

Parthenon,.       .......       131,  569 

Partington,  Mrs., 131 

Partnerships, 62 

Partridges, 406 

Pasquinade, 131 

Passport  Regulations, 35 

Patent,  Assignment  of  a,     ....      .  67 

Patent  Office, 511 

Patent  Office  Procedure, 32 

Applications, 33 

Caveats, 34 

Fees, 34 

Reissues, 33 

Patents  Issued  since  1852, 635 

Patriots'  Day, 198 

Paul's,  St., 293 

Paving  with  Stones,  Origin  of,       ...  330 

Pawnbroker's  Sign,  Origin  of,  ....  600 

Pay,  Army, 611 

Peabody  Education  Fund,  The,     .     .      .  570 

Pearl, 598 

Fisheries, 340 

Pecuniary  Value  of  Metals,      ....  584 

Peeler, 131 

Peninsular  War, 131 

Pennsylvania, 293 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Eight  Hour  Laws  of, 45 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,    .  78 

University  of, 559 

Pension  Bureau, 511 

Laws, 45 

Rates  of, 45 

Statistics, 649 

Pensions, 638 

People's  William, 131 

Percussion  Caps,  Composition  of,  .      .     .  340 

Pere-la-Chaise, 131 

Perfumerv, 340 

Peri,  .     ." 542 

Period,  The, 122 

Perpetual  Motion, 615 

Persecution, 293 

Persian  Carpels,     .      .           420 

Persian  Empire, 293 

Persian  Literature, 150 

Personal  Property,  Assessed  Valuation  of,  596 

Peruvian  Balsam, 403 

Peter-Pence, 542 

Peter  the  Hermit, 527 

Petrified  Bodies 340 

Pharsalia,  Battle  of, 293 

Philadelphia,  City  Hall 512 

Masonic  Temple, 513 


INDEX. 


673 


Page 

Philippi,  Battle  of, 293 

Philippic, 131 

Philippine  Islands,  Climate,      ....  18 

Commerce, IB 

Finances, 17 

Industrial, 17 

Railways, 18 

Shipping, 18 

Philistine 131 

Philosopher's  Stone,  The, 131 

Philosophers,  German, 569 

Phoenicians, 293 

Phoenix, 131 

Phonograph, 341 

Phosphorescence, .341 

Photography, 342 

Photogravure, 342 

Physics,        342 

Pianoforte, 343 

Picts, 293 

Pictures, 435 

Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin,  The,    ....  131 

Pigeon  English, 131 

Pigeons, 406 

Carrier, 639 

Pilgrim  Fathers, 647 

Pilgrim's  Progress, 173 

Pillow  Cases, 413 

Pillows, 413 

Pins, 343 

Pisa,  Leaning  Tower  of, 516 

Pitch,  Burgundy,        403 

Pitt,  William,  Dying  Saying  of,    .      .      .  624 

Pi/arro,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Plague, 293 

Plate-Glass,  Casting, 307 

Plaving-Cards, 343 

Plon-Plon, 131 

Plumed  Knight.  The, 131 

Plymouth  Rock, 132 

Poems,  Famous,  and  their  Authors,        .  125 

Poet  Laureate, 173,  294 

Ports'  Corner, 132 

Poictiers,  Battle  of, 294 

Poisons,  Antidotes  for, 427 

Poland, 294 

Polish  Literature, 162 

Political  Parties,  Historic  Minor,        .     .  616 

Politics  of  the  Presidents, 590 

Pons  Asinorum, 132 

Poor  Richard 132 

Pope,  Alexander.  Dying  Saving  of,    .      .  624 
Title  of,    .     .      .  '  .      .     ".      .      .     .      .294 

Popes,  Nationality  of  the 564 

Poppy  heads,  Decoction  of, 399 

Population,  Foreign-horn, 600 

of  Great  Britain 610 

of  Ireland 610 

Position  of  the  Center  of,       ....  578 


Page 

Population,  Present,  of  United  States,    .  597 

Pork, 405 

Porkopolis,        132 

Portland  Vase, 535 

Porto  Rico,  Area, 16 

Cities, 16 

Climate, 16 

Commerce, 17 

Geographical  Formation 16 

Inter-Communication, 16 

Population, 16 

Productions, 16 

Ports,  Cuba, 21 

Portugal, 294 

Portuguese  Literature, 154 

Positivism, 592 

Posological  Table, 392 

Post,        294 

Post  Office,  Origin  of, 343 

Post  Offices, 330 

Postage,  Rates  of, 112 

Postage  Stamps  :  First,        344 

Language  of, 620 

Postmasters-General, 281 

Potassio-tartrate  of  Antimony,  Wine  of,  405 

Potatoes, 294,  344 

Powders,  Strength  of  Modern,        .     .     .  624 

Powers  of  Attorney,  Forms  of,       ...  53 

Prater,  The, 132 

Prawns  and  Shrimps 405 

Prehistoric  Ages,        207 

Presidential  Cabinet  Officers,     ....  279 

President's  Salary, 590 

Presidents  of  the  United  States.    .      .     .  277 

Inaugurated  Irregularly 629 

Politics  of  the,    .     . 590 

Press,  Associated, 637 

Statistics  of  the, 607 

Prince  Edward  Island,  Exemp.  Laws  of,  73 

Princeton  University, 559 

Printed  Felt  Carpet 420 

Printer's  Devil, 623 

Printing  Crockery, 344 

Printing  in  America,       345 

Printing  Inks,  How  to  Mix 583 

Printing,  Technical  Terms  in,       ...  353 

Produce,  Minimum  Weights  of,     .  596 

Productions,  Porto  Rico, 16 

Prohibitory  Laws, 115 

Proof  Reading,  Marks  in, 124 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,       .  76 

Protestant  Duke,  The, 132 

Protestants, 294 

Prussia, 294 

Ptolemaic  System,  The, 345 

Public  Houses, 294 

Public  Lands  of  United  States,      .     .     .  597 

Public  Lands  Vacant, 598 

Public  Schools, 543 


674 


INDEX. 


Page 

Pulley, 346 

Pulse  and  Temperature,  Co-Relation  of,  377 

Punctuation, 122 

Punctuation  Points, 122 

Punic  Wars, 294 

Puranas, 554 

Pyramids, 132,  534,  568 

Q 

Quaker  City,  The, 132 

Quaker  Poet,  The, 132 

Quakers, 294,  570 

Quartier,  Latin, 132 

Quassia,  Infusion  of, 401 

Quebec 294 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Queen  of  the  Antilles, 132 

Quinine,  Sulphate  of, 403 

Tincture  of, 404 

Quotation  Points, 123 

R 

Rabbit's  Foot, 626 

Rabelais,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

It;ig  Carpets, 420 

Railroad  Mileage  by  Countries,      .     .     .  470 

in  United  States, 469 

Railroad  Speed, 478 

Railroad  Traffic  of  the  World,       ...  470 

Railroads,  First, 321 

Railway  King,  The, 132 

Railways,  Cuba, 20 

Elevated,  New  York, 615 

Philippine  Islands, 18 

Rainbow, 346 

Rainfall,  Average  Annual  in  United  States,  626 

of  Foreign  Cities, 642 

Ranz  des  Vaches, 132 

Rare  United  States  Coins  and  Value,       .  581 

Ready  Reference,  A  Calendar  of,  .      .     .  201 

Real  Property,  Assessed  Valuation  of,     .  596 

Reaper,  First  in  the  United  States,    .     .  346 

Rebecca,  of  Ivanhoe, 170 

Rebellion,  The  Great, 132 

Recent  Wars,  Cost 646 

Red  Letter  Day, 132 

Red  Tape, 132 

Reformation,  The, 29  4,556 

Reign  of  Terror, 132 

Reissues,  Patent  Office, 33 

Religion,  Education,  Fine  Arts,    .      .     .  496 

The  Jewish, 570 

Religious  Denominations  in  United  States,  539 

Religious  Statistics, 538 

Renaissance,  The, 173 

Requirements  for  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  551 

Respiration, 378 


Page 

Revenues  of  the  Government,  ....  456 

Revolution, 294 

Reynard  the  Fox, 132 

Rhine,  Confederation  of  the,     ....  286 

Rhode  Island, 294 

Divorce  Laws  of, 75 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Rhodes, 294 

Rhubarb, 403 

Infusion  of, 401 

Pill  of, 403 

Tincture  of, 404 

Rialto,  The, 132 

Rights,  Declaration  of, 132 

Rivers,  Longest  in  World, 616 

Road,  Law  of  the, 69 

Robert  the  Devil, 132 

Robin  Goodfellow, 132 

Roland  for  an  Oliver,  A, 132 

Roman  Architecture, 508 

Roman  Baths, 536 

Roman  Catholic  Church, 555 

Celibacy  in, 500 

Roman  Literature, 147 

Roman  Month 627 

Roman  Numerals, 645 

Romance  of  the  Rose, 170 

Romans, 294 

Rome, 294 

Rooms,  Remarks  on  Various,    ....  435 

Bedrooms, 436 

Dining  Room, 435 

Drawing  Room, 436 

Library, 436 

Hall, 435 

Roost,  to  Rule  the, 132 

Rope  Jumping, 374 

Roses,  Infusion  of, 401 

Rossius,  The  British, 132 

Rough  and  Ready, 132 

Round  Robin, 132 

Round  Table,  The, 132 

Roundheads, 132 

Royal  Academy, 564 

Royal  Family,  Cost  of  British,      .     .     .  589 

Royal  Household, 621 

Royal  Martyr, 132 

Royal  Society,  The, 132 

Rozinante, 132 

Rubicon, 294,  592 

To  Pass  the, 132 

Ruby, 598 

Rule  Britannia, 132 

Rump  Parliament,  The, 132 

Running  as  an  Exercise, 374 

Runs  for  Short  Dist's,  Fastest  Recorded,  479 

Russia,     .     .     . 294 

Committee  of  Ministers, 104 


INDhX. 


675 


Page 

Russia,  Constitution, 104 

Government, 104 

Instruction, 106 

Justice, 106 

Local  Government, 105 

Minister  for  Finland, 105 

Religion, 105,537 

Serfdom  in, 625 

State  Secretary  for  Finland,       .     .      .  105 

Russian  Literature, 161 

Russo-Turkish  War, 274 

Rye  House  Plot, 132,  294 

s 

Sphbath  Day's  Journey, 132 

Sabines, 295 

Sack,  To  Get  the,       . 132 

Sacred  Books  of  the  Hindus,    ....  172 

SanrpH  Nijmhpr    The, 608 

Sacred  War, 294 

Saddles,        346 

Sadducees, 132 

Saffron, 403 

Sagas, 132, 169 

Sailor  King,  The, 132 

Saint  Bartholomew's  Eve, 132 

Saint  Cloud, 132 

Saint  Helena, 294 

Saint  James's  Palace, 295 

Saint  James,  The  Court  of,        ....  132 

Saint  Mark's, 132 

Saint  Nicholas, 554 

Saint  Patrick's  Cathedral, 512 

Saint  Paul's, 132 

Saint  Peter's, 132 

Saint  Sophia, 132 

Saint  Stephen's, 132 

Saint  Swithin's  Hay, 197 

Saint  Valentine's  Day, 621 

Saints, 294 

Salaries  of  Heads  of  Governments,    .     .  595 

Salary,  Government  List, 603 

President's,  The,          590 

Salic  Law, 295 

Salmon, 405 

Salt  River, 132 

Sources  of, 347 

Salutation,  Forms  of, 641 

Salutes, 611 

Salvation  Army,  The, 563 

Sam,  Uncle, 592 

Sambo, 132 

Sanctum, 132 

Sand,  George,  Dying  Saying  of,    .     .     .  624 

Sandwich, 132 

SangAzul, .  132 

Sanhedrim, 132,543 

San  Marino, 295 


Page 

Sans-Culottes, 132 

Sanskrit, 168 

Literature, 148 

Sans  Souci, 132 

Santa  Croce, 132 

Sapphire, 598 

Saracenic  Architecture, 509 

Saracens, 294 

Sardinia, .  295 

Sarsaparilla,  Decoction  of, 400 

Extract  of, 400 

Saturnalia, 132 

Savings  Banks, 452 

Statistics  of, 455 

Savoy, 295 

Saw, 347 

Saxon  Architecture, 509 

Saxons, 295 

Scandinavian  Literature, 160 

Scandinavians, 168 

Scarabaeus, «  641 

Schiller,  Dying  Saying  of, 624 

Scholastics, 544 

School  Laws,  Compulsory 523 

Schoolmen, 132 

and  Scholastics, 544 

Schools  of  Art, 565 

Science,  Christian, 550 

Scotch  Cheeses, 418 

Scotland, 295 

Justice, 81 

Local  Government, 81 

Scotland  Yard, 132 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  Dying  Saying  of,  .     .  624 

Scourge  of  God,  The, 132 

Scratch,  Old, 132 

Screw  Propeller,  The, 348 

Scriptural  Measures  of  Capacity,   .     .     .  540 

Length, 541 

Sculpture, 565 

Scylla, 132 

Sea-girt  Isle,  The 132 

Sealing  of  the  Writings, 295 

Seas,  Size  of, 645 

Secessia, .  132 

Secretaries  of  Agriculture, 281 

the  Interior, 281 

the  Navy, 280 

State 279 

the  Treasury 280 

War 280 

Secular  Games 132 

Seeds,  Amount  of  Oil  in, 617 

Number  of  Years  Retain  Vitality,  .     .  626 

Quantity  Required  per  Acre,  .     .    •     •  586 

Seigniorage, 452 

Semicolon,  The, 122 

Semiramis  of  the  North, 132 

Senna, 403 


676 


INDEX. 


Senna,  Infusion  of, 

September  Massacres, 

Septuagint, 13 

Serfdom, 

in  Russia, 

Service,  The  Diplomatic, 

Servitude,  Austrian, 

Seven-hilled  City,  The 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World,  .      .        13 

Seven  Years'  War, 

Sextants,  Origin  of,' 

Shakers, 

Hampshire, 

Shamrock, 

Sheets, 

Shibboleth, 

Shintuism, 

Ship  Building, 

Shipboard,  Bell  Time  on,     .... 
Shipping,  Philippine  Islands,    . 
Ships, 

Distance,        

Names,     ......... 

Speed, 

Shoe,  Throwing  after  Bride, 

Shot,  Chain,  Origin  of, 

Shower  Bath, 

Sicily, 

Sick  Man,  The, 

Sick  Room, 

Light, 

Temperature, 

Sighs,  Bridge  of, 

Signals,  Natural  Storm, 

Weather, 

Wind, 

Signers  of  Declaration  of  Independence, 

Silk,  Raw,  Origin  of, 

Silkworm, 

Silver  and  Gold,  Facts  about,   . 

Simple  Cerate, 

Sinai, 

Sinews  of  War,  The, 

Single-Speech  Hamilton,      .... 

Six  Hundred,  Charge  of  the,     . 

Size  of  Bays, 

Books, 

Lakes, 

Oceans, 

Seas, 

Slave  Trade, 

Slavery,        

in  the  Norlh 

in  United  States 

Sleeping  Beauty,  The, 

Sleeping  Cars,  Origin  of,      ...     . 

Sleeplessness,    

Smell  of  the  Lamp 

Smithsonian  Institution,  The, 


]'A(!E 

401 
132 

!,  535 
(525 
625 


580 
626 
132 
2,  594 
132 
330 
535 
525 


132 
413 
132 
541 
348 
600 
18 
617 
617 
617 
617 
640 
329 
379 
295 
132 
441 
442 
442 
641 
609 
348 
348 
578 
330 
348 
462 
398 
546 
132 
132 
132 
645 
633 


645 
645 
645 
295 
625 
605 
625 
132 
330 
394 
132 
548 


Paoe 

Smyrna, 295 

Snipe,      . 406 

Soap, ....  319 

Soaps,  Natural, 349 

Socialism, 459 

Socrates,  Dying  Saying  of,         ....  624 

Soda,  Bicarbonate  of, 404 

Sulphate  of,  . 401 

Solar  System, 349 

Soldiers,  Confederate  Surrendered,     .      .  619 

Song  of  Roland, 132 

of  the  Gondoliers, 171 

Sorbonne,  The, 133 

Sortes,  Biblicse, 133 

Sound,  Facts  as  to,    ......     .  320 

South  America,  Armies, 614 

South  Carolina, 295 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of    Married  Women,  78 

South  Dakota,  Divorce  Laws  of ,   .     .      .  74 

Exemption  Laws  of, 71 

Property  Rights   of  Married   Women,  76 

South  Kensington  Museum 133 

South  Sea  Bubble, 133,460 

Spain, 106,295 

Constitution, 106 

Council  of  Ministers, 106 

Instruction,         107 

Local  Government, 107 

Religion, 107 

Spanish-American  War,  The,  ....  L'fii) 

Arms  Captured,  Santiago,     ....  272 

Casualties  in  Army, 272 

Casualties  in  Navy, 272 

Died  in  Camps, 272 

Spanish  Vessels  Captured  or  I  )est  royed,  272 

Spanish  Inquisition, 499 

Spanish  Literature, 152 

Spanish  Main 132 

Sparta,    . 295 

Speakers  of  the  United  States  House,      .  279 

Speaking  Trumpets,  Origin  of,      ...  330 

Specific  Gravity  of  Liquids,      ....  594 

of  Substances, 350 

Spectacles, 350,  422 

Speed,  Railroad, 478 

Sphinx,   132,568 

Spinning  Wheel, 350 

Sponge  Bath, 380 

Sponge  Fishing. 351 

Spontaneous  Combust  ion, 351 

Spring  Fever, 381 

Springs, 413 

Square  Measure, 587 

Squill, 404 

Stabat  Mater 133 

Stael,  Mme.  de,  Dying  Saying  of,       .     .  624 

Stage,  The, 622 


INDEX. 


677 


Page 

Stalwart 132 

Standard  Time, J  97 

Star  Chamber 133 

Stars,  The, 351 

State  Capitol,  Albany, 512 

State  Flowers,   .  " 624 

State  Governments, 51 

State,  Greatest  Altitude  in  each,  .     .     .  646 

State  Statistics, 50 

States,  Indebtedness  of, 598 

Mottoes  of  the, 627 

Names  of, 268 

Secession  of  Confederate,       ....  580 

and  Territories,  U.  S., 14 

and  the  Union,  The. 50 

Statistics  :  of  the  Press, 607 

Pension, 649 

Railroad 596 

State, 50 

Strikes, 461 

Territorial, 50 

Statute  of  Frauds, 60 

Statutes  of  Limitation, 68 

Steam  Engines, 351 

Horse  Power  of 327 

Steamers.  Fleet  of  Transatlantic  Pass'ger,  473 

Steel,  Damascus, 312 

Manufacture  of, 352 

Steel  Pens,  Invention  of, 352 

Stenography, 353 

Stereotyping, 353 

Stimulants, 413 

Stirrups,  Origin  of, 330 

Stockings,  Blue, 604 

Stone,  The  Blarney, 595 

Stones,  Meteoric, 628 

Stonewall  Jackson, 133 

Storm,  Natural  Signals, 609 

Straits  of  Babelmandeb, 295 

Strasbnrg  Cathedral, 133 

Strasburg  Clock, 633 

Strikes,   Statistics   of, 461 

Submarine  Cables, 476 

Subscriptions,  Law  of , 116 

Substances,  Specific  Gravity  of,     .      .      .  350 

Substitute  for  Carpets, 430 

Suez  Canal, 353 

Suffrage,  Woman, 628 

Sugar, 353 

Suicides, 606 

Sulphuric  Acid, 396 

Sulphuric  iEther, 396 

Summer,  Common  Sense  in,      ....  382 

Summer  Heat  in  Various  Countries.  .      .  581 

Sunday,  542 ;   Sunday  Schools,      .      .     .  537 

Sun  Dials,  Origin  of." 330 

Supper, 386 

Supreme  Court  l".    S..  Justices  of.      .      .  282 

Surnames, 172,295 


Page 

Sweden, 295 

Swedish  Nightingale, 133 

Swiss  Cheese, 418 

Switzerland, 295 

X 

Table  Etiquette,  Small  Points  on,      .     .  387 

Table,  Grocer's, 647 

Table  Paper, 639 

Table,  Setting  the, 384 

Bread, 385 

Carafes, 385 

Cards  on  Plates, 385 

Chairs,      .     .     .    • 385 

Clams, 385 

Decoration, 384 

Finger  Bowls, 385 

Fruit,        385 

Ice  Pitchers, 385 

Knives  and  Forks, 385 

Napkins, 385 

Plates, 385 

Wineglasses, 385 

Wines, 385 

Tabooed, 133 

Taj  Mahal 537 

Tammany  Hall, 133 

Tammany  Ring, 133 

Tammany,  Saint, 133 

Society  of, 641 

Tanning  Leather,  Origin  of,     ...      .  330 

Tapestry  Carpets, 420 

Tapestry,  Origin  of, 330 

Tapis,  On  the 133 

Tariff, 626 

Tarpeian  Rock, 295 

Tarquin, 295 

Tartaric  Acid, 396 

Tartary,       . 295 

Tax  on  Commercial  Travelers,        .     .     .  61G 

The  Single, 623 

Taxes, 295 

War  Revenue, 41 

Tea, 295,  386,  417.  480 

Black, 417 

Green, 417 

To  Make, 416 

Teeth,  Care  of  the 420 

Powders, 421 

Toothbrushes, 421 

Toothpicks, 421 

Washes, 421 

Telegraph,  The,  357  ;   Cuba 21 

Rates  to  Foreign  Countries,        .      .      .  463 

Telephone,  The, .  35s 

Telescopes, 359 

Temperature,  Average  Annual  U.  S.,      .  612 

of  Foreign  Cities, 642 


678 


INDHX. 


Page 

Temple  Bar, 133 

Temple  Emmanuel,  N.  Y.,       ....  513 

Temple,  The  Jewish, 573 

Tennessee, 296 

Divorce  Laws  of,     .     ., 76 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Termagant, 133 

Terra  Firma, 133 

Territorial  Governments, 51 

Territorial  Statistics, 50 

Territories,  Indebtedness  of,     ...  598 

Names  of  the, 268 

The 51 

Territory,  Acquisition  of, 626 

Tertium  Quid, 133 

Teutones 296 

Texas, 295 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

Thanksgiving  Day 198 

Theater, 296 

Theatre  Frangais, 133 

Theatrical  Performances, 173 

Thebes, 296 

Theleme,  Abbey  of, 133 

Theosophy, 541 

Thermometer,  The, 359 

Thermometry, 377 

Thermopylae, 296 

Thirty  Years'  War,  The, 133 

Thistle, 133 

Thor * 133 

Thrace 296 

Threadneedle  Street,  The  Old  Lady  of,  133 

Three  Estates  of  the  Realm 133 

Three-Ply  Carpets, 420 

Thunder, 359 

Thunderer,  The, 133 

Thurlow,  Lord,  Dying  Saying  of,      .      .  624 

Tick,  On,     .. 133 

Tides,  The, 359 

Tilts  and  Tournaments,        296 

Time,  Divisions  of, 196 

Measure  of, 587 

Variations  in, 588 

Tin  Mines,  Origin  of 330 

World's  Principal, 621 

Tin,  Production  of,    ......  473 

Tit  for  Tat, 133 

Tithes, 296 

Tobacco, 359 

Plant 296 

Production  of, 479 

Tolu,  Balsam  of, 404 

Tom  Thumb .     .     .  133 

Tooth  Powders,     .     .     .     .     .     .     .     °  421 

Tooth  Washes,     .*,,,,     ,421 


Page 

Toothbrushes 421 

Toothpicks, 421 

Topaz, 598 

Torpedo  Fleets,  The, 614 

Tory, 133 

Toulouse, 296 

Tour,  The  Grand, 133 

Tower,  The, 133 

Trade  Dollars, 455 

Trade-Marks,  Law  of, 52 

Trades  Unions, 457 

Traffic,  Railroad,  of  the  World,   ...  470 

Train  Management, 595 

Trajan's  Column, 547 

Transfiguration,  The, 133 

Transportation,  Interior,  Cuba,     ...  21 

Treasury, 511 

Trees,  Age  and  Growth  of,       ....  619 

Trial  by  Jury, 114 

Trimmer, 133 

Trinity  Church, 133,  512 

Triple  Alliance, 133 

Trojan  War, 296,640 

Troubadours, -.       133,  168 

Trouveres, 133 

Troy  Weight, 588 

Trumpet,  To  Sound  One's  Own,   ...  133 

Trusts, 461 

Tudor  Architecture, 509 

Tuft-Hunter 133 

Tuileries, 133,  296 

Tulip  Mania, 133 

Tune  the  Old  Cow  Died  of,       ....  133 

Tunis  and  Tripoli, 296 

Tunnels,  The  Longest, 588 

Turkey, 107 

Education, 108 

Executive, 107 

Legislative, 107 

Religion, 108 

Turkeys, 406 

Turkish  Carpets 420 

Turkish  Empire 296 

Turpentine,  Liniment  of, 401 

Spirit  of, 404 

Turquoise, 598 

Tuscany, 296 

Twelfth  Day, 197 

Tyburn ,     .  133 

Type-Setting  Machines,  ......  360 

Typewriters 360 

Tyre, 296 

u 

Uffizi,      ...          133 

Ultramontanes,     • .     •  133 

Umbrellas,  ..........  860 

Uncle  Sam,       .,,,,,,,.  592 


INDEX. 


679 


Page 

Under  the  Rose, 133 

Underground  Railroad,  The,     ....  133 

Union,  Latin, 601 

Unitarians, 551 

United  States  of  America : 10 

Army  Recruiting  Requirements,     .     .  610 

Average  Annual  Rainfall,     •  626 

Average  Annual  Temperature,  .     .     .  612 

Banks, 451 

Capital  of, 626 

Census,  1890, 633 

Coinage  at  Mints, 453 

Constitution, 10 

Copyright  Law, 31 

Customs  Duties, 39 

Eight-Hour  Laws, 45 

Executive, 10 

Government, 10 

Judiciary, 13 

Legislative, 11 

Money  in  the, 452 

Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,       .     .     .  563 

Naval  Enlistment, 625 

Navy,  List  of  Ships  of, 643 

Navy,  Pay  Table, 625 

Occupations  in, 477 

Present  Population  of, 597 

Presidents  of, 277 

Public  Debt  of, 472 

Public  Lands  of, 597 

Railway  Mileage  in, 469 

Religious  Denominations  in,      .     .     .  539 

Salutes, 611 

Slavery  in, 625 

Speakers  of  House, 279 

States  and  Territories, 14 

Universities  and  Colleges,      ....  527 

Vice-Presidents  of, 279 

Wars  of, 586 

Universalists, 555 

University  Extension, 572 

University,  Catholic,  of  America,     .      .  560 

Columbia, 560 

Columbian, 572 

Cornell 559 

Harvard, 557 

Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,        .     .     ,     ,      .  561 

of  California, ,  560 

of  Chicago,        .,.,....  561 

of  Pennsylvania, 513,  559 

of  Virginia, 561 

Princeton, 559 

Yale, 558 

Universities,  Foreign,     ......  533 

Unter  den  Linden, 133 

Unwashed,  The  Great, 133 

Up  the  Spout, 133 

UpaaTree, 133 

Upholstery,       ..,.,,,,.  434 


Page 

Upper  Ten  Thousand, 133 

Utah, 296 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 45 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

Utilitarians, 133 

Utopia, 133 

V 

Vaccination, 361 

Vacuum, 361 

Valencia, 296 

Valentine's,  Saint,  Day, 621 

Valentinians, 555 

Valerian, 405 

Tincture  of, 404 

Valhalla, 133 

Valley,  Yosemite, 630 

Vampire, 133 

Vandals, 296 

Varangians, 296 

Vase,  Portland, 535 

Vatican, 133 

Council  of  the, 133 

"  VaticanusMons," 296 

Vaudeville,        623 

Veal, 405 

Vedas,  The, 133,554 

Vegetable  Origins, 605 

Vegetable  Productions, 466 

Vegetables,  Comparative  Yield  of,     .     .  636 

Velocities,  Average  of  Various  Bodies,    .  583 

Velocity, 361 

Velvet  Carpets, 420 

Vendome  Column, 296 

Veni,  Vidi,  Vici, 133 

Venice, 296 

Venison, 406 

Ventilators,  Origin  of, 330 

Venus  de  Medici, ,     .     .  133 

of  Milo, 133 

Statues  of, 502 

Verbum  Sap, 138 

Vermont, 296 

Divorce  Laws  of, .  76 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

Veronica, 133 

Versailles,    .....,.,..  133 

Vespers,  The  Sicilian, 133 

Vesuvius, ,  296 

Via  Dolorosa •  .     ,  133 

Vienna, 296 

Vikings, 296 

Vinegar  Bible,  The, 133 

Violin, 361 

Origin  of,      ..,,,...     .  330 


680 


INDEX. 


Page 

Virgin  Queen,  The, 133 

Virginia, 297 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Exemption  Laws  of, .73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  .  78 

University  of, 561 

Visigoths, 297 

Vision,  The  Limits  of, 627 

Visiting  Cards,  Origin  of, 612 

Vitus  Dance,  St 133 

Vocabulary,  Nautical, 648 

Volapuk, 168 

Volcanoes, 362 

Height  of, 599 

Voting,  Qualifications  for, 48 

Vulgate 547 

w 

Wabash  Avenue, 133 

Wages  and  Cost  of  Living, 472 

Assignment  of,  Demand  for,      ...  67 

Wales, 297 

Walkyries, 637 

Wall  of  China,  The, 133 

Wall  Paper,  Origin  of, 330 

Wall  Papers, 435 

Wall  Street, 133 

Wallack's, 133 

Walloons, •   ....  297 

Walton,  An  Izaak, 133 

Wandering  Jew,  The, 133 

War,  Army  during  Civil, 579 

Colored  Troops  in  U.  S.  Army,       .     .  617 

Great  Battles  of  Civil, 580 

Losses  from, 645 

of  1812 133 

of  the  Roses, 133 

Peninsular, 131 

Revenue  Taxes, 41 

Trojan, 640 

Ward,  Artemus, 133 

Warm  Bath, 379 

Wars,  Cost  of  Recent, 646 

of  U.  S., 586 

Wars,  Recent  Desperate:  Abyssinian,   .  273 

American  Civil, 274 

Franco-German, 275 

Indian  Mutiny, 273 

Russo-Turkish, 274 

Zulu, 275 

Warsaw, 297 

Washington, 297 

Capitol  at,     .........  511 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Exemption  Laws  of,    .....     .  73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,  78 

Washington  Monument, 611 

Washington  Street, 133 


Pace 

Washington's  Birthday, 198 

Wassail, 133 

Wat  Tyler's  Insurrection, 297 

Watches,  American, 302 

Origin  of, 330 

Watches  of  the  Night, 636 

Water  Gas,  .     .     .     • 362 

Water  Mills,  Origin  of,  ......  330 

Waterfalls,  The  Great, 585 

Watering  Stock, 461 

Waterloo, 297 

Waters,  The  Father  of 133 

Ways  and  Means, 133 

Wealth  of  Principal  Nations,    ....  459 

Weather-Cocks,  Origin  of,         ...     .  330 

Weaving, 362 

Wedding, 134 

Wedding  Anniversary,  The,     ....  638 

Weddings,  White  Ho'use, 623 

Weights, 412,  587 

Apothecaries', 587 

Eggs, 585 

Feminine, 582 

Hay  and  Straw, 588 

Liquids, 594 

Measures  of, 588 

Origin  of, 330 

Particular, 587 

Troy, 588 

Wool, 588 

Well  of  St.  Keyne, 134 

Wellesley  College,  Stone  Hall,       .      .     .  513 

West  Point  Academy, 562 

West  Virginia, 297 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Exemption  Laws  of 73 

Property  Rights  of  Married  Women,    .  78 

Westminster  Abbey, 134,  297 

Westminster  Palace, 562 

Wetherell,  Elizabeth, 134 

Wheat  Crop  of  the  World 466 

Whig 134 

Whisky, 362,  429 

Whistle, •     ...  134 

White  Feather,  To  show  the 134 

White  House,  The, 134,603 

Weddings, 623 

Whiteboys, 134 

Wild  Cat  Banks, 455 

Wild  Huntsman,  The, 134 

William  and  Mary  College,       ....  565 

William  III.,  Dying  Saying  of,  624 

Wills 63,  297 

Another  Form  of, 64 

Codicil  to, 65 

Short  Form  for  a, 64 

Wilton  Carpet 420 

Windmills,  To  Fight  with, 134 

1  Windows,  Origin  of 330 


INDEX. 


681 


Page 

Windsor  Castle, 134,  553 

Wine, 423 

Burgundy 425 

Catawba, 426 

Champagne, 424 

Choice  of  Brands, 426 

Claret, 425 

Madeira, 425 

Origin  of, .  330 

Production  of  tiie  World,       ....  463 

Proper  Temperature, 426 

Treatment  of, 426 

Wire, 363 

Wisconsin, 297 

Divorce  Laws  of, 76 

Eight- Hour  Laws  of, 45 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Property  Bights  of   Married   Women,  79 

Wise  Men  of  the  East,  The,      ....  134 

Witch  of  Endor,  The, 134 

Witchcraft, 297 

Witch-Hazel, 134 

Wolfe,  General,  Lying  baying  of,      .     .  624 

Woman,  Myths  of  the  Origin  of,  .     .      .  629 

Woman  Suffrage, 628 

Woman's  Chance  oi  Marrying,       .     .      •  585 

Wonders,  The  World's  Seven,       .     .     .  594 

Wood  Carpet, 420 

Wood  for  Fuel, 586 

Woodcock,         406 

Wooden  Horse, 134 

Woods, 436 

Durability  of, 583 

Wool,  World's  Produeiiun  of,        .      .      .  478 

Woolen  Cloth,  Origin  of, 331 

Woolsack.  To  Sit  on  the, 134 

Words,  Misuse  of, 192 

World,  Coal  Area  of,       ......  595 

Largest  Islands  in, 603 

World's  Fairs,  The, 582 

Writing,  History  of, 171 

Wyoming, 297 


Page 

Wyoming,  Divorce  Laws  of,     ...     .  76 

Eight-Hour  Laws  of, 45 

Exemption  Laws  of, 73 

Massacre, 134 

Property  Bights  of  Married  Women,  79 

X 

X  or  Bontgen  Bays,        363 

Xanthos, 134 

Xantippe, 134 

Y 

Yahoo, 134 

Yale,  Art  School  at, 513 

University, 558 

Yankee, 134 

Yankee-Doodle, 582 

Origin  of  Name, 582 

Yarmouth  Bloater, 134 

Yeast,  Poultice  of, 403 

Yellow  Jack, 134 

Yellowstone  Park 636 

Yosemite  Valley, 134,  630 

Young  America, 134 

Young  Chevalier, 134 

Young  Germany, 134 

Yule, 134 

Yule  Log 134 

z 

Zend-Avesta,  The, 134 

Zinc,  Chloride  of, 405 

Ointment  of, 402 

Production  of, 473 

Sulphate  of, 405 

Zodiac, 363 

Zollverein, 134 

Zoology, 364 

Zulu  War, 275 


The  King-Richardson  Company 

Of  Springfield,  Massachusetts. 

Established  1878.  $200,000  Capital  Full  Paid. 

-     -     BRANCHES:     m     - 
Toledo  Indianapolis  Des  Moines 

Richmond  Dallas  San  Francisco 


Standard  Publications. 


Hundreds  o!  Salesmen  are  employed   by   the  above  company  Working  by 
the  Year  on  Guaranteed  Salary  Contracts. 

A  Position  with  the  King-Richardson  Co.  is  desirable: 

Because,    All  members  of  the  firm  began  as  salesmen  themselves  and  handle 

their  men  accordingly; 
Because,    only  experienced  salesmen  of  proven  ability  are  employed  to  engage 

and  train  new  men; 
Because,    before   a   salesman  enters    his    field    he  is    thoroughly   taught   his 

business; 

Because,    they  attempt  to  market  none  but  meritorious  and  popular  goods  of 

practical  value; 
Because,     the  public  have  known  this  for  twenty  years,  and  the  reputation  of 

the  house  insures  their  men  a  favorable  hearing; 
Because,     a  contract  with  this  house  is  supported  by  such  financial  strength 

and  well  known  integrity  as  to   give  every  man  confidence  in  their 

ability  and  willingness  to  take  good  care  of  his  interests. 


OUR  REPRESENTATIVES: 

Are  selected  by  us  fromthe  very  best  class  of  young  men — school  teachers, 
students,  clerks,  mechanics'  and  farmers'  sons.  We  employ  only  persons  who 
ire  well  recommended. 

If  your  standing  at  home  is  such  that  you  can  give  us  good  references,  write 
us  a  letter  at  once,  stating  your  age,  your  occupation  and  what  wages  you 
can  now  command,  and  we  will  arrange  for  a  personal  interview.  If  we  think  we 
can  make  you  a  good  business  man.  we  will  offer  you  a  fixed  salary  guaranteed. 

It  may  mean  more  to  you  than  you  now  realize  to  apply  to  us  for  ?  portion. 

Address  the  office  nearest  you  as  stated  above. 
Yours  for  business, 

The  King-Richardson  Company. 


A  CHANCE  FOB  YOU 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN,   the   "rail-split- 
ter," by  a  log  cabin  fire-place,  learned 
arithmetic    and    mastered    surveying. 
Later  he  conquered  the  study  of  law, 
never  having  been  graduated  from  school  or 
college. 


Home  Study 
made 
Lincoln 
Great 


THE,  HOME, 
CORRESPONDENCE,  SCHOOL 

of  Springfield,  Mass. 

Furnishes  the  best  books  and  all  stationery  free  ot  cost,  and  conducts  Home 
Study  Courses  in  English,  Business,  Shorthand,  Typewriting,  Bookkeeping, 
Penmanship,  Law,  Agriculture. 

Your  Chance  is  Better  than   Lincoln's 

Fit  yourself  for  Business,  for  successful  Agriculture,  for  Law.  Be  ready 
and  advancement  will  come. 

TO    LEARN    MORE 
IS   TO    EARN    MORE 

Write  for  our  free  booklet,  A  ROMANCE  IN  REAL  LIFE.  Mention 
the  subject  in  which  you  are  most  interested.      Address  "Registrar/' 

THE  HOME  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOL, 

368  Main  Street,  Springfield,  Mass. 


fcJUU       (j    J.      «"" 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


A     000  648  653     4 


